Chapter 2

Building Science Basics

Key Points to Learn

• Heat flows from warm to cold by conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Insulation must be installed carefully.
• Air tightness prevents major loss of purchased heat.
• Dew point is the temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid water.
• A vapor retarder reduces moisture transport by diffusion and must be placed on the
warm side of the dew point. It can also serve as a primary air leakage retarder.
• An air retarder controls air leakage. It can be placed on the interior, exterior, or both.
• Movement of heat, air, and moisture must be controlled. Controlled mechanical ventilation
is a necessary element of Alaska homes.
 Introduction
Building science is the study of how
buildings function under varying condi-
tions. The ability to predict how the
building functions as a system allows
the builder and designer more flexibility
in designing an energy-efficient home.
A study of the concepts of building sci-
ence helps explain how the house as a
system and its occupants can work to-
gether to achieve the most economical,
energy-efficient home possible.
We build houses to create safe and
comfortable living environments so
that we may be comfortably sheltered
from the outside environment. We want
our homes to be warm when it’s cold
outside, cool when it’s hot outside, dry
when it’s raining, light when we’re awake,
secure from buffeting winds, comfort-
ably humid at all times, filled with fresh
air when doors and windows are closed
against the elements, enlivened with sun-
light, and resistant to earthquakes and
other natural events. We also want them
to be long lasting, affordable to build,
and economical to operate.
Our success in designing and build-
ing these homes depends upon our un-
derstanding of the physical forces that
create a tug of war between the outside
and inside environments. The study of
these forces, which helps us understand
how houses work, is called building
science.
This chapter summarizes the build-
ing science basics that affect the dura-
bility, comfort, and energy efficiency
of houses. The following sections on
energy flow, air flow, and moisture flow
present the principles that are the foun-
dation for the construction techniques
discussed in later chapters. Understand-
ing these principles is the first step to-
ward building quality housing.
The designer must look at the
building as a system of interconnected
components or subsystems, each of
which contribute to a unified whole.

Air

Moisture

Heat

Envelope Mechanical Occupants

Systems Health Safety

Comfort

Durability Affordability

Figure 2.1: The total performance of the house as a system depends on a bal-
ance of envelope, mechanical systems, and occupants. All these parts of the
house affect the flow of heat, air, and moisture into and out of the house.

22 Chapter 2
These subsystems include the building
envelope, mechanical systems, building
occupants, and the external environ-
ment. These subsystems must operate
in balance. Any change in any of these
components will have an effect on the
performance of all the other parts of the
system.
There are ten fundamental concepts
that must be understood before de-
signing a new structure or retrofitting
an existing building. Every subsystem
should be designed with these concepts
in mind to minimize the flows of heat,
air, and moisture through the building
envelope. Heat flow out of a building
wastes precious fuel, air leaking out car-
ries both heat and moisture, and mois-
ture that escapes from the interior of a
building can condense or freeze in the
insulation, reducing the effectiveness of
the insulation and causing damage by
mold and rot.
The following concepts of building
science provide the foundation for de-
signing a building as a system:

Top Ten Building Science Concepts

1. Heat flows from hot to cold.
2. Heat does not rise—warm air rises.
3. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.
4. Heat flow through insulation is slowed by trapped air or other gases.
5. Airtightness prevents major loss of heat.
6. Air flows from higher pressure to lower pressure.
7. Air leakage is the primary moisture transport mechanism.
8. Diffusion is a secondary moisture transport mechanism.
9. Dew point is the temperature at which airborne water vapor condenses into liq-
uid water. Water vapor is not a problem—liquid water is.
10. The vapor retarder should be placed on the warm side of the thermal envelope.

Figure 2.2: Can you identify the Building Science

Concepts that make this balloon fly?

Building Science Basics 23

Mechanisms of Energy Use
Heat is a form of energy. Heat flows
naturally from warm areas to cold areas
in all directions. Without provisions
for controlling this flow, heat quickly
escapes from the home in cold weather.
Construction of quality homes requires
a good understanding of how energy en-
ters the home, how energy is used in the
home, and how energy leaves the home.
Figure 2.3: Heat flows naturally
from warm areas to cold areas in all
directions. Press your hand onto a cool
table top. The table surface will soon
feel warm under your hand because
the heat is transferred downward into
the table. This type of heat transfer is
called conduction.
24
Energy enters a home from three pri-
mary sources:
1. Purchased energy is usually in the
form of electricity, oil, natural gas,
propane, or wood.
2. Solar energy is energy captured
from sunlight, either through solar
collection systems or transmission
through windows.
3. Internal energy is heat gain gener-
ated by the occupants. An average
person at rest gives off about the
same amount of heat as a 100-watt
light bulb.
Energy is used in conventional
homes in the following ways
• Space heating and cooling account for
as much as 70 percent of energy use.
• Water heating is typically 15 percent
of total energy use.
• Lighting and appliances, including
stoves, refrigerators, washers, dryers,
computers, televisions, etc., account
for approximately 15 percent of total
energy use. Energy consumption for
appliances will vary by model and
amount of use, while energy con-
sumption for lighting will vary by
the model, amount of use, and the
amount of natural lighting used.
In contrast, in an energy-efficient
home, space heating and cooling use
about one-third of the energy, water
heating uses one-third, and lighting and
appliances use one-third. Total energy
use will be much less.
Today it is clear there is a limit to
the earth’s ability to provide fossil fuel
energy. By learning about the mecha-
nisms of energy flow and how to control
heat loss, it is possible to analyze where
the greatest energy loss is in a house and
how to minimize energy waste.
Chapter 2
How Energy is Used in Homes and Buildings
The chart in Figure 2.4 shows where the
energy comes in and goes out of a typi-
cal building.
When we translate energy to dollars,
it soon becomes very interesting to the
person paying for all this energy to run a
home or building.
Figure 2.4: Energy flows in housing.
Building Science Basics
The goal for energy use in modern
homes is to reduce purchased energy
input while increasing natural or free
energy input when desired. Of course,
solar energy needs to be reduced when
unnecessary as on uncomfortably hot
days.
25
The Building as a System
The total performance of the house as
a system depends on a balance of en-
velope, mechanical systems, and occu-
pants. All these parts of the house affect
the flow of heat, air, and moisture into
and out of the house.

Figure 2.5: The house as

a system.

26 Chapter 2
The Way Heat Moves: Radiation, Convection, Conduction
There are three ways that heat moves in and out. These holes are a convective
from one place to another: conduction, heat loss mechanism.
convection, and radiation (Figure 2.6). Warm air is lighter and more buoy-
ant than cooler air, which is more
Conduction dense. This causes warmer air to natu-
rally rise above cooler air, and it is the
The conduction of heat takes place by
source of the mistaken belief that heat
means of direct contact. Because it is a
rises (Building Science Concept #2).
relatively efficient and fast means of heat
In leaky houses, there is a steady sup-
transfer, especially through solids, it can
ply (infiltration) of cool air. This dense
be the major cause of heat loss in houses.
air displaces the warmer air, which is
Fortunately, we can slow down the
lighter and is forced upward, resulting
conduction of heat from inside our
in the stratification (cold feet, hot head
homes to the outside by using building
phenomenon) that we rightly associate
materials that are poor conductors (in-
with poorly designed houses. The warm
sulation) and minimizing or eliminating
air then leaves the leaky house through
the number of direct heat paths from
gaps in the ceiling vapor barrier. The
inside to outside that are formed by
movement of warmer air up and out of
good conductors (wood framing materi-
the house through holes (exfiltration)
als, aluminum window frames, etc.). In
can account for as much as 35 percent
later chapters, we will examine window
of the heat loss of a conventional house.
technology and advanced framing tech-
Only if we eliminate the holes in our
niques that help reduce heat loss by
buildings can we heat them efficiently
conduction.
and comfortably. A home without holes
and their consequent air leakage can
Convection have uniform temperatures throughout.
To better understand convection, we Convection can also take place with-
will focus on the movement of air in in insulation, as we will discuss later.
houses. There are always currents of air
moving and colliding inside our homes, Radiation
and there is always some air flow into
The most evident source of radiant heat
and out of our homes. Unintentional
in our lives is the sun, the source of
holes in the building allow air to move
radiant energy which, having traveled

Conduction Convection Radiation

Air is
Warmed
and Rises

Outside Inside

Air is Cooled
and Falls

Figure 2.6: Three methods of heat transfer (Building Science Concept #3)

Building Science Basics 27

 through the vacuum of space, warms
the earth, including the contents of our
homes. These contents store this heat
for a while, but inevitably reradiate
some of it to cooler objects in the room
or through the windows to the cooler
world outside. In fact, radiant heat loss
in houses takes place primarily through
windows, which is why glazings (glass
panes) are now made resistant to the
transmission of infrared radiation from
the inside to the outside of the house.
But these glazings (low “E” or Heat Mir-
ror glazings) still allow warmth from the
sun to enter the house. This type of bar-
rier to radiant heat loss will be described
further in Chapter 8, Windows.

Insulation Rating
Insulation materials are rated with R-value. This helps when different types or thicknesses of
insulation are compared with each other. The larger the R-value the greater the insulation value.
It is useful to consider the R-values of all components of any given assembly to determine the
average overall R-value of an entire system. By adding up the R-values of all the components of
any given section of the building envelope, the total R-value can be determined. The total system
R-value can vary greatly, depending on design, materials, and installation.
For example, a wall section using two-by-six studs on two-foot centers holds batt insulation
with an initial R-value of 21. The interior and exterior sheathing and finish materials can also
increase the overall R-value. However, as discussed in the next section, using an R-21 batt does
not guarantee an R-21 wall.
Knowing the R-value and area of a given section of the building envelope allows you to calcu-
late the rate of conductive heat loss in BTU. The basic design heat loss calculation for conductive
heat loss is:
Heat loss (in BTUs per hour) x area x ∆T

28 Chapter 2
Calculating Heat Loss—Terms and Definitions
Understanding how heat moves allows
the designer and builder to evaluate dif-
ferent sections of the building envelope
and their relative importance to energy
use. The rate of heat loss across the
building envelope is controlled by Delta
T, R-value, and surface area through
which the heat flows.
There is no simple formula for calcu-
lating radiant heat loss. Here are a few
definitions that will help in understand-
ing the following discussion about calcu-
lating or measuring heat loss.
BTU
Heat is commonly measured in British
Thermal Units (BTUs). One BTU is the
amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one
degree Fahrenheit. The amount of heat
given off by the burning of a typical
wooden kitchen match is roughly one
BTU. Houses will typically use millions of
BTUs each year and require tens of thou-
sands of BTUs each hour to stay warm
during cold days.
U Factor
The ability of a material to transmit
heat is sometimes called the total con-
ductance or U Factor. The lower the
conductance, the less heat loss through
the material. The U Factor is the rate
Building Science Basics
of heat loss in BTUs per hour through a Insulating materi-
square foot of surface for each degree als only retard
Fahrenheit temperature difference be- heat flow, they do
tween warm and cold surfaces. not stop heat flow
entirely.
R-value The difference
between inside and
The ability of a material to resist heat
outside tempera-
transfer is measured in R-value. The
ture is called Delta-
higher the resistance to heat transfer,
T (∆T).
the less heat transfer through the ma-
The greater the
terial. The R-value of most common
∆-T, the faster the
construction materials is included in
heat is lost.
Appendix 1. R-value is the reciprocal of
the U Factor or conductance (R-1/u or
U=’/R).
Delta T
House wall
The difference in temperature between
inside temperature and outside tem-
perature is represented by Delta T (∆T).
Delta T is an engineering term using the Outside Inside
Greek letter delta (∆), which means “a
change in.”
Heating Degree Days Figure 2.7: Delta T (∆T)
Heating degree days is a measure of the
need for heating based on the cumula-
tive days below 65 degrees and the daily
temperature. The lower the daily aver-
age temperature, the more heating de-
gree days. Barrow, Alaska, has the most
heating degree days in the United States
(about 21,000). Miami, Florida, has no
heating degree days.
29
 Energy Modeling by Computer
Although it is possible to calculate the rate of heat loss and total heat loss of a house by hand,
computer programs to do these calculations are an indispensable aid in designing efficient
houses. Computers allow you to compare various energy strategies quickly and then decide
what is the best use of the money to resist heat loss. We must decide, for example, the relative
value of better windows, more insulation, or a higher efficiency boiler, and a computer analysis
is the only practical and timely way to examine these and other options. This computer examina-
tion will help to ensure that the components of the house are in balance with each other: that
the house will work as a system.

AkWarm Energy Use Software

AkWarm is Alaska Housing Finance Corporation’s new computerized home energy audit tool. It
was developed to help energy raters, weatherization assessors, builders, designers, and hom-
eowners evaluate the energy performance of homes. AkWarm was designed in Alaska specifi-
cally for Alaska’s residential housing needs.
AkWarm will allow you to:
• Create, modify, and save a house data file.
• Analyze energy use.
• Show compliance with the Alaska Building Energy Efficiency Standard for new construction.
• Generate a Home Energy Rating that is accepted by all the major lending institutions (Fannie
Mae, Freddy Mac, VA, FHA, AHFC) for use in obtaining energy efficient mortgages, and by AHFC
for obtaining an energy-efficiency interest rate reduction.
• Compute the savings of individual energy conservation measures.
• Produce reports on home energy use and improvement recommendations.

Controlling Heat Loss

The primary method of controlling
heat loss is by restricting heat flow, i.e.,
conduction, convection, and radiation.
To restrict heat flow, the designer and
builder need to consider proper installa-
tion of the optimal amount of insulating
materials.
Insulating materials only retard heat
flow; they do not stop heat flow entirely.
Insulation restricts heat flow by trap-
ping air or gasses. It is the trapped, still
air or gasses that perform the insulating
role, not the glass fibers or other fibrous
materials, which will conduct heat. Insu-
lation performs best when it traps air in
small spaces that minimize conduction,
convection, and radiant heat transfer.
There are six primary factors that
affect the overall R-value:
1. Thermal bridging is a “short-circuit”
route for conductive heat trans-
fer. Heat is conducted through a
“bridge” to a colder area. For ex-
ample, a wall stud can form a bridge
between the warm interior finish
and the cold exterior finish. Wall
studs, which have a lower R-value
than insulation, occupy a portion
of a wall system. Although 89 per-
cent of the wall section is R-23.76,

30 Chapter 2
 conductive transfer of heat across
the studs causes the overall average
R-value of the two-by-six stud wall
to be R-19.90.
2. Insulation voids are areas without
insulation because of improper in-
stallation. The effect of insulation
voids varies with the level of insula-
tion installed. If three percent of an
R-21 wall consists of insulation voids,
the average R-value is degraded to
less than 16. Gaps, folds, or unfilled
corners can also permit convective
loops within the cavity, causing heat
to bypass the insulation. Heat is
conducted from the interior of the
house into the wall cavity. Warm
light air in gaps or voids in the wall
rises upward, where the heat is lost
through the building envelope. The
cool heavy air drops back to the bot-
tom of the void, picks up more heat,
and the convective loop repeats.
Many batt types of insulation can
have insulation voids if they are not
properly installed (Figure 2.8).
There are some manufactured
high-density fiberglass insulations
that have a higher R-value per inch
than standard density insulations.
Although these are more expensive,
they might be a good investment in
some instances. A computer analysis
will help the builder to examine the
cost effectiveness of these products.
To reduce the likelihood of leaving
voids, insulation should be carefully
cut and fit.
3. Air intrusion results from air pen-
etration of insulation. Insulation
must trap still air or gasses to work
effectively. Air allowed to pass
through insulation severely reduces
its performance. Even air that pene-
trates from only one side affects in-
sulation performance. For example,
in some attics air is allowed to pass
over and penetrate the upper surface
Building Science Basics
of the insulation, capture heat, and
transfer the heat to the outside en-
vironment (Figure 2.9). Performance
of some types of insulation, such
as fiberglass, is affected to a great
degree by air intrusion while others,
such as rigid insulation, show little
or no decrease in performance. Air
intrusion can also affect the perfor-
mance of wall insulation, especially
in windy locations.
4. Compression also affects R-value. In-
sulating products are designed for an
optimal density to achieve maximum
R-value. Compressing an R-19 batt
into a two-by-four stud cavity will
only result in an R-value of 13 to 14.
5. Moisture reduces insulation value as
it accumulates in insulating materi-
als. Moisture susceptibility varies
greatly between types of insulating
materials. Fiberglass and cellulose
insulations can be reduced to es-
sentially no insulating value when
saturated with moisture. Some rigid
insulation material is not severely
affected by moisture.
6. Temperature also affects overall R-
value of insulating materials. Most
insulating materials have a slightly
higher R-value at lower temperatures.
Now that we’ve examined the three
mechanisms of heat flow and the main
reasons for heat flow from our houses,
let’s summarize. To reduce the rate of
heat loss from houses, the designer and
builder must:
Reduce conductive losses by:
• correctly installing insulation appro-
priate to the climate,
• minimizing or eliminating thermal
bridges by reducing excessive fram-
ing materials,
• avoiding compressing insulation and
thereby reducing its overall R-value,
31
 • preventing moisture from reaching
the insulation from the inside or
outside the house, and
• using windows with advanced edge
spacers that reduce thermal bridges.
Reduce convective losses by:
• sealing the house to avoid holes
through which air infiltrates and ex-
filtrates, and
• using windows with a dense gas
filling (for example argon) that sup-
presses convection between the
panes

• installing the insulation in a way that

prevents voids,
• preventing moving air from enter-
ing the insulation from the outside
(intrusion),
Reduce radiant heat losses by:
• using windows with low emissiv-
ity (“low-U”) coatings that retard
the transmission of short-wave
radiation.

Chimney
Leaks Air
From House
Joints at Continuously
Ceiling Light
Attic Hatches
Fixtures

Joints Vents from

Between Wall Joints at Plumbing Chimney Bathroom
and Ceiling Interior Stack Penetration and Kitchen
Joints at Parti- Penetra- of Ceiling Electrical
Windows tions tions Outlets

Joint Between Cracks Holes and Tears

Sill and Floor at Doors Through Vapor
Retarder
Joint
Between
Joists and
Basement

Electrical
Service Entrance
and Cable TV
Floor Drain (Air Enters and Telephone
Via Weeping Tile) Entry Points

Around Posts
and Columns Around
Plumbing Stack

Figure 2.8: Air leakage points in a house.

32 Chapter 2
Air Flow
In our discussion of convection, we
briefly examined air flowing in and out
of houses. This air leakage is uncon-
trolled and has no benefit to us. Air
movement causes heat loss, makes the
occupants uncomfortable, lowers in-
door humidity to uncomfortable levels,
introduces soil gasses and other con-
taminants to the house, forces damaging
moisture into insulation and structural
elements, and causes cosmetic damage
inside and outside the house.
In some homes, the total air volume
of the house, along with heat and mois-
ture, can leak out two or three times
each hour. It is not possible to build
a comfortable, durable, and efficient
house without understanding this air
flow more completely and employing
field-proven construction techniques
to stop it. Many of the most significant
failures in houses are a direct conse-
quence of unintentional air flow. Fortu-
nately, basic building science is the basis
for strategies and techniques that can
virtually eliminate these problems.
The solution is simple: no holes.
There are two requirements for air to be
able to leak from a house: first, holes, and
second, pressure differences from one
side of these holes to the other, which
causes air to flow through them. We cre-
ate air pressure differences between the
top of the building (warmer air press-
ing to escape causes a higher pressure)
and the bottom of the building (air is
cooler, but being heated, so the pressure
is lower). Other pressure differences are
the result of natural phenomena, like the
wind, and are also beyond our ability to
control. But we can fill the holes. We do
this by design and construction, using air
and vapor retarders.
Houses generally have two kinds
of holes through which air can flow.
Holes that result from framing typically
Building Science Basics
are found at bottom and top plates,
around windows and doors, etc. Holes
also result from the penetrations that
we intentionally make (electrical wires,
outlets and light fixtures, water lines
and vent stacks, exhausts for dryers and
ranges, etc.) but do not intentionally
seal. All potential flow paths in and out
of houses must be sealed and blocked.
If they are not, three major pressure dif-
ferences will cause serious problems:
• wind effect
• stack effect
• flue and vent effect
Wind speed and direction can
cause large pressure differences across
the building envelope. A positive
pressure on the windward side of the
house drives air in through cracks and
holes. At the same time a negative pres-
sure is created on the leeward side of
the house, drawing air out through
cracks and holes (Figure 2.9).
The stack effect demonstrates how
air flow is influenced by temperature.
Warm air is more buoyant than colder
dense air. When the temperature inside
the building is higher than the outside,
a positive pressure is created inside the
building envelope along the ceiling and
upper area of the exterior walls and a
negative pressure is created along the
floor and lower area of the exterior
walls. The negative pressure in the lower
portion of the building envelope causes
colder air to infiltrate through cracks
and holes along the floor and lower por-
tion of the exterior walls. The positive
pressure caused by the temperature dif-
ferences pushes air upward and the air
exfiltrates out through the cracks and
holes in the ceiling and upper portion
of the building envelope. The greater
the temperature difference between the
inside and the outside, the larger the
potential for pressure differences to be
33
 created by the stack effect. Preventing Measuring Air Leakage
holes limits this kind of heat loss.
A common device for determining
The flue and vent effect contrib-
air leakage is called a blower door. It
utes to pressure differences when equip-
consists of a calibrated fan, an adjust-
ment such as wood stoves or bathroom
able door frame, and metering equip-
fans are operating inside the home and
ment. It is placed in the door opening
forcing combustion products and stale
of the house. The fan blows air out of
air out of the house through vents and
the house to depressurize the build-
flues. While the equipment is operating,
ing envelope, causing air to enter the
air is exhausted out through the chim-
house through the cracks and holes in
neys and flues, causing negative pressure
the building envelope to equalize the
in the house. Outdoor air is drawn in to
pressure. We measure the amount of
replace the air being exhausted.
air that must be removed to maintain
An area of neutral pressure separates
a constant house pressure difference,
the regions of the house where air pres-
to calculate the air changes per hour
sure is neither positive nor negative
and the total equivalent leakage area of
compared to outside pressure. This con-
the building envelope. One air change
cept is typically referred to as the neu-
per hour means that all the air volume
tral pressure plane. This is an imaginary
in the house totally leaks out and is
line separating the positive and negative
replaced by incoming air in one hour.
pressure areas. The plane may be hori-
Equivalent leakage area is the total area
zontal or diagonal, and its location varies
of all cracks and holes in the building
constantly depending on the wind effect,
envelope added together and expressed
stack effect, or flue and vent effect.
as the size of an equivalent single hole in
Negative pressure on one side of the
the building envelope.
plane draws air into the building enve-
Pressure difference is measured in
lope through any cracks or holes, while
Pascals. House air leakage tests are
the positive pressure on the other side of
typically conducted by maintaining a
the plane pushes air out of the building
constant pressure difference of 50 Pas-
envelope through any cracks or holes.
cals. Fifty Pascals is equivalent to the
There is no infiltration or exfiltration
amount of pressure exerted by 0.2 col-
through cracks or holes at the level of
umn inches of water at 55 degrees F or a
the neutral pressure plane itself, because
20-mile-per-hour wind on all six sides of
there is no pressure difference there.
the structure.

Cracks
at doors

flue and vent effect stack effect wind effect

Figure 2.9: Three ways air is forced out of houses through leaks

34 Chapter 2
Controlling Air Leakage
By understanding the mechanisms of
air flow and how to calculate air leak-
age rates, the designer and builder can
choose the most economical and effec-
tive materials and the best installation
procedures to minimize wind effect,
stack effect, and flue and vent effect.
Air leakage is reduced by installing
a continuous air retarder. Air retarder
materials are highly impermeable to air.
They should be applied to the exterior
of the envelope. The most important
concept is that to be effective, an air re-
tarder must be continuous and all seams
or penetrations must be sealed with an
appropriate caulk, sealant, or tape over
solid backing. It is also important that
it have the property of ample vapor
permeability, so that if any water vapor
does get into the wall or roof cavity, it
can escape relatively easily, rather than
be trapped in the building envelope.
Wind effect can be reduced by plant-
ing trees and shrubs near a building.
In many homes, a bypass, or inten-
tional opening for electrical, mechani-
cal, or plumbing, runs from the crawl
space to the attic. Although most build-
ing codes require bypasses to be sealed,
they seldom are. Unsealed bypasses
are a major avenue for the stack effect
mechanism of air leakage.
The problems associated with flue
and vent effect are minimized by us-
ing direct-vent heating equipment and
properly designed and installed ven-
tilation systems. Direct vent heating
equipment uses combustion air sup-
plied from outside the building thermal
envelope rather than air from inside
the building envelope. Homes need to
have intentional openings for controlled
ventilation.
Figure 2.10 is a photo of a log home
in Fairbanks, taken in February when
the outdoor temperature was –40˚F.
Building Science Basics
The house in Figure 2.10 was built in
1973 and the joint above the gable wall
of logs is “sealed” with fiberglass sill
sealer, a good air filter but not a barrier
to air leakage. We have better materials
today that are ideal for sealing in just
such locations: polyethylene foam sill
sealer.
The resulting hoarfrost accumula-
tion under the eave of the house on the
gable end is a clear and visible indication
of air leakage resulting from warm moist
air streaming out the top of the build-
ing under rather extreme conditions.
This process is going on most of every
winter in every heating climate, but only
when the temperature gets very cold
is it actually so visible! Alaska makes
building science easier to understand,
because natural leakage like this, shown
by the deposition of hoarfrost as the
warm moisture-laden air leaves the top
of the house, is visible, whereas in most
climates, although it happens in the
same way, it is invisible, and therefore
few really appreciate its magnitude or
effect like we can in Alaska. We can feel
air leakage into the house under door
sills and around cracks, but we don’t live
at the top of the building so we rarely
notice the air leakage out of the build-
ing at the top. We live on the floor. If air
is leaking in low, such as under the door,
it must also be leaking out somewhere
near the ceiling. This photo shows the
reality of that leakage and also demon-
strates that sealing the air leakage at the
top of the building is a crucial detail.
A good air/vapor retarder at the ceiling
allows better control of air leakage and
indoor humidity, and also protects the
roof insulation from moisture damage,
which could occur if air leaked regularly
into it.
35
 Figure 2.10: This photo shows air leakage at the top of an older log home.
Because the air temperature at the time of this photo was –40 degrees F, air
leakage is made visible by the accumulating hoarfrost under the eave. The air
leakage is normally invisible, and because it is occurring at the ceiling and eaves,
is undetected by the occupants. This photo clearly shows that the air leaking
out is not only substantial, but it takes moisture with it, which is deposited under
the eaves as hoarfrost. Sealing at the roof–ceiling interface and at the gable
ends of the roof are very important control measures to ensure this leakage is
minimal. Controlling this leakage is not only helpful for good interior humidity but
also saves energy by keeping heated air in the house.

Moisture Flow—Terms and Definitions

Water that has condensed on or in
building elements is responsible for
many common problems found in con-
ventional housing, such as:
• condensation on windows;
• mold, mildew, rot, and resulting de-
terioration of window frames, struc-
tural framework, rafters, trusses,
etc.;
• paint blistering and peeling; and
• staining of ceilings and walls along
joists, studs, or nail and screw heads.
Water in its liquid form within the
building envelope is the single most
destructive force in housing. We must
understand the sources of moisture and
the mechanisms of water vapor flow and
choose the most economical and effec-
tive materials and the best installation
procedures to minimize water vapor
flow and its related damages.
Mechanisms of Moisture Flow
The following definitions will help in
understanding moisture flow:
Condensation
Condensation is the physical change
of water from a vapor to a liquid. Con-
densation occurs when air temperature

36 Chapter 2
cools to the point that the air can no
longer hold all its water vapor and liquid
water forms.
Dew Point
Dew point is the temperature at which
the air can no longer hold moisture. It is
the temperature at which condensation
will occur. There are charts available,
called psychrometric charts, to help de-
termine dew point. Chapter 3 contains
more information on how dew point is
related to relative humidity.

What is a Dew Point?

The dew in “dew point” is just Dew Point
moisture condensed to form
water droplets. The dew point is
the temperature at which dew
begins to form. Humidity and
pressure can affect the dew
point.
During cold weather, the Vap
walls of buildings get cold on the
outside and warm on the inside.
Then the dew point (tempera-
ture) for condensing moisture
out of the air is often found
somewhere inside the wall, and
Moisture-laden air condenses
point inside a wall Vapor retarder stops moisture-laden
you will get water in your insula- Figure 2.11: Dew
with no vapor retarder, causing damage from entering wall
tion and rot in your wall.


 




  
  C
 




  
 


 
  
   

  
  


 
 

  


   

 

  


  

 
 
  
 
 

Figure 2.12: The relationship between pressure, diffusion, and air transport.

Building Science Basics 37

 Specific Volume, cu. ft./lb Dry Air

50
14.5

45
.028

40

p.

Humidity ratio, pounds moisture per pound dry air

tem
024
Air

14.0

n
tio
Dry
35

ura
/lb

sat
.020
BTU

or
lb
30

bu
et
W
13.5 .016
25

%
0%

80
10

60%
.012
13.5
20

y
% idit
40 hu m .008
tive
Rela
15

12.5 20% .004

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Dry bulb temperature in degrees F.
cooler air warmer air

Figure 2.13: A psychrometric chart presents physical and thermal properties of moist air in a graphi-
cal form. This chart contains a lot of information packed into an odd-shaped graph. Note that cooler air
(located along lower, left region of chart) will not hold as much moisture (as seen on the y-axis’ humidity
ratio) as warm air (located along right side of chart).

Relative Humidity ing more moisture. Typical relative hu-

midity of outdoor air in the winter at 0
Relative humidity is a measure of the
degrees F is 75 to 90%, but heated to 70
amount of water vapor that is held by air
degrees the relative humidity would be
at a given temperature, expressed as a
about 5%. Figure 2.14 shows the health
percentage of the maximum amount of
affects of various relative humidities.
water vapor the air can hold at that tem-
Research indicates that the optimal
perature. Warm air can hold more water
range of relative humidity for human
vapor than cold air (see Figure 2.13).
health is between 40 and 60 percent. If
The way our houses dry out in the
relative humidity is too low, people may
winter is by the exchange of exterior
experience respiratory irritation. If rela-
air for stale interior air. However, when
tive humidity is too high, condensation
that cold outside air is brought inside
occurs on cool surfaces, such as win-
and heated, its relative humidity drops
dows and outside corners, where mold,
because the warm air is capable of hold-

38 Chapter 2
 Decrease in bar width
indicates decrease in effect

Bacteria

Viruses

Fungi

Mites

Respiratory
Infections *

Allergic
Rhinitis
and Asthma

Chemical
Interactions

Ozone
Production

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Relative Humidity (%)

Figure 2.14: The effects of indoor humidity on health. Source: Sterling et al.
1985. Optimum zone moved 10% to left by the authors.

mildew, fungi, and bacterial growth are
stimulated. In Alaska, we do not have
the window technology to tolerate a
relative humidity much above 50% dur-
ing the coldest temperatures we see, so
we must design in a lower anticipated
relative humidity for Alaskan homes.
This is more of a concern in the subarc-
tic and arctic climate zones where lower
winter minimum temperatures are more
common.
Permeance
Permeance is a measure of the ability of
a material to allow water vapor to diffuse
through it. Some building materials re-
tard or slow vapor diffusion better than
others. A material with a high perme-
ance rating allows water vapor to diffuse
through it relatively freely. Permeance
(or perm) ratings of most common build-
ing materials are listed in Appendix 2.
Moisture is generated during normal
household activities through cooking,
bathing, washing and drying clothes,
and human respiration. A great deal of
moisture can be given off by building
materials such as wood and concrete,
especially during the first year in a new
house.
In an insulated wall there is typically
a difference in temperature across the

Building Science Basics 39

 wall from the warmer indoor tempera-
ture to the cooler outside temperature.
If water vapor enters the wall along
with air leakage and the temperature
decreases as the air moves toward the
outside, cooler surface, ultimately the
dew point is reached and condensation
will occur. Building assemblies should
be designed and constructed so that
each layer used from the inside to the
outside has a higher perm rating than
the previous material. This will prevent
any moisture that penetrates the wall
from being trapped at any point inside
the wall. This is sometimes called the
Low permeance
Higher permeance
Very high permeance
Figure 2.14: This cartoon suggests different lev-
els of permeance. The moisture is represented
by arrows.
40
flow-through principle. Whenever pos-
sible and practical, place materials with
low permeance (perm) on the warm side
of the dew point. For stick-framed walls,
the flow-through principle requires that
no layer on the cold side of the vapor
retarder have a perm rating less than
1.0, so water vapor will not be trapped
within the building materials.
Air Leakage
As air leaks into the house through
cracks and holes in the building enve-
lope and flows through the house via
the wind, stack, and flue and vent ef-
fects, the air warms and accumulates
moisture, then leaves the house through
cracks and holes in the upper portion of
the building envelope. Nearly all mois-
ture removal from a conventional house
occurs as a result of air leakage.
Vapor Diffusion
Vapor diffusion is the transport of water
vapor through a solid material. Just as
heat flows from a warm area to a cold
area and air flows from a high (positive)
pressure area to a low (negative) pres-
sure area, water vapor flows from an
area of high vapor pressure to an area
of low pressure. The vapor pressure
depends on the level of humidity and
temperature. Water vapor can move
independently of air flow, by diffusion,
and can pass through some materials
through which air cannot flow. Vapor
diffusion is a minor mechanism for
moisture flow. A comparison between
the amount of moisture transferred by
diffusion through a typical wall section
during a heating season and the cor-
responding amount of moisture trans-
ferred by air leakage through a one-inch
square hole is shown in Figure 2.15.
Chapter 2
Capillary Action
Capillary action is the ability of a liquid
to rise by absorption. A wick placed in a
kerosene lamp is a common example of
how capillary action occurs and how the
level of the liquid in the wick can rise
higher than the level of the liquid in the
lamp. No pressure differential is neces-
sary for capillary action to occur. Porous
material, like concrete used in founda-
tions, is another example. Through
capillary action, water in the ground
will rise up through the foundation’s
absorbent material and be released into
an area with a lower water vapor pres-
sure. Capillary action is the least obvi-
ous mechanism of moisture flow in a
house, but can be a major contributor to
moisture entering the building envelope
through the foundation.
Gravity
Gravity causes water to flow downward.
Surface runoff, ground water, and driv-
ing rain can enter the building envelope
through cracks and holes. Gravity will
also transport water resulting from
condensation or melting ice into the
structure or down along the foundation.
All drainage of water should be directed
away from the house and its foundation.

Vapor diffusion
transport of water

4’x8’ sheet of gypsum board

Interior at 70˚ F and
40% relative humidity
results in 1/3 quart of water

Air leakage
transport of water
4’x8’ sheet of gypsum board
with a 1 inch square hole,
Interior at 70˚ F and
40% relative humidity
results in 30 quarts of water.

Figure 2.15: Air Leakage is the primary moisture transport

mechanism (Building Science Concept #7)

Building Science Basics 41

 Dew Point Dew Point

Vapor Retarder

Moisture-laden air condenses inside a wall Vapor retarder stops moisture-laden air
with no vapor retarder, causing damage from entering wall

Figure 2.16: Dew point and vapor retarder (Building Science Concept #9)

Insulated Ceiling Interior Finish

and Stud Spaces (Drywall Shown)

Polyethylene
Air/Vapor Retarder

Permeable Air
Retarder at Rim

Framed Interior
Basement Wall With
Batt Insulation and
Polyethylene
Air/Vapor Retarder
Figure 2.17: Placement of vapor retarder.

42 Chapter 2
Controlling Water Vapor and Condensation
Vapor must be prevented from reach-
ing the dew point temperature in the
wall. To control the movement of vapor
throughout the building envelope, two
distinct functions are required: an air
retarder and a vapor retarder.
Moisture movement also occurs
through the air where there are gaps in
materials. If there is no associated air
leakage, the amount of moisture trans-
ferred to the wall cavity is usually very
small. If there are gaps in the warm-side
air or vapor retarder, convection can
also carry moisture and deposit it on the
cold side of the envelope.
An air retarder is necessary to pre-
vent moisture being transported by
air leaking into the wall cavity. The air
leakage is enhanced by wind and stack
effect. The air retarder must be continu-
ous, without holes or cracks. In most
instances an air retarder is an external
element of the wall section, usually ap-
plied at or directly under the exterior
siding.
When an air retarder (wind re-
tarder) is placed under the exterior
finish, it should have a high permeance
to water vapor and a low air porosity,
which means it is a block to air leak-
age. It should be tear resistant. Some
types of hardboard siding can buckle
when damp, which makes the interior
of the wall vulnerable to air leaks and
wind-driven rain. Air and water leaking
into the wall cavity will increase energy
requirements by wetting the insulation
and increasing its thermal conduction.
Wet insulation can settle, which may
leave air gaps at the top of the wall, fur-
ther increasing energy requirements.
The specifications of plastic air-
retarder materials—vapor permeance,
thickness, weight, available size, tensile
strength, tear resistance, and air poros-
ity—are listed in Appendix 1.
Building Science Basics
A vapor barrier (retarder) is used to
reduce diffusion of water vapor across
the building envelope. Few materials
stop diffusion completely; they only
slow the rate. Thus the term vapor re-
tarder, rather than barrier, is more accu-
rate. The water vapor that does get past
the interior vapor retarder should be
allowed to pass through the exterior sur-
face of the assembly to the outside. The
vapor retarder must be installed on the
warm side of the dew point to reduce
the transport of water vapor through
the building envelope and minimize
moisture condensing in the walls or roof
cavity.
In short, it should be difficult for
moisture to get into the building enve-
lope. If it does, it should be easy for it
to escape to the outside. This escape
could be by diffusion through holes such
as unsealed seams in siding or sheath-
ing. However, removal of water from
the wall by air circulation is not recom-
mended because it could drastically re-
duce the effectiveness of the insulation.
The air-vapor retarder should be at
or near the inside surface, which is the
warm side of the dew point, so that
most of the water vapor within the
house will never get inside the wall and
so will never reach the dew point. This
method of vapor retarder installation
corresponds to the traditional method
in which a polyethylene sheet is posi-
tioned just under the interior finish.
Research has demonstrated that the
air-vapor retarder can be positioned
within the building envelope, as long as
roughly two-thirds of the R-value of the
insulation is outside this retarder, leav-
ing the remaining one-third inside. This
has permitted some novel approaches to
construction.
This one-third/two-thirds rule for
placing the vapor retarder is suitable
43
 for moist temperate climatic regions
of America and coastal Alaska. How-
ever, in extremely cold climates, above
12,000 heating degree days, the vapor
retarder should be recessed no more
than one-quarter of the way in from the
warm side of the building assembly. In
climates above 14,000 heating degree
days (see map Figure 2.17), the rule is
that only one-fifth of the insulating
value should be on the warm side of the
vapor retarder. These rules of thumb for
vapor retarder placement allow some
flexibility in construction and air-vapor
retarder placement.
The builder or designer must keep
in mind the separate functions and re-
quirements of the air retarder and the
vapor retarder. While in the past most
energy-efficient houses have combined
these functions into one air-vapor
retarder, it must be realized that this
element is performing two functions.
There are times when it is convenient to
separate those functions (Figure 2.18).
There have been investigations into
alternative treatments of air retarders
and vapor retarders that may simplify
construction techniques and provide
a more durable replacement for poly-
ethylene.
One successful approach is to use
foil-backed foam insulation on the in-
terior walls and seal the joints between
the sheets of foam with vapor-barrier
tape. Wiring can be run between fur-
ring strips that are fastened through the
foam to the studs.
Another technique takes advantage
of the resistance to air flow provided by
drywall. Continuity of the air retarder
is provided using gaskets and sealants
between different components of the
building envelope, as with wall plates
or headers. In such a system, a separate
vapor retarder must be provided. This
system is called the airtight drywall ap-
proach. Because there isn’t enough test
data in areas of high seismic activity and
magnitude, we do not endorse its use.

BARROW
20,000

19,000
18,000
17,000
KOTZEBUE
16,000

NOME 15,000 Air Retarder

FAIRBANKS
14,000
Vapor Retarder
15,000
MCGRATH

Inside Outside
BETHEL ANCHORAGE
13,000 VALDEZ
12,000 12,000 10,000
11,000 JUNEAU

8,000
11,000

10,000 Source: Environmental Atlas of Alaska, 1978

Charles Hartman and Philip Johnson
Figure 2.17: Heating degree days in
Alaska (map from somewhere
Figure 2.18: The difference in place-
ment of an air retarder (on the
outside) and a vapor retarder (two-
thirds/one-third rule)

44 Chapter 2
Controlling Liquid Water
An often-neglected function of the
building envelope is that of controlling
the movement of liquid water (not to
be confused with water vapor). Liquid
water, such as driving rain, must be
prevented from entering the build-
ing envelope. This is usually done with
the exterior siding or roofing material.
The important point to remember is air cavity
that this barrier, while preventing the
passage of water from outside into the
envelope, should permit vapor to pass
from the envelope to the exterior. It
must also restrict liquid water and air
penetration.
Flashing is used in the conventional
manner to direct water to the outside
if it has penetrated the siding or roof-
ing. In regions with a low drying index
(wet, humid climates such as southeast
Alaska), consider isolating the exterior
siding from the wall cavity and sheath-
ing. Ventilating the wall can reduce the siding
potential for moisture that has been
absorbed by the siding from moving into
the wall assembly. Most typically this furring
would involve the use of furring between
the air retarder and the siding, allowing air retarder
a drainage cavity and an air cavity that
structural
can dry the back side of the siding (see
sheathing
Figure 2.19).
An air retarder should also stop Figure 2.19: A wall with a drainage cavity to allow water to
convection currents and cold air from escape in rainy climates
blowing through the insulation, which
restricts the performance of the insula-
tion. It is becoming common practice to
install an outer air retarder consisting of
a permeable air-retarder material that is
taped or caulked at the seams, especially
in wind-dominated climates.
When an air retarder is used on the
exterior of the building, its purpose is
to stop air intrusion. It must also be
highly permeable to water vapor so that
it does not trap water vapor in the wall.
The standard six-mil polyethylene vapor
retarder material that is now recom-

Building Science Basics 45

 mended practice, installed on the warm Capillary Action and Gravity
side of the insulation (the high vapor-
Controlling air leakage and vapor dif-
pressure side), constitutes both an air
fusion reduces the potential for exfil-
and vapor retarder. In cold climates,
tration of vapor through the building
water vapor control is more crucial be-
envelope. In addition, controlling the
cause vapor movement into wall cavities
capillary action and gravity mechanisms
can quickly cause damage and diminish
of moisture flow prevents infiltration
insulation value when framing members
of water into the building envelope. We
and insulation get wet. For this reason,
can prevent capillary action by using a
the vapor-transfer control function of
nonabsorbent material and prevention
the air–vapor retarder on the warm side
techniques. Moisture flow by gravity is
becomes a focus of attention.
reduced primarily by designing and con-
The vapor or retarder is inherently
structing roofs, walls, and foundations
an air retarder too, but it is not always
to shed water. This is done by installing
perceived that way, and thus the confu-
proper flashing, rain gutters, and footing
sion. It is easy to get into the habit of
drains and by properly sloping the finish
calling the warm side air–vapor retarder
grade away from the building.
simply a vapor barrier. Air retarder
Understanding how air leakage,
products are specifically named air bar-
vapor diffusion, capillary action, and
riers and are designed for exterior cold-
gravity can transport moisture from
side use on walls, making the separate
inside or outside the home into the
function implicit in the separate loca-
building thermal envelope and how to
tion of the air retarder from the interior
control the mechanisms of moisture
vapor retarder. Air retarder products are
flow allows the designer and builder to
also not adequate for, nor intended for,
choose the most cost effective methods
use as a vapor retarder.
and materials to improve the comfort,
durability, and performance of the house
as a system.

46 Chapter 2
Vapor Retarder Design: What, Why, Where
What is a Vapor Retarder?
Commonly called vapor barriers, vapor
retarders are most simply described as
a film or sheet of material to prevent or
retard moist air from moving into the
wall of a building. They also help to stop
warm air from moving through a wall
(see Figure 2.20).
Figure 2.20: This small hole in the vapor barrier
Why Do We Need Vapor was made during construction: there was no hole
Retarders in Buildings? in the drywall. The dark stain around the hole shows
airborne contaminants trapped in the insulation like
If we prevent moist air from getting
an air filter. This shows that over time a lot of air is
inside of a building’s walls and roof, we
passed through even this small hole.
can avoid damage to the building from
rot and decay. Also, mold growing in
walls and poorly vented cavities can be a
serious heath problem.

Where Do We Put
Vapor Retarders? 2/3 of total R-value
less than 12,000 heating de-
A vapor retarder is built into a wall to
gree days.
form a balloon or envelope to keep warm
moist air inside. This vapor retarder is
hidden inside the wall in a finished build-
ing. A vapor retarder must be placed
Cold side Warm side
with careful design and craftsmanship,
because a poor vapor retarder can some- (outdoors) (indoors)
times cause as much or more damage as
none at all. Different climates require 3/4 of total R-value
different placement of vapor retarders. 12,000 to 14,000 heating de-
gree days
The TwoThirds/One Third Rule
for Vapor Retarders
To prevent moisture from reaching
the dew point inside the wall, no more
than one third of the total R-value of
the wall should be on the warm side
of the vapor retarder in areas of the 4/5 of total R-value
country with less than 12,000 heating over 14,000 heating degree
degree days (Figure 2.21). days
In areas with heating degree days
Figure 2.21: The two-thirds/one third rule:
of 12,000 to 14,000, no more than one
three different wall designs showing placement
quarter of the insulation should be on
of vapor retarder (dashed line).

Building Science Basics 47

 the warm side of the vapor retarder, and
in climates of over 14,000 heating degree
days, no more than a quarter (one-fifth is
recommended) of the insulation should
be on the warm side of the vapor re-
tarder. Following this rule prevents water
vapor from getting too cold and con-
densing before it is stopped by the vapor
retarder. (For the heating degree days in
your location, see map on page 46).
All construction should comply with
local building codes and the Uniform
Building Code, the Uniform Mechanical
Code, the Uniform Plumbing Code, the
Americans With Disabilities Act, and
the National Electrical Code as well as
the energy efficiency standards set forth
here. All mechanical components, includ-
ing doors and windows, should have the
manufacturer’s name, the model, and a
customer service phone number clearly
marked on a visible surface. This identifi-
cation will help if repairs are necessary.

Summary
This chapter has presented building sci-
ence basics that explain heat, air, and Are you getting
moisture flow and the principles that any of this?
control them.

What is R-value?
R-value: The ability of a material to resist
heat transfer is measured in R-value.
What is a dew point?
A dew point is the temperature at which wa-
ter condenses and dew begins to form.
What is a heating degree day?
Heating degree day is a measure of the need
for heating based on the number of days
the outside temperature is lower than 65
degrees F.

48 Chapter 2