Just-In-Time Manufacturing
warehouses and other storage facilities and drawn upon as needed
Abstract
Overview
Applications
Discourse
Conclusion
Terms and Concepts
Bibliography
Suggested Reading
Abstract
An introduction to just-in-time manufacturing (JIT), this article
covers the history of JIT from the Ford Motor Company to the
Toyota Production System (TPS) and beyond, and explores the
eight wastes identified in TPS and many of the JIT practices and
methods (Focused Factory, Small Lot Production, SMED and
Quick Changeover, Group Technology, Kanban, 5S, and more).
Key success factors are explored, including the importance of a
culture of quality. Applications of JIT in multiple industries are
discussed, as well as the impact of globalization.
Overview
Manufacturing is the process of combining raw materials or
assemblies for the creation of new products, which may be
consumer-ready or which may be used in other manufacturing
processes. Simple in theory, the manufacturing process is
obviously complex in practice. One of the most studied areas
is the efficient and cost-effective flow of materials through the
supply chain.
JIT and the Traditional Supply Chain. The supply chain refers
to the process of bringing an end product to market, from the
production of raw materials to the consumer. Historically, this
was a long path with materials, parts, and products stockpiled in
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
by each entity in the chain. Producers of raw materials would
keep producing and filling up their warehouses in anticipation
of orders. Manufacturers would produce parts, assemblies, and
finished goods in large quantities to attain economies of scale and
reduce the number of machine setups. Retailers would then buy
in quantities sufficient to meet expected consumer demand over
weeks and even months.
Just-in-time manufacturing (JIT) turns this traditional supply
chain on its head. It has its roots in a very simple idea, espoused
succinctly by Henry Ford, "If transportation were perfect and an
even flow of materials could be assured, it would not be necessary
to carry any stock whatsoever." Why does it matter? In one phrase
—cost reduction.
Beyond the obvious costs of the warehouse itself (lease or
mortgage, utilities, and property taxes), are the labor costs
involved with managing the inventory—receiving, storing,
picking, and transporting. Add to that the equipment and systems
needed to support these processes. Lastly, one must consider the
opportunity cost of money that is tied up in inventory that is not
being used immediately.
The Development of JIT Manufacturing. While Ford
understood the value and concept of JIT, it was in the 1950s that
Toyota first fully implemented the concept and expanded it with
the total quality management system (TQM) to create the Toyota
Production System (TPS), also know more generically as "lean
manufacturing." The founder of Toyota, Toyoda Kiichiro, after
observing that American automobile factories were nine times
more productive than Toyota, challenged his chief engineer,
Taiichi Ohno, to catch up with American automakers in three
years. Ohno not only did that but also created a system that was
to be an enduring model for efficient manufacturing the whole
world over.
Ohno identified eight wastes that account for up to 95 percent of
all costs in traditional manufacturing:
• Overproduction — Producing more than a customer
needs, which incurs heavy warehousing, equipment, and
labor costs.
Page 1
 • Waiting — Any machine or human in a wait state, no
matter what they are waiting for, represents lost money
and opportunity.
• Transportation — Materials that are transported from
the supplier to any location (e.g. warehouse) other than
the point-of-use creates unnecessary transportation costs
in time and money.
• Non-Value-Added Processing — Quality control
(traditional processes of inspecting completed products
and fixing defects after production is complete)
is unnecessary in a manufacturing environment
where products are produced without defects (quality
assurance).
• Excess Inventory — Carrying more inventory than is
needed, from raw materials to finished goods, incurs
expensive warehouse space and labor.
• Defects — Product defects incur labor, space, equipment,
and time costs.
• Excess Motion — Incurring more motion than is
necessary to carry out a task wastes time and labor.
• Underutilized People — Failure to leverage the skills,
creativity, time, and other attributes of people results
in wasted opportunities for organizational, team, and
individual efficiency improvements.
TPS was developed to address each of these wastes and is
centered on a set of fourteen guiding principles that must be
adopted in order for specific methods and techniques to succeed.
Indeed, many implementations of JIT practices have failed due
to a failure to adopt organization-wide policies and practices that
support JIT.
The Spread of JIT/TQM Manufacturing. After Toyota's
outstanding success with TPS in meeting and exceeding
American manufacturing production at significantly lower costs,
manufacturers around the globe rapidly adopted and emulated
TPS-based practices throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond.
A 2006 survey of US manufacturers by IndustryWeek and
the Manufacturing Performance Institute for the 2006 Census
of Manufacturers showed that just-in-time supplier deliveries
were at the top of the list of most commonly used methods
for managing inventories, with over 43 percent of respondents
reporting its use in their operations.
JIT has enabled a different world. Today's supply chain
increasingly moves small amounts of product at a time, delivered
directly onto the factory floor or retail shelves, rather than
into warehouses. Manufacturing has been revolutionized with
investments that focus on improved flexibility in volume,
product, and delivery; increased production speed; and waste
reduction. All this has worked to provide faster product to market
rates at reduced costs.
Importance of JIT Systems. Thus, it becomes clear why a JIT
system is important to manufacturers. First, and most obvious,
it saves the cost of warehouses, related equipment, and the
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
people needed to manage the inventory in those warehouses.
Second, it eliminates the need to predict far in advance how much
material will be needed, thereby reducing wasted materials. And
it enables the manufacturer to respond to customer requests in a
fraction of the time previously required. In a world of aggressive
cost competition, JIT enables a highly cost-effective way to
manufacture if it is well implemented.
One can imagine, however, just how tricky this process can
be. Materials planning must be highly accurate and efficient;
suppliers must able to efficiently, quickly, and cost-effectively
produce small lots of materials; and effective contingency plans
must be in place to counter disruptions in the supply chain,
such as natural disasters, accidents, or union strikes. Thus, there
is considerable risk, and that risk has a demonstrated inverse
relation to profitability. Yet, even so, companies utilizing the JIT
model are generally more profitable than those that are not, even
adjusting for the increased risk involved.
Implementation of JIT Systems. JIT manufacturing
implementation is typically made up of a group of programs, each
contributing specific methods for achieving a JIT model. Some
of the common programs implemented are as follows:
The Focused Factory. The focused factory, a term coined by
Wickham Skinner in a 1974 article for the Harvard Business
Review, is the philosophy of allowing a factory (or self-contained
production unit within a physical plant) a limited product
mix for a particular market. Rather than expanding a factory's
capabilities when adding new products and markets, the focused
factory model dictates the creation of new factories. At the
core of this model, Skinner (1974) says, is the philosophy
that "simplicity, repetition, experience, and homogeneity of
tasks breed competence" (p. 115). Manufacturers that have
implemented this model have consistently shown reduced cycle
times and improved on-time deliveries.
Small Lots. Small lots production refers to the proactive
reduction of batch sizes to the smallest lot possible. This reduces
inventory carrying costs and facilitates reduced lead and cycle
times, which enables faster turn-around time for customers.
Reduced setup times (the elapsed time between production runs
used to change over machines) aid the JIT process by making it
more feasible for manufacturers to produce small lots. The longer
the setup time, the costlier it is to produce small lots of product.
In the JIT world is the Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED)
method, also often referred to as "quick changeover." This was
introduced in TPS and was applied to the changeover of dies but
today has much wider applications. Simplistically, SMED is the
practice of completing as many steps in the changeover process
as possible while a production run is still in process, and reducing
and improving the efficiency of the steps that must be completed
during the changeover.
Group Technology. Group technology involves grouping
parts that have physical similarities or are used for similar
manufacturing processes to reduce work-in-progress and lead
times. Instead of the traditional factory layout with similar
machines grouped together and work-in-progress moving from
Page 2
area to area, individual factory cells (cell manufacturing)
are created with all the machines necessary to complete the
production of a particular product or group of products.
Kanban. Kanban is a Japanese word meaning sign and refers to
a signaling system that is in wide use in JIT manufacturing to
ensure the just-in-time delivery of parts and materials, as they are
needed. Kanban is a "pull" system—when a product or material
is needed, a signal is sent to replenish the product or material.
This flows all the way up the supply chain, with each entity in
the chain sending a signal up the chain for its own replenishment
after responding to a signal further down in the chain.
On the factory floor, this has historically been done with cards—
when a cart or bin is empty, the card at the bottom is used to signal
for more material. A good analogy is a checkbook. The kanban
would be the ticket slipped in at the point where replenishments
should be ordered.
Many systems, especially those spanning companies or plants,
now use electronic kanban. A good example is in retail, where the
checkout system creates the signal to suppliers when an inventory
item reaches the reorder point.
5S. 5S is a methodology for eliminating wasted time by having
an organized workplace where everything is in its place. The five
"S"s are:
• "Seiri" (or separating): Storing or discarding any
materials or tools not needed for the task at hand.
• "Seiton" (or sorting): Having tools and materials
arranged for efficient workflow.
• "Seiso"(or cleaning): Keeping the workplace clean and
neat.
• "Seiketsu" (or standardizing): Doing the same tasks in
the same way every time.
• "Shitsuki" (or sustaining): Maintaining the standards
and practices developed with the first four "S"s.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). TPM focuses on
keeping all equipment in top condition to avoid breakdowns and
delays in the manufacturing process.
Visual control is based on the premise that information presented
visually is comprehended far faster than words.
Multifunctional employee is related to Cell Manufacturing,
where employees are trained in multiple facets of the cell's
technologies. Even outside of cell manufacturing, employees
with multiple skill sets create organizational adaptability.
Uniform plant loading is a method of planning production so
that the manufacturing processes throughout the factory are fully
utilized, avoiding idling and overloads.
A quality circle is a TQM method used to minimize or eliminate
rework due to defects. Comprised of a team of workers, its
purpose is to identify improvements to processes that will reduce
errors.
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
Key Success Factors. In order to successfully implement JIT,
operations must be highly integrated and synchronized, with
empowered workers who can resolve problems on the spot to
keep production moving and who are enabled to influence the
production process to eliminate waste and improve productivity.
This foundation is typically provided in a TQM environment,
discussed further later in this article.
Also critical to success is the readiness and willingness of
one's suppliers to work with the JIT system. It is no good to
implement JIT when your suppliers and/or their suppliers cannot
accommodate it. When a company along the supply chain is
unable or unwilling to implement JIT policies and practices,
inventory must be stored somewhere. Either the supplier will
stockpile it and pass the cost on to the manufacturer implicitly
or explicitly or the manufacturer will store the inventory. Either
way, the manufacturer has lost the key benefit of JIT—reduced
inventory and subsequently lower costs.
The Marriage of JIT and Quality. American quality guru W.
Edwards Deming introduced quality management to Japan in
the 1950s, which formed the foundation for their TPS. Total
Quality Management (TQM) was well implemented before the
introduction of JIT and provided an environment in which
JIT could thrive. When US manufacturing companies began
implementing JIT in the 1980s, TQM had not yet taken hold,
and JIT met with mixed success. Once these companies realized
the importance of TQM in the success of JIT, a TQM revolution
began that continues in virtually every industry.
TQM is a management philosophy and practice that continuously
improves the quality of products and processes in order to
achieve customer satisfaction. TQM operates at all levels of
the organization—everyone in the company has responsibility
for quality. Because TQM has broader application in the
organization and because it unifies the organizational entities
by providing a cross-departmental philosophy for quality and
process improvement, it lays a foundation upon which JIT
programs can succeed.
Applications
Successful Integrations of JIT Systems. There have been some
notable successes, small and large, with implementations of JIT
in the United States. Through implementation of JIT, and with
some pro bono consulting support from Toyota, the Louisville,
Kentucky–based American Printing House for the Blind Inc. was
able to produce an IRS publication in one week with five people
that had previously required twelve people and three weeks to
produce.
After implementing JIT, Austin, Texas–based Factory Logic
Software increased its production volume of fastener systems to
300,000 units annually with slightly more than 50 backorders
per month. Prior to its implementation, it was producing about
200,000 units with an average of 800 backorders per month
(Krizner, 2008).
Page 3
JIT, of course, has applications from production of raw materials
all the way to the consumer markets. Wal-Mart brought JIT to its
retail stores to create one of the most cost-efficient retail supply
chains in the world, requiring its suppliers to provide just-in-
time inventory to its shelves, and going even further to Vendor
Managed Inventory (VMI), which puts the responsibility of its
inventory management in the hands of its suppliers.
The principles of JIT are also being applied to other areas, as
well. In a survey conducted in 2005, Mohammad Z. Meybodi,
associate professor of operations management in the School of
Business at Indiana University Kokomo, found that organizations
that applied JIT principles (empowered teams and quality
practices, specifically) to New Product Development (NPD)
developed significantly better quality products in a much shorter
time span and with significantly less cost.
But even beyond the supply chain, JIT principles have
been applied to a host of other applications. "Just-in-time
learning" technologies have been introduced to provide the right
information at the right time for a host of applications—from
figuring out how to fix a leaky faucet to making the best diagnosis
in a complex medical case. The most effective technologies focus
on the immediate need (just like in manufacturing), zeroing in on
the right information based on the specific problem at hand.
Discourse
Risks of JIT Manufacturing. One of the key risks with JIT is
that the world is not a perfect place. It is easy to get caught up in
the frenzy of JIT, believing that it is the now de facto accepted
standard for manufacturing. But it is not without its risks and is
not necessarily for every business application. The success of JIT
depends on the ability of the supplier to avoid disruptions to its
production, correctly predict demand, and achieve reliable, fast
transportation. All manner of events can disrupt the supply of
materials, from natural disasters to union strikes, which can have
devastating effects on production if the company is not properly
equipped to adjust or has little control over its supply chain.
JIT Constraints. Dr. Tony Polito of East Carolina University
and Dr. Kevin Watson of the University of New Orleans
identified five major constraints on JIT practices that should be
considered before a company decides to pursue JIT.
• The first is customer-driven and economic conditions.
Successful JIT requires a relatively stable pricing model
for supplies, reasonably level customer demand, and
a reliable supply of material. When materials pricing
and consumer demand fluctuate significantly or scarcity
issues are common, traditional manufacturing processes
perform better.
• The second constraint is logistics. There must be a reliable
means for getting the materials from the supplier to the
manufacturer. Transportation strikes, natural disasters, or
remote locations with unreliable transportation can all
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
adversely impact the supply chain. Generally speaking,
the riskier the logistics, the more inventory the company
should keep on hand.
• Third, organizational culture and conditions can affect
JIT practices. It goes without saying that a culture
with poor worker and/or supplier relationships or with
practices that are contrary to the worker empowerment
model needed to support JIT must resolve these issues
prior to implementing JIT.
• The fourth constraint is intractable accounting and
finance practices. Traditional companies typically focus
on improvement of measures—inventory turns, sales,
machine efficiency, etc.—rather than improvement of
processes, which is at the core of JIT. Without a
willingness and ability to change this, companies will be
unsuccessful with JIT.
• The fifth and last constraint is small supplier difficulties.
Small suppliers generally lack the customers their high-
volume counterparts possess. They must purchase in
smaller quantities and lack the clout with their own
suppliers to push JIT practices.
Implications of Globalization. In 2004, Goldman Sachs coined
the acronym BRIC to refer to four countries—Brazil, Russia,
India, and China—that they predicted would comprise four of the
new "G6" (six largest economies) by 2050; the other two were
the United States and Japan. In their 2005 year-end update report,
they reported that each of those countries grew more strongly than
predicted, with more countries emerging behind them.
With rising freight rates, infrastructure disrepair, and the new
cost of security in both time and money, JIT manufacturing
has become much more complicated. Mark Crone, director,
supply chain planning and analysis at Limited Brands Inc.
identified risks to lead time (more potential constraints that
can slow shipments) and cost (fuel cost fluctuations, forced
changes in transportation modes to meet production schedules).
He predicted that JIT manufacturing would take a severe hit as
globalization increases and companies find they need to increase
stock to hedge against these risks.
An analysis conducted in the 1990s by Vinod Singhal of the
Georgia Institute of Technology and Kevin Hendricks of the
University of Western Ontario supported this contention and
identified a severe level of fragility in supply chains due to the
extension of outsourcing. Combined with the practice of JIT,
where inventories are lean, the researchers found there was very
little room for error and likened disruptions that occurred to "heart
attacks." In such a situation, close management of the supply
chain and good communication and relationships with suppliers
are the keys to success.
Nevertheless, retail giant Wal-Mart unabashedly abandoned
its former "Made in America" philosophy to embrace global
suppliers and put the same constraints on them as on its domestic
suppliers. The question is whether these suppliers will be able to
meet those demands cost-effectively.
Page 4
Crone made three recommendations for easing the lead time
and costs associated with global supply chains. First, he
recommended reducing transport content. That is, moving to
more regional and coastal distribution centers and moving to a
direct-to-destination delivery model where possible to minimize
handling and reduce overall distance traveled. Second, and
supporting his predicted hit to JIT, is doing larger shipments to
gain cost efficiencies. Last, he suggested considering carefully
before deciding to source overseas. The risks might well
outweigh the benefits.
Conclusion
JIT has clearly had a radical impact on manufacturing paradigms
the world over and Toyota continues to lead the charge, practicing
its TPS and achieving continued success and profitability in the
auto industry. More and more manufacturers are implementing
JIT and, if they are careful about how they are applying it and
embedding organization-wide philosophies, are succeeding with
it. However, today's pace of globalization is putting increasing
strain on JIT, and it is yet unclear how JIT will transform to meet
the new world order. Undoubtedly, the world will continue to
watch companies such as Toyota and Wal-Mart to get the answer
to that question.
Terms and Concepts
5S: A methodology for organizing the workplace for maximum
efficiency.
Cell Manufacturing: The practice of grouping all machines
required to produce a product in order to minimize cycle-time
and lead time.
Focused Factory: The practice of limiting the variety of products
that are produced within a manufacturing unit in order to improve
efficiencies and reduce setup times.
Group Technology: The practice of grouping similar parts in the
manufacturing process to reduce lead time and cycle time. This
practice enables cell manufacturing.
Kanban: A pull system that involves signals to indicate the need
for more materials or parts.
Lean Manufacturing: A more generic term used to describe the
Toyota Production System (TPS) or other practices focused on
improving efficiencies and reducing costs in manufacturing.
Multifunctional Employees: The concept and practice of
ensuring varied skill sets in employees to achieve maximum
flexibility and reduce the risk of delay in the manufacturing
process.
Quality Assurance: The practice of improving processes and
empowering employees to make decisions that enable avoidance
of errors and defects.
Quality Circle: A TQM practice for continuously improving the
manufacturing process to avoid defects and rework.
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
Quality Control: The practice of identifying defects in products
after they are produced, such as inspections.
Quick Changeover: A more generic term for the practice of
minimizing setup time between production runs.
Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED): A philosophy and
methodology for decreasing the amount of setup time between
production runs.
Small Lots: The philosophy and practice of manufacturing items
in small lots to decrease lead times.
Supply Chain: All entities involved in the delivery of goods from
raw materials to finished goods and onto the retail shelf.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM): A practice of placing
high importance on preventative maintenance of equipment to
avoid costly downtime and disruptions to the JIT supply.
Total Quality Management (TQM): A formalized philosophy
and practice developed by Toyota for TPS that focuses on
continuous improvements in processes and product.
Uniform Plant Loading: A planning philosophy and
methodology aimed at eliminating idling or overload in any
manufacturing unit.
Visual Controls: A philosophy and practice of using visual cues
to convey information to improve speed of communication within
the plant.
Bibliography
Bertolini, M., Braglia, M., Romagnoli, G., & Zammori,
F. (2013). Extending value stream mapping: the
synchro-MRP case. International Journal of
Production Research, 51, 5499–5519. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=90169824&site=ehost-live.
Callen, J. L., & Morel, M., & Fader, C. (2003).
The profitability-risk tradeoff of just-in-time
manufacturing technologies. Managerial &
Decision Economics, 24, 393–402. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=10458504&site=ehost-live.
Cox, C. R., & Ulmer, J. M. (2015). Lean manufacturing: An
analysis of process improvement techniques. Franklin
Business and Law Journal, 2015(2), 70–77. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=109025140&site=ehost-
live&scope=site
Page 5
Crone, M. (2007). Are global supply chains too risky?
Logistics Management, 46, 37–40. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=24855992&site=ehost-live.
Gathen, G. (2004). What can SMED do for you? Industrial
Maintenance & Plant Operation, 65, 10–12. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=13865131&site=ehost-live.
González-Benito, J., Lannelongue, G., & Alfaro-Tanco,
J. (2013). Study of supply-chain management
in the automotive industry: A bibliometric
analysis. International Journal of Production
Research, 51, 3849–3863. Retrieved from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=89100640&site=ehost-live.
Hoffman, W. (2005). When supply chains shatter.
Traffic World, 269, 13. Retrieved from EBSCO
Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=17452604&site=ehost-live.
Hoss, M., & ten Caten, C. (2013). Lean schools of
thought. International Journal of Production
Research, 51, 3270–3282. Retrieved from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=88353619&site=ehost-live.
Husby, P. (2007). Becoming lean. Material Handling
Management, 62, 42–45. Retrieved from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=26442075&site=ehost-live.
Kilpatrick, J.(2003). Lean principles. Manufacturing
Extension Partnership. Retrieved from http://
www.mep.org/textfiles/LeanPrinciples.pdf.
Krizner, K. (2001). Manufacturers adopt a lean
philosophy. Frontline Solutions, 2, 22–25. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=4818113&site=ehost-live.
McClenahen, J. S. (2006). JIT tops management
practices. Industry Week/IW, 255, 13. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=23532097&site=ehost-live.
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved
McLachlin, R. (2004). Internal plant environment
and just-in-time manufacturing. International
Journal of Manufacturing Technology &
Management, 6(1/2), 1. Retrieved from EBSCO
Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=15411639&site=ehost-live.
Meybodi, M. Z. (2005). An exploration of the
links between just-in-time manufacturing and
simultaneous new product development. Advances
in Competitiveness Research, 13, 9–21. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=19196895&site=ehost-live.
Mosher, B. (2005). E-reference: The real just-in-time
training. Chief Learning Officer, 4, 17. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=18689328&site=ehost-live.
O'Neill, J., Wilson, & Dominic, & Purushothaman, R., &
Stupnytska, A. (2005, December 1). Global Economics
Paper No: 134, How Solid are the BRICs? Goldman
Sachs Global Economic. Retrieved from http://
www2.goldmansachs.com/hkchina/insight/research/
pdf/BRICs%5f3%5f12-1-05.pdf.
Panchak, P. (2002). The low-cost, high-return production
system. Industry Week/IW, 251, 56. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=6268897&site=ehost-live.
Polito, T., & Watson, K. (2006). Just-in-time under
fire: The five major constraints upon JIT
practices. Journal of American Academy of
Business, Cambridge, 9, 8–13. Retrieved from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=19384791&site=ehost-live.
Skinner, Wickham (1974, May/June). The focused factory.
Harvard Business Review, 52, 113–121. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=3867167&site=ehost-live.
Thakur-Weigold, B., Wagner, S., & Tee Bin Ong. (2016).
The challenging business of nuts and bolts. Industrial
Engineer: IE, 48(11), 44-48. Retrieved December 28,
2016 from EBSCO online database Business Source
Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bsu&AN=118903348&site=ehost-
live&scope=site
Page 6
Vokurka, R. J., & Lummus, R. R., & Krumwiede, D.
(2007). Improving manufacturing flexibility: The
enduring value of JIT and TQM. SAM Advanced
Management Journal (07497075), 72, 14-21. Retrieved
from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=24688726&site=ehost-live.
Vuppalapati, K., Sanjay L. A., & Tarun G. (1995).
JIT and TQM: A case for joint implementation.
International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, 15 84–94. Retrieved from EBSCO
Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=1723259&site=ehost-live.
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=24688726&site=ehost-live.
Vuppalapati, K., Sanjay L. A., and Gupta, T. (1995).
JIT and TQM: A case for joint implementation.
International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, 15 84–94. Retrieved from EBSCO
Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=1723259&site=ehost-live.
Wilson, L. (2015). How to implement Lean Manufacturing.
2nd ed. New York: McGraw.

Wilson, D., & Purushothaman, R. (2003, October
1). Global economics paper no: 99, dreaming
with BRICs: The path to 2050. Goldman Sachs
Global Economic Website. Retrieved from http://
www2.goldmansachs.com/insight/research/
reports/99.pdf.
Essay by Joyce Gubata, MBA
Joyce Gubata is a freelance business writer and consultant with
over 20 years experience in business operations, marketing and
sales, information technology, and consulting for companies of
all sizes in multiple industries.

Suggested Reading
Ford, H. (2006). My life and work. Charleston, SC:
BiblioBazaar.

Liker, J. (2004). The Toyota way: Fourteen management

principles from the world's greatest manufacturer.
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Marley, R., & Metrejean, E. (2016). A model of academic

career sustainability utilizing a just in time teaching
approach. Journal of Theoretical Accounting
Research, 11(2), 15-27. Retrieved December 28,
2016 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bsu&AN=113641302&site=ehost-
live&scope=site

Ohno, T. (1988). Toyota production system: Beyond large-

scale production. New York: Productivity Press.

Polito, T., & Watson, K. (2006). Just-in-time under

fire: The five major constraints upon JIT
practices. Journal of American Academy of
Business, Cambridge, 9, 8–13. Retrieved from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=19384791&site=ehost-live.

Vokurka, R.J., & Lummus, R. R., & Krumwiede, D. (2007).

Improving manufacturing flexibility: The enduring
value of JIT and TQM. SAM Advanced Management
Journal (07497075), 72, 14–21. Retrieved from

EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © EBSCO Information Services, Inc • All Rights Reserved Page 7
Copyright of Just in Time (JIT) Manufacturing -- Research Starters Business is the property
of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
Copyright of Just in Time (JIT) Manufacturing -- Research Starters Business is the property
of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
Copyright of Just in Time (JIT) Manufacturing -- Research Starters Business is the property
of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.