Acre Astronautica Vol. 39, No. 5, pp. 347-353.

1996
0 1997 Published by Elswier Science Ltd
Pergamon Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
PII: SOO94-5765(%)0011 l-7 0094-5765/96 S15.00+0.00

MISSION ANALYSIS OF CLUSTERS OF SATELLITES-f

ERIC FRAYSSINHES and ERICK LANSARD

ALCATEL ESPACE, 26, Avenue Jean-FranCois Champollion, B. P. 1187,
31037 Toulouse Cedex, France

(Received 31 January 1996)

Abstract-An innovative satellite system that provides high precision localisation of beacon positions
consists of a cluster of satellites, i.e. a group of satellites that maintain assigned positions at relatively short
distances from each other. Compared to a single satellite, the interest of such a cluster lies in its ability
to synthesise antenna bases much longer than those who can be physically mounted on one satellite. Each
satellite of the cluster measures the time-of-arrival of the signal transmitted by the beacon. The derived
time-differences-of-arrival (TDOA) are processed to estimate the beacon position. At first, this paper
summarises the investigations performed on the localisation accuracy that have yielded the optimal cluster
geometry. In a previous paper [E. Frayssinhes and E. Lansard, AAS paper 95-334 (1995)], Alcatel Espace
has proposed a mathematical formulation relying on a strong analogy with GPS geometrical
character&ion of navigation performances. The effects of geometry are expressed by geometric dilution
of precision (GDOP) parameters. Such parameters are obtained by solving the TDOA measurement
equations for the beacon position using an iterated-least-squares procedure. Then, the paper focuses at
the system level on the peculiar problems that arise when such a satellite cluster system is dealt with, and
more particularly the launch and early operations phases, the station-keeping strategies of manoeuvres,
and the relative localisation and clock synchronisation of the satellites. In particular, it is shown that even
with the “civil” C/A GPS measurements, differential techniques can yield respective accuracies better than
5 m r.m.s. and 15 ns r.m.s. 0 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

1. INTRODUCTION The following sections of this paper address the

The present paper deals with radiolocalisation of
beacons by means of an original satellite system: a
cluster of satellites. A cluster of satellites is a group
of satellites that maintain assigned positions at
relatively short distances from each other. The
beacon transmits a signal which is received at
different times by each satellite of the cluster. Then,
the Time-Differences-Of-Arrival (TDOA) of the
signal for different pairs of satellites are used to
passively find the beacon position, which is
determined as the intersection of hyperboloids of
revolution. Each hyperboloid is the locus of constant
signal TDOA for a pair of satellites, and has these
two satellites as foci. Since three independent surfaces
are required to locate a point in a three-dimensional
space, three independent pairs of satellites (i.e. four
satellites), are therefore necessary for radiolocalisa-
tion purposes. If the signal transmitter is known to be
at the surface of the Earth, three satellites measuring
two TDOA of the beacon signal are sufficient. Then,
the beacon position is obtained as the intersection
of two hyperboloids with the Earth surface (see
Fig. I).
-~
tPaper IAF-95A.6.03 presented at the 46th International
Astronautical Congress. Oslo, Norway, 2-6October 1995. with GPS geometrical characterisation
main problems that are to be covered when dealing
with a satellite cluster at the system level. At first, the
optimal design of a cluster is presented with emphasis
on the instantaneous geometry (static analysis) and
its short-term evolution (dynamical analysis). Then,
the very specific launch and early operations of a
cluster are analysed as well as the station-keeping
strategies. Finally, attention is paid to the localisation
and clock synchronisation problems inside a cluster.
The generic approach that is presented in this
paper does not depend upon the cluster orbital
characteristics. In fact, the choice of altitude and
orbital inclination is governed by coverage and link
budget considerations, which are very dependent on
the radioelectric characterisations of the beacons to
locate. For illustration purposes, the selected altitude
in this paper will be around 1500 km in the LEO
range.
2. OPTIMAL GEOMETRY OF A THREE LEO
SATELLITES CLUSTER
2.1.Class of optimal triangles
The optimal geometry for clusters made of three
- LEO satellites has been investigated in [l] and relies
upon a method that presents a very strong analogy
of navigation

347
348 E. Frayssinhes and E. Lansard
performances. The assessment of the various
candidate geometries was based on the comparison of
the corresponding geometry dilution of precision
factors. Such parameters characterise the cluster
geometry as seen from the beacon location.
Multiplied by the Equivalent Range Error (ERE) of
the measurement errors, they provide the beacon
localisation accuracy. For example:
HDOP * ERE = Error in beacon localisation
in the horizontal plane
where HDOP stands for Horizontal Dilution Of
Precision. It can be shown[l] that the lowest HDOP
factors, i.e. the most accurate localisation perform-
ances, are obtained for a three-satellite cluster when
the three satellites form an isosceles triangle.
2.2. Impact of inter-satellite distances
The impact of the distances between the satellites
of a given cluster on the beacon localisation accuracy
has been assessed for different geometries of isosceles
triangles[l]. The performed analyses clearly show
that both cluster baseline and perpendicular height
have to be of quite similar magnitude. From a
geometrical point of view, the bigger the cluster
dimensions, the lower the HDOP factors and hence
the better localisation accuracies. Yet, a limitation
does exist when the distance between the satellites
increases due to the size reduction of the common
view area and to radioelectric ambiguity problems.
In practice, an isosceles cluster with an overall size
ranging from 20 to 50 km exhibits typical HDOP at
the sub-cluster point ranging from 140 down to 60.
In the following, a cluster baseline of 50 km is
retained for practical numerical examples, which
corresponds to a sub-cluster HDOP of about 60. For
example, such a cluster is able to locate GPS-like
signals with about 1 km accuracy[l].
2.3. Short-term evolution
The previously summarised static analyses have
been performed for a beacon assumed to be located
Required : 3 satellites
measuring 2 TDOA
Satellite No. I
oid of revolution
constunt TDOA
of xntellitcx)
u ;;;it$$G&Y;izn
Fig. 1. Localisation of a beacon at the surface of the Earth.
-901 I
-2oot-J -1500-1000 -500 0 500 loo0 1500 2000
Distance to the sub-cluster point (km)
Fig. 2. Minimal HDOP values characterising the observed
points as a function of their distance to the sub-cluster point
and of their latitude.
at the sub-cluster point, where the localisation
performances are the most accurate. For a given
cluster configuration, the obtained HDOP values are
likely to increase when considering beacon positions
in the vicinity of the sub-cluster point. Moreover, the
geometrical configuration of the cluster is subject to
continuous deformation as the satellites move along
their orbits. These spatio-temporal considerations are
addressed in Ref. [I]. The isosceles triangle configur-
ation is implemented by placing two satellites one
behind the other on the same orbital plane, and the
third one on a slightly shifted plane in order to get
the desired geometry as the cluster flies over the
Equator. Simulations have been performed on a
50 km-baseline cluster deployed on Sun-synchronous
circular orbits at altitude 1500 km. The results are
that the localisation accuracy degrades:
- when the distance from the observed point to the
sub-cluster point increases, since the cluster is
seen under smaller solid angle;
- when the latitude of the observed point increases,
since the third satellite comes closer to the cluster
baseline, thus decreasing the size of the triangle
height.
These features are illustrated in Fig. 2, where the
minimal values of the HDOP factor that character-
izes each point in simultaneous visibility of the three
satellites are reported as concerning the ascending
part of the orbit (given the cluster orbital configur-
ation, the descending part of the orbit is perfectly
symmetrical). The distance from the observed point
to the sub-cluster point is projected onto the X-axis.
The Y-axis indicates the latitude of the observed
point.
3. LAUNCH AND EARLY OPERATION PHASES
This part deals with the launch and early
operations phases for a cluster of three satellites.
Strategies are proposed for the various required
manoeuvres. Associated consumptions in terms of
velocity impulse are also provided.
 Mission analysis of clusters of satellites

3.1. Assumptions
According to the previous results on the optimal
cluster geometry, the considered cluster is designed to
form an isosceles triangle over the Equator (to get a
symmetrical coverage of both northern and southern
hemispheres). The orbital characteristics of the three
satellites are the same to ensure the periodic
reformation of the optimal cluster configuration:
Sun-synchronous circular orbits at altitude 1500 km
are assumed. Two satellites are separated by 0.364*
on the same orbital plane, thus keeping the triangle
base length to a constant value: 50 km. The third
satellite belongs to a slightly shifted plane to get the
desired isosceles triangle as the cluster flies over the
Equator. The triangle perpendicular height is about
the same as the constant baseline (50 km); thus the IIISI and S2

right ascension ascending node spacing is equal to
0.372” (see Fig. 3).
Then, assuming the three satellites injected by the
same launcher in an initial circular drift-orbit, two
types of manoeuvres are required to get the
operational cluster configuration:
out-of-plane spacing by an angle AR equal to
0.372” of the orbital planes containing the
satellites SI and S? on one hand, and the satellite
S, on the other hand;
in-plane spacing by an angle AM equal to 0.364”
of the two satellites S, and S,.
Fig. 4. Hohmann transfers of satellites S, and SZ.
(ii) the two coplanar satellites S, and S, immediately
reach their final altitude at 1500 km. Assuming
Hohmann transfers (see Fig. 4), the lead-angle
between satellite S, and both satellites S, and S2:
once the transfers are completed is given by
equation (1):
AM,=n 2-l (1)
( 1

3.2. Out-$-plane spacing where:

The proposed strategy to separate the orbital
planes of satellites S, and SZon one side, and satellite
S3 on the other side, is based on the secular drift of
the right ascension of the ascending modes due to the
Jz-term of the terrestrial gravitational potential. The
sequence of operation is the following:
(i) the three cluster satellites are injected on an
initial circular drift-orbit with a semi-major axis
lower than the semi-major axis of the final orbit;
Sntelliter S I and S2 one
behind the other on the
same orbital plant
- T, is the orbital period of the transfer orbit;
- Td is the orbital period of the initial
drift-orbit;
(iii) the third satellite S, remains on the drift-orbit: its
orbital plane drifts relatively to the final orbital
plane of satellites S, and Sz due to the differential
Jz effects;
(iv) once the required spacing between orbital planes
is reached, the altitude of satellite S, is raised to
its final value. The same manoeuvre is used to
phase S, with both satellites S, and S2. Assuming
a Hohmann transfer (see Fig. 5), the lead-angle
between satellite S, and both satellites S, and S,
at the beginning of the transfer must be:

where Tf is the orbital period of the final orbit.

Now, the expression of the lead-angle AM as a
function of the drift duration At is given by

AM(Af) = AM0 + 2~ (3)

AM(0.;~ Hence, the lead-angle between the satellite SI and

satellites SI and S1 at the beginning of the Hohmann
transfer takes only discrete values, as defined by eqn
Fig. 3. Cluster configuration above the Equator. (4):
350 E. Frayssinhes and E. Lansard

AM(Ar) = AM + 2krr (4)

where k is an integer.
The corresponding drift duration can be assessed
by developing eqn (4) to the 1st order in ha/a, where
Sa stands for the semi-major axis offset between the
drift and the final orbits. The resulting expression is
given by eqn (5):
k=3

2 k=4
At= $-+$++;)+;(k+ I);] (5) a
co -IO
k=5
._
5 I
The out-of-plane spacing which is achieved after a q-1.2/- I 1 l 1 1 l I l ]

drift duration At is defined by: 5 IO I5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Altitude offset (km)

AR = Ah,, At (6)
Fig. 6. Achievable out-of-plane spacing for various
In the previous expression, Ah,, stands for the k-parameter values.
differential drift in right ascension of the ascending
modes between the drift-orbit and the final orbit, due
distributes the total consumption. It consists of the
to the &term of the Earth gravitational potential.
succession of the following operations:
Therefore, for a reasonable drift duration (say less
(i) transfer of the satellite S, (respectively, satellite
than 6 months), only discrete values can be reached
SZ) to an elliptic orbit tangent to the final orbit
for the out-of-plane spacing. Figure 6 shows the first
and with a lower (respectively higher) semi-major
six achievable values, respectively obtained with
axis aint (respectively, a,,,), as shown in Fig. 8;
k=O,l,..., 5. Note that each value is slightly
(ii) transfer of the satellite S, (respectively, satellite
varying with the altitude offset 6a between drift and
SZ) back to the final orbit once the desired
final orbits.
spacing reached, after an integer number n of
Now, a spacing value equal or close to the specified
orbital periods. For that purpose, a velocity
one (0.372”) can be achieved for k = 1. Since various
impulse equal but opposite to the one initially
altitude offsets are suitable within the range from 5
performed is executed at the point of contact of
to 50 km, the required velocity impulse per satellite
the orbits.
depends upon the duration of the drift phase, as
Various semi-major axis values are suitable for each
illustrated by Fig. 7.
elliptic transfer orbit, depending upon the number n
Consumptions of 12, 4 and 2 m/s are respectively
of the orbital revolutions performed. Their ex-
obtained for drift durations of 1, 3 and 6 months.
pressions as functions of the aimed in-plane spacing
3.3. In-plane spacing AM are given by eqns (7) and (8).

The proposed strategy to separate the satellites S,

and SZwithin their orbital plane minimises and evenly a”, = a

( 4E>2J
1 _
4m
(7)

25r

I 1 1 1 1 I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 I20 140 160 180

Drift-orbit duration (days)

Fig. 7. Velocity impulse per satellite required for out-of-

Fig. 5. Beginning of the Hohmann transfer for satellite S3. plane spacing.
 Mission analysis of clusters of satellites 351
a-a‘

r-h

‘IAd”““o
Fig. 10. Principle of the fine station-keeping mode.

orbit
The effects of these perturbations have been assessed
on the selected cluster orbital configuration: an
Fig. 8. In-plane spacing. isosceles triangle of base length 50 km deployed on
Sun-synchronous frozen orbits at altitude 1500 km.
Frozen orbits are chosen to maintain a constant
&I
= a

( &!! >2’3
1 +
4nn
argument of perigee (90”) and eccentricity. Hence,
disturbing effects stemming from perigee relative
movements are avoided.
where a stands for the semi-major axis of the final
The satellite orbits are propagated for 6 months.
circular orbit.
The used gravitational field includes zonal and
The required velocity impulse per satellite is shown
tesseral harmonics through degree 8, which is
in Fig. 9 as a function of n. The in-plane spacing can
sufficient within the frame of this work: the
therefore be achieved within 24 h (n = 13 revolutions)
gravitational field wavelengths that affect two
with a velocity impulse of 0.2 m/s, or within 48 h
satellites less than 50 km apart are indeed totally
(n = 25 revolutions) with a consumption equal to
attenuated at altitude 1500 km. Luni-solar pertur-
0.1 m/s.
bations are also taken into account.
The main effect which is observed is a drift of the
4. STATION-KEEPING tangential component (i.e. aligned with the satellite
velocity) of the inter-satellite vector. This drift stems
from the difference of orbital pulsation-hence of
4. I. Orbital perturbations
semi-major axis-between satellites.
The optimal geometrical configuration of the As a matter of illustration, such a small semi-major
cluster is subject to both short-term and long-term axis offset like 1 m yields a tangential drift between
deformations: the satellites greater than 20 km 6 months later. The
(i) short-term deformation as the satellites move on satellites can move towards or apart depending upon
their orbits. This point has been previously the sign of the semi-major axis offset. Therefore,
addressed; station-keeping manoeuvres are required.
(ii) long-term deformation due to the differential The proposed station-keeping strategy consists of
orbital perturations acting on the satellites of the a limit-cycle that controls the satellite tangential
cluster. relative drift by fine tuning of the semi-major axes. A
preliminary phase is required to acquire the
conditions of such a limit-cycle.
2.5 r
4.2. Preliminary phase
The purpose of this preliminary phase is to correct
the dispersions which are associated to the launch
and early operations phases. It aims at cancelling the
semi-major axis offset between the satellites of the
cluster (to the accuracy of the satellites, relative
localisation, however). The required velocity impulse
per satellite is estimated to be about 5% of the
velocity impulses performed during the launch and
early operations phases.
4.3. Limit-cycle
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Once the measurable semi-major axis offset is
Number of turn8 corrected, the station-keeping strategy enters a fine
Fig. 9. Velocity impulse per satellite required for in-plane mode which consists of the limit-cycle illustrated by
spacing. Fig. 10.
352 E. Frayssinhes and E. Lansard

); Relative states
a
Absolute dynamic Relative dynamic estimation errors
state x state AX -2oL I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Fig. L1. Principle of the localisation of the cluster satellites. Time (min)

Fig. 12. Relative localisation accuracy performances.

The operating cycle is the following: each time the
tangential drift Ad between two satellites exceeds the
nominal value AdOby a threshold + T (respectively,
-7”), a velocity impulse is provided to one of the
satellites, whose altitude increases (respectively
decreases) by 26~. The specified value for the
threshold T depends upon the cluster main dimen-
sion. According to a 50 km-baseline, the retained
value is +2.5 km. Assuming periodic station-keeping
manoeuvres each 16 days yields a Sa value equal to
2.5 m. Then, the corresponding yearly consumption is
very low, about 0.05 m/s.
5. LOCALISATION AND SYNCHRONISATION
CLUSTER SATELLITES
The localisation accuracy of beacon positions by
means of a cluster of satellites depends upon various
parameters. Among them, the localisation accuracy
of the cluster satellites (absolute and relative) and the
synchronisation of the clocks between the different
satellites play an important role. These mission
control functions can be supported by a localisation
system based on the C/A-code GPS. Due to its
preponderant impact on the beacon localisation
performances, the relative localisation and synchroni-
sation of the cluster satellites are more specifically
addressed in the following.
5.1. Relative localisation using C/A-code
The absolute position accuracy provided by the
GPS system can be considerably improved for
relative localisation purposes by differential tech-
niques. Their implementation yields an error compen-
sation effect in the measurements performed by the
different satellite receivers. Thus, the following high
spatially correlated errors can be reduced or even
removed:
Table 1, Differential GPS system error budget121
Error source Error (la)
Receiver noise and resolution
Multipath
Other
Total
6) GPS satellite clock error;
(ii) GPS satellite ephemeris error (a sensible
theoretical reduction can be obtained for users in
close positions);
(iii) selective availability (acts as a combination of
both a slowly variant clock error and a random
error in the ephemeris determination);
(iv) errors due to the propagation effets (can be
removed only for very close locations of users).
On the other hand, the receiver clock noise and the
multipath effects are insensitive to the differential
techniques.
OF THE The localisation of the cluster satellites is
implemented according to Fig. 11; a specific
algorithm is adopted to directly process the
differences of absolute measurements performed by
the receivers of two satellites. This solution implies an
a priori reduction of the measurement errors, thus
allowing a more accurate determination of the
relative state vector.
5.2. CIA-code GPS measurements
The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is considered.
Pseudorange measurements to the four best GPS
satellites (i.e. associated to the lowest Position
Dilution Of Precision factor) in common view of the
cluster satellites are assumed available every 1 s. The
GPS error budget for the pseudorange differences is given
by Table 1.
5.3. Simulation results
The pseudorange differences are processed by a
Kalman filter whose relative state vectors consist of:
- relative position;
- relative velocity;
- relative disturbing acceleration;
- relative clock bias;
- relative clock drift.
Assuming an oscillator with a lo-*/l5 min stability
onboard each satellite of the cluster, the relative
10.6m
1.7m localisation accuracy performances have been as-
0.5 m sessed through simulations. Figure 12 shows the
10.8 m obtained results.
 Mission analysis of clusters of satellites
The relative position accuracy is strongly con-
nected with the PDOP factor that characterizes the
instantaneous relative geometry of the selected GPS
satellites. An accuracy better than 5 m r.m.s. is
achievable. Besides, a relative synchronisation of the
satellites to 15 ns (1 a) is provided as a by-product of
the relative localisation exercise.
6. CONCLUSION
Clusters of satellites perform high precision passive
localisation of radioelectric beacons by processing the
Time-Differences-Of-Arrival of the signal for differ-
ent pairs of satellites. Yet, this attractive concept of
satellite systems raises specific problems that have
been successfully analysed from a mission analysis
point of view. In particular, original formulations
and results have been proposed to deal with the
optimisation of the cluster geometry, the launch and
early operations phases, the station-keeping strategies
and the relative localisation and clock synchronisa-
tion of the satellites. For illustration purposes,
numerical results for a three LEO-satellite cluster at
1500 km height have been provided, but the
353
generality of the performed analyses is to be
emphasised. According to them, an isosceles cluster
with an overall size of about 50 km provides
Horizontal Dilution of Precision factors lower than
140 between the latitudes 65” S and 65” N. Such a
figure corresponds to a localisation accuracy of
GPS-type signal transmitters of about 1 km. The
launch and early operations phases require less than
5 m/s of velocity impulse per satellite for a 3 month
duration. A low-consuming station-keeping strategy
(about 0.05 m/s per year and per satellite) must be
implemented. Finally, the relative localisation and
clock synchronisation between satellites can be
advantageously achieved using the C/A-code GPS,
yielding accuracies of less than 5 m r.m.s. and 15 ns
(la).
REFERENCES
1. E. Frayssinhes and E. Lansard, Designing clusters of
satellites for radiolocalisation purposes. AAS paper
95-334 (1995).
2. N. de Cheyzelles, The GPS-NACATAR location and
navigation system. Location and Navigation Satellite
Systems. Cepaudues-Ed. (1989).