Hyperloop – A fifth mode of transport

A Seminar (Self study) Report

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the

Degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Mechanical Engineering
by

Ashutosh A. Biradar
(Roll No. 20170176)

Guide

Mr. Ajinkya Gangan

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,

Lonere - 402 103, Dist- Raigad, Maharashtra

2018-2019
 Approval Sheet

The seminar report entitled “Hyperloop – A fifth mode of transport ” by Mr.Ashutosh A.

Biradar is approved for partial fulfillment of award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering in the Department of Mechanical Engineering.

Mr. Ajinkya Gangan Dr. M. Sadaiah

Guide Professor & Head,

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological

University, Lonere -402 103, Raigad.

Examiners

1) --------------------------------------------------------

2) ---------------------------------------------------------

2
 Acknowledgement

An act of gratitude is that which acknowledges the blessing of well-wisher and supporting
guidance of the rich experience, which enlightens, in spires and motivates to do something
valuable.

I sincerely acknowledge the kind hearted co-operation by my seminar guide Mr. Ajinkya
Gangan, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological
University, Lonere. He made me endure during many times with expert guidance, kind advice
and unfailing humor, which helped me to be determined about my seminar.

I acknowledge with due courtesy the helping hand of Dr. M.Sadaiah who is the Head of
Mechanical Engineering Department.

My special gratitude is towards my parents for the affectionate and loving support.

Ashutosh A Biradar

(Roll No: 20170176)

3
 Contents

Abstract

Chapter-1
1.1Introduction
1.2Literature review

Chapter-2 Basic components of Hyperloop

2.1 Capsule
2.1.1Compressor
2.1.2 Suspension
2.2 Tube
2.2.1 Vacuum pumps
2.3 Pylons
2.4 Propulsion & Linear motors
2.4.1 Rotor
2.4.2 Stator
2.5 Hyperloop Energy Demand

Chapter-3 Basic principle of working

Chapter-4
4.1 Carbon footprints
4.2 Noise pollution
4.3 Air pollution

Chapter-5
Engineering challenges
5.1 Pressure
5.2 Spontaneous Decompression
5.3 Structural design
5.4 Excessive Deflection
5.5 Uneven heating of steel
5.6 Deadly Collision

4
Chapter-6 Discussion and Conclusion

References

5
 Abstract

Existing conventional modes of transportation of people consists of four unique types

i.e. rail, road, water, and air. These modes of tend to be either relatively slow (e.g., road
and water), expensive (e.g., air), or a combination of relatively slow and expensive
(i.e., rail). Hyperloop is a new mode of transport that is believed to be originated from
20th century’s change this paradigm by being both fast and inexpensive for people and
goods. Hyperloop is also unique in that it is an open design concept, similar to Linux.

The Hyperloop Alpha, a new transportation concept idealized by Elon Musk.

Hyperloop consists of a low-pressure tube with capsules that are transported at both
low and high speeds throughout the length of the tube. The capsules are supported on a
cushion of air, featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic lift. The capsules are
accelerated via a magnetic linear accelerator affixed at various stations on the low-
pressure tube with rotors contained in each capsule. Passengers may enter and exit
Hyperloop at stations located either at the ends of the tube, or branches along the tube
length. Hyperloop is theoretically most safe, eco-friendly, relatively cheap, and the
future face of transportation

The Hyperloop offers good energy efficiency but faces many feasibility issues, such as
the tube deflection and tightness, the air bearing suspension reliability and the axial
compressor’s low efficiency and large dimensions. The Hyperloop concept was
unveiled in a passenger and a passenger-plus-cargo-car version. Hyperloop is intended
to relieve existing rail and road infrastructure with a more advanced and efficient
technology. The total cost of hyperloop is presumed to be under 6 billion $.

6
 Chapter -1
1.1 Introduction
Wheels being the most important initial invention of human significates the elevation
of standard of human being since ancient times, as we have progressed technology
gained transportation means like car, trucks, airplanes, ships, etc. We have brought
such a huge change moving ahead we must bring up more advance means of
transportation which can be face of future. Problems of today’s transportation includes
time consuming, not so eco-friendly, expensive. To meet Present demands an alternate
means must be there & should possess following requirements - Safer, Fast & Lower
cost, convenient, Immune to weather, Sustainably self-powering, Resistant to
Earthquakes. Hyperloop is one of the future or fifth mode of transportation. The name
Hyperloop was chosen because it would go in a loop.[1]

When Hyperloop was announced in 2013, the Internet was ablaze over this new,
magical form of transportation that promised 1,200 kph speeds. The Hyperloop is a
concept vehicle idealized by Elon Musk, and publicly released in end-August, 2014.
The first implementation would be a high-speed connection to link the Californian
corridor 1 from Los Angeles to San Francisco (563 km) in 35 minutes. Musk explains
about a new mode of transportation labeled as the Hyperloop Alpha which is faster,
cheaper, safer and energetically self-sustained.

Hyperloop is a tube-based transportation mechanism housing a capsule/pod that

accelerates to speeds surpassing conventional modes of transportation. The capsules are
supported on a cushion of air, featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic lift. The
Hyperloop capsule is accelerated by an advanced linear system with a moving motor
element mounted on the underside of the capsule and a stationary motor element
mounted to the tube. The capsules leave on average every 2 minutes from each terminal
carrying 28 people each (as often as every 30 seconds during rush hour and less
frequently at night). This gives a total of 7.4 million people per tube that can be
transported each year on Hyperloop.

The primary difference between Hyperloop and similar concepts is the functioning of
air inside the tube. Whereas the other concepts employ a vacuum to erase air drag,
Hyperloop compresses the air inside the tube to a ratio of 20:1. Energy costs to contain
the operating environment drop significantly. Because of low air resistance, Hyperloop
requires those propulsion elements only to accelerate or decelerate in short tube
sections. The capsule contains independent brakes and emergency wheels.

Although technological aspects of Hyperloop occupied other problems, especially

issues related to land use, appeared at the project’s onset. The tubes of Hyperloop
supported on the hard shoulder of highways atop pylons supporting two tube lanes per
pylon. This would avoid use of land held by non-governmental owners and limit the
number of parties negotiating for its use.[2]

7
1.2 Literature Review

Jeffrey C. Chin, Justin S. Gray, Scott M. Jones, Jeffrey J. Berton, They discussed the Open-
Source Conceptual Sizing Models for the Hyperloop Passenger Pod in this paper. They
concluded that the refined analysis illuminates several interdisciplinary couplings that alter two
major aspects of the initial concept. First, the pod travel speed and the tube cross-sectional area
are linked, forcing the tube size to be roughly twice the diameter of the original specification,
in order for the pod to reach Mach 0.8. Second, the steady-state tube temperature is dominated
by ambient thermal interactions unrelated to the heat generated by the pod compression system.

In 2014 N. Kayela discussed about the railway track for the hyperloop, stations for the
hyperloop. Also, discussed about the two version of capsule that is one is passenger only
version and another is passenger plus vehicle version.

In MAY 2016 Ahmed Hodaib, Samar F. Abdel Fattah discussed the design of a hyperloop
capsule with linear induction propulsion system which is used to accelerate and decelerate the
capsule. They studied that like rotary synchronous motors; linear motors run on 3-phase power
and can support very high speeds. However, there are end effects that reduce the motor's thrust
force. Linear induction motors are thus less energy efficient than normal rotary motors for any
required force output. They also discussed about the manufacturing of linear induction motor in
this paper

In 2016 Mark Sakowski Discussed the current maglev technology along with the theoretical
evacuated tube technology and they concluded that the hyperloop is feasible and if properly
designed, has the potential to be much more efficient in terms of energy

8
 Chapter-2

The basic components of hyperloop system are capsule, tube, pylons, propulsion and linear
motors, energy storage device. These components are described in detail as follows:

2.1 Capsule

A sealed capsule carrying 28 passengers each that travel along the interior of the tube
depart on average every 2 minutes from stations & up to every 30 seconds during peak
usage hours. A larger system has also been sized that allows transport of 3 full size
automobiles with passengers to travel in the capsule. The capsules are separated within
the tube by approximately 23 miles (37 km) on average during operation. The capsules
are supported via air bearings that operate using a compressed air reservoir and
aerodynamic lift. The capsule travels from subsonic to supersonic velocity in a low-
density environment. The capsules travel at 760 mph (1,220 kph, Mach 0.99 at 68 ºF or
20 ºC). [3]

The capsule to move at high speeds, the major obstacles that it has to overcome are the
air drag and friction to overcome this shape of the capsule chosen is streamlined to
offer minimum resistance to air drag during movement. The interior of the capsule is
specifically designed with passenger safety and comfort in mind. The seats conform
well to the body to maintain comfort during the high-speed accelerations experienced
during travel. Beautiful landscape will be displayed in the cabin and each passenger
will have access their own personal entertainment system.

Two versions of the Hyperloop capsules are being considered:

1. A passenger: - 2 minutes of average departure between capsules, a minimum of 28
passengers per capsule thus 840 passengers/hour. Hence baseline requires up to 40
capsules in activity during rush hour, 6 of which are at the terminals for loading and
unloading of the passengers in approximately 5 minutes.
2. A passenger plus vehicle: - The passenger plus vehicle version of the Hyperloop will
depart as often as the passenger only version, but will accommodate 3 vehicles in
addition to the passengers. All subsystems discussed in the following sections are
featured on both capsule.[3]

Fig 2.1 Hyperloop passenger capsule[16]

9
Capsule specifications: -

Sr.no. Specification Passenger Passenger+vehicle

1. Area 15 ft2/1.4m2 43 ft2/4.0m2
2. Power req. 100 kw 285kw
3. Drag force 320 N 910 N
4. Overall weight & cost 3100 kg 3500 kg
$245000 $275000

Table 2.1: Capsule specifications of passenger and passenger plus vehicle

version[3]

2.1.1Compressor: -
Since need of vacuum was not sufficed in tube, capsule travelling in low pressure tube
accumulates air on its front side, which is further compressed by motion of capsule,
this compressed air will resist motion of capsule decreasing its velocity, forming a
choke inside the tube and eventually stopping it. Thus it therefore demands new
innovation to solve this problem which is known as Kantrowitz limit. The compressor
in front of the capsule is one of the major innovations in this project, setting it apart
from conventional solutions. Compressor fans were introduced to nullify effect of
Kantrowitz limit. Compressor fans are installed on front of capsules. Its purpose is
threefold. It avoids choking, allowing a narrower tube thus reducing upfront capital
costs. Secondly, these fans suck the accumulated compressed air from front of train and
exhale it to air bearings. Thus, resistance is removed and no further choking because of
Kantrowitz limit is cause. Lastly, it provides thrust by expanding the compressed air.
Following are specifications of compressor for passenger & passenger plus vehicle
version:-

1)Tube air is compressed with a compression ratio of 20:1 via an axial compressor.
2) Up to 60/85% of this air is bypassed:
a. The air travels via a narrow tube near bottom of the capsule to the tail.
b. A nozzle at the tail expands the flow generating thrust to mitigate some of the
small amounts of aerodynamic and bearing drag.
3) Up to 0.44 lb/s (0.2 kg/s) of air is cooled and compressed an additional 5.2:1/6:2:1
with additional cooling afterward.
a. This air is stored in onboard composite overwrap pressure vessels.
b. The stored air is eventually consumed by the air bearings to maintain distance
between the capsule and tube walls.
4) An onboard water tank is used for cooling of the air.
a. Water is pumped at 0.14/0.39 kg/s through two intercoolers 290/818 kg total mass
of coolant.
b. The steam is stored onboard until reaching the station.

10
 c. Water and steam tanks are changed automatically at each stop.
5) The compressor is powered by a 325/865 kW onboard electric motor:
a. The motor has an estimated mass of 169/275 kg, which includes power electronics.
b. An estimated 1500/4000 kg of batteries provides 45 minutes of onboard
compressor power, which is more than sufficient for the travel time with added reserve
backup power. c. Onboard batteries are changed at each stop and charged at the
stations.

(a)

(b)

Fig 2.2 Compressor along with its unit (a) passenger plus vehicle capsule (b)
passenger capsule[3]

11
 The Reynolds number, viscosity and compressibility will play an significant role in
compressor performance. At high Mach no. & low Reynolds no. efficiency of axial
compressor is expected to drop along with reduced stage loading. Compressor size and
weight along with weight of compressor motor will be a problem on feasibility of
whole system. The axial compressor requires around 29 stages to achieve desired
pressure ratio.[12]

2.1.2 Suspension: -
Conventional wheel and axle systems become impractical at high speed due frictional losses
and dynamic instability. A viable technical solution is magnetic levitation; however, the cost,
material & construction is prohibitive. In order to minimize mechanical friction and
maximize the on-board compressor usefulness, the capsule travels in a pressurized air film,
avoiding the high costs of conventional Maglev technology.
1. Wedge pads - a passive aerodynamic suspension
2. Air bearing - a compressor pressurized pad
It was not possible to ascertain the increased lift generated by the passive wedge pads given
the skin-friction high heating effects which could lead to an increase in air temperature. An
alternative to these conventional options is an air bearing suspension as they offer stability
and extremely low drag at a feasible cost by exploiting the ambient atmosphere in the
tube.[3]

Fig 2.3 Schematic of air bearing skis that support the capsule.[7]

Externally pressurized & aerodynamic air bearings provides high stiffness, which is required
to maintain stability at high speeds. capsules will float above the tube’s surface consists 28
air bearing skis which geometrically conforms to tube walls. The skis, each 1.5m in length &
0.9m in width, support the weight of the capsule by floating on a pressurized cushion of air
0.5 to 1.3 mm off the ground. Peak pressures beneath the skis need only reach 9.4 kPa to
support passengers. The skis depend on two mechanisms to pressurize the thin air film,
external pressurization and aerodynamics.
The aerodynamic method of generating pressure under the air bearings becomes appreciable
at moderate to high capsule speeds. As the capsule accelerates up to cruising speed, the front
tip of each ski is elevated relative to the back tip such that the ski rests at a slight angle of
0.05º. Viscous forces trap a thin film of air in the converging gap between the ski and the

12
tube wall. The air beneath the ski becomes pressurized the resultant elevated pressure
beneath the ski relative to the ambient atmosphere provides a net lifting force that is
sufficient to support a portion of the capsule’s weight. At lower speeds, very little lift can be
generated by aerodynamic mechanisms. As the capsule speed increases and compressibility
effects become important & lift is supplemented by injecting highly pressurized air into the
gap. By applying an externally supplied pressure, a favorable pressure distribution is
established beneath the bearing and sufficient lift is generated to support the capsule. This
system is known as an external pressure (EP) bearing and it is effective when the capsule is
stationary or moving at very high speeds.
The aerodynamically and externally pressurized film beneath the skis will generate a drag
force on the capsule.

For passenger version the predicted total drag generated by the 28 air bearings at a capsule
speed of 1,220 kph. The nominal air supply pressure increases to 9.4 kPa. Drag on the skis is
140 N, resulting in a 48-kW power loss. The passenger capsule air bearing system weight is
expected to be about 2,800 kg including the compressors, air tank, plumbing, suspension,
and bearing surfaces. The overall cost of the air bearing components is targeted to be no
more than $475,000.

For passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule version, 30 cm of width added to each bearing. The
nominal air supply pressure increases to 11.2 kPa. Drag on the skis is 187 N, results in a
power loss 63 kW. Weight of system is expected to be about 3,800 kg considering
compressors, air tank, plumbing, suspension, and bearing surfaces. The overall cost of the air
bearing components is targeted to be no more than $565,000.

Fig 2.4 Air Bearings Inside Tube[16]

2.2 Tube
The main Hyperloop route consists of a partially evacuated cylindrical tube that
connects the stations in a closed loop system. The expected pressure inside the tube
will be maintained around 0.015 psi (100 Pa, 0.75 torr), which is about 1/6 the pressure
on Mars or 1/1000 the pressure on Earth. This low pressure minimizes the drag force

13
on the capsule while maintaining the relative ease of pumping out the air from the tube.
The efficiency of industrial vacuum pumps decreases exponentially as the pressure is
reduced, so further benefits from reducing tube pressure would be offset by increased
pumping complexity.

Fig 2.5 Typical vacuum pump speed for functional pressure range.[6]

In order to minimize cost of the Hyperloop tube, it will be elevated on pillars which
greatly reduce the footprint required on the ground and the size of the construction area
required by maintaining the route as close as possible to currently operated highways,
the amount of land required for the Hyperloop is minimized. The geometry of the tube
depends on the choice of either the passenger version of Hyperloop or the passenger
plus vehicles version of Hyperloop. In either case, if the speed of the air passing
through the gaps accelerates to supersonic velocities, then shock waves form. These
waves limit how much air can actually get out of the way of the capsule, building up a
column of air in front of its nose and increasing drag until the air pressure builds up
significantly in front of the capsule. With the increased drag and additional mass of air
to push, the power requirements for the capsule increase significantly. It is therefore
very important to avoid shock wave formation around the capsule by careful selection
of the capsule/tube area ratio.

Tube Construction
In order to keep cost to a minimum, a uniform thickness steel tube reinforced with
stringers was selected as the material of choice for the inner diameter tube. Tube
sections would be pre-fabricated and installed between pillar supports spaced 30 m on
average, varying slightly depending on location. This relatively short span allows
keeping tube material cost and deflection to a minimum. The steel construction allows
simple welding processes to join different tube sections together with better gliding
surface. In addition, safety emergency exits and pressurization ports will be added in
key locations along the length of the tube.

14
A tube wall thickness between 20 to 25 mm is necessary to provide sufficient strength
for the load. These cases included, but were not limited to, pressure differential,
bending & buckling between pillars, loading due to the capsule weight and
acceleration. The cost of the tube is expected to be less than $650 million to $1.2
billion USD, including pre-fabricated tube sections with stringer reinforcements and
emergency exits.
Since the spacing between pillars would not change and the pillars are more expensive
than the tube, the overall cost increase is kept to a minimum.

Fig 2.6 Hyperloop capsule in tube cutaway with attached solar array. [16]

Passenger Hyperloop Tube

The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 2.23 m which is small enough to keep
material cost low while large enough to provide some alleviation of choked air flow
around the capsule. The tube-cross-sectional area is 3.91 m2 giving a capsule/tube area
ratio of 36%. It is critical to the aerodynamics of the capsule to keep this ratio as large
as possible, even though the pressure in the tube is extremely low.
Passenger Plus Vehicle Hyperloop Tube
The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 3.30 m, larger than the passenger
version to accommodate the larger capsule. The tube cross sectional area is 8.55 m 2
giving a capsule/tube area ratio of 47%.
Station Connections
The stations are isolated from the main tube as much as possible in order to limit air
leaks into the system. In addition, isolated branches and stations off the main tubes
could be built to access some towns along the way. [3]

15
2.2.1 Vacuum pump
Vacuum pumps will run continuously at various locations along the length of the tube
to maintain the required pressure despite any possible leaks through the joints and
stations. The best vacuum pumps for this system are the rotary and roots pump
combination. The expected cost of all required vacuum pumps is expected to be no
more than $10 million.
For a single stage rotary pump + roots combination with a maximum pumping speed of
7000 m3/h, at least 85 vacuum pump systems are needed. The estimated pump
acquisition cost is $8.8 million USD. For the given pump down time, the total
(acquisition + pump down + installation) cost is estimated to be around the targeted
$10 million USD and the peak power doesn’t exceed 50 MW. Vacuum system costs
are less than 1% of the tube cost.

2.3 Pylon
The tube will be supported by pillars which constrain the tube in the vertical direction
but allow longitudinal slip for thermal expansion as well as dampened lateral slip to
reduce the risk posed by earthquakes. In addition, the pillar to tube connection nominal
position will be adjustable vertically and laterally to ensure proper alignment despite
possible ground settling this allows a smoother ride. Pylons are specially designed to
take any tube length variance due to thermal expansion. It thus allows the tube to be
smooth and welded along the high-speed gliding middle section.

The average spacing is 30 m, which means there will be roughly 25,000 pillars for
600km supporting both Hyperloop tubes and overhead solar panels. The pillars will be
6 m tall whenever possible but may vary in height in hilly areas or where obstacles are
in the way. In some key areas, the spacing will have to vary in order to pass over roads
or other obstacles. Small spacing between each support reduces the deflection of the
tube keeping the capsule steadier and the journey more enjoyable. In addition, reduced
spacing has increased resistance to seismic loading as well as the lateral acceleration of
the capsule.

Due to the sheer quantity of pillars required, reinforced concrete was selected as the
construction material due to its very low cost per volume. In some short areas,
tunneling may be required to avoid going over mountains and to keep the route as
straight as possible. The cost for the pillar construction and tube joints is anticipated to
be no more than $2.55 billion USD for the passenger version tube and $3.15 billion
USD for the passenger plus vehicle version tube. The expected cost for the tunneling is
expected to be no more than $600 million USD for the smaller diameter tube and near
$700 million USD for the larger diameter tube. Structural simulations shows the
capability of the Hyperloop to withstand atmospheric pressure, tube weight,
earthquakes, winds, etc. Dampers will be incorporated between the pylons and tubes to
isolate movements in the ground from the tubes.[3]

16
 Fig 2.7 Pylons Supporting Tubes[3]
2.4 Propulsion & Linear motor
The propulsion system has the following basic requirements:

1. Accelerate the capsule from 0 to 300 mph (480 kph) for relatively low speed travel
in urban areas.
2. Maintain the capsule at 300 mph (480 kph) as necessary, including during ascents
over the mountains surrounding Los Angeles and San Francisco.
3. To accelerate the capsule from 300 to 760 mph (480 to 1,220 kph) at 1G at the
beginning of the long coasting section along the I-5 corridor.
4. To decelerate the capsule back to 300 mph (480 kph) at the end of the I5 corridor.

A large linear accelerator, capable of the 480 to 1,220 kph acceleration at 1G. Smaller
accelerators appropriate for urban areas and ascending mountain ranges can be scaled
down from this system. The Hyperloop uses a linear induction motor to accelerate and
decelerate the capsule. This provides several important benefits over a permanent
magnet motor:
 Lower material cost – the rotor can be a simple aluminum shape, and does not
require rare-earth elements.
 Lighter capsule.
 Smaller capsule dimensions.

17
 The lateral forces exerted by the stator on the rotor though low at 0.9 lbf/ft (13 N/m)
are inherently stabilizing. This simplifies the problem of keeping the rotor aligned in
the air gap.

Each accelerator has two 70 MVA inverters, one to accelerate the outgoing capsule,
and one to capture the energy from the incoming capsule. Relatively inexpensive
semiconductor switches allow the central inverters to energize only the section of track
occupied by a capsule, improving the power factor seen by the inverters. The inverters
are physically located at the highest speed end of the track to minimize conductor cost.
[3]

Fig 2.8: Rotor and Stator[7]

2.4.1 Rotor
The rotor located at bottom of capsule of the linear accelerators is very simple – an
aluminum blade 15 m long, 0.45 m tall, and 50 mm thick. Current flows mainly in the
outer 10 mm of this blade, allowing it to be hollow to decrease weight and cost. The
gap between the rotor and the stator is 0.8 in. (20 mm) on each side. A combination of
the capsule control system and electromagnetic centering forces allows the capsule to
safely enter, stay within, and exit such a precise gap.

18
 Fig.2.9: Magnetic field strength inside linear induction motor[3]

2.4.2 Stator
The stator is mounted to the bottom of the tube over the entire 4.0 km it takes to
accelerate and decelerate between 480 and 1,220 km. It is approximately 0.5 m wide
(including the air gap) and 10 cm tall, and weighs 800 kg/m.
Laid out symmetrically on each side of the rotor, its electrical configuration is 3-phase,
1 slot per pole per phase, with a variable linear pitch 0.4 m maximum. The number of
turns per slot also varies along the length of the stator, allowing the inverter to operate
at nearly constant phase voltage, which simplifies the power electronics design. The
two halves of the stator require bracing to resist the magnetic forces of 300N/m that try
to bring them together.

Fig 2.10: Cross section of rotor inside stator[3]

19
2.5 Hyperloop Energy Demand

Musk’s proposal detailed a low energy system design for Hyperloop. The system
consumes relatively little energy due to rapid acceleration which enables the pods to glide as
a passive maglev in a near vacuum, so that only about 10% of the route will consume
energy33 . According to Musk’s predicated energy costs per passenger, Figure 2, Hyperloop
is estimated to require 50MJ per passenger. This is a significant reduction compared to rail
(over 800MJ per passenger) and air (over 1000MJ per passenger)34 . However, details
behind these calculations were not supplied. These figures compare to other studies such as
the findings from NASA which suggest that Hyperloop will be 5-6 times more efficient than
air (for short routes) and 2-3 times more efficient than Rail35. Virgin Hyperloop One has
stated that Hyperloop is more efficient than other high speed modes of transport but that
specific energy usage will be dependent upon system requirements and the terrain36 .
Currently there are limited details for the calculation of energy usage, therefore these claims
cannot be further interrogated. In the UK, the government has estimated that operational
carbon emissions per passenger for the London to Edinburgh route are approximately 26kg
for aviation and 14kg for rail37 . Based on these figures, it is predicted that the operational
carbon emissions per passenger for Hyperloop on the same route could be in the region of 4-
7kg. Further to the low energy design, Musk’s proposal also promotes the fact that
Hyperloop could be self-sustaining through the exploitation of renewable energy sources.
Musk outlined a solar power system for the Hyperloop proposed between Los Angeles and
San Francisco which would generate more energy than is needed to operate the system.
Based on covering the upper surface of the twin Hyperloop tubes with solar cells, this solar
array is projected to supply about 57 MW of electrical power on average, while the
Hyperloop is expected to consume an average of only about 21 MW. Whilst the anticipated
power generation through solar cells may be plausible for the conditions in California, it is
unrealistic in countries at higher latitudes or with less sunny climates such as the UK.
However, in reality, regardless of location, powering Hyperloop directly through renewables
would be largely inefficient anyway and it would be more cost effective to generate
renewable energy through large scale solar arrays (or in the case of the UK, through wind or
hydro power) which could be used to power Hyperloop via the grid. Despite the limited
potential of directly powering Hyperloop through renewables, evidence still suggests that
Hyperloop could be more energy efficient than other transport modes.[12]

Fig.2.11 Energy cost per passenger[12]

20
 Chapter – 3
Basic Principle of Working
An underground or above ground pillar-supported tube will establish a controlled environment.
A low-pressure system is created through which passenger capsule will travel with very little air
pressure to oppose its motion. This near vacuum atmosphere which is basically pressure around
5 to 6 Pounds per square inch absolute will be maintained by providing vacuum pumps at regular
intervals. An air compressor fan driven by electric motor on the front of the capsule will transfer
high air pressure from its front to the rear and sides of the vessel. This will result in the reduction
of friction in front of the pod, helping it to propel and create an air cushion around it, so that the
pod levitates in the air within the tube. Therefore, air bearings that work on same basic principle
of air hockey table will replace wheels as wheels would not work at the required high speeds
(1200 kmph). The capsule will be battery-powered and will be propelled by an external linear
electric motor which plays important role in propulsion of capsule producing motion in straight
line than rotational motion. This linear induction motor would propel the pod to near sonic
velocity which is slower than the speed of sound but still fast enough for movement of capsule
and provide a re-boost about every 120kms. The propulsion system is required for as little as 1
percent of the tube length which goes to prove that propulsion system is not particularly costly.
Erection of the tube on pillars above ground enables to have the benefits of saving money,
provision of protection from earthquakes, rainfall and snowfall and allowing solar panels to be
placed on top. The energy obtained from these solar panels more than satisfy the operational
need of the Hyperloop. This energy would also be stored in battery packs for operation during
cloudy and rainy condition and during nights.[4]

Fig 3.1. Hyperloop Capsule

21
 Chapter-4

4.1 Climate Effect/Carbon Footprint

Over-the-road freight transport 49,610,000 (CO2GER_RFT) tons of average carbon dioxide
produced in 2010. The road-freight traffic volume of 440,600,000,000 per ton per kilometer
(GER_RFT), the industrial sector produces 112 g of CO2 per ton per kilometer. The 3.2–5.7 million
tons of cargo transported by truck over Hyperloop 300 km (lannual) would produce 1,07,520–
1,91,520 tons of CO2 yearly (CO2subst.).

Transporting cargo only via solar-powered Hyperloop is not possible at all locations due to
geographical location problems. Solar energy produced on top of the Hyperloop would not be
able to empower the system itself. The linear expansion of the solar panel structure leads to long-
distance supply systems. In combination with the comparatively low energy yield in some areas,
there is no effective use of solar energy possible. The average energy mix in industries creates
542 g/ kWh of CO2 (CO2mix). Transporting 3.2 to 5.7 million tons over 300 km via Hyperloop
would create 26.56–42.49 t of CO2 per hour. The total reduction in annual CO2 (ΔCO2annual)
would be 8,919–143,981 t.[2]
4.2 Noise Pollution
Road freight creates noise pollution, a matter of concern in conservation areas or cities.
Annoyance to hearing damage from noises above 85 db and greater risk of cardiovascular
disease. Hyperloop transits no conservation areas, and its hypothetical course ends before
reaching urban Therefore, potential noise pollution only for very few sections transiting in
between intervening villages. Estimated the average number of affected villagers based on the
length of course sections and their rural population density of 1,200–2,100 persons. Overall,
noise pollution from Hyperloop potentially affects 15,400–25,950 people .However, its effect
likely is negligible. Hyperloop’s closed system generates almost no internal noise. The air
cushion pressing against the tube’s interiors wall can stimulate the tube to swing and create
noise. Hyperloop potentially reduces noise pollution by supplanting 214,000–380,000 trucks
yearly along its course. [12]
4.3 Air Pollution
Society understands the value of less polluting technologies. As a self-empowering system that
could supplant extensive cargo traffic, Hyperloop could transform over-the-road freight transport
into a cleaner industry. An average carbon footprint for the 214,000– 380,000 trucks Hyperloop
could supplant yearly because of reduction in methane, nitrous oxide, nitrous gases, non-
methane gasses, volatile organic components, sulfur dioxide, and dust. Hyperloop curtails
emissions of 654–1,160 kg of methane, 4,170–7,405 kg of nitrous oxide, 596–1,057 kg of nitrous
gases, 26,715–47,438 kg of non-methane volatile organic components, 1,902–3,377 kg of sulfur
dioxide, and 15,527–27,571 kg of dust yearly. Hyperloop potentially abates 0.0146–0.2317% of
emissions of these respective pollutants.[12]

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 Chapter-5
Engineering challenges
The idea of Hyperloop is to travel at high speed in low pressure tube along with levitation. Due
to low pressure inside tube, the aerodynamic drag is very low thereby reducing the energy
consumption. Apart from that the pod is made to levitate so as to reduce the frictional resistance.
The Hyperloop Pod is designed to use Linear Induction Motor (LIM) to travel at high speed..
Though there is low air pressure, the pod has to be designed in such a way that the choking
doesn't occur. On paper, the Hyperloop is an engineering marvel that promises to set supersonic
travel proposed to carry people around the world at speeds exceeding, the speed of sound.
Although it looks great on paper, in the real world, constructing a perfect tube hundreds of
kilometers long capable of sustaining a near perfect vacuum will undoubtedly be one of the
greatest engineering challenges in the 21st century.
The idea of, reducing the pressure results in a few benefits, One air resistance is removed, and
two, the pressure gradient can be used to propel the trains at great speeds. Reintroduce
atmospheric pressure behind the capsule forces the air to propel the train down the pipe as air
rushes back into equalize the pressure gradient. The method is sufficient enough to propel the
capsule at speeds nearing that of sound. However, Elon Musk envisions a variant of the idea
where a special turbine engine will propel the capsule down the track.[9]

5.1 Pressure
Proposed system will technically not be operating under a perfect vacuum. Rather, the alpha
document reveals it will remain at a pressure of about 100 Pascals - equivalent to about 1/1000th
of an atmosphere. However, at those pressures, the difference between a perfect vacuum and the
proposed pressures the Hyperloop will operate at are practically negligible. Large airliners fly at
altitudes with more than 200 times more air than what the proposed Hyperloop capsules will
travel through. The pressure exerted on the inside of the tube will remain at around 0.015
Psi(0.000977 of an atmosphere) - whereas the atmospheric pressure on the outside of the tube
approaches 15 Psi (nearly one atmosphere). Hence the Hyperloop can be assumed to be
operating at a near perfect vacuum.[12]

5.2 Spontaneous Decompression

If the tube was punctured for any reason, outside air would violently enter the tube as it attempts
to equalize the pressure gradient. At typical room temperatures, air molecules travel around at
about 2000 km/h. In a room filled with air, the molecules bounce around in random directions,
striking other molecules as they move. The atmosphere would violently force the air inside
where the molecules would continue to travel with the force equivalent to an elephant traveling
nearly 2000 kmph for every m2. Given the 2-meter diameter, the air would rush in supersonic
speeds with the force of 30,000 kg over the entire cross section. The air would continue to race
down the track with explosive force until the pressure equalizes or until it slams into an object.
At just 3 PSI air can cause damage to a human body with even loss of human life in Hyperloop,
air would enter the tube at 15 PSI equivalent to one atmosphere or 10,000 kg/m2As it enters any

23
perforation, the atmospheric pressure would tear open the tube like a tin can. The results would
almost certainly be deadly.
The train would quickly accelerate as the air continuously rushes in & with no drag, the capsule
would accelerate to supersonic speeds. Decompression is a dire problem that could and likely
would be fatal in a vacuum train system. Decompression would not only ruin the system, but it
would likely be fatal to all those unfortunate enough to be riding in the tube at the time of the
accident. Unfortunately, a wide range of events could cause a perforation in the tube. Any small
defect in the tubing could cause disastrous decompression. The tubes exist under such extreme
environments, that even small defect could cause the atmosphere to crush the tube-like aluminum
can. However, even assuming the tubular system was engineered with absolute precision and
perfection many more dangers threaten to destroy the Hyperloop.[3]

5.3 Structural design

Continuously maintaining above the near perfect vacuum tubes of the proposed Hyperloop is
thousands of kilograms of atmosphere. Before the Hyperloop becomes operational, the
transportation tubes that will stretch hundreds of kilometers across the US will have to support
the entire weight of the atmosphere above it. Essentially, the weight will accumulate
about 10,000 kg/m2. That is, for every square meter of tube, there will be over 10,000
kg crushing down on it.
Since the proposed Hyperloop will extend 600 km with a diameter of about two meters, it will
maintain a surface area of about four million meters squared. Given one square meter will
experience 10,000 kg of force, the Hyperloop will have to endure nearly 40 billion kilograms of
force over its entire surface. A small compromise in the structure of the tube would result in a
catastrophic implosion. If the tube became punctured, external air would tear into the tube,
shredding it apart as it violently rushes in to fill the void. The effects would be similar to the
railroad tank car vacuum implosion displayed below - only many times more violent.[9]
5.4 Excessive deflection

Fig 5.1: Deflection of tube[12]

an excessive deflection for the dimensional constraints required by the air pads, compliance with
the the gap height computed (hmax = 0.27 mm) may be difficult to achieve. The misalignment of

24
the pads gap height across the capsule (hmax and hmin ) has consequences in the pads recess
pressure and the compressor flow requirements. Most importantly, there must be a structural
design change if the suspension is expected to avoid contact with the tube. The distance between
supports must be shortened or reinforcement ribs used. These measures come with significant
cost penalties, including the inability to use conventional tube construction. Tight tolerances also
imply that even small earthquake deformations could require a costly system shut-down and
realignment of the tube. Even if the stiffness of the pads’ suspension is high enough to avoid
contact, the deflection of the tube originates a periodic disturbance possibly compromising ride
comfort. For a nominal 300 m/s velocity and 30 m support spacing, the capsule is subjected a
vertical acceleration ay that exceeds 0.37g, which may not be tolerated by passengers.

5.5 Uneven heating of steel

The Hyperloop could be subjected to temperatures exceeding 40 degrees on an annual basis. The
thermal expansion experienced may create a problem. The top of the pipe will be subject to more
sunlight, and consequently, more heat. A temperature difference of just three degrees on the
pipe would cause the top portion to expand nearly 25 meters more than the bottom. The
Hyperloop would bend, and likely, would buckle under the hot summer heat. The bend prevents
the pipes from buckling and cracking as the pipe expands and contracts. Unfortunately,
implementing such a bend in a vacuum train system would cause too much strain on the tube.
The only comparable vacuum tube anywhere near the magnitude of the proposed Hyperloop is
the Large Hadron Collider. The LHC features nearly 50 km of vacuum tubing. However, it does
not face thermal expansion problems since it is placed deep within the ground where
temperatures remain relatively constant. It appears as though there are no intentions to introduce
moving thermal expansion joints along the track. Instead, the tubes will be welded together and a
"telescoping tube" will accommodate for the movement at each end of the Hyperloop. Without
the vacuum, the train could not travel fast, or perhaps at all.

5.6 Deadly Collisions

A capsule that could withstand the force during a spontaneous decompression disaster would be
immensely difficult. The capsule must be strong enough to support the atmospheric pressure
inside the cabin, yet must remain light enough as to not destroy. The capsule will operate at
1/1000th of an atmosphere, & it will be improbable for it to sustain even a 1 atmosphere. Hence
to withstand the force of 30,000 kg of pressure traveling at the speed of sound would be difficult.
Assuming a capsule could somehow survive the initial blast of air, Once the air hits a capsule, it
would be forced to quickly accelerate down the track as the air rushes in.
The air would maintain the force of 10,000 kg per meter squared, which would be exerted on
the face of the capsules. Assuming it does not instantly shred to pieces, the capsules would
accelerate down the track until is smashes into one another with deadly force. One capsule
weighs about 2,800 kg. Assuming the cart is fully loaded with humans, it would weigh in at
about 4,000 kg. As discussed, a cross section measures approximately three square meters, which
would result in almost 30,000 kg, force to be exerted on the capsule during spontaneous
decompression. Using simple physics, the acceleration the capsule would experience under
spontaneous decompression can be approximated (Force=Mass x Acceleration → A=F/M).In
seconds, the capsule would accelerate to over 100 km/h Almost instantaneously, the cart would

25
accelerate at 7.5 m/s2 in the best of conditions. If the capsule not fully loaded, the acceleration
would be over 10m/s2 faster than what would be experienced during free-fall with no air
resistance (9.8 m/s2). Under 4 seconds, a fully loaded capsule with 14 passengers weighing 100
kg each would reach speeds upwards of 100 km/h. On a track shared by many capsules, fatal
collisions would be imminent in the event of spontaneous decompression. The acceleration that
an object experiences after decompressing from a vacuum to atmospheric pressures is
astounding.[10]

Hyperloop in Saudi Arabia

KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA, OCTOBER 24, 2019 – Virgin Hyperloop One (VHO), the
world’s leading hyperloop company, today announced the results of a strategic study
commissioned to build the world’s first extended test and certification hyperloop track in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The study also set out plans for an R&D center and manufacturing
facility to support the development of the groundbreaking hyperloop technology.

In line with Saudi Vision 2030, the Kingdom’s diversification and development strategy, the
VHO project is expected to significantly support a number of the economic and social pillars
of the country’s 2030 Vision, including the expansion of transportation, the development of
urban infrastructure and the growth of a technology enabled modern economy.

The study highlights that hyperloop is more than a high-speed connectivity for passengers and
cargo. The findings have shown a positive alignment between the project and Saudi Arabia’s
ambitious national economic and social development agenda. With this in mind, we are
delighted to highlight this vision at the Future Investment Initiative and continue our talks
with a multitude of stakeholders.”

The Virgin Hyperloop One Center of Excellence (CoE), if approved, could break ground in
King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC) in 2020 and include an integrated test track, as well as
explore the feasibility of creating a manufacturing center and operating facility that will
propel the Kingdom to the forefront of hyperloop development worldwide. The report also
illustrated how the CoE will drive domestic value by adding to the creation of more than
124,000 high-tech local jobs, supporting the technology sector by incorporating advances in
robotics and AI and driving an estimated $4billion increase in KSA GDP by 2030.

“This strategic partnership in Saudi Arabia is a result of a shared ambition to harness the
power of technology to drive the next leap forward in transportation. It’s a market that has
shown a readiness to embrace transformative innovation to achieve the goal of sustainable,
energy efficient travel that will have a huge impact on the economy and wider society”,
said Jay Walder, CEO, Virgin Hyperloop One. “This study sets the framework for the
advancement of Virgin Hyperloop One’s system, and the creation of a new and unique
ecosystem; creating jobs, supporting development and connecting people across the Kingdom.

26
 Chapter -6
Discussion and Conclusion

India's Need for Hyperloop

India is urbanizing rapidly with 40.76% of Indians, expected to be living in urban areas by 2030
from 31.16% in 2011. This ongoing process of urbanization would create huge stress in the
existing cities which are already unable to support the rapid growth with poor infrastructure.
In some cases, existing urban centers may face environmental or physical constrictions (such as
Mumbai and Delhi) of expansion. In present scenario, this would prove to be an impediment to
India's continuing economic growth. Emerging new global cities would also rapidly increase the
Indian economy. At present the only Indian company named as “DGWHyperloop” doing study
for physcial feasibility of Hyperloop in India. Hyperloop in India will result in –

Fig 6.1 Routes of hyperloop in India

27
 More employment opportunities

 Advanced Infrastructure

 Development of new cities

 Minimal pollution- Push to green energy

 Gateway to new business opportunities[13]

HYPERLOOP FROM MUMBAI TO PUNE

MUMBAI, INDIA, JULY 31, 2019 – The Government of Maharashtra – one of the first
proponents of hyperloop technology in the world – has deemed hyperloop a public infrastructure
project, setting it up to be the first hyperloop project in the world. The MahaIDEA Committee
has also earlier approved Virgin Hyperloop One-DP World (VHO-DPW) Consortium as the
Original Project Proponent (OPP). This is a landmark announcement for building the Pune-
Mumbai hyperloop transportation system, recognizing hyperloop technology alongside other
more traditional forms of mass transit. The hyperloop project will link central Pune to Mumbai in
under 35 minutes, as opposed to the current 3.5+ hours by road. The project will generate
hundreds of thousands of new high tech jobs, create over $36 billion USD in wider socio-
economic benefits, and create new hyperloop component and manufacturing opportunities for
Maharashtra to export to India and the rest of the world. Devendra Fadnavis, Chief Minister of
Maharashtra, said, “Inspired by the new India vision of Honourable Prime Minister Shri.
Narendra Modi, Maharashtra will create the first hyperloop transportation system in the world
and a global hyperloop supply chain starting from Pune. We have just named DP World – Virgin
Hyperloop One consortium as the Original Project Proponent for the Mumbai-Pune hyperloop
project and preparing to start the public procurement process. Maharashtra and India is at the
forefront of hyperloop infrastructure building now and this is a moment of pride for our people.”

28
Fig.6.2 Travel Time Mumbai-Pune[17]

29
 Refrences

[1] Vinay Pandey and Shyam Sasi Pallissery, 2nd February 2017, “ Hyperloop Train of Future”
https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Hyperloop-Train-of-Future.pdf

[2] Max Werner, Klaus Eissing and Sebastian Langton, 2 August 2016 “Shared Value Potential
of Transporting Cargo via Hyperloop” https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10
.3389/fbuil.2016.00017/full

[3] Elon Musk, August 2014 “Hyperloop Alpha”,

https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/hyperloop_alpha-20130812.pdf

[4] Aditya Kale, Chinmay Bane, Aniruddha Dhurde, Akanksha Wala and Pragya Jain, “Hyper
loop: Transportation Redefined”,
http://www.iosrjen.org/Papers/Conf.ICIATE-2018/Volume-8/7-29-34.pdf

[5] https://hyperloop-one.com/blog/addressing-congestion-indias-most-bustling-corridor-pune-
mumbai.

[6] Jerey C. Chin, Justin S. Gray, Scott M. Jones and Jerey J. Berton, January 2015 “Open-
Source Conceptual Sizing Models for the Hyperloop Passenger Pod”,
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20150000699.pdf

[7] Shripad Shashikant Chopade, “DEDICATED TO MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS/INDIAN

RAILWAYS/CRR/IIT KHARAGPUR/RDSO HYPERLOOP TRAINS”,
https://www.ijmter.com/papers/volume-4/issue-4/dedicated-to-ministry-of-railwaysindian-
railwayscrrrdso-hyperloop-trains.pdf

[8] https://electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/tech-focus/hyperloop-transport-system/2

[9] Catherine L. Taylor, David J. Hyde, Lawrence C. Barr, July 2016 “Hyperloop Commercial
Feasibility Analysis”
https://archive.org/details/HyperloopCommercialFeasibilityReport/page/n5

[10] https://interestingenzgineering.com/biggest-challenges-stand-in-the-way-of-hyperloop.

[11] https://paradigmhyperloop.com/ii/design/

[12] Hyperloop: Cutting through the hype

[13] https://www.dgwhyperoop.com/

[14] Esther Gonzalez-Gonzalez, Soledad Nogues, “RAILWAYS OF THE FUTURE:

EVOLUTION AND PROSPECTS OF HIGH-SPEED RAIL, MAGLEV AND

30
HYPERLOOP”,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318075616_Railways_of_the_Future_
Evolution_and_prospects_of_High-Speed_MAGLEV_and_Hyperloop_1st_Part

[15] Musk, Elon (August 12, 2013). "Hyperloop Alpha"(PDF). SpaceX. Retrieved August 13,
2013.

[16] Tiago M.L.S. Santos Coelho, June 2016, “Hyperloop Alpha - Conceptual study”,
https://fenix.tecnico.ulisboa.pt/downloadFile/281870113703246/Resumo_67884.pdf

[17] https://hyperloop-one.com/route-estimator/mumbai-in/pune-in/loading

31