Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1 Department of Civil Engineering, National Central University, Chungli, 320 Taiwan, ROC
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, 320 Taiwan, ROC
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, 320 Taiwan,
ROC
Abstract
In this paper, a simpler formulation for the nonlinear motion analysis of reticulated
mechanics, named the vector form intrinsic finite element (VFIFE or V-5) method.
The V-5 method models the analyzed domain to be composed by finite particles and
the Newton’s second law is applied to describe each particle’s motion. By tracing
the motions of all the mass particles in the space, it can simulate the large geometrical
and material nonlinear changes during the motion of structure without using
geometrical stiffness matrix and iterations. The analysis procedure is vastly simple,
accurate, and versatile. The formulation of VFIFE type space truss element includes
a new description of the kinematics that can handle large rotation and large
deformation, and includes a set of deformation coordinates for each time increment
used to describe the shape functions and internal nodal forces. A convected material
frame and an explicit time integration scheme for the solution procedures are also
accuracy of the V-5 method on the nonlinear dynamic stability analysis of space truss
structures.
1
Keywords: space truss, nonlinear, dynamic, stability, particle, convected material
frame, deformation coordinates
1. Introduction
The nonlinear behavior of a reticulated space structure has been an important
problem in classical structural analysis. This is, in part, because most of the space
structures are quite flexible. Thus, the understanding of changes in the structural
components and joints, and the structural geometry can be complex and innovating.
It is thus necessary to use numerical procedures for the analysis. A literature survey
shows that, during the past three decades, a large variety of formulations and
algorithms have been proposed for the study of reticulated trusses [1-20]. Some are
quite elaborate and complex. In general, several techniques seem have adopted the
stiffness or flexibility method as the basis of formulation for the classical matrix
procedure is employed to perturb the added nonlinear and geometrical terms. For
Among the earlier reports, Noor [3, 6] used a mixed formulation, with unknowns
consisting of both the force and displacement parameters, to analyze the geometrical
and material nonlinear problems of space structures. However, the mixed method
increases the computation effort required for the matrix operation, so a reduction
2
method is applied to reduce the amount of computation. Jagannathan et al. [7] and
Wood et al. [24] used the stiffness method and the finite element method, respectively,
coordinates were adopted to describe the large displacement and rigid body rotations.
Jagannathan, Epstein and Christiano [8] used the Newton-Raphson method to analyze
Dickel and Renner [9] compared the accuracy of four different types of modified
Papadrakakis [10] proposed a two-vector iteration method, that is, a combination of,
the dynamic relaxation method and the conjugate gradient method, to correct errors
Meek and Tan [11] applied the arc length method, and Watson and Holzer [25] used
the Crisfield’s method, to study the post-bucking behavior of a space truss. Holzer et
al. [17] has checked whether the location of the combined loading in the
loading-interaction diagram exceeds the stability boundary or not, to define the force
equilibrium path of a lattice structure. Leu and Yang [18, 37] have pointed out that
an unbalanced force will cause a fictitious response during rigid body motion, and
higher order nonlinear stiffness matrix, together with geometric stiffness matrix,
should be included to remove computational errors. Similar analyses have been also
conducted by Leu and Yang [26], Mallett [27] and Rajasekaran et al. [28]. Levy et al.
study the buckling problems of a truss with an arbitrary shape and applied loading.
3
three-parameter constrained solution techniques to get the correct load-deflection
path.
has attracted a good deal of interest to date. In contrast, the nonlinear structural
response under dynamic loading has not received much attention. Kassimali et al.
[41] had studied the stability of truss under dynamic load based on an Eulerian
formulation accounting for arbitrarily large displacements. Zhu et al. [42] stated that
the nonlinearity of reticulated structures under dynamic loading can stem from
various origins: (i) geometrical; (ii) material; (iii) inertia; (iv) damping characters of
the structure system. Due to the complexity of the problem, the nonlinear response
and stability of these space structures under dynamic loads have thus far received only
limited attention [38-44]. It attracts the authors of this article to investigate this topic
46] seem to yield excellent results, there are some drawbacks when the proposed
changes are often combined with material property changes, such as yielding and
damage. In fact, the formation of local yielding zones could be the primary source
used to perturb both the geometrical and material nonlinearities, the accuracy and
stability of the algorithm can not be assured. Secondly, for a large structure,
geometrical changes may be caused by the buckling and yielding of a large number of
displacement controlled procedure the algorithm can become quite complex. Thirdly,
iterative procedures for nonlinear behavior are often limited to specific types of
4
loading conditions. The restriction on applying loading conditions (type, direction,
magnitude) into the system can be a problem when a realistic simulation needs to be
is the choice of a vector or matrix operation. Classical structural analysis for linearly
elastic material and static loading adopts a matrix formulation. However, vector
formulations as Hallquist [29] have been shown to be the preferable choice for the
study of the structure response under transient loading, shocks, and impacts with
This paper reports on a recent attempt to develop a simpler formulation for the
proposed approach by Ting et al. [30-32] named the vector form intrinsic finite
element (VFIFE, or V-5) for the analysis of large geometrical changes in continuous
media is discussed. The concept is adopted into the present paper for 3D truss
convected reference frame, fictitious reversed rigid body motion and updated
deformation coordinate system are used to separate the rigid body motion and pure
deformation of the system. Then the internal force is calculated from the
deformation of element and applied to the mass particle to constrain its motion.
After combining with explicit time integration scheme, the proposed method can
effectively simulate the dynamic behaviors of space truss structures having large
iteration, which also permits force or displacement inputs, without the need for special
handling.
Results for several examples of space truss structures under various types of
dynamic loading that had been discussed by previous researchers are compared and
5
extended analyses were conducted to demonstrate the capability, accuracy and
method for truss structures are essentially the same as those in classical structural
joints. Members are subjected to axial forces only. Joints have work equivalent
masses, and can be modeled as mass points. Motions of the joints can be described
by the principles of virtual work or equations of motion for particles. Members have
no mass, and are thus in static equilibrium. Therefore, the structural configuration of
As shown in Fig. 1a. the position of a truss member is defined by the locations of
its attached end joints, denoted as nodes (1, 2). At time t the nodal positions are
dx 2 = x 2 − x1 (1)
l = dx′2 (3)
l ′ = dx 2 (4)
u 2 = x ′2 − x 2 (5)
u1 = x1′ − x1 (6)
If the motion of the end node 1 is defined as the rigid body translation of a truss
6
member u1 during the time increment, the relative displacement of an arbitrary point
on the member is then the displacement due to member rotation and the deformation;
du = u − u1 = dx′ − dx (7)
can both be finite. Superposition does not apply. More importantly, there is no
prior knowledge as to how the applied load induces each displacement component.
Rigid body rotation and deformation of the truss member can not be calculated
Although finite rotation and deformation can not be exactly separated there is
usually much smaller than the rotational component. If these components are not
separated, at least approximately, the accuracy of the stress calculation may quickly
be lost and the algorithm diverges. For the purpose of evaluating deformation and
Consider the state of the truss member (1, 2) at t + ∆t , after it has completed its
motion for the time increment ∆t . The member is then subjected to a fictitious
du d = du − du r (8)
7
derivations are summarized in the following. Referring to Fig. 3, consider a plane of
rotation OAB with a normal vector eθ , and a set of cylindrical coordinates with the
Note that;
1
es = (eθ × e A ) (11)
sin α
dx′
eA = (12)
dx′
e r = e s × eθ (13)
in which
⎡ 0 − nθ mθ ⎤
A θ = ⎢⎢ nθ 0 − lθ ⎥⎥ (16)
⎢⎣− mθ lθ 0 ⎥⎦
with
⎧ lθ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
eθ = ⎨mθ ⎬ (17)
⎪n ⎪
⎩ θ⎭
du r May be written as
8
du r = Rθ dx′ (18)
= (I + Rθ ) dx′ (20)
R = I + Rθ (21)
du d = (I − Rθ ) dx′ - dx (22)
For finite incremental displacements, the above deformation vector is clearly not the
pure deformation. The magnitude and direction of the vector also depend on the
choice of rigid body rotation vector. Although it is possible to derive the exact
formulation, it is interesting to note that an exact measure is not needed in the present
true rotation, this deformation vector should have the same order of magnitude as the
true deformation of the member. Then, as shown in following sections for the
solution. The advantage of not using the complicated exact formulation is that the
increment is taken as the rotation vector. That is, the angle between the relative
θ = θ eθ (23)
θ = sin −1 ( dx 2 × dx 2′ ) (24)
9
dx 2 × dx′2
eθ = (25)
dx 2 × dx′2
3. Equations of Motion
The motion of each joint mass is assumed to satisfy the principle of virtual work
where α is an arbitrary joint, and n is the total number of joints in the structure.
It is straightforward to evaluate the virtual work that occurs due to the applied joint
&&
δWα = δ d αT Pα − δ d αT M α d (27)
α
total applied force vector acting on the joint at time t + ∆t ; M α is the joint mass
value. The internal virtual work of the joint δU α is the sum of the work that occurs
due to the deformation of the connecting members, and can be expressed by the
following equation
δU α = ∑ δU eα (28)
e
where e is the number of elements connected to the joint. The internal virtual
work of the member referred to is the deformed state at time t + ∆t and is associated
with an incremental virtual displacement δ (du) . The deformed state is the truss
position ( 1′ , 2′ ) , which is shown in Fig. 1a. Since the member has no mass, and the
internal forces are assumed to be in static equilibrium, the virtual work that occurs
due to a fictitious translation u1 and a rigid body rotation θ are both equal to zero.
Thus, the internal work may instead be referred to as the fictitious state of the
10
deformation, the truss position (1′′ , 2′′ ) shown in Fig. 2, and is associated with a
vector of the end node 2, that is du d2 . The projection of members (1, 2) and (1′′ ,
2′′ ) are used to evaluate the deformation and the stress distribution. A schematic
diagram of the deformation coordinates and the projection values is shown in Fig. 4.
coordinate x̂ . The virtual work of the member, at time t + ∆t , due to the virtual
δ ∆ˆ lˆ
=
lˆ
∫ sˆ A′dxˆ
0
(31)
ŝ t and ŝ are the total stress vectors at time t and t + ∆t ; ∆sˆ = ∆sˆ eˆ 1 is the
11
such that
where ∆û1 and ∆û 2 are the incremental deformation vectors of the end nodes in
δU = δ ∆ˆ fˆ2 (36)
E is the tangent modulus at the stress value ŝt , and fˆ2t is the internal nodal force
Using the total incremental displacement of the nodes, including the components due
δU = δU 1 + δU 2
u 2 = u1 + du d2 + du r2 (41)
f i = fˆi eˆ 1 ( i = 1, 2 ) (42)
du d2 = ∆ˆ eˆ1 (43)
12
δU 1 and δU 2 are each summed into the connecting joints, and u1 and u 2 and
α , the internal virtual work of the joint is the sum of the contributions by all the
connecting members.
fα = {f x f z } = ∑ fi
T
fy (45)
i
Hence, from the principle of virtual work for joint α can then be written as
&& = 0
− δ d αT f α + δ d αT Pα − δ d αT M α d (46)
α
&& = P − f
Mα d (47)
α α α
⎧d&&x ⎫ ⎧ Px − f x ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
M α ⎨d&&y ⎬ = ⎨ Py − f y ⎬ (48)
⎪d&& ⎪ ⎪ P − f ⎪
⎩ z⎭ ⎩ z z ⎭α
examples. Discussions concerning the stability criterion, size of the time step, and
literatures. A central difference, similar to that used by Rice and Ting [34], is
adopted here. For each equation of motion, the difference equations produce
F net
∆d t + 2 ∆t = c1 (c 2 ∆d t + ∆t − c3 ∆d t + ) (49)
m
c 1 α
α= , a1 = 2 + (50)
m ∆t 2∆t
1 2
c1 = , c2 = 2 (51)
a1 ∆t
13
&& + α m d&
F I = md (52)
t t
F net = Pα − fα − F I (53)
t + 2∆t . The algorithm requires special attention at the initial time step
1 &&
∆d1 = ∆d 0 − ∆d& 0 (∆t ) + ∆d 0 (∆t ) 2 (54)
2
It is interesting to note that the internal nodal forces at time t+Δt do not act in
the axial direction of the truss member; see Fig. 5. This is due to the following two
reasons: Firstly, the assumed rotation is in general, not the true rotation. The error
implicit algorithm for solutions, the correction is carried out by an iterative process.
predictor-corrector scheme, the assumed rotation vector plays the role of a predictor in
the present algorithm, and the force couple behaves as a corrector. Secondly, in the
V-5 formulation, the rigid body motion of a member is defined by the motions of the
joint masses. The internal force is related only to the deformation and the member
stress at time t. Thus, the resulting nodal forces are not axial forces. This is
By using a Lagrangian or Almansi strain measure to include both the effects of the
rigid body rotation and the deformation, the total internal force for a nonlinear
formulation should be in the axial direction. The physical interpretation of the nodal
literatures by Leu and Yang [18] and Yang and Chiou [37].
14
treatment of rigid body motion, a nonlinear strain measure is not assumed.
Furthermore, the formulation for member rotation does not have to exact. This leads
4. Numerical Examples
Three examples are presented in this section. The first one dealing with a
buckling of a space truss structure for which detailed results are available shows the
validity of the present formulation. It also implies that the capability of applying a
dealing with the space structure under various types of excitation are aimed at gaining
hindsight into the behavior of the dynamic instability of space truss structures.
Figure 6 shows a space dome structure constructed using 168 truss members.
This problem has been studied by Leu and Yang [36] as an illustration of the
importance of rigid body motion in large dome deflection. The truss members are
made of the same material. The Young’s modulus is E = 2.04 × 10 8 KN / m 2 and the
cross sectional area is A = 50.431 × 10 −4 m 2 . The calculation results by using the V-5
method are compared with the ones in reference [36] and good agreement for all cases
are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. For the V-5 calculations on this static problem, the
displacement rate is arbitrarily set at 45 m/s, and a constant time step of 1.0 × 10 −8 s
is used.
Figure 9(a) shows a two-member toggle truss. The snap through behavior of
the two-member truss under dynamic load has been examined by Kassimali et al. [41]
and Zhu et al. [43]. In this study the maximum deflection and the transient response
15
of the truss under step, triangular and sinusoidal loads as shown in Fig. 9(b) have been
studied. The damping properties of the truss have been ignored. The truss
members are made of the same material. The Young’s modulus E is 3.0 × 10 7 k / in 2 ,
the cross sectional area A is 1 in 2 and the density ρ is 7.339 × 10 −4 ksi − sec 2 . The
angle, α = 30 o and α = 75o were considered. For the steep two—member truss
forcing function with P = 800 kips. Figure 11 shows the maximum deflection
response of the truss joint under static and step loads. As seen in Fig. 11 the truss
snap-through load of 1659 kips under static load. The deflection chosen in this
figure corresponds to the first peak value obtained in the nonlinear transient response.
In this problem, the structure responses under larger loads were further investigated.
Figure 12 shows the transient responses of the vertical displacement of the node 2 for
various magnitude of step load. The occurrence of the snap-through can be easily
identified in Fig. 12 from the bifurcation of the vibration modes at the load is 1311
kips which is a little bit different from the values predicted by Kassimali et al [41] and
Figure 13 shows the transient response of the vertical displacement of the node 2
for triangular forcing functions of P = 200 kips and P = 800 kips, Td = 0.3 sec . From
Fig. 14, it is found that the dynamic snap-through load is increased as the impulse
duration is decreased. It is expected that the critical load under the triangular forcing
function will approach that of step function as the impulse duration is increased.
Figure 15 shows the transient responses of the vertical displacement of the node 2 for
16
various forcing amplitude P of triangular forcing functions but the same duration
Td = 0.3 sec . From this figure the dynamic snap-through load is easily identified as
1621 kips.
For the sinusoidal loading case, some representative load-deflection curves are
presented in Fig. 16. It seems that, unlike the load-deformation curves with steadily
decreasing slopes presented previously for the step and triangular loadings, the
snap-through load for the two-member toggle truss under sinusoidal loading is a
function of the loading frequency. The response curves obtained by the V-5 methods
have some variations from the ones presented by Kassimali et al [41]. In this figure,
the response curves of the truss after the snap-through and the deflection of very large
various static and step forcing functions with lateral load are summarized in Figs
17-18. For this structure, the primary loading is similar to that of the shallow truss
(i.e. a vertical load, P, applied symmetrically at the free joint), except that a small
parameter e. The predictions by the V-5 method compared with the ones presented
by Kassimali [41] are shown in Fig. 17. The snap-through load of 4466 kips for this
case can be identified from the transient response curves of different load level P in
Fig. 18.
Fig. 9(b) with different impulse durations have been used. The maximum deflection
obtained during the impulse duration is presented against the forcing amplitude in Fig.
17
20. Same conclusion is obtained as previous researchers that the snap-through load
response of the dome under two different triangular forcing functions with the same
To demonstrate the capability of the V-5 method on the analysis of very large
motion of structure, the problem presented in Figs 20-21 was further investigated with
very high forcing amplitude. As seen from Fig. 22, it is very interesting to find that
there are two snap-through load levels for this geodesic truss dome, this first one is at
the forcing amplitude P equal to 6.5 kips and the second one is at the forcing
amplitude equal to 50 kips for the forcing duration of 0.005 sec. To understand the
mode instability behavior at these two bifurcation points, the transient response of the
vertical displacement of the nodal point 1 of the dome are shown in Figs. 23-24. The
the phase plane. As shown in Figs. 25-27, the mode of instability is seen as the
shifting of the repelling range of the trajectories. Highly nonlinear motion is seen
Since the V-5 method does not need to solve any matrix equation, this character
allows the V-5 method be capable to analyze the dynamic behavior of structure with
members of very much difference in their material properties. To verify this, the
elastic modulus E of the member “a” in the geodesic truss is changed to 1.0 × 10 9 ksi
and keep other members of the same stiffness ( 1.0 × 10 4 ksi ) as previously. The
Transient response of a geodesic truss dome with and without a member of high
stiffness difference is shown in Fig. 28. It is clear from this figure that varying the
stiffness of a member may alter the nonlinear transient response significantly. For
the structure without stiffness difference, the forcing amplitude of 6.5 kips is a
bifurcation load. However, the increase of the stiffness value of a member causes
18
the 6.5 kips not a bifurcation forcing amplitude.
5. Conclusions
A vastly simple numerical procedure is developed in this paper for motion analyses of
the nonlinear response and stability of reticulated space truss structures subjected to
Different from conventional matrix form structure analysis methods, the vector
type motion equation of each mass particle makes the analysis procedure of the
not required to set essential boundary conditions of the system. It is very easy to
prescribe the displacement and forcing conditions on each particle during the
procedure of analysis.
large rotation and dynamic instability, the newly proposed method demonstrates its
accuracy and superior capability on the nonlinear motion analysis of space truss
structure. As well, the vector form nature of the V-5 method allows it to be linked
with parallel computation techniques to study the large scale problems that have
complicated geometrical variations and loading histories. It is believed that the V-5
method can be a very effective tool for engineers on the structure analysis.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor E. C. Ting for his help, advice
19
and encouragement during this work.
References
1. Epstein, M. and Tene, Y., “Nonlinear analysis of pin-jointed space trusses,” J.
Struct. Div., ASCE, 97(9), pp. 2189-2202 (1971).
2. Baron, F. and Venkatesan, M. S., “Nonlinear analysis of cable and truss
structures,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 97(2), pp. 679-710 (1971).
3. Noor, A. K., “Nonlinear analysis of space trusses,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 100(3),
pp. 533-546 (1974).
4. Wright, D. J., “Membrane Forces and Buckling in reticulated shells,” J. Struct.
Div., ASCE, 91(1), pp. 173-201 (1965).
5. Cooker, J. O., “Buchert KP. Reticulated space structures,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE,
96(3), pp. 687-700 (1970).
6. Noor, A. K. and Peters, M., “Instability analysis of space trusses,” Comp. Meth.
Appl. Mech. Eng., 40, pp. 199-218 (1983).
7. Jagannathan, D. S., Epstein, H. I. and Christiano, P., “Fictitious strains due to rigid
body rotation,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 101(11), pp. 2472-2476 (1975).
8. Jagannathan, D. S., Epstein, H. I. and Christiano, P., “Nonlinear analysis of
reticulated space trusses,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 101(12), pp. 2641-2658 (1975).
9. Rothert, H., Dickel, T. and Renner, D., “Snap-through buckling of reticulated
space trusses,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 107(1), pp. 129-143 (1981).
10. Papadrakakis, M., “Post-buckling analysis of spatial structures by vector
interaction methods,” Comput. Struct., 14(5-6), pp. 759-768 (1981).
11. Meek, J. L. and Tan, H. S., “Geometrically nonlinear analysis of space frames by
an incremental iterative technique,” Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng., 47, pp.
261–282 (1984).
12. Hill, C. D., Blandford, G. E. and Wang, S. T., “Post-buckling Analysis of steel
space trusses,” J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 115(4), pp. 900-919 (1989).
13. Freitas, J. A. T. and Ribeiro, A. C. B. S., “Large displacement elastoplastic
analysis of space trusses,” Comput. Struct., 44(5), pp. 1007-1016 (1992).
14. Ramesh, G. and Krishnamoorthy, C. S., “Post-buckling analysis of structures by
dynamic relaxation,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 36, pp. 1339-1364 (1993).
15. Ramesh, G. and Krishnamoorthy, C. S., “Inelastic post-buckling analysis of truss
structures by dynamic relaxation method,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 37, pp.
3633-3657 (1994).
16. Blandford, G. E., “Progressive failure analysis of inelastic space truss structures,”
Comput Struct., 58(5), pp. 981-990 (1996).
20
17. Holzer, S. M., Plaut, R. H., Somers, A. E. and White, S. W., “Stability of lattice
structures under combined loads,” J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, 106(2), pp. 289-305.
(1980).
18. Leu, L. J. and Yang, Y. B., “Effects of rigid body and stretching on nonlinear
analysis of trusses,” J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 116(10), pp. 2582-2598 (1990).
19. Levy, R., Vilany, O. and Acheampong, K. B., “Exact geometry considerations in
buckling analysis of trusses,” Comput. Struct., 41(6), pp. 1241-1248 (1991).
20. Krishnamoorthy, C. S., Ramesh, G. and Dinesh, K. U., “Post-buckling analysis of
structures by three-parameter constrained solution techniques,” Finite. Elem. Anal.
Des., 22, pp. 109-142 (1996).
21. Goldberg, J. E. and Richard, R. M., “Analysis of nonlinear structures,” J. Struct.
Div., ASCE, 89(4), pp. 333-351 (1963).
22. Richard, R. M. and Goldberg, J. E., “Analysis of nonlinear structures : force
method,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 91(9), pp. 33-48 (1965).
23. Hensley, R. C. and Azar, J. J., “Computer analysis of nonlinear truss structures,” J.
Struct. Div., ASCE, 94(9), pp. 1427-1439, (1968).
24. Wood, R. D. and Zienkiewicz, O. C., “Geometrically nonlinear finite element
analysis of beam, frames, arches and axisymmetric shell,” Comput. Struct., 7, pp.
725-735 (1977).
25. Watson, L. T. and Holzer, S. M., “Quadratic convergence of Crisfield’s method,”
Comput. Struct., 17(1), pp. 69-72 (1983).
26. Leu, L. J. and Yang, Y. B., Discussion of “Post-buckling analysis of steel space
trusses,” by Hill , C. D., Blandford, G. E. and Wang, S. T. (Proc. No. 23407), J.
Struct. Eng., ASCE, 117(12), pp. 3824-3828 (1991).
27. Mallett, R. H. and Marcal, P. V., “Finite element analysis of nonlinear structures,”
J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 94(9), pp. 2081-2105 (1968).
28. Rajasekaran, S. and Murray, D. W., “Incremental finite element matrices,” J.
Struct. Eng., ASCE, 99(12), pp. 2423-2438, (1973).
29. Hallquist, J. O., LLS-DYNA Theoretical Manual, Livermore Software Technology
Corporation, (1998).
30. Ting, E. C., Shih, C. and Wang, Y. K., “Fundamentals of a vector form intrinsic
finite element: Part I. basic procedure and a plane frame element,” J. Mech., 20(2),
pp. 113-122 (2004).
31. Ting, E. C., Shih, C. and Wang, Y. K., “Fundamentals of a vector form intrinsic
finite element: Part II. plane solid elements,” J. Mech., 20(2), pp. 123-132 (2004).
32. Shih, C., Wang, Y. K. and Ting, E. C., “Fundamentals of a vector form intrinsic
finite element: Part III. Convected material frame and examples,” J. Mech., 20(2),
pp. 133-143 (2004).
21
33. Goldstein, H., Classical Mechanics, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, (1959).
34. Rice, D. L. and Ting, E. C., “Large displacement transient analysis of flexible
structures,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 36, pp. 1541-1562 (1993).
35. Crisfield, M. A., Non-linear finite element analysis of solids and structures, John
Wiley & Sons, England (1991).
36. Yang, Y. B., Yang, C. T., Chang, T. P. and Chang, P. K., “Effect of member
buckling and yielding on ultimate strengths of space trusses,” Eng. Struct., 19(2),
pp. 179-191 (1997).
37. Yang, Y. B. and Chiou, H. T. “Rigid body motion test for nonlinear analysis with
beam elements,” J. Engrg. Mech., ASCE, 113(9), pp. 1404-1419 (1987).
38. Abrate, S. and Sun, C. T., “Dynamic analysis of geometrically nonlinear truss
structures,” Comput. Struct., 17(4), pp. 491-497 (1983).
39. Noor, A. K. and Peters, J. M., “Nonlinear dynamic analysis of space trusses,”
Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng., 21, pp. 131-151 (1980).
40. Coan, C. H. and Plaut, R. H., “Dynamic stability of a lattice dome,’’ Earthquake.
Engng. Struct. Dynam., 11, pp. 269-274 (1983).
41. Kassimali, A. and Bidhendi, E., “Stability of trusses under dynamic loads,”
Comput. Struct., 29(3), pp. 381-392 (1988).
42. Sllaats, P. M., Jough, J. de. and Sauren, A. A. H., “Model reduction tools for
nonlinear structural dynamics,” Comput. Struct., 54(6), pp. 1155-1171 (1995).
43. Zhu, K., Al-Bermani, F. G. A. and Kitipornchai, S., “Nonlinear dynamic analysis
of lattice structures,” Comput. Struct., 52(1), pp. 9-15 (1994).
44. Tada, M. and Suito, A., “Static and dynamic post-buckling behavior of truss
structures,” Eng. Struct., 20(4-6), pp. 384-389 (1998).
45. Walker, A. C. and Hall, D. G., “An analysis of Large deflections of beams using
the Rayleigh-Ritz finite element method,” Aeronautical Quarterly., pp. 357-367
(1968).
46. Walker, A. C., “A nonlinear finite element analysis of shallow circular arches,” Int.
J. Solids Struct., 5, pp. 97-107 (1969).
22
Figures:
2′
dx′2 at t = t + ∆t
1′
u2
u1 u
x1′ x′ dx 2 2
at t
z x′2 1
x1 x
x2
y
2′
dx′ du 2
du
1 1′ 2
dx
23
eθ
2′
-θ l′ dx′2
A′
dx′ du 2
du r - du r2
du
dx′′ A′′ dx′2′
l′
1 1′ 1′′ 2′′
dx A du d
du d
dx 2 2 2
eθ
r B
O
θ
r eθ
du r
D
es
eA A
er
α dx′
O′
24
∆ˆ ê1 x̂
lˆ ∆û
x̂
x′′
2′′
1 1′′ 2 du d2
x du d
l
2′ ê1
f2
at time t + ∆t
u2 ê1 x̂
1′
− f2
u1
ê1
y du d 2′′
1 1′′
2
2
x
25
1
2
135.0 cm
116.7 cm
66.9 cm
26
1200.00
400.00
P (KN)
0.00
-400.00
-800.00
1200.00
800.00
400.00
P (KN)
0.00
-800.00
27
P
eP
2
α
1 X 3
(a)
Load
Time
Load
P
Time
Td
Load
Time
Td
(b)
Figure 9 (a) two-member toggle truss, (b) various loading types of P
28
Zhu
16.00 VFIFE
12.00
Displacement (in)
8.00
4.00
0.00
2000.00
1000.00
Load P (kips)
0.00
-2000.00
Figure 11 Maximum vertical displacements at node 2 under static and step loads
( α = 30 0 , e= 0) (1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
29
220.00
P = 1300 kips
200.00
P = 1310 kips
P = 1311 kips
180.00
P = 1315 kips
140.00
Displacement (in)
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Figure 12 Transient responses of the vertical displacement of the node 2 for various
magnitudes of step load ( α = 30 0 , e= 0) (1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm).
12.00
8.00
Displacement (in)
4.00
0.00
-8.00
30
3000.00
0.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
-50.00
Figure 15 Transient responses of the vertical displacement of the node 2 for various
forcing amplitudes of triangular forcing functions ( Td = 0.3 sec , α = 30 0 , e= 0)
(1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
31
2000.00
1600.00
1200.00
Load P (kips)
800.00
0.00
6000.00
4000.00
Load P (kips)
0.00
32
300.00
P = 4400 kips
P = 4465 kips
200.00 P = 4466 kips
Displacement (in)
100.00
0.00
-100.00
-200.00
Figure 18 Transient responses of the vertical displacement of the node 2 for various
forcing levels of step forcing function ( e = 0.01 , α = 75 0 )
(1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
33
Y
10
11 9
4 3
1
5 2 Z
a
6 7
12 8
FIXED
FREE
13
2.1 in
8.2 in
X
Z
25.4 in 25.4 in
43.3 in 43.3 in
34
8.00
Kassimali ( Td = 0.005 sec )
Zhu ( Td = 0.005 sec )
VFIFE ( Td = 0.005 sec )
Kassimali ( Td = 0.01 sec )
4.00
2.00
0.00
Figure 20 Maximum vertical displacement at the top joint of a geodesic truss dome
under triangular impulse with different durations. (1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
0.60
0.40
Displacement (in)
0.20
-0.40
35
80.00
60.00
Load P (kips)
40.00
Td = 0.01 sec
Td = 0.005 sec
20.00
0.00
Figure 22 Maximum vertical displacement at the top joint of a geodesic truss dome
under triangular impulses with different durations and different forcing amplitudes.
(1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
8.00
P = 6.49 kips
P = 6.5 kips
6.00
Displacement (in)
4.00
2.00
0.00
-2.00
Figure 23. Bifurcation of the transient response of the top joint at the first critical
forcing amplitude of a geodesic truss dome under triangular forcing function
( Td = 0.005 sec ).(1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
36
25.00
P = 49 kips
20.00 P = 50 kips
15.00
Displacement (in)
10.00
5.00
0.00
-5.00
Figure 24. Bifurcation of the transient response of the top joint at the second critical
forcing amplitude of a geodesic truss dome under triangular forcing function
( Td = 0.005 sec ).(1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm)
1000.00
500.00
Velocity (in/sec)
0.00
-500.00
-1000.00
Figure 25. Phase diagram of the vertical motion of the node 1 (forcing amplitude
P= 6.49kips, Td = 0.005 sec ) (1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm).
37
1000.00
500.00
Velocity (in/sec)
0.00
-500.00
-1000.00
Figure 26. Phase diagram of the vertical motion of the node 1 (forcing amplitude
P= 6.5kips, Td = 0.005 sec ) (1 kips=4.45 kN; 1 in. = 25.4 mm).
8000.00
6000.00
4000.00
2000.00
Velocity (in/sec)
0.00
-2000.00
-4000.00
-6000.00
-8000.00
38
4.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
39