UNIT II

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MICROSYSTEM

MICRO ACTUATION TECHNIQUES:

A micro actuator is a microscopic servomechanism that supplies and transmits a
measured amount of energy for the operation of another mechanism or system.
Thermal Actuators:
Thermal actuation in MEMS is usually as a direct result of incorporating tiny heaters, or
resistors. These resistors can be controlled to locally heat specific areas or layers as in the case of
a bilayer actuator. As already detailed, basic thermal actuation utilizes the difference in thermal
coefficients for expansion of two bonded materials and is referred to as thermal bimorph
actuation.
Shape memory alloy actuation:
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) exhibit considerable changes in their length (contraction)
when heated. These include titanium/nickel alloys, of which some, once mechanically deformed,
would return to their original unreformed state when heated.
Piezoelectric actuation:
In piezoelectric actuation, the electrically induced displacement (or strain) is proportional
to the applied potential difference. Despite small displacements, relatively high forces (in the
region of tens of MPA) can be achieved using lower voltages than those required for comparable
electrostatic actuation.
Electrostatic actuation:
The fundamental actuation principle behind electrostatic actuators is the attraction of two
oppositely charged plates. Their use is extensive in MEMS devices, since it is relatively simple
to fabricate closely spaced gaps with conductive plates on opposite sides. For a parallel plate
capacitor, the energy (W) stored at a given voltage (V) is equal to: W = ½ CV2 where:
C=capacitance between the plates and the force between the plates is: F=∂W/∂x=1/2 ∂C/∂x V^2
MICRO SENSOR:
Micro sensors (MEMS Sensors)
Micro sensors are two- and three-dimensional micro machined structures that have
smaller size, improved performance, better reliability, and lower production costs than many
alternative forms of sensor. They are part of the wider class of micro electro mechanical system
(MEMS) devices that also includes micro actuators. Typical sizes of micro sensors range
between 10 μm (0.01 mm or 10−5 m) up to 5 mm. The defining feature of any MEMS device is
an element with some sort of mechanical functionality integrated with microelectronics. Micro
sensors can be regarded as miniature transducers, since they convert energy in the form of a
measured mechanical signal into energy in electrical form. Individual devices vary from simple
ones where the mechanical part does not move to much more complex ones involving several
moving elements. Currently, devices to measure temperature, pressure, force,
acceleration, rotational velocity, humidity, sound, magnetic fields, radiation, optical, biological,
biomedical, and parameters are either in production or at advanced stages of research.

ACOUSTIC WAVE SENSORS:

Acoustic wave sensors are so named because their detection mechanism is a mechanical,
or acoustic, wave. As the acoustic wave propagates through or on the surface of the material, any
changes to the characteristics of the propagation path affect the velocity and/or amplitude of the
wave. Changes in velocity can be monitored by measuring the frequency or phase characteristics
of the sensor and can then be correlated to the corresponding physical quantity being measured.

Virtually all acoustic wave devices and sensors use a piezoelectric material to generate
the acoustic wave. Piezoelectricity was discovered by Brothers Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie in
1880, received its name in 1881 from Wilhelm Henkel, and remained largely a curiosity until
1921, when Walter Cady discovered the quartz resonator for stabilizing electronic oscillators [1].
Piezoelectricity refers to the production of electrical charges by the imposition of mechanical
stress. The phenomenon is reciprocal. Applying an appropriate electrical field to a piezoelectric
material creates a mechanical stress. Piezoelectric acoustic wave sensors apply an oscillating
electric field to create a mechanical wave, which propagates through the substrate and is then
converted back to an electric field for measurement.

BIO MEDICAL SENSOR AND BIO SENSOR:

In medicine and biotechnology, biomedical sensors are tools that detect

specific biological, chemical, or physical processes and then transmit or report this
data. Biomedical Sensors may also be components in systems that process clinical samples, such
as increasingly common “lab-on-a-chip” devices. Biomedical Sensors are also often used to
monitor the safety of medicines, food, environmental conditions, and other substances we may
encounter. Upgrades in patient think can come to fruition through distinguishing proof of new
markers of malady, quick findings and more successive or nonstop observing, in the healing
center, the facility or in a perfect world in the home. The empowering innovation for these
energizing advancements ranges from sub-atomic tests to entire estimation frameworks and
envelops substance sensors and biosensors, low power circuits for information preparing and
remote transmission, and novel ongoing sign handling.

A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance that
combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological
element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic
acids, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts, binds, or
recognizes with the analytic under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created
by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element, which transforms one signal
into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, electro
chemiluminescence etc., resulting from the interaction of the analytic with the biological
element, to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device with the associated
electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a
user-friendly way.[3] This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device,
however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive
element (holographic sensor). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit
the different working principles of biosensors.
BIO SENSOR SYSTEM:

A biosensor typically consists of a bio-recognition site, bio transducer component,

and electronic system which includes a signal amplifier, processor, and display. Transducers and
electronics can be combined, e.g., in CMOS-based micro sensor systems.[4][5] The recognition
component, often called a bio receptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled
after biological systems to interact with the analytic of interest. This interaction is measured by
the bio transducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target
analytic in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick,
convenient testing at the point of concern or care where the sample was procured.

CHEMICAL SENSOR:

A chemical sensor is a device that transforms chemical information (composition,

presence of a particular element or ion, concentration, chemical activity, partial pressure…) into
an analytically useful signal. The chemical information, mentioned above, may originate from a
chemical reaction of the analytic or from a physical property of the system investigated. They
can have applications in different areas such as medicine, home safety, environmental pollution
and many others.

The ideal chemical sensor is an inexpensive, portable, foolproof device that responds
with perfect and instantaneous selectivity to a particular target chemical substance (analytic)
present in any desired medium in order to produce a measurable signal output at any required
analytic concentration. Such ideal chemical sensors, however, are far from reality in spite of
enormous advances over the past decades. Chemical sensors in actuality are complex devices,
generally optimized for a particular application. Appendix F summarizes some of the chemical
sensor formats of current interest.

ELECTRO-OPTICAL SENSORS:
Electro-optical sensors are electronic detectors that convert light, or a change in light, into an
electronic signal. They are used in many industrial and consumer applications, for example:

 Lamps that turn on automatically in response to darkness

 Position sensors that activate when an object interrupts a light beam
 Flash detection, to synchronize one photographic flash to another
 Photoelectric sensors that detect the distance, absence, or presence of an object

Function An optical sensor converts light rays into electronic signals. It measures the
physical quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is readable by an instrument. An
optical sensor is generally part of a larger system that integrates a source of light, a measuring
device and the optical sensor. This is often connected to an electrical trigger. The trigger reacts to
a change in the signal within the light sensor. An optical sensor can measure the changes from
one or several light beams. When a change occurs, the light sensor operates as a photoelectric
trigger and therefore either increases or decreases the electrical output. An optical switch enables
signals in optical fibers or integrated optical circuits to be switched selectively from one circuit
to another. An optical switch can operate by mechanical means or by electro-optic effects,
magneto-optic effects as well as by other methods. Optical switches are optoelectronic devices
which can be integrated with integrated or discrete microelectronic circuits.

PRESSURE SENSOR:
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an
expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as
a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications.
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, water level, and altitude.

Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure

transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other
names.

Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application

suitability and cost. A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies
and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors worldwide.

There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic
mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of
sensor would be in the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas
turbine. These sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.

Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a particular pressure.
For example, a water pump can be controlled by a pressure switch so that it starts when water is
released from the system, reducing the pressure in a reservoir.
THERMAL SENSOR:
These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which
control a domestic hot water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can
control complex process control furnace plants.

We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and atoms
produces heat (kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is
generated. Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical change to that
temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.

There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of two
basic physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor are required
to be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes
in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of
temperatures.

Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor use

convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids
and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection
currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the form of infra-red
radiation (the sun).

MICRO ACTUATORS:
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a
"mover". An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.

Micro Grippers provide a new approach to retrieving and mounting samples. The long
thin flexible fingers provide the most delicate support possible. They are ideal for thin plates
and other very fragile samples.

Micro Grippers provide a new approach to retrieving and mounting samples. They can be
used in two different ways. Slide the tip under your sample, and the long thin flexible fingers
provide the most delicate support possible. They are ideal for thin plates and other very fragile
samples.
Alternatively, push the tip down onto a chunky sample, and the fingers will delicately
grip it without damaging it (yes, even for protein and virus crystals), holding it firmly in place.
This positive gripping action is unique: all other mounting tools rely on liquid surface tension
and adhesion forces to hold a sample in place. Micro grippers allow dry samples to be mounted
without the use of adhesives.

Micro grippers are ideal for X-ray data collection at and near room temperature. They
eliminate the slipping during data collection that occurs when crystals are mounted in X-ray
capillaries, and eliminate the need to encase the sample in viscous oils to limit this slipping.
MICRO VALVES:

A micro valve is micro scale valve, i.e. a microfluidic two-port component that regulates
the flow between two fluidic ports. Micro valves are basic components in microfluidic devices,
such as Labs-on-a-chip, where they are used to control the fluidic transport. During the period
1995-2005, a lot of Micro electromechanical systems-based micro valves were developed.

Micro valves found today can be roughly categorized as active micro valves
and passive micro valves. Based on the medium they control, micro valves can be divided into
gas micro valves and liquid micro valves. Based on their initial mode, micro valves can be
divided into normally open, normally closed and bitable micro valves

TYPES OF MICRO VALVES

Active micro valves

Cross-sectional sketch of an active micro valve

Active mechanical micro valves consist of mechanically movable membrane or boss
structure, coupled to an actuation method that can close of an orifice, thus blocking the flow path
between the inlet and outlet ports. The actuator can either be an integrated magnetic,
electrostatic, piezoelectric or thermal micro actuator, a "smart" phase change, e.g. Shape-
memory alloy, or rheological material, or an externally applied actuation mechanism, such as an
external magnetic field or pneumatic source.
Passive micro valves

Schematic cross-section of a passive micro valve

Passive micro valves are valves for which the operational state, i.e. open or close, is
determined by the fluid they control. Most common passive micro valves are flap valves,
membrane micro valves and ball micro valves.

MICRO PUMP:
Micro pumps are devices that can control and manipulate small fluid volumes. Although
any kind of small pump is often referred to as micro pump, a more accurate definition restricts
this term to pumps with functional dimensions in the micrometer range. Such pumps are of
special interest in microfluidic research, and have become available for industrial product
integration in recent years. Their miniaturized overall size, potential cost and improved dosing
accuracy compared to existing miniature pumps fuel the growing interest for this innovative kind
of pump.

Note that the below text is very incomplete in terms of providing a good overview of the
different micro pump types and applications, and therefore please refer to good review articles
on the topic

Within the microfluidic world, physical laws change their appearance.[10] As an example,
volumetric forces, such as weight or inertia, often become negligible, whereas surface forces can
dominate fluidic behavior, especially when gas inclusion in liquids is present. With only a few
exceptions, micro pumps rely on micro-actuation principles, which can reasonably be scaled up
only to a certain size.
 Micro pumps can be grouped into mechanical and non-mechanical
devices.[11] Mechanical systems contain moving parts, which are usually actuation and micro
valves membranes or flaps.

The driving force can be generated by utilizing piezoelectric, electrostatic, thermo-

pneumatic, pneumatic or magnetic effects. Non-mechanical pumps function with electro-
hydrodynamic, electro-osmotic, electrochemical or ultrasonic flow generation, just to name a few
of the actuation mechanisms that are currently studied.

MICROMOTORS
 Micro motors are very small particles (measured in microns) that can move themselves.
The term is often used interchangeably with "nanometer," despite the implicit size difference.
These micro motors actually propel themselves in a specific direction autonomously when placed
in a chemical solution. There are many different micro motor types operating under a host of
mechanisms. Easily the most important examples are biological motors such as bacteria and any
other self-propelled cells. Synthetically, researchers have exploited oxidation-reduction reactions
to produce chemical gradients, local fluid flows, or streams of bubbles that then propel these
micro motors through chemical media.

Micro motors may have applications in medicine since they have been shown to be able
to deliver materials to living cells within an organism. They also have been shown to be effective
in degrading certain chemical and biological warfare agents.

Micro motors are capable of photo catalytic degradation with the appropriate
composition. Specifically, micro motors with a titanium dioxide/gold nanoparticle outer layer
and magnesium inner core are currently being examined and studied for their degradation
efficacy against chemical and biological warfare agents (CBWA). These new TiO2/Au/Mg micro
motors produce no reagents or toxic byproducts from the propulsion and degradation
mechanisms. However, they are very effective against CBWAs and present a complete and rapid
degradation of certain CBWAs.
 There has been recent research of TiO2/Au/Mg micro motors and their use and
degradation efficacy against biological warfare agents, such as Bacillus anthraces, and chemical
warfare agents, such as organophosphate nerve agents- a class of acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors.
Therefore, application of these micro motors is a possibility for defense and environmental
applications.

MICRO GRIPPERS:
Pick-and-place tasks are largely widespread operations in the industrial world. These
tasks, well controlled for parts of a few millimeters cubes and more, become very delicate when
one wishes to handle objects of a few tens to several hundreds of micrometers. At these scales,
surface forces become dominating in comparison with volume forces
If certain classes of objects can be handled by processes which proved a good reliability,
in particular vacuum grippers for the positioning of electronic components for instance,
manipulators with tightened fingers remain universal, intuitive tools for the user and can address
a significant part in the resolution of micro handling problems. Nowadays, various manufacturers
propose micropositionning systems having good characteristics, in particular a sub micrometric
resolution.

On the other hand, relatively few micro grippers are available on the market. We listed a
great number of prototypes resulting from laboratories and we still note a strong interest of the
scientific community for micro grippers. A justified passion because the field of
micromanipulation is far from being dried up and the needs are growing. Indeed,
micromanipulation, i.e. handling of objects with dimensions from 1 m to 1 mm, and micro
assembly concern many domains. Among these fields, we can quote

MICRO ACCELEOMETER:
MEMS stands for micro electro mechanical system and applies to any sensor
manufactured using microelectronic fabrication techniques. These techniques create mechanical
sensing structures of microscopic size, typically on silicon. When coupled with microelectronic
circuits, MEMS sensors can be used to measure physical parameters such as acceleration. Unlike
ICP® sensors, MEMS sensors measure frequencies down to 0 Hz (static or DC acceleration).
PCB manufactures two types of MEMS accelerometers: variable capacitive and piezo resistive.
Variable capacitive (VC) MEMS accelerometers are lower range, high sensitivity devices used
for structural monitoring and constant acceleration measurements. Piezo resistive (PR) MEMS
accelerometers are higher range, low sensitivity devices used in shock and blast applications.
The sensing element in MEMS VC accelerometers is comprised of a micro-machined proof mass
that is suspended between two parallel plates. The mass is suspended on flexures that are
attached to a ring frame. This configuration forms two air gap capacitors between the proof mass
and upper and lower plates. As the proof mass moves when acceleration is applied, one air gap
decreases and the other gap increases creating a change in capacitance proportional to
acceleration.
The upper and lower plates are laminated to the proof mass sensing element with a glass bond.
This creates a hermetic enclosure for the proof mass and provides mechanical isolation and
protection.

A selection of full scale measurement ranges are attained by modifying the stiffness of the
suspension system of the proof mass. A high natural frequency is accomplished through the
combination of a lightweight proof mass and suspension stiffness. Ruggedness is enhanced
through the use of mechanical stops on the two outer wafers to restrict the travel of the proof
mass.

The sensor elements use squeeze-film gas damping to mitigate high frequency resonant inputs
that cause mechanical saturation. This occurs when the travel of the proof mass exceeds its
displacement limits. Damping helps prevent saturation by reducing resonant amplification and
extends the flat portion of the frequency response. Gas damping is minimally affected by
temperature changes.

The sensing element is connected as a bridge circuit to the rest of the electronics in the
accelerometer. This minimizes common mode errors and improves linearity. All PCB® VC
accelerometers contain conditioning circuitry that provides a high sensitivity output. This
integrated circuit also compensates for zero bias and sensitivity errors over temperature. See for
MEMS VC accelerometer construction. The sensing elements are typically mounted on a circuit
board that is placed in titanium or aluminum housings.
MEMS variable capacitive DC accelerometer construction