Sanitery Engineering

SANITARY ENGINEERING By: TAJUL ISLAM
Lecturer, Dept. of Civil (AP)
INTRODUCTION AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

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Hours Marks Percentage Number of

Allotted Weightage Weightage questions in
for DTE For DTE DTE exam
Topic covered in the chapter
exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
INTRODUCTION:
Definition of sullage, sewage, sewerage, sewer,
refuge, garbage. Aims and objectives of sewerage
work, systems of refuge disposal and water carriage
system.
QUANTITY OF SEWAGE: 06 17 12 01 01
Domestic and industrial sewage, volume of
domestic sewage, variability of flow, limiting
velocities-Self cleansing and Maximum velocities
of sewer. Simple problems on design of sewers.

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1. State the importance of sanitation.
Ans: Following are the various importance of sanitation:

 To protect water supply from pollution
 To collect and dispose off the waste from the city.
 To remove rain water from city or town.
 To prevent the pollution of water resources.
 To prevent the occurrence of diseases.
 To maintain healthy environment.
2. Define the following terms

Sullage, Sewage, Sewerage, Sewer, Refuge, Garbage.
Ans: Sullage: The term is used to indicate the waste water from kitchen, shower and
bathrooms, but not waste liquid or excreta from toilets.
Sewage: The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid waste from the community and
it includes sullage, discharge from toilets, urinals, industrial waste and storm water etc.
Sewerage: The network of collecting and conveying sewage by water carriage system
through the underground sewer is known as sewerage.
Sewer: It is defined as a pipe or conduit or drains which carries sewage.
Garbage: The garbage includes all sorts of bio-degradable organic wastes obtained
from kitchens, hotels, restaurants etc. All waste food articles, vegetable peelings, fruit
peelings etc., are examples of garbage.
Refuge: The term refuge is used to indicate what is rejected or left as worthless. Refuge
includes garbage, sullage, sewage, storm water, sub soil water etc.
3. List the sources of sewage.

Ans: Various sources of sewage are as follows:
 Water supplied by water authority for domestic usage, after desired use it is discharged
into sewers as sewage.
 Water supplied to the various industries for various industrial processes by local
authority. Some quantity of this water after use in different industrial applications is
discharged as wastewater.
 The water supplied to the various public places such as, schools, cinema theatres, hotels,
hospitals, and commercial complexes. Part of this water after desired use joins the
sewers as wastewater.
 Water drawn from wells by individuals to fulfil domestic demand. After uses this water
is discharged in to sewers.
 The water drawn for various purposes by industries, from individual water sources such
as, wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc. Fraction of this water is converted into wastewater

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in different industrial processes or used for public utilities within the industry
generating wastewater. This is discharged in to sewers.
 Infiltration of groundwater into sewers through leaky joints.
 Entrance of rainwater in sewers during rainy season through faulty joints or cracks in
sewers.
4. What are the objectives of sewerage work?

Ans: Following are the various objectives of sewerage work
 Proper disposal of human excreta to a safe place, before it starts decomposing.
 To take out all kinds of waste water from the locality immediately so that mosquitoes,
flies, bacteria etc. may not breed in.
 Final disposal of sewage on land or in nearby water courses after some treatment so
that the receiving land or water is not polluted.
 As far as possible the fertilizing elements of sewage may be used for growing crops
through sewage forming and getting the benefit of income, in addition to disposal of
sewage.
 To ensure proper treatment given to the sewage before disposing on land so that quality
of subsoil is not affected.
5. What are the different methods of sewage collection?

Ans: Following are the two methods of sewage collection:
 Conservancy system or dry system.
 Water carriage system
6. Describe conservancy system.

Ans: In this system different types of wastes, wet or dry, foul or non-foul are collected
manually and transported in vehicles to the points of ultimate disposal. At the dumping
ground the garbage, the garbage is separated in two categories – flammable and
inflammable. The flammable garbage should be burnt and the inflammable garbage should
be dumped in ditches or low-lying areas.
The waste water from kitchens, baths, etc. called sullage and storm water are carried
separately in open or closed drain up to the point of disposal.
Conservancy system is less hygienic. Therefore it is outdated in modern cities. But
however, it is still adopted in some small, underdeveloped towns and villages.
7. Describe water carriage system? Also mention what are the advantages and
disadvantages of this system.
Ans: In this system the wastes from water closets get mixed with sufficient quantity of water
by flushing and this water is used to transport the wastes for subsequent treatment and
disposal in a harmless manner without any nuisance.
The sewage formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9% of water and the
remaining 0.1% of solid matters. Therefore specific gravity remains almost same as water

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and all the hydraulic formulae applicable to water can be used in the designing of sewerage
systems.
In the water carriage system garbage is collected and conveyed as in the conservancy
system. Storm water is carried out separately or may be allowed to flow with the sewage.
Advantages of water carriage system:

 This is a hygienic method of collection.
 The risk of epidemics is reduced.
 Due to reduced strength of waste due to dilution, the waste becomes more amenable for
treatment.
 Self-cleansing velocity can be obtained even at less gradient due to more quantity of
liquid sewage.
 This system allows the construction of latrines and bathrooms together, thus occupies
less space.
 It does not depends on manual labour except in the case of cleaning of sewers when
required.
Disadvantages of water carriage system:

 Initial cost is very high.
 The maintenance cost is more.
 In case of any break in the sewer line, the system is highly affected.
8. Write the comparison of conservancy system with water carriage system.
Ans:
Sl. Conservancy System Water carriage system
No.
1 Initial cost is less Initial cost is more
2 It does not require much quantity of It does require much quantity of water
water
3 It reduces the aesthetic appearance of It increases the aesthetic appearance of
the area the area
4 Compact design of building is not Compact design of building is possible
possible
5 Bathroom and toilet should be Bathroom and toilet can be constructed
constructed separately together
6 Large area is required for burying of Less area is required.
excremental matter
7 Chances of underground water No chances of underground water
pollution is more pollution
8 It is non hygienic method. It is hygienic method.

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9. What is sanitary sewage? Explain briefly.

Ans: Domestic sewage: The sum of total domestic and industrial sewage is called as sanitary
sewage. It is the liquid waste from kitchens and bathrooms and is commonly known as
sullage and excremental matter such as urine and night-soil. This is from residential areas,
offices and institutions. This sewage is generally extremely foul, because of the presence
of human excreta in it.
Industrial sewage: It is waste from industries and manufacturing processes. This is

also called trade waste. Sometimes industrial waste may be very foul and may require
extensive treatment before being disposed of in public sewers.
The sewage consisting of domestic and industrial sewage is also called Dry Weather
Flow (DWF).
10. Estimate the quantity of domestic sewage generated from a town.

Ans: Quantity of domestic sewage should be equal to the quantity of water supplied by the
water works. Following quantities are considered while estimating the sewage quantity:
Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies: People using water supply from
private wells, tube wells, etc. cont. Similarly, certain industries utilize their own source of
water. Part of this water, after desired uses, is converted into wastewater and ultimately
discharged into sewers. This quantity can be estimated by actual field observations.
Addition due to infiltration: This is additional quantity due to groundwater seepage in to

sewers through faulty joints or cracks formed in the pipes. The quantity of the water
depends upon the height of the water table above the sewer invert level and the permeability
of soil. While estimating the design discharge, following suggested discharge can be
considered for ground water infiltration.
Unit Minimum Maximum

L/ha.d 5000 50000
L/km.d 500 5000
L per day per manhole 250 500
Subtraction due to water losses: The water loss, through leakage in water distribution
system and house connections, does not reach consumers and hence, not appear as sewage.
Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage system: Certain amount of water is
used for such purposes, which may not generate sewage, e.g. boiler feed water, water
sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns, and gardens, water consumed in industrial product,
water used in air coolers, etc.
Net quantity of sewage: The net quantity of sewage production can be estimated by
considering the addition and subtraction as discussed above over the accounted quantity of
water supplied by water authority as below:

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Subtraction
Accounted due to
Net quantity of Addition water not
Addition
quantity water due to Subtraction entering
= + + due to – –
of supplied private due to losses the
infiltration
sewage from the supplies sewerage
water works system
Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of sewage

produced.
11. What are the factor affecting the sanitary sewage?

Ans: The sanitary sewage or dry weather flow depends upon the following four factors:
i. Population
ii. Rate of water supply
iii. Type of area served
iv. Ground water infiltration
Population: The quantity of sanitary sewage or Dry Weather Flow (DWF) depends upon
the population served at the end of the design period. With the increase in the population
quantity of sewage also increases.
Rate of water supply: Quantity of water entering the sewer is slightly less than the quantity
of water supplied. This is because of public consumption, leakage from pipes, lawn
sprinkling and manufacturing process.
Rate of sewage will be approximately 70 to 80 percent of the supplied quantity of water.
Type of area served: The quantity of sewage depends on the type of area such as
residential area, industrial or commercial areas. Generally sewage produced from industrial
or commercial area is more compared to residential areas.
Ground water infiltration: In case of sewer which laid below ground water table and in
water logged areas, allowance should be made for the water entering the sewer through
leaky joints.
12. Explain limiting velocities of sewer.

Ans: Limiting velocities in the sewer line are classified as:
 Minimum velocity or self-cleansing velocity.
 Maximum velocity or non-scouring velocity.
Self-cleansing velocity: It depends on the nature of suspended matter and the size of the
sewer. In case of combined sewer self-cleansing velocity should not be less than 0.75 m/s
whereas in case of separate sewer it is 0.6 m/s.
Velocity in a sewer should be such that there is no deposition of silt, organic and
inorganic matter, and any other solid matter of sewage. Minimum velocity at which no such
deposition takes place is called minimum velocity or self-cleansing velocity.
Non-scouring velocity: Velocity of flow in sewer should not be more than the maximum
permissible velocity in order to prevent wear and tear of the contact surface. The maximum

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permissible velocity at which no scouring action takes place is known as non-scouring

velocity or maximum velocity. It depends on the materials used in the construction of
sewers.
Higher velocities will cause turbulent flow, thus reducing the capacity and life of sewer.
High velocities can be controlled by reducing the grades and providing drop manholes at
suitable places.
Maximum velocity for concrete pipe is assumed as 2.4 to 3 m/s and for cast iron pipe
is taken as 3.5 to 4.5 m/s.
13. What are the factors affecting the design of sewers?

Ans: Various factors which affects the design of sewers are as follows:
 The design period should be taken as 30 years.
 Minimum and maximum permissible velocities in the sewer should be maintained.
 Gradient should be such that sewage flows under gravity only.
 Sewer should be capable of receiving the maximum expected discharge at the end of
the design period.
 In case of combined system of sewerage, the section of the sewer is to be designed in
such a way that self-cleansing velocity must be developed at the minimum discharge.
14. Differentiate between Domestic sewage and Industrial Waste water.
Ans:
Sl. No. Domestic Sewage Industrial Sewage
1 Domestic sewage carries waste water Industrial sewage carries waste water
from houses and apartments. from manufacturing and chemical
process.
2 Domestic sewage is slightly more Industrial sewage usually contains
than 99.9% water with 0.1% of specific and readily identifiable
dissolved and suspended particles. chemical compounds.
3 Volume of dissolved oxygen present Volume of dissolved oxygen present
is higher. is lower.
4 Bod for domestic sewage is less. BOD for industrial sewage is high.
5 Concentration of suspended solids in Concentration of suspended solids in
domestic sewage is comparatively industrial sewage is very much
lower. higher.
6 Domestic sewage contains plant Industrial sewage does not contains
nutrients like nitrogen and plant nutrients.
phosphorus.
7 Domestic sewage contains many Industrial sewage contains very less
millions of microorganisms per or zero microorganisms per gallon.
gallon.

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Numericals:
15. Determine the diameter of a circular sewer to carry sewage of 100 litres/sec when
it flows half full with a slope of 1in 350 using Manning’s formula.
16. Determine the size of a circular sewer for a discharge of 600 lps running full. Use
Manning’s formula. Assume i=0.0001 & N=0.015.
17. Calculate the velocity of flow and discharge through a sewer of diameter 0.8m laid
at a gradient of 1 in 600. Assume the sewer running full. Use Manning’s formula
N=0.012.
18. Find the diameter of a circular sanitary sewer for the following data:
Population = 1 lakh
Rate of supply = 135 lpcd.
Velocity of flow = 1 m/s
Important formulae from the chapter:
1. Discharge: Q=AxV
Where, Q = Discharge in (m3/s)
A = Cross sectional area (in m2)
V = Velocity of flow (in m/s)
𝟏
2. Manning’s Formula: V= 𝐍 x m(2/3) x i(1/2)
Where, V = Velocity of flow (in m/s)
N = Manning’s constant
m = Hydraulic mean depth (in m)
A
m=
P
P = Perimeter (in m)
i = Gradient or longitudinal slope
d
Generally, P= for water running full and running half.
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d = Diameter of sewer (in m)

N = 0.012 to 0.015 if not given.
3. Chezy’s formula: V = C√(𝐦 𝐢
Where, C = Chezy’s constant (50 to 60 if not given)
157.6
C= K
1.81+
√m
K = Bazin’s constant
K = 0.109 for very smooth surface
K = 0.290 for brick or concrete surface
K = 0.833 for rubble masonry

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CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYSIS OF

SEWAGE AND SEWARAGE SYSTEMS

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exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYSIS OF
SEWAGE: Strength of Sewage, Sampling of
Sewage to analyse for Physical, Chemical and
Biological Parameters. Decomposition of sewage.
Analysis of Sewage - Significance of the following
Tests for i) Solids ii) Dissolved Oxygen iii) B.O.D
iv) C.O.D v) pH value vi) Chlorides vii) Nitrate.
08 23 16 2 1
SEWARAGE SYSTEMS: Types of Sewerage
System and their Suitability - Separate, Combined
and Partially Separate Systems Brief Description
and Suitability of the following Types of Sewers
Stoneware, Cast Iron, Cement Concrete, AC Pipes,
Pre-Cast Sewers, PVC sewer (SWR grade), and
laying of sewers

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1. Write a short note on strength of sewage.

Ans: The strength and the characteristics of sewage depends upon the dilution of sewage,
locality where it is produced and time of collection of sewage.
Strength of sewage refers to its capacity to be a hazard to public health. This mainly
consists of offensive odour and organic matter which is to be oxidised commonly referred
as bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD). As BOD of sewage increases strength of sewage
also increases.
BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen required to fully oxidize the organic matter
under aerobic condition.
Sewage from separate system is generally stronger than that from combined system
because of variation in dilution ratio.
2. Explain various types of waste water sampling methods.

Ans: Waste water sampling is divided into i) Grab sampling, ii) Composite sampling.
Grab Sampling: Grab samples consist of either a single discrete sample or individual
samples collected over a period of time not to exceed 15 minutes. The grab sample should
be representative of the wastewater conditions at the time of sample collection. The sample
volume depends on the type and number of analyses to be performed.
Composite Sampling: Composite sampling consists of a collection of numerous individual
discrete samples taken at regular intervals over a period of time, usually 24 hours. The
material being sampled is collected in a common container over a sampling period. The
analysis of this material, collected over a period of time, will therefore represent the average
performance of a waste water treatment plant during the collection period
3. Explain the necessity of examination of sewage.

Ans: Sewage sampling becomes necessary because of the following reasons:
 To check the DO level of sewage
 To determine the strength of sewage.
 To determine the amount of organic and inorganic matter present in the sewage.
 To find the nature of sewage whether acidic or alkaline.
 To find the degree of treatment to be given before disposal.
 To differentiate domestic and industrial sewage.
4. Write a note on physical tests of sewage.
Ans: Physical tests of sewage includes the followings:
Turbidity test: It is determined by the turbidity rod or Jackson’s turbidity meter. It

indicates the amount of suspended or colloidal matter in the sample of sewage. Turbidity
is expressed as ppm or mg/lit.
Colour and Odour: Colour and odour gives the conditions of sewage as fresh, stale or
septic. Fresh sewage is light brown and odourless. Septic sewage is dark in colour and gives

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foul smell. The odour of waste water is measured by the term called Threshold Odour
Number (TON). Colour of waste water is tested in platinum cobalt scale.
Temperature: Temperature is measured by ordinary thermometer. If temperature of

sewage is more biological activity is also more. Also at higher temperature, viscosity of
sewage decreases which increases the efficiency of treatment plant.
5. Explain the three sewerage system used to convey the sewage.

Ans: Three sewerage systems are as follows:
i) Combined sewer
ii) Separate sewer
iii) Partially separate sewer
Combined sewer: In this system only single sewer line is laid to carry domestic sewage,
industrial sewage and storm water sewage. Combined sewer system is used under following
condition:
 When rainfall is even throughout the year.
 When quantity of sanitary sewage is small.
 Useful in crowded areas where it is difficult to lay two separate sewer.
 When both sanitary and storm water sewage require pumping.
Separate sewer: in this system two separate sets of sewer are installed one for carrying
sanitary sewage and other for storm water. This system is suitable under the following
conditions:
 When the rainfall is not uniform throughout the year.
 When only sanitary sewage is to be treated.
 When soil strata is rocky and it is difficult to lay down combined sewer.
 When the sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
Partially separate sewer: This system consists of two sewer line, one is of large diameter
for carrying sewage and the other one is of small diameter for carrying storm water only.
When it rains the storm water at the beginning in allowed to flow with the sewage through
the large sewer line. When rain water is too much to flow through the large sewer, the
excessive water is allowed to flow through the small sewer.
6. Explain the merits and demerits of combined sewer.
Ans: Advantages of combined sewer:

 Easy to clean as the size is large.
 Maintenance cost is reasonable.
 Self-cleansing velocity is easily achieved.
 Requires only one set of sewer line.
Disadvantages of combined sewer:
 During heavy rain over flowing of sewer may endanger public health.
 If not properly designed may get easily silted.
 Load on the treatment plant increases.

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 Due to large size initial cost increases.

 Storm water is unnecessarily polluted.
 Size of the treatment plant becomes large.
7. Explain the merits and demerits of separate sewer.
Ans: Advantages of combined sewer:

 Quantity of sewage to be treated being small, loading on treatment plant is less.
 Rain water will not be polluted.
 Smaller size of sewer is required.
 Initial cost is less.
 Storm water can be discharged into the river without giving treatment.
Disadvantages of combined sewer:
 Cleaning of sewer is difficult as the size is small.
 Maintenance cost is high.
 Self-cleansing velocity is not easily achieved
 Requires two sets of sewer line thereby increasing the area required
8. Compare Separate and Combined sewerage system.

Ans:
Sl. No. Combined sewer Separate sewer
1 Maintenance cost is less. Maintenance cost is more.
2 Simpler in arrangement as only one Complex in arrangement as two

lateral sewer is laid lateral sewers are laid.
3 House plumbing is easy as only one House plumbing is difficult as two
house connection is required. house connections for each building
are required.
4 Automatic flushing is provided by Automatic flushing is not possible.
water.
5 Excavation will be more as the sewer Less excavation required as only one
is of bigger size. sewer is of bigger size and another
one is of smaller size.
6 Cleaning of sewer is easy as size is Cleaning of sewer is difficult as size
larger. is smaller.
7 Initial cost is high. Initial cost is less.
9. Explain the following types of sewers:

Stone ware sewer, cast-iron sewer, cement concrete sewer, pre-cast sewers and pvc
sewer.
Ans: Stoneware sewer: These pipes are made from vitrified clay by using clay and shales
of special qualities and grades, using hot process. Ingredients are taken in desired
proportions, ground to desired fineness and mixed together with water. Pipes are then

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formed of desired length and diameter. These pipes are then burnt in a kiln at specified
temperature gradually raised from 150⁰C in the beginning to about 700⁰C at the end. The
vitrification is achieved at a higher temperature of 1200⁰C. At this point surface of pipes
are glazed by adding sodium chloride salt to the kiln. These pipes are manufactured in size
up to 600mm in diameter and 600 to 900mm in length.
Advantages:
 They are highly resistant to sulphide corrosion.
 Resistant to erosion due to grit and silt.
 Cheap and easily available.
Disadvantages:
 Weak in tension. Hence cannot be used where sewage flows under pressure.
 Brittle in nature. Hence likely to be damaged during transportation.
 Due to heavy weight laying and placing becomes difficult.
Cast Iron sewer: These sewers are used due to their higher strength, greater water
tightness and durability. These sewers are used where they have to resist higher internal
and external pressure. The size of these pipes varies from 150mm to 750mm.
Advantages:
 Can be used where ground is unstable.
 Can withstand high internal and external pressure.
 Can be used where sewer is laid at insufficient depth.
 Can be used where sewer should be laid above ground.
Disadvantages:
 Not suitable if soil contains sulphates, because they are liable to corrosion.
 Expensive.
Cement concrete sewer: These are extensively used for sewer lines. These pipes may be
plain or reinforced and may be precast or cast in situ. Plain concrete sewers are used for
diameter of up to 600mm. If diameter exceeds 600mm, reinforced concrete sewer is
necessary.
Advantages:
 Strong under both internal and external pressure.
 Can be made of any desired length and size.
 Can be easily manufactured at site.
 Economical
Disadvantages:
 Likely to be corroded due to acid attack.

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Precast sewer: These pipes are manufactured by centrifugal process using reinforcement
and is also known as Hume pipes. Diameter of these pipes varies from 100 to 250mm and
length varies from 1000 to 3000mm.
Advantages:
 Light in weight.
 Strong in both tension and compression.
 Quality is assured as manufactured in factory under skilled supervision.
Plastic sewer: Plastic or PVC pipes are extensively used house connection. These are
resistant against corrosion and have excellent flow characteristics. These pipes are available
in diameter varying from 50 to 150mm and of longer length.
Advantages:
 Durable
 Strong against internal pressure.
 Easy to handle.
 Light weight and can be bent easily.
Disadvantages:
 Weak against external pressure.
 Cannot resist impact load.
 Not recommended to use at lesser depth.
10. Explain laying of sewers.
Ans: Laying of sewer consists of the following operations:
i. Setting out work ii. Excavation of trances, iii. Laying of foundation,

iv. Laying of sewers, v. Testing of sewers, vi. Backfilling of trenches.
Setting out work: It is the first step in the construction of sewers. Centrelines of the sewers
are marked on the ground for the entire length of sewer.
Excavation of trenches: Trench is excavated to correct depth and to proper gradient. The
width of trench should be at least 150mm more than the width or diameter of sewer.
Dewatering should be done in water logged areas before excavation.
Laying of foundation: The sewers are laid to correct alignment and gradient setting the
positions and levels of sewers so as to ensure a smooth gravity flow. This is done with the
help of suitable boning rods and sight rails and with accurate levelling instruments.
Testing of Sewer: Before commissioning sewer line between two consecutive manholes,
they are subjected to the following tests:
i. Water test: Lower manhole is closed and the sewer is filled with water in the upper
manhole and allowed to flow through the pipe. Sewer pipe is watched my moving along
the trench. If water leakage appears in any part or joint it is then replaced or repaired.

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ii. Air test: This test is carried out for larger sewer where sufficient quantity of water is not
available for testing. Air pressure of 100mm is applied to the sewer line after plunging both
the ends. If pressure is maintained above 75mm, sewer is assumed to have no leakage. If
drop of pressure is more than 25mm of water, leaking points are traced and repaired.
iii. Test for obstruction and straightness: A smooth ball of diameter 13mm less than the
diameter of pipe is inserted at the upper end. If no obstruction is there, ball will come out
from the other end.
To test for straightness a mirror is kept at one end and a lamp at the other end. If the
sewer is straight the full circle of light can be seen in the mirror.
Backfilling: After testing the sewer trench is backfilled with the soil available from
excavation. Earth should be laid equally on both the side of sewer and filling should be
carried out in layers of 150mm thickness. Each layer should be well watered and rammed.
Types of sewer foundation bedding
Laying of sewer

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Testing of sewer
11. Write the significance of the following terms in sewage analysis and its limits
(i) Solids (ii) Dissolved oxygen (iii) B.O.D. (iv) C.O.D. (v) pH value (vi)
Chlorides (vii) Nitrates.
Ans: Solids: Sewage normally contains very small amount of solids of about 0.45kg of solids
per 1000 kg. Solids present in sewage includes suspended solids (0.112kg per 1000kg),
dissolved solids (0.225kg per 1000kg), volatile solids and settleable solids (0.112 kg per
1000 kg).
Sewage further contains organic matters like carbohydrates, oils and greases,
nitrogenous compound like urea, fatty acids etc. and inorganic compounds like salts, sand,
gravel, debris etc.
Inorganic solid is not harm full and can be removed by mechanical appliances in the
treatment plant. But, suspended and dissolved solids are responsible for creating nuisance
if untreated before disposing.
Dissolved oxygen: Determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is very important

because, while discharging the treated sewage into the river or stream, it is necessary to
ensure at least 4 ppm of dissolved oxygen (D.O) in it. Because if D.O level becomes less
than 4 ppm, fish and other aquatic life will not be able to survive and will die creating
nuisance near the vicinity of disposal. Therefore to ensure minimum D.O level it is
necessary to test D.O of sewage.
B.O.D: It is the amount of oxygen required for micro-organisms to carry out biological
decomposition of sewage. If sufficient oxygen is available in water, the useful aerobic
bacteria will flourish and cause the aerobic biological decomposition of sewage, which will
continue until the oxidation is completed.
It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter in the sewage. The more the
organic matter, greater is the B.O.D and more is the strength of sewage. Therefore, in order
to know the strength of the sewage, it is necessary to conduct B.O.D test.
The permissible value of B.O.D of normal sewage is about 300 to 400ppm.

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C.O.D: It is the amount of oxygen required for the chemical oxidation of organic matters
in sewage by using strong chemical oxidant.
This test is used to measure the content of organic matter of sewage in some of industrial
sewage which do not respond to the B.O.D test. In this test strong oxidants like potassium
dichromate or potassium permanganate is used.
pH value: It is an indicator of the alkalinity of the sewage. If the pH value is less than 7,
the sewage is acidic, and if the pH value is more than 7, the sewage is alkaline.
The determination of pH value of sewage is important, because of the fact that
efficiency of certain treatment methods depends upon the availability of suitable pH value.
pH of sewage can be determined with the help of potentiometer.
Fresh sewage is generally alkaline and has pH of 7.3 to 7.5. But as time passes its pH
reduces below 7 and becomes acidic in nature. In that case it is necessary to add some alkali
to increase its pH to more than 7. Because in acidic condition, important bacteria for
oxidation of organic matter cannot survive.
Chlorides: Chloride determination of sewage is used as an index of sewage strength. Very

high chloride content indicates infiltration of saline water into the sewer. The presence of
chlorides above the minimum level indicates pollution from industrial waste.
The normal chloride content of domestic sewage is 120 mg/l and the permissible limit
is 250 mg/l.
Nitrates: Presence of nitrates indicate the most stable form of nitrogenous matter contained
in sewage, thus indicating the well oxidized and treated sewage.
Even though nitrates have been defined as non-objectionable, yet its concentration in
potable water is controlled, because nitrates above 45 ppm may cause nitrate poisoning in
infants. Excess nitrates causes the disease called blue baby syndrome among children.
12. Compare COD over BOD.
Ans:
Sl. No. COD BOD
1 COD test is necessary for industrial BOD test is necessary for domestic
sewage. sewage.
2 It takes only 5 hours for the It takes at least 5 days for the
decomposition process. decomposition process.
3 COD can be achieved by controlling Huge quantity of water is required for
the amount of oxidising agents. the oxidation of organic matter.
4 It takes into account both biologically It takes into account only biologically
oxidizable and biologically inert oxidizable matter for decomposition.
matter for decomposition.
5 COD of sewage is higher than BOD. BOD of sewage is lower than COD.
6 Oxidising agents like potassium No oxidising agent is required to mix

dichromate or potassium with sewage sample for determining
permanganate is used BOD.

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13. Explain the decomposition process of sewage.

Ans: Fresh sewage usually contains some dissolved oxygen 2 to 5 mg/l. The aerobic and
facultative bacteria therefore, act upon the organic matter present in the sewage. The
available oxygen is soon used up, where upon the anaerobic and facultative bacteria are
brought into action. They split up the complex organic compounds. Gases like carbon
dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4), are also given off. The process is
termed as putrefaction, and is the first step in the decomposition of sewage. The liberated
elements Viz; nitrogen, carbon and sulphur are soon acted upon by the aerobic bacteria,
transforming them into stable and unobjectionable compounds of nitrates, carbohydrates
and sulphates, thus making the completion of second step in the decomposition process.
This second or final step is called “Oxidation”. Thus the decomposition of sewage is
generally the result of the process of putre-faction and oxidation. On putrefaction alone are
based the following units of sewage treatment.
1. Septic tank, 2. Imhoff tanks, 3. Sludge digestion tanks.
On Oxidation, following units of treatment:
1. Trickling filter, 2. Diffused air system, 3. Mechanical aeration

20
SURFACE AND STORM WATER DRAINAGE

21

exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
SURFACE AND STORM WATER
DRAINAGE: Determination of Storm Water
Flow, Run-Off Co-Efficient, Time of
Concentration, Empirical Formulae for Run-Off
Simple Problems on Design of Storm Water Sewers
Ssystems. Surface Drains - Requirements, Shapes, 10 17 12 1 1
Laying and Construction. (No Design)
SEWERAGE APPURTENANCES: Brief
description, Location, Function and Construction
of Manholes, Drop Manholes, Inlets Catch Basin,
Traps, Flushing Tanks, Regulators.

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1. Explain the factors affecting storm sewage.
Ans: Following factors are affecting the storm water flow into the sewer.
Intensity of rainfall: If the intensity of rainfall is high, then the quantity of storm water
will be more.
Topography: If the slope of the ground is steep, then storm water will be more. If the
ground is flat with depressions then the quantity of storm water will be less.
Size and shape of the sewer: If the size of the catchment area is more storm water quantity
will be more.
Weather condition: If the temperature of the area is small then storm water will be more.
Characteristics of soil: If the soil of the catchment is clayey the storm water will be more.
If the soil is sandy then storm water will be less.
Geological condition: If the catchment area is having more cracks, fissures etc., there will
be less storm water.
Vegetation: It the catchment area is forest with lot of plants, trees etc., and then the storm
water will be less.
2. Calculate the storm water flow using empirical formula for runoff.
Ans: Following empherical formulas are used for calculating the quantity of storm water:
Dicken’s formula: Q = 14*C*M(3/4)

Where, Q = Runoff or storm water flow in lit/sec.
M = Area in km2
C = Constant
C = 250 for very large areas, 850 for areas of average
size having rainfall intensity of 600 to 1250 mm annual
rainfall, 1600 for small areas.
Ryve’s formula: Q = 15*C*M(2/3)

M = Area in km2
C = Constant. Value of ‘C’ ranges from 450 to 675.
123100M
Inglisi’s formula: Q=
√( M+10.36)
M = Area in km2
C = Constant. Value of ‘C’ ranges from 450 to 675.

23
4 S
Burkli formula: Q = 296 C*R*A √( )
A
C = Constant depends on the nature of the ground. Its
value varies from 0.50 to 0.90 average being 0.70.
R = maximum rainfall intensity in mm/hr.
A = Area in hectares.
S = Slope of the sewer.
25000
Metcalf and Eddy’s formula: Q = 28.316 [ + 15]
2.471A+125
C = Constant depends on the nature of the ground. Its
value varies from 0.50 to 0.90 average being 0.70.
R = maximum rainfall intensity in mm/hr.
A = Area in hectares.
S = Slope of the sewer.
Fanning’s formula: Q = 87000M(1/4)

M = Area in km2
3. Explain the following.

Intensity of rainfall, runoff coefficient, Time of concentration.
Ans: Intensity of rainfall (R): The intensity of rainfall can be calculated from the rainfall
records as storm occurring once in 5 years in residential areas and is slightly longer in
commercial areas and is given by the empherical formula:
25.4 a
R=
t+b
Where, t = Duration of rainfall (or storm) in minutes.
‘a’ and ‘b’ are constant.
a = 30 and b = 10 when duration of storm is 5 to 20 minutes.
a = 40 and b = 20 when duration of storm is 20 to 100 minutes.
Runoff coefficient (I): Impervious factor or runoff coefficient is defined as the percentage
of rain water that is available in the form of runoff.
The impervious factor mainly depends on the characteristics of ground surface such as
wetness, porosity etc. The value of I increases as the imperviousness of the area increases.
The value of I can be worked out for different localities depending upon the nature of
the ground surface as follows:

24
Sl. No Surface Value of I

1 Residential area with many buildings 0.70 to 0.90
2 Area with few buildings 0.20 to 0.90
3 Cultivated area 0.15 to 0.20
4 Forest area 0.10 to 0.20
5 Garden parks 0.05 to 0.10
Time of Concentration: It is defined as the longest time, without unreasonable delay, that
would be required for a drop of water to flow from the furthest point of a catchment to the
point where it enters the drain mouth. It is the combination of inlet time and the time of
flow.
Inlet time also called as time of entry, is the time required for the first drop of rain water
to flow from distinct point to the head of the sewer line. In general it lies between 3 minutes
for steep and impervious area and 20 minutes for a flat and agricultural area.
Time of flow is defined as the time taken by the water to flow from the mouth of the
sewer to point under consideration. This can be calculated by dividing the length of the
sewer by the velocity of flow in the sewer.
4. Explain the procedure of design the storm water sewers.
Ans: The following procedure is adopted for the design of storm water sewer:
 Divide the map of the area into a number of tributary areas, each to be served by one
sewer. Mark sewer lines on the plan and calculate the area served by each sewer.
 Reduce each sewered area into its equivalent impermeable area (i.e., area x
impermeability factor).
 Draw sections along the lines of the sewer and determine the gradients at which the
sewers are proposed to be laid.
 Assume the probable size of the sewer and find the velocity of flow through the sewer
at the available gradient by using any of the hydraulic formula. Determine the time of
flow in the sewer, length of the sewer being known.
 Find out the time of concentration by adding the time of flow to an assumed value of
an inlet time.
 Determine the rainfall intensity by using ministry of health formula.
 Calculate the quantity of storm water flow per unit time using Lloyd Davis formula:
60r
Q = 60.5 x ( )xAxI
T
Where, Q = Discharge in cubic feet/min.
A = Area in acres
r = Total rainfall in inches on the area
T = Time of concentration in minutes
I = Impermeability factor

25
 If the runoff discharge as calculated above agrees with the discharge of the sewer, then
the assumed size of the sewer is correct. In case any deviation, assume another size and
repeat the process. Thus by trial and error method, the size of the sewer can be
calculated.
5. Explain the requirements of surface drain.
Ans: For efficient working, the surface drain must fulfil the following requirements:
 The inner surface of the drain should be smooth.
 The joints of the sewer should be proper and neatly finished.
 The gradient of the drain should be such that self-cleansing velocity is developed.
 They should be laid on easy curves.
 Properly designed with reasonable freeboard.
6. Explain different shapes of surface drains and their functions.

Ans: Following are the four shapes of surface drain which are commonly adopted:
i. Rectangular surface drain.
ii. Semi-circular surface drain.
iii. U-shaped surface drain.
iv. V-shaped surface drain.
Rectangular surface drain: These drains are suitable for heavy discharge. But for less
quantity of sewage, these are not suitable. Because, they do not develops minimum required
velocity when sewage quantity is less and hence particle gets easily deposited at the bottom.
Semi-circular surface drain: These drains are easy to construct. These drains are suitable
for small streets where the discharge of sewage is less in quantity. But for heavy discharge
these are not suitable.

26
U-shaped surface drain: These drains are easy to construct and suitable for both less and
heavy discharge of sewage. The side of these drains are vertical and the bottom is curved.
V-shaped surface drains: These drains are more efficient and possesses better hydraulic
gradient but are difficult to construct.
7. Explain in brief the location, function and construction of various types of sewer
appurtenances:
i) Manholes, ii) Drop manholes, iii) Inlets, iv) Catch basins,
Ans: i) Manhole: These are the openings constructed on lines of sewer in order to enable the
men to enter or leave the sewer.
Location: Manholes are to be provided on the following location:

 Intersection point where sewer changes gradient.
 Where sewer changes diameter or size.
 At the junction of many sewers
 At the point where sewer changes direction.
 At street intersection
 In case of flat ground or straight sewer, manholes are to be provided at 75 to 150m
interval.
Function: Manholes are provided for the following purposes:

 For carrying out inspection and testing of sewer whenever necessary.
 For cleaning and maintenance operation.

27
 To allow the joining of the sewers from different directions.

 To allow the changes in gradient and direction of sewer line.
 To allow undesirable gases to escape and to provide ventilation.
 To join the sewer lines laid at different level
Construction: A typical manhole consist of

a) Access shaft, b) Bottom or invert, c) Cover with frame, d) Steps or ladder and f) working
chamber
Access shaft: Top portion of the deep manhole is known as access shaft. Its dimension is
750mm x 600mm for rectangular manhole and 600mm to 750mm in diameter for circular
manhole. The shaft is connected to the working chamber either by corbelling or by arching
or by providing RCC slab.
Bottom or Invert: The bottom of manhole is usually semi-circular or U-shaped with side
slope called benching. It can be either of cement concrete or brick paving. It facilitates the
entry of sewage into the main channel.
Manhole cover: These are made from cast iron or RCC. The size of the opening should be
such as to allow a man to enter or leave the chamber comfortably. The diameter of the cover
varies from 500 to 550mm.
Steps or ladder: In order to make entry and exit easy, steps are provided at suitable c/c
distance in the vertical and horizontal direction. If the manhole is deep, ladder is provided
instead of steps. Average horizontal c/c distance is 200mm and average vertical c/c distance
is 300mm.
Working chamber: The lower portion of the deep manhole is known as working chamber.
It provides a working space to carry out cleaning and inspection operation. The minimum
size of the working chamber for rectangular manhole is 900mm x 1200mm and that for
circular chamber is 1200mm in diameter. The depth of working chamber should not be less
then 1800mm.
ii) Drop manhole: Where the inlet and outlet pipe-sewers have to be connected at different
level and when it is desirable to drop the levels of invert of the incoming sewer 0.9m or
above of the manhole, the connection is made by constructing a vertical pipe outside the
manhole.

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Location: Drop manholes are to be constructed at the junction point of two sewers at
different level.
Function or objects: The objects of drop manholes are:

 To avoid unnecessary steep gradient of branch sewer and is thus reduces the earthwork
excavation.
 To avoid chances of sewage splashing on a man working inside the chamber.
iii) Inlets: An inlet is an opening through which storm water and surface wash flowing
along the streets are admitted and conveyed to the sewer by means of pipes.
Location: Inlets are located on both the sides of pavement at the following locations:
 At the intersection point.
 At every 20m interval.
Horizontal inlet Vertical inlet

29
Types of inlet: There are three types of inlet commonly used:
a) Vertical inlet or curb inlet: It has vertical opening as shown in figure.

b) Horizontal inlet: It has horizontal opening and allows larger quantity of water to flow.
c) Combined inlet: This is the combination of horizontal and vertical inlet.
iv) Catch basin: A catch basin or a catch pit is a chamber which is provided along the
sewer line to admit clear rain water free from silts, debris, etc. into the combined sewer.
Objects or function: Following are the objects of catch basin:

 To collect the water containing impurities like silt, debris etc. from inlets.
 To allow deposition of debris and silt particles at the bottom of catch basin and releasing
the clear water to the sewer.
 To prevent the escape of sewage gas.
Numerical:
8. Compute the velocity and discharge of a Storm water sewer flowing full of 0.6m
dia, laid in a gradient of 1 in 300. Take Manning Constant as 0.012.
9. Calculate the quantity of storm water in a catchment area for the following design
particulars:
Area: 32000 hectares,
Intensity of rainfall: 16mm/hour,
Average permeability factor: 0.5.
10. A combined sewer of circular section is to be laid to serve a particular area with
the following details.
Area to be served = 300 hectares
Population = 1,00,000
Intensity of rainfall =10mm/hour
Rate of supply=135 lpcd
Permeability factor = 0.5

30
11. Calculate the size of the sewer when it has to run full at maximum flow with a
velocity of 3m/sec.
12. A city having catchment area of 6000 hectares and the population density of 150
persons per hectare is supplied with water at the rate of 200 lpcd. The intensity of
rainfall is 40mm/hour.and the average runoff coefficient is 0.5. If 75% of the
supplied water contributes to the sewage, determine the ratio of DWF and WWF.
13. A combined sewer of circular section is to be laid to serve a particular area.

Calculate the size from the following data:
Area to be served: 100 hectares
Population: 90000
Maximum velocity of flow: 3 m/sec
Time of entry: 3 minutes
Time of flow: 17 minutes
Rate of water supply: 240 lpcd
Impermeability factor: 0.50
Useful formulas:
Rational method:
AIR
Q=
360
Where, Q = Runoff in m3/sec
A = Area in hectares
I = Runoff coefficient or impermeability factor
R = Intensity of rainfall in mm/hour

31
AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION

32

exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION: Air Pollution
–Definition, Causes and Classification of Air
Pollutants.
Effects of Pollution on Human Beings.
Acid rain, Green house effect & Global warming,
Ozone depletion. Prevention and control of Air
Pollution, Cyclone Separator and ESP)
Noise- Definition, Sources and measurement of 08 20 14 2 1
noise, Effect of noise on human life and its control,
Ambient air quality standards in respect of Noise,
Legislations with respect to Air and Noise
pollution.
Environmental impact assessment: Aims
&objectives of EIA Methodology of EIA,
Environmental Impact statement (EIS).

33
1. Define Air Pollution. List classification of air pollutants.
Ans: Air pollution is defined as the presence of one or more contaminations like dust, mist,
smoke, odour etc. in quantities and for duration such as to be injurious to human beings,
plants, animals or properties.
Air pollutants are classified to the following types:

i) Natural pollutants
ii) Unnatural pollutants
Natural Pollutants: Following are the natural pollutants causing air pollution:
Atmospheric reaction, Dust and aerosols, micro-organism, pollens and radioactive
minerals.
Unnatural Pollutants: Following are the natural pollutants causing air pollution:
Undesirable gases from combustion of solvents, carbon monoxide, chlorine, Hydrocarbons,
Hydrogen sulphide, Nitrogen oxide and Sulphur dioxide. All of these unnatural pollutants
are produced due to either human activities or from industries, thermal power plants and
vehicular pollution.
2. What are the impact of air pollution on human health?

Ans: Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough concentrations.
Millions of peoples live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution, and toxic pollutants
pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high enough levels of certain air pollutants
may experience:
 Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat
 Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties
 Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma
 Increased risk of heart attack
In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the
immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even
cause death.
Air pollution is a problem for all of us. However, some groups of people are especially
sensitive to common air pollutants such as particulates and ground-level ozone. Sensitive
populations include children, older adults, people who are active outdoors, and people with
heart or lung diseases, such as asthma.
3. Write a short note on acid rain.

Ans: Acid rain: When the pH value of the rain water falls to 5 or below, the rain is called
acid rain.
When the moisture in the air combines with nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide released
by automobiles, factories and various other industries, the reaction between these
compounds and moisture from atmosphere produces nitric acid and sulphuric acid which
falls to the earth surface with the rain water causing air, water and soil pollution.

34
Following are the various effects of acid rain:

 Pollutes the lakes, rivers, reservoirs and wells etc.
 Produces the neurological diseases in human nervous systems
 Death of fishes and the contamination of drinking water
 Harmful to crops and reduces the fertility of soils
 Damages the building and statues
 Risk to wild life
 Causes corrosion of metals, weakening of textiles etc.
4. Write a short note on greenhouse effect.

Ans: It is defined as the continuous warming up of earth’s surface due to trapping of sun’s
heat by the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
It is caused by the increased amount of CO2, CFC and methane etc. in the atmosphere.
Primary sources of CO2 is burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. The layer of CO2 in the
atmosphere acts like a solar cooker which traps the sun’s heat but does not allow it to go
back.
Because of deforestation, amount of CO2 in atmosphere is increasing too fast as there
are not enough numbers of trees for consuming such a huge quantity of CO2.
The net result of all these is that, there is a gradual increase in earth’s atmosphere.
Impact of greenhouse effect:

 Melting of glaciers and iceberg which would increases the sea level.
 Disruption of ecosystem
 Increases the chances of desert formation.
 Reduces the quality of soil due to exposure to high temperature.
 Causes various diseases like skin disease to human beings.
Preventive measures to control greenhouse effect:
 Reducing the generation of harmful gases like CO2 and CO etc.
 Stop deforestation and start afforestation.
 Increasing the uses of eco-friendly technologies.
5. Write a short note on Ozone layer depletion.

Ans: Ozone depletion is one of the prime reasons which are leading to global warming.
Ozone layer protects us from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun. It absorbs these
harmful radiations and thus prevents these rays from entering the earth’s atmosphere.
Ultraviolet radiations are high energy electromagnetic waves emitted by the sun which if
enters the earth’s atmosphere can lead to various environmental issues including global
warming, and also a number of health related issues for all living organisms.
Causes of ozone layer depletion: The main things that lead to destruction of the ozone
layer is the production and emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This is what which
leads to almost 80 percent of the total ozone layer depletion. CFC are generated due to the
uses of refrigerator, air conditioners etc.

35
There are many other substances that lead to ozone layer depletion such as hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides
etc. Such substances are found in vehicular emissions, by-products of industrial processes,
aerosols and refrigerants. All these ozone depleting substances when exposed to the ultra
violet rays, leads to their breakdown and releasing of free chlorine atoms which reacts with
the ozone gas, thus leading to the depletion of the ozone layer.
Effects of ozone layer depletion:

 Increases the UV rays reaching to the earth surface.
 Exposure to UV rays causes headache, burning eyes
 Irritation of respiratory tract, skin cancer
 Lead to crop damages, falling of leaves etc.
 Destruction of aquatic life.
6. Write a short note on global warming.

Ans: The net increase in the CO2 in the atmosphere leads to the greenhouse effect which
further causes gradual heating of earth called global warming.
The primary sources of CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels and the secondary source
is the oxidation of carbon compounds by natural degradation.
CO2 acts like a glass in a green house, because it allows the sun rays to pass through it
but does not allow it to go back thereby trapping it inside the earth atmosphere causing
heating up of earth.
Effect of global warming:

 Increases the earth temperature by 4 to 6 degree Celsius over a century.
 Lead to the melting of glaciers and ice caps which causes increasing of sea level posing
threat to human life.
 Reduces the natural phenomenon of nature.
 Abrupt change in climate.
Preventive measures to control global warming:

 Development of community based factories
 Reduction of deforestation and increase in afforestation
 Strict laws against the uses of fossil fuels
 Restrictions on automobiles and industries
7. What are the various preventive measures to control air pollution?

Ans: The following preventive measures can be taken to control air pollution:
 Adopting proper burning method for coals and fuels.
 Shutting down of industries contributing maximum air pollution
 Using tall chimneys in industries thereby allowing the smoke to be dispersed to the
upper atmospheric layer.
 By introducing air zoning to locate various industries.

36
 Uses of environment friendly energy sources like wind power, solar power, natural gas
etc.
 Preventing deforestation
 Implementing strict rules on automobiles and industries causing pollution
 Removing old vehicles from service
 Using dust separators to separate the dust from smoke generated from industries before
releasing it to the atmosphere.
8. Explain settling chamber, cyclone dust separators, Fabric filter and electrostatic
precipitator.
Ans: Settling chamber: It is also called gravity settling chamber in which used gas enters
the chamber with high velocity and higher density particles will settle down due to gravity
and leaving the clean gas to exit from the chamber.
Cyclone dust separator: It uses the principle of centrifugal action. Used gas enters at the
outer wall of the device and swirl around the cylindrical conical shell. During this process
the heavy particles settles down due to centrifugal action and collected in hopper and can
be removed from the bottom.

37
Fabric filter: In this filter used gas entered to the chamber is made to strike on a baffle
plates to cause larger particle to fall down into the hopper placed below. The carrier gas
then flows upward into the tubes and then outwards through fabric leaving smaller particles
in the form of cake which is to be removed by shaker device after it becomes larger.

38
Electrostatic precipitator: It is used in power generating station. It uses the high voltage
in order to charge the particles electrically when they can be attracted in an electric field
and later are trapped on collecting surfaces. Collecting surface are a series of large
rectangular metal plates suspended vertically parallel to one another. The charged particles
adhering to the plates are mechanically vibrated and falling particles are collected at the
bottom.
9. Define noise pollution. What are the sources of noise pollution?

Ans: Noise pollution: Noise pollution is defined as the unwanted sound which causes the
problems to human beings. It is caused by the exposure of human beings to the high level
of noise generated from various sources.
Sources of noise pollution: Following are the various sources of noise pollution:
 Industrial Sources: Progress in technology (industrialization) has resulted in creating
noise pollution. Textile mills, printing presses, engineering establishments and metal
works etc. contribute heavily towards noise pollution.
 Transport Vehicles: Automobile revolution in urban centers has proved to be a big
source of noise pollution. Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams in congested
areas where the repeated hooting of horns by impatient drivers pierce the ears of all
road users.
 Household: The household is an industry in itself and is a source of many indoor noises
such as the banging of doors, noise of playing children, crying of infants, moving of
furniture, loud conversation of the inhabitants, etc.
 Public Address System: In India people need only the slightest of an excuse for using
loud speakers. The reason may be a religious function, birth, death, marriage, elections,
demonstration, or just commercial advertising.
 Agricultural Machines: Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc.
have all made agriculture highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy.

39
 Defence Equipment: A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery,

tanks, launching of rockets, explosions, exercising of military airplanes and shooting
practices.
 Miscellaneous Sources: The automobile repair shops, construction-works, blasting,
bulldozing, stone crushing etc. are other sources of noise pollution.
10. What are the effects of noise pollution?

Ans: Noise is generally harmful and a serious health hazard. It has far-reaching consequences
and has many physical, physiological as well as psychological effects on human beings.
Physical Effects: The physical manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing
ability. Repeated exposure to noise may result in temporary or permanent shifting of the
hearing threshold of a person depending upon the level and duration of exposure. The
immediate and acute effect of noise pollution is impairment of hearing.
Physiological Effects: The physiological manifestations of noise pollution are several as

mentioned below:
 Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain.
 Increase in the rate of heart-beat.
 Narrowing of arteries.
 Fluctuations in the arterial blood pressure by increasing the level of cholesterol in the
blood.
 Decrease in heart output.
 Pain in the heart.
 Digestive spasms through anxiety and dilation of the pupil of the eye, thereby causing
eye-strain.
 Impairment of night vision.
 Decrease in the rate of color perception.
 Lowering of concentration and effect on memory,
 Muscular strain and nervous breakdown.
 Psychological Effect
The psychological manifestations of noise pollution are:

 Depression and fatigue which considerably reduces the efficiency of a person.
 Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep
 Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from
motorcycles, alarm clocks, call bells, telephone rings etc.
 Affecting of psychomotor performance of a person by a sudden loud sound
 Emotional disturbance

40
11. List Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise.

Ans: Ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different zones are as follows:
Category of area/ Limits in dB (A) leq

Area Code
Zone Day time Night time
A Industrial Area 75 65
B Commercial Area 65 55
C Residential Area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40
12. Explain the preventive measures to control noise pollution.

Ans: Following measures can be taken to control noise pollution:
 Providing ear protection aids
 Control of noise at source by using silencers to automobiles, industries etc
 Adopting good town planning leaving proper space between building and complex with
provision of silence zone.
 Prohibiting excessive use of horns, loud speakers etc.
 Restricting the uses of loud speaker in social or religious gatherings beyond particular
time say 10PM to 6AM.
 Educating the peoples against the adverse effect of noise pollution.
 Planting the trees which will reduce the noise level to a large extent.
 Adopting good designs for house doors and windows to reduce the noise level.
13. Illustrate the aims and objectives of EIA.

Ans: Aims of noise pollution:
 “Modify and improve design”
 “Ensure efficient resource use and enhance social aspects”
 “Identify key impacts and measures for mitigating them”
 “Avoid serious and irreversible damage to the environment”
 “Protect human health and safety”.
Objectives of environmental impact assessment:

 Predict the environmental impact of the project.
 Find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts
 Shape the projects to suit local environment.
 Waste minimization, reuse, recycling, disposal and tracking.
 Sustainable industries.
 Ensuring environmental factors are considered in the decision making process.
 Ensuring that possible adverse environmental impacts are identified and avoided or
minimized.
 To investigate the extent of side effects of proposed mitigation measures that may
lead to other forms of impacts.

41
14. With a neat flow diagram explain the methodology of EIA.
Ans: The fundamental methodology of an EIA involve the following steps:
Screening: It is to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact

assessment study.
Scoping: It is to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess and to identify
alternative solutions that avoids, mitigates or compensate adverse impact on biodiversity.
Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives: It is to predict
and identify the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development
including the detailed elaboration of alternatives.
EIA report: It includes an environmental management plan (EMP) and a nontechnical
summery for the general audience.
Review of EIA report: EIA report is reviewed based on the terms of reference and public
participation.
Decision making: It is to decide whether to approve the project or not, and under what
conditions.
Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing: Monitor whether
the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures occurs as defined in EMP.
Verify the compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or
failed mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely manner.

42
15. Describe about EIS.

Ans: An environmental impact statement is a document required by the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for certain actions significantly affecting the quality of
the human environment. It is a tool for decision making. It describes the positive and
negative environmental effects of a proposed action. It also lists one or more alternative
actions that may be chosen instead of the action described in the EIS.
Purpose of EIS: EIS acts as an enforcement mechanism to ensure that the federal
government adheres to the goals and policies outlined in the NEPA. It describes the impacts
on the environment as a result of a proposed action. It also describes impacts of alternatives
as well as plans to mitigate the impacts.
EIS requirements: Federal laws and regulations require the federal government to
evaluate the effects of its actions on the environment and to consider alternative courses of
action. The NEPA specifies when an environmental impact statement must be prepared.
Council of Environmental Quality regulations provide the recommended format and
content of EIA.
16. What are the causes of air pollution?
Ans: Following are the various causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
Carbon Monoxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and generally emitted
from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is produced from
both natural and manmade processes.
Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related
activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. They emit harmful
chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.
Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby
depleting the quality of air.
Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted
using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air
causing massive air pollution.
Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals
in the air and cause air pollution.

43
SANITATION IN BUILDINGS AND SANITARY

FITTINGS

44

exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
SANITATION IN BUILDINGS AND
SANITARY FITTINGS
Importance and Requirement of Building Drainage,
General Lay-out of Sanitary Fittings and House
Drainage Arrangements for Single and Multi-
06 28 20 3 1
Storied Buildings as Per B.I.S Code of Practice.
Dual pipe system. Sanitary Fittings- Water Closets,
Flushing Cisterns, Urinals, Inspection Chambers,
Traps, Anti-syphonage. Inspection, Testing and
Maintenance of sanitary fittings.

45
1. Explain the importance and requirements of building drainage.
Ans: Importance of building drainage (aims and objectives):

 To dispose off the liquid waste as quickly as possible.
 To dispose of the storm water into open surface drain
 To prevent odour smell from entering into the building from septic tank or sewer.
 To collect and dispose the foul matter quickly
 To provide healthy environment in the building.
Requirements of building drainage (principle of house drainage or sanitation):

 All foul and waste matter should be quickly removed
 Passage of odour, gases from sewer to the building should be prevented
 Pipe should be sufficiently strong and durable
 Pipe joint should be strong and should prevent any leakage
 Entire system should be provided with enough ventilation
 Should not be provided with any dead end
 House drainage should be provided with enough number of traps at suitable points
 Water seal should always be maintained in the trap to prevent back siphonage.
2. Explain with neat sketch the layout of drainage system in single storey building.
Ans:

46
3. Explain with neat sketch the layout of drainage system in multi storey building.
Ans:
4. Write a short note on water closet.

Ans: It is defined as a water flushed plumbing fixture designed to receive human excreta
directly from the person using it. There are two types of water closet:
 Indian type water closet
 European type water closet

47
Indian type water closet: These are made up of porcelain with pan and trap are in two
different pieces. The trap has an opening for anti siphonage pipe. The pan has a flushing
rim to spread the flush water as shown in figure. The usual dimensions are length (450 to
675mm), width (150mm at one end and increased to 225 to 280mm at other end) and overall
height (400mm to 500mm including trap). It needs nearly 10 litres of water for proper
flushing.
European type water closet: It is usually made up of porcelain provided with a seat and
cover and fitted with P-type or S-type trap. The maximum overall length is 630mm and
height about 340 to 400mm. Flushing arrangement is provided with the flushing cistern and
flushing pipe.

48
5. Write a short note on flushing cistern.
Ans: This is an appliance used for flushing out water closets, urinals etc. It is of two types
namely (i) valve less siphonic type and (ii) valve fitted siphonic type.
The bell type flushing cistern is an example of first type. It consists of a cistern having
a suitable cover with a sump formed in the center through which a flush pipe of 32mm dia.
Passes. The flush pipe has its upper end projected a little above the maximum water level
in the cistern while the lower end is connected to the pan. The flush pipe is covered up in
the cistern by a C.I bell, at the top of which a lever arm with a chain is attached. On pulling
the chain the bell is lifted and the water from the cistern enters the flush pipe and flushes
out the pan. On the other hand as the cistern becomes empty, water from the inlet again
enters the cistern and be stored for the next flushing operation. The flow of water into the
cistern is controlled by a ball valve arrangement.
6. Write a short note on trap. What are the requirements of a good trap?
Ans: A trap is a depressed of bent sanitary fitting which always remains full with water
placed in drainage pipe, which prevents entry of foul gases into the house from sewer line.
The efficiency of trap depends upon the depth of water seal, greater the depth of seal, the
more efficient is the trap. The depth of water seal usually varies from 25 to 75mm. The trap
should always remain full with water. But the causes which may remove water seal are air
compression, siphonage, evaporation etc. Various shapes of traps commonly used are P-
trap, Q-trap and S-trap.
Requirements of good trap:

 Should be cleaned easily
 Easily fixed with the drain
 Should have enough water seal

49
 Should not have any inside projection which may obstruct the sewage flow.
 Easy to construct
 Should have self-cleansing property.
7. Write a short note on gully trap.

Ans: These are used for the reception of sullage from baths, sinks and wash basins as well as
rain or surface water. These are usually made of stoneware and a cast iron grating is
provided at its top. The gully trap is fitted inside a masonry chamber with water seal of
about 60mm to 70mm. The gully trap is usually placed near the external face of wall. It
leads the sewage either to the sewer or to the inspection chamber or to man hole.

50
8. Write a short note on inspection chamber.
Ans: Inspection chamber is an underground chamber constructed with brick masonry with
its inner surface is plastered with rich cement mortar. The floor is finished with the cement
concrete. The chamber has a size of minimum 0.6 x 0.7m so that a man can easily enter
into the chamber comfortably and clean it easily. However the size depends on the depth
of the underground drain and the number of branches starts from it. Inspection chamber is
provided with cast iron cover with frame of R.C.C cover.
9. Explain the inspection of house sanitary connection.
Ans: Every sanitary fittings should be inspected carefully against the defects before and after
installation in the following way:
 Sanitary pipe should be checked by knocking with a wooden hammer and pipe should
produce the ringing sound.
 Cast iron pipe should be checked for major or minor defects. If the defects are minor
repair it or otherwise replace the pipe.
 Open the cover of all gullies and chamber to check the waste pipes whether it is clear
and discharge flows easily or not.
 Check for dampness in the following places:
i. Walls in the front, bottom and the side of the sinks.
ii. In the surface of the floor to check possible rising of ground water by capillary action.
iii. In the ceiling for the leaks in joints in bathrooms, water closets etc. on the upper floor
connection.
iv. Check all the fittings before installation for defects. Any defects in the fittings should
be rectified or replaced.
v. Sanitary pipe line should be checked in every stage of its laying and proper care should
be taken to ensure the smooth flow of discharge.
10. Explain the testing of sanitary fittings.

Ans: After the house drains are laid and the pipes are fitted in position, it is necessary to
ensure their water tightness by adopting one or more of the following test:
i. Air test: This test can be applied for underground or vertical pipes. Particular section
of the pipe is sealed from both the ends. Air is then forced in the pipe by suitable
equipment. Leaky joints are the found out by applying soap solution on pipe surface.
The escape of air through the leakage will form bubbles which are visible. Joints are
then repaired.
ii. Coloured water test: When coloured water is allowed to flow from one point to
another point of the drain, it will come out through leaky joints if present. Thus, the
leakage can be detected easily by observing the coloured water from outside and
suitable remedial measure can be taken.
iii. Hydraulic test: Pipe portion is selected between two manholes. Pipe end from the
lower manhole is plugged. In the upper manhole water is filled upto a height of about

51
600 to 900mm in case of house drain. If there is no drop in water level after 10 minutes,
it can be safely assumed that there is no leakage. Otherwise check for defects and repair.
iv. Smell test: This is similar to air test. In this case air is mixed with some smelling gas
which can be easily recognized if comes out through any leakage and the leaky joints
can be repaired or replaced.
v. Smoke test: This test is similar to air test except that smoke is allowed in the pipe
instead of air. Smoke if comes out can be easily detected and remedial measures can be
taken.
11. Explain the maintenance of sanitary fittings.
Ans: Sanitary fittings or house drainage system should be properly maintained and cleaned
at regular interval. Following points should be carefully noted:
i. Entry of undesirable elements: The users of house drainage system should take
precautions to avoid entry of undesired elements like grit, sand, pieces of clothes and
vegetables etc. in the sanitary system.
ii. Flushing: In order to maintain the house drainage system in proper working condition,
it is recommended to flush it regularly.
iii. Inspection: The various units of house drainage system should be inspected at regular
interval and the obstruction if any should be removed.
iv. Quality of materials: Materials used in the drainage system should be of good quality.
v. Use of disinfectants: To maintain good sanitation in the building, it is recommended
to use disinfectants in bathrooms, water closets and kitchen basins etc.
vi. Workmanship: Laying of drain and fixing of pipes should be carried out by authorized
plumbers only.
12. What are the requirements of a good water closet?
Ans: Following are the requirements of a good water closet:

i. Should be convenient in use for different age group persons.
ii. Flushing should be effective with less quantity of water.
iii. Surface of pan should be smooth and frictionless.
iv. Excreta should not stick to the surface.
v. Urine should not be splashed outside the pan.
vi. Water from the trap should not be splashed when excreta fall into the trap.
13. Write a short note on Dual pipe system in buildings.
Ans: Dual pipe system is a system of plumbing installations used to supply both potable and
reclaimed water to a home or business. Under this system, two completely separate water
piping systems are used to deliver water to the user. This system prevents mixing of the
two water supplies, which is undesirable, since reclaimed water is usually not intended for
human consumption.

52
Potable water is safe for drinking, cooking and washing. Reclaimed water was formerly
waste or sewage. This water is treated to remove any solid waste and cleaned to be free of
harmful bacteria. There are some disadvantages, though. It costs more to have two
plumbing systems. Plus, not all cities are set up for reclaimed water use.
There are lots of different ways to use dual plumbing system. It can require two different
plumbing systems, include collecting rainwater to fill toilets or irrigate plants, or be as
simple as installing special sink/toilet combinations in commercial buildings that allow the
water from hand-washing to fill the toilet for flushing.

53
SEWAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

54

exam exam
PART- PART-
A B
SEWAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL :
Preliminary Treatment - Brief Description and
Functions of - i) Screens ii) Skimming Tanks iii)
Grit Chambers.
Primary Treatment - Brief Description and
Function of the Sedimentation and Septic Tanks
Secondary Treatment - Brief Description of i)
Trickling Filters ii) Activated Sludge Process
Oxidation Ponds, Oxidation Ditches, Aerobic
Lagoons, Anaerobic Lagoons, Rotary Biological
14 40 27 2 3
Disc.
Tertiary treatment – Activated sand filter and
chlorination.
Sewage Disposal- Dilution, Self-purification of
streams, factors affecting self-purification.
Disposal in Sea water, Disposal on Lands,. Recycle
of wastewater(Grey water technology)
Sludge treatment & Disposal - Sludge treatment
& disposal methods. Sludge digestion tank, Sludge
drying bed.

55
1. Write the functions of (i) Screens (ii) Skimming tanks (iii) Grit chamber
2. Explain the functions of sedimentation tanks.
3. Write a short note on Rotary Biological Disc.
4. Explain various methods adopted for sludge disposal.
5. Explain Sludge digestion tank with a neat sketch.
6. Illustrate with sketch the functioning of Trickling filter.
7. With the flow diagram explain the working of Activated Sludge Process (ASP).
8. Explain Oxidation ditch with neat sketch.
9. Explain Oxidation pond with neat sketch.
10. Explain Aerobic lagoon with neat sketch.
11. Explain anaerobic lagoon with neat sketch.
12. Explain the tertiary treatment of sewage.

56

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SANITARY ENGINEERING By: TAJUL ISLAM

Lecturer, Dept. of Civil (AP)

INTRODUCTION AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Hours Marks Percentage Number of

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

1. State the importance of sanitation.

Ans: Following are the various importance of sanitation:

2. Define the following terms

Sewer: It is defined as a pipe or conduit or drains which carries sewage.

3. List the sources of sewage.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

4. What are the objectives of sewerage work?

5. What are the different methods of sewage collection?

6. Describe conservancy system.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Advantages of water carriage system:

Disadvantages of water carriage system:

8. Write the comparison of conservancy system with water carriage system.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

9. What is sanitary sewage? Explain briefly.

Industrial sewage: It is waste from industries and manufacturing processes. This is

10. Estimate the quantity of domestic sewage generated from a town.

Addition due to infiltration: This is additional quantity due to groundwater seepage in to

Unit Minimum Maximum

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of sewage

11. What are the factor affecting the sanitary sewage?

12. Explain limiting velocities of sewer.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

permissible velocity at which no scouring action takes place is known as non-scouring

13. What are the factors affecting the design of sewers?

14. Differentiate between Domestic sewage and Industrial Waste water.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Important formulae from the chapter:

d = Diameter of sewer (in m)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYSIS OF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Hours Marks Percentage Number of

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

1. Write a short note on strength of sewage.

2. Explain various types of waste water sampling methods.

3. Explain the necessity of examination of sewage.

4. Write a note on physical tests of sewage.

Ans: Physical tests of sewage includes the followings:

Turbidity test: It is determined by the turbidity rod or Jackson’s turbidity meter. It

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

Temperature: Temperature is measured by ordinary thermometer. If temperature of

5. Explain the three sewerage system used to convey the sewage.

6. Explain the merits and demerits of combined sewer.

Ans: Advantages of combined sewer:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

 Due to large size initial cost increases.

7. Explain the merits and demerits of separate sewer.

Ans: Advantages of combined sewer:

8. Compare Separate and Combined sewerage system.

1 Maintenance cost is less. Maintenance cost is more.

2 Simpler in arrangement as only one Complex in arrangement as two

9. Explain the following types of sewers:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, ACHARYA POLYTECHNIC

10. Explain laying of sewers.

Dicken’s formula: Q = 14CM(3/4)

Ryve’s formula: Q = 15CM(2/3)