UNIT 1

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
Research definition: A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or
problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive methods are
used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative
research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative research.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or concept?

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are
an integral part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice
ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in
natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is
no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used,
the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

This programme of work included three phases, described in the following sections.

Phase 1 objectives

A. To identify and summarise information on health promotion interventions for smoking cessation,
physical activity and healthy eating that are of proven effectiveness for use in populations at large.
B. To assess to what degree ethnic minority populations are considered within the evidence base for
smoking cessation, physical activity and healthy eating health promotion interventions known to be
effective in populations at large.

C. To identify health promotion interventions for smoking cessation, increasing physical activity, and
improving healthy eating that have been adapted to meet the needs of African-, Chinese- and South
Asian-origin ethnic minority populations, describe the adaptation approaches used and assess the
clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, feasibility, acceptability and equity of these adapted
approaches.

Phase 2 objective

D. To understand the rationale for and processes and experiences of adapting health promotion
interventions for ethnic minority populations and to summarise lessons learned.

Phase 3 objective

E. To identify which adapted interventions are ready for implementation and

establish which interventions require further research.

Relationship between project phases, objectives and questions.

The original scientific rationale for this study is included in Appendix 2. The relatively few
amendments made to aspects of work outlined in the original scientific rationale are detailed
in Appendix 3. These in the main reflected our responses to the unexpectedly large volume of
literature identified.

Types of research

Following are the types of research methods:

Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The
main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t
facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple
fact.

Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.
This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods.
Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans.
For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted

to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term
“problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.
For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no
advertising, or economic conditions.

Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand

and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied research to find
solutions to the existing problems.

Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps create
in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-statistical
method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to
another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to
gather as much information as possible from the sample.

The following are the methods used for qualitative research:

1. One-to-one interview
2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/ Text Analysis
5. Case study research

Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods

Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and

analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a
computational and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about
numbers.

Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With
more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This method uses close-ended
questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.

Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in
quantitative research. There are various methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires.

Research Approach
Research approach can be divided into three types:

1. Deductive research approach

2. Inductive research approach
3. Abductive research approach
The following table illustrates the major differences between deductive, inductive and
abductive research approaches in terms of logic, generalizability, use of data and theory.[2]

Deduction Induction Abduction

In an inductive
In a deductive inference, inference, In an abductive
inference, known
Logic when the premises are known premises are
used premises are used to
true, the conclusion must generate testable
also be true to generate untested conclusions
conclusions
Generalising from the
Generalising from the Generalising from the interactions between
Generalizability
general to the specific specific to the general the specific and the
general

Data collection is used Data collection is used

to to explore a
Data collection is used to phenomenon, identify
explore a themes and patterns,
Use of data evaluate propositions or phenomenon, locate these in a
conceptual framework
hypotheses related to an identify themes and
existing theory and test this through
patterns and create a subsequent data
conceptual framework collection and so forth
Theory generation or
modification;

Theory falsification or Theory generation and incorporating existing

Theory
verification building theory where

appropriate, to build
new theory or modify
existing theory

Differences between dedictive, inductive and abductive approaches

Discussion of research approach is a vital part of any scientific study regardless of the
research area. Within the methodology chapter of your dissertation to you need to explain the
main differences between inductive, deductive and abductive approaches. Also, you need to
specify the approach you have adopted for your research by breaking down your arguments
into several points.
Deductive Research Approach

If you have formulated a set of hypotheses for your dissertation that need to be confirmed or
rejected during the research process you would be following a deductive approach. In
deductive approach, the effects of labour migration within the EU are assessed by developing
hypotheses that are tested during the research process.

Inductive Research Approach

Alternatively, inductive approach does not involve formulation of hypotheses. It starts with
research questions and aims and objectives that need to be achieved during the research
process.

Abductive Research Approach

In abductive approach, the research process is devoted to explanation of ‘incomplete

observations’, ‘surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’ specified at the beginning of the study.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to
developing knowledge in a field or study. This article will highlight the significance of
research with the following points:

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness
3. An Aid to Business Success
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities
6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information
7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals. It is also
important for budding and veteran writers, both offline and online.

Among professionals and scribes, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or to write about
should go beyond personal experience. Determining either what the general public may want
to know about or what researchers want others to realize or to think about can serve as a
reason to do research.

"Knowledge" basically pertains to facts based on objective insights and/or study findings
processed by the human brain. It can be acquired through various ways, such as reading
books and online articles written by educators, listening to experts, watching documentaries
or investigative shows, conducting scientific experiments, and interaction with other people,
among others. These facts can be checked to ensure truthfulness and accuracy.
2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness

Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the
actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those who exert
effort to do their own research. This step helps them:

 get information that hired researchers missed,

 build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
 conduct a good interview in the process

For instance, Oprah Winfrey would have not achieved remarkable success as a news anchor
and television show host had she eschewed doing her own research about certain topics and
public figures.

3. An Aid to Business Success

Research benefits business. Many successful companies, such as those producing consumer
goods or mass-market items, invest in research and development or R&D. Different business
industries with science and engineering processes like agriculture, food and beverage,
manufacturing, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor,
information and communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace, aviation, and
energy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to product innovation and to
improving services.

The Role of Research in Fueling Market Economies

Research and development (R&D) plays a crucial role in business success and in a thriving national
economy. | Source
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

Ever experienced feeling that your mate is having an affair behind your back? Some people
would overlook that and say that it's better not to know; others though would take discreet
action, hiring detectives to do the work. What does research have to do with that situation? A
lot.

Doing research to reveal lies or truths involving personal affairs contributes in either making
a relationship work or in breaking away from a dysfunctional one. For the monogamous lot,
doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not simply a trust issue, but a right to find out
the truth - unless one's intimate partner has already admitted being polyamorous even before
the relationship started. When a person dislikes answering relationship-related questions,
including her or his whereabouts, it is better to see that as a red flag and take baby steps to
save yourself from what could become a more serious emotional mess later.

Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their claims or those of
other scientists'. Their integrity and competence depend on the quality - and not just quantity
- of their research. Nonetheless, not everything scientists come up with get accepted or
learned by everyone, especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to
resources and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs) either feed the
poor majority with lies or deter them from knowing truths to preserve the status quo.

5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve goals through various opportunities.
These can be in the form of securing employment, scholarships, training grants, project
funding, business collaboration, and budget traveling, among others.

For those looking for a job or for greener pastures, research is necessary. Through this
process, not only will the unemployed increase their chances of finding potential employers
either through job posting sites or employment agencies, but it can inform them if work
opportunities are legitimate. Without research, the gullible, yet hopeful jobseeker or migrant
worker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who might be involved in illegal
recruitment and/or human trafficking.

Seizing opportunities can broaden one's social network, raise one's awareness, or secure the
support one direly needs to start a project or a business. Indeed, research contributes to a
person's ability to make life-changing decisions. It encourages self-growth, participation in
worthwhile causes, and living productively.
Seek Opportunities Through Online Research

The internet provides people a convenient way to engage in research.

6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable

Information

Research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help enable
computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to
appreciate and get involved in research. Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of
knowledge, while writing helps a reader use her/his own perspective and transform this into a
more concrete idea that s/he understands.

Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in conducting
research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with anyone
certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also facilitate the critical thinking
process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a
certain issue and write about such analysis.
7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity that
fuels the mind to seek for answers. The College Admissions Partners (n.d.) notes how
scientific research in particular "helps students develop critical reasoning skills...helpful for
any field of higher education..." Such search or the thinking process is food for the brain,
allowing creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent mental illnesses like
Alzheimer's.

Criteria of a Good Research

Good Research: How to Identify the Right Topic?
Every research study, irrespective of its type, should meet some criterions so that it can be
classified as good research. Let us discuss some of these criterions.

1. One of the important characteristics of a good research is that the purpose of the research is
clearly defined. A research study with clearly defined purpose finds a wider acceptance and
acknowledgement within the research community.
2. Second important characteristic of a good research is that the research method should be
defined in a clear manner with sufficient detail. This will allow the repetition of the study in
future for further advancement, while maintaining the continuity of what has been done in
the past.
3. The third thing to remember is that any limitations and assumptions made by the researcher
during the course of the study should be clearly highlighted in the research. This will support
the findings of the research study, in case someone tries to validate the study findings.
4. The fourth thing to remember is that, as far as possible, the research design should be
planned in a way that the results generated are as objective as possible. This will provide an
easier understanding about the findings of the research.
5. Another thing to be considered by the researcher is that there should be sufficient data to
investigate the research topic. And the researcher should carefully check the reliability and
validity of the data.
6. Further, in order to deliver a good research, a researcher should confine the conclusions to
those justified by the data.
7. Lastly, a good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment of the
researcher.

So, make sure that you adhere to these guidelines when you are carrying out your research.

Research Problem
Definition: What is a research problem?

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a

condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that
exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state
how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.
Constructing a research question or problem

Specifying the research question is one of the first methodological steps the investigator has to take
when undertaking research. Having an interest in or knowledge of a particular subject can be useful
in the construction of a research question.[5] Formation of the research question is largely
determined by, and likewise influences, where and what kind of information will be sought.[6] The
research question must be accurately and clearly defined. Choosing a research question is the
central element of both quantitative and qualitative research and in some cases it may precede
construction of the conceptual framework of study; in all cases, it makes the theoretical assumptions
in the framework more explicit and indicates what the researcher wants to know most and
first.[citation needed] Therefore, the investigator must first identify the type of study (qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed) before the research question is developed. Forming the research question
may become an iterative process when parameters of the research process, such as field of study or
methodology, do not fit the original question. Literature suggests several methods for selecting
criteria in the development of a research question, two of which are the FINER and PICOT methods.

Types and purpose

The research question serves two purposes:

1. It determines where and what kind of research the writer will be looking for.[8]
2. It identifies the specific objectives the study or paper will address.

Therefore, the writer must first identify the type of study (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed)
before the research question is developed.

Qualitative study

A qualitative study[8] seeks to learn why or how, so the writer’s research must be directed at
determining the what, why and how of the research topic. Therefore, when crafting a research
question for a qualitative study, the writer will need to ask a why or how question about the
topic. For example: How did the company successfully market its new product? The sources
needed for qualitative research typically include print and internet texts (written words),
audio and visual media.

Quantitative study

A quantitative study[8] seeks to learn where, or when, so the writer’s research must be
directed at determining the where, or when of the research topic. Therefore, when crafting a
research question for a quantitative study, the writer will need to ask a where, or when
question about the topic. For example: Where should the company market its new product?
Unlike a qualitative study, a quantitative study is mathematical analysis of the research topic,
so the writer’s research will consist of numbers and statistics.

Quantitative studies also fall into two categories:

 1. Correlational studies: A correlational study is non-experimental, requiring the writer to
research relationships without manipulating or randomly selecting the subjects of the
research. The research question for a correlational study may look like this: What is the
relationship between long distance commuters and eating disorders?
2. Experimental studies: An experimental study is experimental in that it requires the writer to
manipulate and randomly select the subjects of the research. The research question for an
experimental study may look like this: Does the consumption of fast food lead to eating
disorders?

Mixed study

A mixed study[8] integrates both qualitative and quantitative studies, so the writer's research
must be directed at determining the why or how and the what, where, or when of the research
topic. Therefore, the writer will need to craft a research question for each study required for
the assignment. A typical study may be expected to have between 1 and 6 research questions.

Once the writer has determined the type of study to be used and the specific objectives the
paper will address, the writer must also consider whether the research question passes the "so
what" test. The "so what" test means that the writer must construct evidence to convince the
audience why the research is expected to add new or useful knowledge to the literature.

Necessity of Defining a Research Problem

The problem to be researched needs to be described unambiguously as that will help you to
discriminate useful data from the unrelated ones. A proper formulation of research problem
will allow the investigator to be on the track in contrast to an ill-defined problem may
possibly create difficulties.

Questions like: What data are to be gathered? What attributes of data are appropriate and
need to be analyzed? What relations should be investigated. What methods should be
employed for the purpose? as well as other questions turn up in the head of the investigator
who can well plan his strategy and find solutions to these kinds of questions only when the
research problem has been well defined. Therefore, defining the problem accurately is a
necessity for any research and is a step of the highest value.

In fact, formulation of a problem is often vital than its solution. It is only on thoroughly
describing the problem that we can work out the research design and can efficiently proceed
all the consequential steps needed while doing research.

Important Points to Keep in Mind while Defining the Research Problem

1. The correct question needs to be addressed if research is to help decision makers. A

right answer to the wrong question leads either to bad advice or to no advice.
2. Usually in problem we have an inclination to rationalize and defend our actions once
we have started upon a specific research plan. The perfect time to examine and think
about alternative techniques is in the planning stage. If it is completed unnecessary
expense of false start and redoing work may be prevented.
 3. An excellent beginning in problem definition is to ask what the decision maker want
to know if the requested information can be gathered without error and without
expense.
4. Another excellent rule to follow is “Never settle on a specific strategy” without
developing and taking into consideration at least one alternate option”.
5. The problem definition stage of research is the determination and structuring of the
decision maker’s question. It should be the decision maker’s question and not the
researcher’s question.
6. What decision do you face? Unless you have decision to make, there isn’t any
research problem.
7. What are the alternatives? In case there are no options to choose, once again there is
absolutely no research problem.
8. What are the factors for selecting the best alternative? Unless you have criteria for
evaluation, again there’s no problem.
9. The researcher should stay away from the acceptance of the superficial and the
obvious.

The techniques involved in defining a Research Problem

The techniques Involved in defining a Research Problem is a crucial part of a research study
and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently
overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be
defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for
the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other:

i. statement of the problem in a general way;

ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

A brief description of all these points will be helpful.

1. Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in
the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research,
it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may
undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the
researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the
subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general
terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in
operational terms.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came
about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he
should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement
 concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved,
he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem
concerned or similar other problems.
3. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is
given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the
field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time
in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out
what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what
data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that
might be used.”.. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties
that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings.
At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present
problem.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a
researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as
an experience survey. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the
formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general
approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been
defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been
surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a
difficult task.

In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:

 Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly
stated.
 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered
by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
 UNIT 2
Research Design Definition

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher

to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the
research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research
using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need
to be assessed – this can be done with research design.

The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design.
Hence, the market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design. The
design of a research topic is used to explain the type of research (experimental, survey,
correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research
problem, descriptive case-study). There are three main sections of research design: Data
collection, measurement, and analysis.

Need for Research Design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a significant impact
on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the entire
research.For example, economical and attractive construction of house we need a blueprint
(or what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an
expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.

Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis.

The need for research design is as follows:

 It reduces inaccuracy;
 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
 Minimizes wastage of time;
 Helpful for collecting research materials;
 Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
time, and efforts;
 Provides an overview to other experts;
 Guides the research in the right direction.
Features of a Good Research Design

When a researcher has formulated a research problem, he/she has to focus on developing a
good design for solving the problem. A good design is one that minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data. It also yields maximum information, gives minimum
experimental error, and provides different aspects of a single problem. A research design
depends on the purpose and nature of the research problem. Thus, one single design cannot
be used to solve all types of research problem, i.e., a particular design is suitable for a
particular problem.

A research design usually consists of the following factors:

(i) The means of obtaining information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;

(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) The nature of the problem; and\

(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.

If a research study is an exploratory or formulative one, i.e., it focuses on discovery of ideas

and insights, the research design should be flexible enough to consider different aspects of
the study. Similarly, if the study focuses on accurate description or association between
variables, the design should be accurate with minimum bias and maximum reliability.
However, in practice, it is difficult to categorize a particular study into a particular group. A
study can be categorized only on the basis of its primary function and accordingly, its design
can be developed.

Basic Principles of Experimental Design

The basic principles of experimental design are (i) Randomization, (ii) Replication and (iii)
Local Control.

1. Randomization

Randomization is the cornerstone underlying the use of statistical methods in

experimental designs. Randomization is the random process of assigning treatments to
the experimental units. The random process implies that every possible allotment of
treatments has the same probability. For example, if number of treatment = 3 (say, A, B,
and C) and replication = r = 4, then the number of elements = t * r = 3 * 4 = 12 = n.
Replication means that each treatment will appear 4 times as r = 4. Let the design is

A C B C

C B A B
 A C B A

Note from the design elements 1, 7, 9, 12 are reserved for treatment A, element 3, 6, 8
and 11 are reserved for Treatment B and elements 2, 4, 5 and 10 are reserved for
Treatment C. P(A)= 4/12, P(B)= 4/12, and P(C)=4/12, meaning that Treatment A, B,
and C have equal chances of its selection.

2. Replication

By replication, we mean that repetition of the basic experiments. For example, If we

need to compare the grain yield of two varieties of wheat then each variety is applied
to more than one experimental units. The number of times these are applied to
experimental units is called their number of replication. It has two important
properties:

o It allows the experimenter to obtain an estimate of the experimental error.

o The more replication would provide the increased precision by reducing the
standard error (SE) .

2. Local Control

It has been observed that all extraneous source of variation is not removed by
randomization and replication, i.e. unable to control the extraneous source of
variation.
Thus we need to a refinement in the experimental technique. In other words, we need
to choose a design in such a way that all extraneous source of variation is brought
under control. For this purpose we make use of local control, a term referring to the
amount of (i) balancing, (ii) blocking and (iii) grouping of experimental units.

Balancing: Balancing means that the treatment should be assigned to the experimental units
in such a way that the result is a balanced arrangement of treatment.

Data Collection Methods

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find
answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes. Data
collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods of data collection
and primary methods of data collection.

Top 6 Methods of Data Collection – Explained!

1. Observation:

Observation method has occupied an important place in descriptive sociological research. It

is the most significant and common technique of data collection. Analysis of questionnaire
responses is concerned with what people think and do as revealed by what they put on paper.
The responses in interview are revealed by what people express in conversation with the
interviewer. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in
action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.

2. Interview:

Interview as a technique of data collection is very popular and extensively used in every
field of social research. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire. Instead of
writing the response, the interviewee or subject gives the needed information verbally in
a face-to-face relationship. The dynamics of interviewing, however, involves much more
than an oral questionnaire.

Interview is relatively more flexible tool than any written inquiry form and permits
explanation, adjustment and variation according to the situation. The observational
methods, as we know, are restricted mostly to non-verbal acts. So these are
understandably not so effective in giving information about person’s past and private
behaviour, future actions, attitudes, perceptions, faiths, beliefs thought processes,
motivations etc.

3. Schedule:

Schedule is one of the very commonly used tools of data collection in scientific
investigation. P.V. Young says “The schedule has been used for collection of personal
preferences, social attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviour patterns, group practices and
habits and much other data”. The increasing use of schedule is probably due to
increased emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement of uniformly
accumulated data.

4. Questionnaire:

Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data about
groups of individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a
questionnaire form is sent usually by post to the persons concerned, with a request to
answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

5. Projective Techniques:

The psychologists and psychiatrists had first devised projective techniques for the
diagnosis and treatment of patients afflicted by emotional disorders. Such techniques
are adopted to present a comprehensive profile of the individual’s personality structure,
his conflicts and complexes and his emotional needs. Adoption of such techniques is not
an easy affair. It requires intensive specialized training.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources, using methods like
surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with the research project in mind, directly from
primary sources.

The term is used in contrast with the term secondary data. Secondary data is data gathered
from studies, surveys, or experiments that have been run by other people or for other
research.

Typically, a researcher will begin a project by working with secondary data. This allows time
to formulate questions and gain an understanding of the issues being dealt with before the
more costly and time consuming operation of collecting primary data.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, online portals etc. There is an abundance of data available in these
sources about your research area in business studies, almost regardless of the nature of the
research area. Therefore, application of appropriate set of criteria to select secondary data to
be used in the study plays an important role in terms of increasing the levels of research
validity and reliability.

These criteria include, but not limited to date of publication, credential of the author,
reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent of contribution
of the text to the development of the research area etc.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in various

formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include questionnaires with
closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and median and
others.

Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within shorter duration of
time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of standardisation of
quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.

Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or mathematical

calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions,
colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.

Qualitative studies aim to ensure greater level of depth of understanding and qualitative data
collection methods include interviews, questionnaires with open-ended questions, focus
groups, observation, game or role-playing, case studies etc.
 UNIT 4

Intellectual property

Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the
human intellect.[1][2] There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries
recognize more than others.[3][4][5][6][7] The most well-known types are copyrights, patents,
trademarks, and trade secrets. Early precursors to some types of intellectual property existed
in societies such as Ancient Rome, but the modern concept of intellectual property developed
in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used
in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property
became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems.[8]

The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety
of intellectual goods.[9] To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to
the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This
gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to profit from the
information and intellectual goods they create.[9] These economic incentives are expected to
stimulate innovation and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends
on the extent of protection granted to innovators.[10]

The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with
traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is
"indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good
without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from
problems of appropriation: a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire
armed guards to protect it, but a producer of information or literature can usually do very
little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing
rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so
strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual
property law.[11]

Need to protect your Intellectual Property Rights

For many businesses, intellectual property protects more than just an idea or a concept – it
protects genuine business assets that may be integral to the core services of the business and
overall long-term viability.

Intellectual property can consist of many different areas, from logos and corporate identity
through to products, services and processes that differentiate your business offering. It’s
when these ideas are used without permission that an organisation can suffer. Almost all
businesses have undoubtedly benefited from the internet, where products, services and
marketing communications can reach vast audiences at relatively low costs - but this has also
increased the chances of intellectual property theft. Companies of all sizes are at risk of
having their unique ideas, products or services infringed upon, even if they are on the other
side of the world, making intellectual property protection more important than ever.
Keep your ideas

When you have a great idea for a product or service, there will always be people who will
want to duplicate your success and sell your ideas as their own. Depending on individual
circumstances, you can use patents, trademarks or copyrights – all of which cover different
areas of intellectual property. These can be used to prevent competitors or anyone else from
using your ideas for their own profit without your consent. Read more about the forms of IP.
IP protection applies to businesses of all sizes; even huge corporations have had their ideas
infringed upon and have made multi-million pound lawsuits; just look at the on-going
disputes between Apple and Samsung over their smartphones.

Protect business growth

If you are a small business, it’s very important to protect any unique products or services that
you own as competitors can use your success to take away market share, resulting in slow
growth or loss of revenue. Losing market share early on in a business’s development can be
devastating and time consuming if trying to chase up the guilty party without any legal
protection. It’s important to remember that no one else will check to see if your intellectual
property has been infringed; it’s your responsibility to ensure that no one else is using your
assets.

It’s easier than you think

It may seem initially daunting or time consuming, but protecting your IP is well worth the
time and effort and isn’t as difficult as you may think. Whilst you cannot protect an idea
itself, can protect the means by which you put the idea into operation and this is what you
would protect using Intellectual Property (IP).

For copyright, there is no actual registration procedure to follow as protection is free and
automatic. Although copyright does not actually protect an idea itself, it can protect the way
the idea has been represented - for example brochures, presentations, websites, flyers etc.

If you want to apply for a patent, registered design or trade mark this can be done through the
UK intellectual property office, either on your own or if you wish to apply for a patent,
together with a patent solicitor. If you want to know more about all areas of intellectual
property, the Business & IP Centre has a number of business events and services that can
help you find out which areas of your business you need to protect, and how to go about it.

Patent

A patent is a form of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude
others from making, using, selling and importing an invention for a limited period of years, in
exchange for publishing an enabling public disclosure of the invention. In most countries
patent rights fall under civil law and the patent holder needs to sue someone infringing the
patent in order to enforce his or her rights. In some industries patents are an essential form of
competitive advantage; in others they are irrelevant.[1]:1
 The word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means "to lay open" (i.e., to make
available for public inspection). It is a shortened version of the term letters patent, which was
an open document or instrument issued by a monarch or government granting exclusive
rights to a person, predating the modern patent system. Similar grants included land patents,
which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a
precursor of modern copyright.

What is Patent Law?

Patent law is the area of law that deals with an inventor’s exclusive right to use their own
invention. The area of patent law aims to encourage new products and inventions by granting
creators the legal right to use and profit from the things that they create. Patent attorneys help
clients apply for patents, enforce patents and challenge them. Patent law is part of intellectual
property law.

Copyright

What Is Copyright?

Copyright refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms,
copyright is the right to copy. This means that the original creators of products and anyone
they give authorization to are the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work.

Copyright law gives creators of original material the exclusive right to further use and
duplicate that material for a given amount of time, at which point the copyrighted item
becomes public domain.

Key Takeaways

 Copyright law protects creators of original material from unauthorized duplication or use.
 For an original work to be protected by copyright laws, it has to be in tangible form.
 In the U.S., the work of creators is protected by copyright laws until 70 years after their
death.

Trademark
.

A trademark (also written trade mark or trade-mark[1]) is a type of intellectual property consisting of
a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source
from those of others,[2][3] although trademarks used to identify services are usually called service
marks.[4][5] The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A
trademark may be located on a package, a label, a voucher, or on the product itself. For the sake of
corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. It is legally recognized as a
type of intellectual property.
Geographical indication

A geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on products which corresponds to a

specific geographical location or origin (e.g. a town, region, or country). The use of a
geographical indication, as a type of indication of source, acts as a certification that the
product possesses certain qualities, is made according to traditional methods, or enjoys a
certain reputation, due to its geographical origin.

Appellation of origin is a subtype of geographical indication where quality, method and

reputation of a product strictly originate from the delineated area defined under its intellectual
property right registration.

Industrial design

An iPod, an industrially designed product

Western Electric Model 302 telephone, found throughout the United States from 1937 until the
introduction of touch-tone dialing[1]

Calculator Olivetti Divisumma 24 designed in 1956 by Marcello Nizzoli

Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured

through techniques of mass production.[2][3] Its key characteristic is that design is separated
from manufacture: the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features
takes place in advance of the physical act of making a product, which consists purely of
repeated, often automated, replication.[4][5] This distinguishes industrial design from craft-
based design, where the form of the product is determined by the product's creator at the time
of its creation.[6]

All manufactured products are the result of a design process, but the nature of this process
can take many forms: it can be conducted by an individual or a large team; it can emphasize
intuitive creativity or calculated scientific decision-making, and often emphasizes both at the
same time; and it can be influenced by factors as varied as materials, production processes,
business strategy, and prevailing social, commercial, or aesthetic attitudes.[4] The role of an
industrial designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function,
usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability, and sales.[7]

Unfair competition

Unfair (or disloyal) competition in commercial law is a deceptive business practice that
causes economic harm to other businesses or to consumers.[1][2] It includes a number of areas
of law involving acts by one competitor or group of competitors which harm another in the
field, and which may give rise to criminal offenses and civil causes of action.
Common actions

The most common actions falling under the banner of unfair competition include:

 Matters pertaining to antitrust law, known in the European Union as competition law.
Antitrust violations constituting unfair competition occur when one competitor attempts to
force others out of the market (or prevent others from entering the market) through tactics
such as predatory pricing or obtaining exclusive purchase rights to raw materials needed to
make a competing product.
 Trademark infringement and passing off, which occur when the maker of a product uses a
name, logo, or other identifying characteristics to deceive consumers into thinking that they
are buying the product of a competitor. In the United States, this form of unfair competition
is prohibited under the common law and by state statutes, and governed at the federal level
by the Lanham Act.
 Misappropriation of trade secrets, which occurs when one competitor uses espionage,
bribery, or outright theft to obtain economically advantageous information in the possession
of another. In the United States, this type of activity is forbidden by the Uniform Trade
Secrets Act and the Economic Espionage Act of 1996.
 Trade libel, the spreading of false information about the quality or characteristics of a
competitor's products, is prohibited at common law.
 Tortious interference, which occurs when one competitor convinces a party having a
relationship with another competitor to breach a contract with, or duty to, the other
competitor is also prohibited at common law.

Various unfair business practices such as fraud, misrepresentation, and unconscionable

contracts may be considered unfair competition, if they give one competitor an advantage
over others. In the European Union, each member state must regulate unfair business
practices in accordance with the principles laid down in the Unfair Commercial Practices
Directive, subject to transitional periods.

Intellectual Property Rights Protection

Intellectual Property Protection is protection for inventions, literary and artistic works,
symbols, names, and images created by the mind. Learn how you can protect your intellectual
property by using: Patents, Trademarks, Trade Secrets, and Copyrights.

Four Types of IP Protection for Businesses

You'll find four main types of IP protection for your business:

1. Patents

A patent grants property rights on an invention, allowing the patent holder to exclude others
from making, selling, or using the invention. Inventions allow many businesses to be
successful because they develop new or better processes or products that offer competitive
advantage on the marketplace. You get a patent by filing a patent application with the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).
You'll discover three types of patents:

 Utility
 Design
 Plant

A utility patent is the most common type, covering any process, machine, article of
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvements thereof.

To qualify for a utility patent, the invention must be novel, nonobvious, and have some
usefulness. Novel means new and not known by anyone else, while nonobvious means that it
can't be immediately obvious to someone having ordinary skills in the industry. A design
patent covers any new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture, while a
plant patent covers any new variety of asexually produced plant. A design patent lasts for 14
years, and a utility or plant patent lasts for 20 years.

With patent protection, the payent holder can take legal action against anyone who copies the
patented invention, design, or discovery. Without this legal protection, anyone can use similar
designs, products, and processes without risk. In fact, if you don't file for patent protection on
your invention within 12 months of releasing it in a public setting, the opportunity to patent it
will be gone.

2. Trademarks

A trademark is a word, phrase, symbol, or design that distinguishes the source of products
(trademarks) or services (service marks) of one business from its competitors. In order to
qualify for patent protection, the mark must be distinctive. For example, the Nike "swoosh"
design identifies athletic footware made by Nike.

Although rights in trademarks are acquired by use, registration with the USPTO allows you
to more easily enforce those rights. Before registering your trademark, conduct a search of
federal and state databases to make sure a similar trademark doesn't already exist. This
trademark search can help you reduce the amount of time and money you could spend on
using a mark that is already registered and trademarked.

To register a trademark, you can:

1. File a "use" application after using the mark.

2. File an "intent to use" application before using the mark .

If a foreign application exists, a trademark holder might be able to rely on that application for
use in the United States. Filing an application is complex, so most applicants hire an attorney
who specializes in trademarks.

3. Trade Secrets

A trade secret is a formula, process, device, or other business information that companies
keep private to give them a business advantage over their competitors. Examples of trade
secrets include:
  Soda formulas
 Customer lists
 Survey results
 Computer algorithms

Unlike the other types of intellectual property, you can't obtain protection by registering your
trade secret. Instead, protection lasts only as long as you take the necessary steps to control
disclosure and use of the information.

Businesses use nondisclosure agreements, restricted access to confidential information, post-

employment restrictive covenants, and other security practices to maintain trade secrets.

4. Copyrights

Copyrights protect original works of authorship, such as literary works, music, dramatic
works, pantomimes and choreographic works, sculptural, pictorial, and graphic works, sound
recordings, artistic works, architectural works, and computer software. With copyright
protection, the holder has the exclusive rights to modify, distribute, perform, create, display,
and copy the work.

In order to qualify under copyright laws, the work must be fixed in a tangible medium of
expression, such as words on a piece of paper or music notes written on a sheet. A copyright
exists from the moment the work gets created, so registration is voluntary.

Ten Steps for Writing a Research Paper

Step 1: Choose a topic

When choosing a topic, search for something that meets the following criteria:

ü Is the topic interesting to me?

If you are bored with the topic, you will probably bore your reader as well. Choose something
that is new and exciting, not something overworked.

ü Is there sufficient information on this topic?

Is information on this subject available in various forms (i.e. magazines, newspapers, the
Internet, videos, reference books, pamphlets, possible interviews, etc.)? Please note: if
information is too abundant, you may have to narrow or limit your topic.

5. Access the materials. Read, hear, view, and touch.

6. Prepare preliminary Works Cited cards and/or page.

7. Finalize the thesis statement and prepare a working outline.

Step 2: Define the task and prepare a working thesis.
[Big6 #1-Task Definition]

A research paper is really a long answer or a series of answers to a questionthat a reader may
have about

a given topic.

After you have asked your question, phrase it in the form of a focused statement that will
allow you to use available information to prove or substantiate it. When formulating your
thesis, use specific, concrete words. Your thesis does not need to be an absolute truth but
something that will provoke thought and can be proven by your research. We can now make
our research questions above into effective, focused thesis statements.

Step 3: Brainstorm all possible sources. [Big6 #2 – Information Seeking

Strategies]

Think globally. Don’t limit yourself to books, magazines, and the Internet.

Step 4: Locate and evaluate sources for appropriateness for the assignment.

Look in the card catalog for books, videos, audiocassettes, the vertical file, etc. Check online
paid subscription databasese.g. EBSCO, Newsbank, Literature Resources, etc.

Evaluate sources for authority, objectivity, accuracy, and content. Check copyright dates,
materials older than five years may not be suitable for certain topics. Internet sources require
special consideration.

In the process of doing research, one needs to access information efficiently and effectively.
One must also identify a variety of potential sources of information, print as well as online. It
is essential to evaluate critically and competently the information found. While most print
resources found in the media center have been chosen for accuracy and quality before
inclusion, the Internet presents the researcher with enormous quantities of information that
may or may not be authentic, accurate, or objective. Therefore, when using the Internet as an
information source, evaluating the information is essential.

Step 5: Access the materials

Access possible sources of information by reading, listening, viewing, or touching.

Step 6: Prepare preliminary Works Cited cards and/or page.

Step 7: Finalize the thesis statement and prepare a working outline.

The outline should serve as a road map for your journey with your thesis as your navigator –
it tells you where to go. When writing your outline, keep your destination in mind. Your
information will help you get there, but how will you organize your journey?
The thesis should be placed at the beginning of the outline where you can refer to it often.
Your teacher may require you to write one or both of the following types of outlines: a topic
outline, in which the headings and subheadings are a series of words or phrases, not complete
sentences; or a sentence outline, in which every heading and subheading is a complete
sentence. Your teacher can help guide you through the outlining process. Keep in mind: the
outline is not meant to hamper or restrict you. It can be changed and revised to allow you to
prove your thesis more effectively.

Step 8: Use information. Read source materials, view videos, listen to tapes
or interviews and take notes.

Note taking will help you establish a way in which you can easily retrieve information that
you have researched. There are many ways to take notes. The preferred method in this district
is index cards. However, other methods include graphic organizers, legal pads or other types
of paper with source summary information written in a manner that the researcher can
understand. Whichever method you are required to use, be sure to include: subject heading,
the note, and an identification of its source. The identification of source is particularly
important in your attempts to avoid plagiarism.

Step 9: Synthesize.

Organize your notes according to the working outline.

Revise your thesis statement and outline.

Write the first draft with title, in-text citations, and Works Cited page.

Revise the first draft.

Write the final draft with title, in-text citations, and Works Cited page.

Step 10: Evaluate

As you prepare to submit your final paper, evaluate what you have learned. Judge the result
of the work in conducting your research (effectiveness) and the research process (efficiency).\

LaTeX

LaTeX (/ˈlɑːtɛx/ LAH-tekh or /ˈleɪtɛx/ LAY-tekh)[1]) is a document preparation system.[2]

When writing, the writer uses plain text as opposed to the formatted text found in
WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you get") word processors like Microsoft Word,
LibreOffice Writer and Apple Pages. The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define
the general structure of a document (such as article, book, and letter), to stylise text
throughout a document (such as bold and italics), and to add citations and cross-references. A
TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MikTeX is used to produce an output file (such as PDF
or DVI) suitable for printing or digital distribution. Within the typesetting system, its name is
stylised as LATEX.
LaTeX is widely used in academia[3][4] for the communication and publication of scientific
documents in many fields, including mathematics, statistics, computer science, engineering,
chemistry, physics, economics, linguistics, quantitative psychology, philosophy, and political
science. It also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles
that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Sanskrit and Greek.[5] LaTeX uses the
TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, and is itself written in the TeX macro
language. Like TeX, LaTeX started as a writing tool for mathematicians and computer
scientists, but even from early in its development, it has also been taken up by scholars who
needed to write documents that include complex math expressions or non-Latin scripts, such
as Arabic, Sanskrit and Chinese.[citation needed][7]

Plagiarism

Person who has committed plagiarism by claiming a work as their own

Plagiarism is the "wrongful appropriation" and "stealing and publication" of another author's
"language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions" and the representation of them as one's own
original work.[1][2] Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic
ethics. It is subject to sanctions such as penalties, suspension, expulsion from school[3] or
work,[4] substantial fines[5][6] and even incarceration.[7][8] Recently, cases of "extreme
plagiarism" have been identified in academia.[9] The modern concept of plagiarism as
immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe in the 18th century, particularly with
the Romantic movement. Plagiarism is not in itself a crime, but like counterfeiting fraud can
be punished in a court[10][11] for prejudices caused by copyright infringement,[12][13] violation
of moral rights,[14] or torts. In academia and industry, it is a serious ethical offense.[15][16]
Plagiarism and copyright infringement overlap to a considerable extent, but they are not
equivalent concepts,[17] and many types of plagiarism do not constitute copyright
infringement, which is defined by copyright law and may be adjudicated by courts.

Plagiarism might not be the same in all countries. Some countries like India and Poland
consider plagiarism to be a crime, and there have been cases of people being put in jail for
plagiarizing.[18] In other instances plagiarism might be the complete opposite of "academic
dishonesty," in fact some counties find the act of plagiarizing a professional's work
flattering.[19] Students who move to the United States from countries where plagiarism is not
frowned upon often find the transition difficult.
 UNIT 3
What is Data Preparation?

Data preparation is the process of cleaning and transforming raw data prior to processing and
analysis. It is an important step prior to processing and often involves reformatting data,
making corrections to data and the combining of data sets to enrich data.

Data preparation is often a lengthy undertaking for data professionals or business users, but it
is essential as a prerequisite to put data in context in order to turn it into insights and
eliminate bias resulting from poor data quality.

For example, the data preparation process usually includes standardizing data formats,
enriching source data, and/or removing outliers.

Understanding the data preparation process

Research shows that the data preparation process is estimated to take up to 80% of the overall
analysis time. For businesses, this continues to be a major barrier to getting quick and
accurate analysis. The data preparation process allows anyone to quickly turn any raw data
from multiple sources into refined information assets so it can be used for accurate analysis
and valuable business insights. The self-service data preparation process is quickly becoming
a skill that is required for an increasing number of data analysts, data scientists and business
users. These individuals have been learning and adopting this new skill to support their daily
business intelligence activities and analytic initiatives. To date, the tools available for data
preparation processing have been somewhat limited to Excel or other spreadsheet
applications. As a result, it’s not always clear what a data preparation process should be,
who’s responsible for it and how it fits with the current analytics practice.

Data processing steps

There are usually six data processing steps most analysts must complete to be able to use
data. The exact number of processing steps and the process can vary based on the tools and
software available, but these six data preparation processing steps are the general outline for
how to process data:

 Data collection. Data will be pulled with a processor from data lakes, clouds and other
services to create a large database of information.
 Data preparation. After the collection stage, the data must be cleaned and organized. The
raw data will be checked for errors, and any bad data will be removed.
 Data input. The cleaned data will be loaded into its database destination and transformed
into usable information.
 Data preparation processing. The data will be processed with algorithms or other resources
for interpretation. This step will vary depending on the type of data and its intended use.
 Data interpretation. The data is taken and turned into a usable form such as a graph, chart,
video or text.
  Data storage. Storing the data both on the computer and in a database for future use is the
final step. Data storage is also necessary for compliance.

Data preparation processing takes a large amount of the analysis time, so analysts are striving
for new methods and tools to shorten it. Trifacta offers a new way to wrangle data for that
creates usable data quickly.

Designing Questionnaire and Schedule

Definition of Questionnaire

We define questionnaire as an instrument for research, which consists of a list of questions,

along with the choice of answers, printed or typed in a sequence on a form used for acquiring
specific information from the respondents. In general, questionnaires are delivered to the
persons concerned either by post or mail, requesting them to answer the questions and return
it. Informants are expected to read and understand the questions and reply in the space
provided in the questionnaire itself.

The questionnaire is prepared in such a way that it translate the required information into a
series of questions, that informants can and will answer. Further, it should be such that the
respondent gets motivated and encouraged, to make him engaged in the interview and
complete it. The merits of questionnaires are discussed below:

 It is an inexpensive method, regardless of the size of the universe.

 Free from the bias of the interviewer, as the respondents answer the questions in his own
words.
 Respondents have enough time to think and answer.
 Due its large coverage, respondents living in distant areas can also be reached conveniently.

Definition of Schedule

The schedule is a proforma which contains a list of questions filled by the research workers
or enumerators, specially appointed for the purpose of data collection. Enumerators go to the
informants with the schedule, and ask them the questions from the set, in the sequence and
record the replies in the space provided. There are certain situations, where the schedule is
distributed to the respondents, and the enumerators assist them in answering the questions.

Enumerators play a major role in the collection of data, through schedules. They explain the
aims and objects of the research to the respondents and interpret the questions to them when
required. This method is little expensive as the selection, appointment and training of the
enumerators require a huge amount. It is used in case of extensive enquiries conducted by the
government agencies, big organisations. Most common example of data collection through
schedule is population census.
Key Differences Between Questionnaire and Schedule

The important points of difference between questionnaire and schedule are as under:

1. Questionnaire refers to a technique of data collection which consist of a series of written

questions along with alternative answers. The schedule is a formalised set of questions,
statements, and spaces for answers, provided to the enumerators who ask questions to the
respondents and note down the answers.
2. Questionnaires are delivered to the informants by post or mail and answered as specified in
the cover letter. On the other hand, schedules are filled by the research workers, who
interpret the questions to the respondents if necessary.
3. The response rate is low in case of questionnaires as many people do not respond and often
return it without answering all the questions. On the contrary, the response rate is high, as
they are filled by the enumerators, who can get answers to all the question.
4. The questionnaires can be distributed a large number of people at the same time, and even
the respondents who are not approachable can also be reached easily. Conversely, in
schedule method, the reach is relatively small, as the enumerators cannot be sent to a large
area.
5. Data collection by questionnaire method is comparatively cheaper and economical as the
money is invested only in the preparation and posting of the questionnaire. As against this, a
large amount is spent on the appointment and training of the enumerators and also on the
preparation of schedules.
6. In questionnaire method, it is not known that who answers the question whereas, in the
case of schedule, the respondent’s identity is known.
3.7. The success of the questionnaire lies on the quality of the questionnaire while the honesty
and competency of the enumerator determine the success of a schedule.
4.8. The questionnaire is usually employed only when the respondents literate and cooperative.
Unlike schedule which can be used for data collection from all classes of people.

Descriptive Statistics

What is Descriptive Statistics?

Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which
can be either a representation of the entire or a sample of a population. Descriptive statistics
are broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability (spread).
Measures of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode, while measures of
variability include the standard deviation, variance, the minimum and maximum variables,
and the kurtosis and skewness.
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode

A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center point or
typical value of a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall
and are also referred to as the central location of a distribution. You can think of it as the
tendency of data to cluster around a middle value. In statistics, the three most common
measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. Each of these measures
calculates the location of the central point using a different method.

Choosing the best measure of central tendency depends on the type of data you have. In this
post, I explore these measures of central tendency, show you how to calculate them, and how
to determine which one is best for your data.

Locating the Center of Your Data

Most articles that you’ll read about the mean, median, and mode focus on how you calculate
each one. I’m going to take a slightly different approach to start out. My philosophy
throughout my blog is to help you intuitively grasp statistics by focusing on concepts.
Consequently, I’m going to start by illustrating the central point of several datasets
graphically—so you understand the goal. Then, we’ll move on to choosing the best measure
of central tendency for your data and the calculations.

The three distributions below represent different data conditions. In each distribution, look
for the region where the most common values fall. Even though the shapes and type of data
are different, you can find that central location. That’s the area in the distribution where the
most common values are located.

Mean

The mean is the arithmetic average, and it is probably the measure of central tendency that
you are most familiar. Calculating the mean is very simple. You just add up all of the values
and divide by the number of observations in your dataset.

The calculation of the mean incorporates all values in the data. If you change any value, the
mean changes. However, the mean doesn’t always locate the center of the data accurately.
Observe the histograms below where I display the mean in the distributions.
However, in a skewed distribution, the mean can miss the mark. In the histogram above, it is
starting to fall outside the central area. This problem occurs because outliers have a
substantial impact on the mean. Extreme values in an extended tail pull the mean away from
the center. As the distribution becomes more skewed, the mean is drawn further away from
the center. Consequently, it’s best to use the mean as a measure of the central tendency when
you have a symmetric distribution.

When to use the mean: Symmetric distribution, Continuous data

Related post: Using Histograms to Understand Your Data

Median

The median is the middle value. It is the value that splits the dataset in half. To find the
median, order your data from smallest to largest, and then find the data point that has an
equal amount of values above it and below it. The method for locating the median varies
slightly depending on whether your dataset has an even or odd number of values. I’ll show
you how to find the median for both cases. In the examples below, I use whole numbers for
simplicity, but you can have decimal places.

In the dataset with the odd number of observations, notice how the number 12 has six values
above it and six below it. Therefore, 12 is the median of this dataset.

When there is an even number of values, you count in to the two innermost values and then
take the average. The average of 27 and 29 is 28. Consequently, 28 is the median of this
dataset.
Outliers and skewed data have a smaller effect on the median. To understand why, imagine
we have the Median dataset below and find that the median is 46. However, we discover data
entry errors and need to change four values, which are shaded in the Median Fixed dataset.
We’ll make them all significantly higher so that we now have a skewed distribution with
large outliers.

As you can see, the median doesn’t change at all. It is still 46. Unlike the mean, the median
value doesn’t depend on all the values in the dataset. Consequently, when some of the values
are more extreme, the effect on the median is smaller. Of course, with other types of changes,
the median can change. When you have a skewed distribution, the median is a better measure
of central tendency than the mean.

Comparing the mean and median

Now, let’s test the median on the symmetrical and skewed distributions to see how it
performs, and I’ll include the mean on the histograms so we can make comparisons.

In a symmetric distribution, the mean and median both find the center accurately. They are
approximately equal.

In a skewed distribution, the outliers in the tail pull the mean away from the center towards
the longer tail. For this example, the mean and median differ by over 9000, and the median
better represents the central tendency for the distribution.

These data are based on the U.S. household income for 2006. Income is the classic example
of when to use the median because it tends to be skewed. The median indicates that half of all
incomes fall below 27581, and half are above it. For these data, the mean overestimates
where most household incomes fall.

When to use the median: Skewed distribution, Continuous data, Ordinal data

Mode

The mode is the value that occurs the most frequently in your data set. On a bar chart, the
mode is the highest bar. If the data have multiple values that are tied for occurring the most
frequently, you have a multimodal distribution. If no value repeats, the data do not have a
mode.

In the dataset below, the value 5 occurs most frequently, which makes it the mode. These
data might represent a 5-point Likert scale.
Typically, you use the mode with categorical, ordinal, and discrete data. In fact, the mode is
the only measure of central tendency that you can use with categorical data—such as the
most preferred flavor of ice cream. However, with categorical data, there isn’t a central value
because you can’t order the groups. With ordinal and discrete data, the mode can be a value
that is not in the center. Again, the mode represents the most common value.

Sampling and Non-Sampling Error

Definition of Sampling Error

Sampling Error denotes a statistical error arising out of a certain sample selected being
unrepresentative of the population of interest. In simple terms, it is an error which occurs
when the sample selected does not contain the true characteristics, qualities or figures of the
whole population.

The main reason behind sampling error is that the sampler draws various sampling units from
the same population but, the units may have individual variances. Moreover, they can also
arise out of defective sample design, faulty demarcation of units, wrong choice of statistic,
substitution of sampling unit done by the enumerator for their convenience. Therefore, it is
considered as the deviation between true mean value for the original sample and the
population.

Definition of Non-Sampling Error

Non-Sampling Error is an umbrella term which comprises of all the errors, other than the
sampling error. They arise due to a number of reasons, i.e. error in problem definition,
questionnaire design, approach, coverage, information provided by respondents, data
preparation, collection, tabulation, and analysis.

There are two types of non-sampling error:

 Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by respondents,
or their answer is misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It consists of researcher error,
respondent error and interviewer error which are further classified as under.
o Researcher Error
  Surrogate Error
 Sampling Error
 Measurement Error
 Data Analysis Error
 Population Definition Error
o Respondent Error
 Inability Error
 Unwillingness Error
o Interviewer Error
 Questioning Error
 Recording Erro
 Respondent Selection Error
 Cheating Error
 Non-Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a part of the
sample do not respond.

Comparison Chart

Basis for
Sampling Error Non-Sampling Error
Comparison

Sampling error is a type of error, occurs

An error occurs due to sources other
due to the sample selected does not
Meaning than sampling, while conducting survey
perfectly represents the population of
activities is known as non sampling error.
interest.

Deviation between sample mean and

Cause Deficiency and analysis of data
population mean

Type Random Random or Non-random

Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census.

Possibility of error reduced with the

Sample size It has nothing to do with the sample size.
increase in sample size.