English as a Global language

World Englishes
The roles of a teacher
Teacher as Controller (knowledge transmitters)
In charge of the class and the activity
Teacher-fronted classroom
All students work at the same time
Teachers do most of the talking
Teacher as Organizer (Positive leader)
Organizes students to do different activities
Students do activities in pairs or groups
Gives feedback
Teacher as Assessor
Gives feedback
Has to be fair, but sensitive
Gives grades
Teacher as Prompter
Motivates students
Supports students
Teacher as Participant
Behaves as an equal member of a group
Does not “step back”
Teacher as Resource
Gives basic information
Teaches students how to learn
Is available and helpful
Teacher as Tutor
Works with individuals, pairs or small groups
Helps in projects
Teacher as Observer
Follows what student do in the classroom
Tries to be invisible
Gives individual or group feedback

Behaviour of the teacher in classroom

Encourage high expectations
Set challenging goals for learning.
Make expectations clear both orally and in writing.
Set consequences for non-completion of work.
Encourage students to write and speak well.
Discuss class progress.
Communicate importance of high academic standards.
Encourage cooperation among students
Ask students to explain difficult concepts to each other.
Inquire into students’ interests and backgrounds.
Encourage students to prepare together for class.
Allow students to critique each other’s work.
Create study groups and project teams
Emphasize timeliness
Expect students to complete assignments promptly.
Estimate and communicate the amount of time to be spent on
tasks.
Encourage rehearsal of oral presentations.
Encourage steady work and sensible time management.
Give prompt feedback
Provide sufficient opportunities for assessment.
Prepare classroom activities (for example, active learning
exercises) that give immediate feedback.
Return graded assignments within one week.
Give detailed evaluations of work starting early in the term.
Give a pre-test at the beginning of the course to assess students’
background in the subject.
Encourage student-instructor contact
Adopt a demeanor that communicates that you are approachable.
Welcome students to drop by your office. Respect diverse talents
and ways of learning.
Encourage student involvement
Use diverse teaching activities. Encourage active learning. Ask
students to present work to the class.
Ask students to relate outside events to class material.
Give students real-life situations to analyze.
Use simulations and role-playing in class.
Encourage students to challenge course material.
Be sure to make clear that showing disrespect to you or other
students is not appropriate.
The roles of a learner
Learner autonomy
Learner-centered learning
 Different age
Aptitude – more or less good at learning
Learner styles – oriented to personal or group interests; language
use oriented (communicative learners), or learn about language
(conformists), or social aspects of learning (concrete learners)…
Language levels – beginners, intermediate, proficient…
Individual variations
 Multiple intelligences (Musical/Rhythmic, Verbal/Linguistic,
Logical/Mathematical…)

Characteristics of good classroom learners

1. Good learners are curious.

They wonder about all sorts of things, often about things way beyond their areas of expertise. They love the
discovery part of learning. Finding out about something they didn’t know satisfies them for the moment, but
their curiosity is addictive.

2. Good learners pursue understanding diligently.

A few things may come easily to learners but most knowledge arrives after effort, and good learners are willing
to put in the time. They search out information—sometimes aspiring to find out everything that is known about
something. They also read, analyze, and evaluate the information they’ve found. Most importantly they talk with
others, read more, study more, and carry around what they don’t understand; thinking about it before they go to
sleep, at the gym, on the way to work, and sometimes when they should be listening to others. Good learners
are persistent. They don’t give up easily.

3. Good learners recognize that a lot of learning isn’t fun.

That doesn’t change how much they love learning. When understanding finally comes, when they get it, when
all the pieces fit together, that is one special thrill. But the journey to understanding generally isn’t all that
exciting. Some learning tasks require boring repetition; others a mind-numbing attention to detail; still others
periods of intense mental focus. Backs hurt, bottoms get tired, the clutter on the desk expands, the coffee
tastes stale—no, most learning isn’t fun.

4. Failure frightens good learners, but they know it’s beneficial.

It’s a part of learning that offers special opportunities that aren’t there when success comes quickly and without
failure. In the presence of repeated failure and seeming futility, good learners carry on, confident that they’ll
figure it out. When faced with a motor that resists repair, my live-in mechanic announces he has yet to meet a
motor that can’t be fixed. Sometimes it ends up looking like a grudge match, man against the machine, with the
man undeterred by how many different fixes don’t work. He’s frustrated but determined to find the one that will,
all the while learning from those that don’t.

5. Good learners make knowledge their own.

This is about making the new knowledge fit with what the learner already knows, not making it mean whatever
the learner wants. Good learners change their knowledge structures in order to accommodate what they are
learning. They use the new knowledge to tear down what’s poorly constructed, to finish what’s only partially
built, and to create new additions. In the process, they build a bigger and better knowledge structure. It’s not
enough to just take in new knowledge. It has to make sense, to connect in meaningful ways with what the
learner already knows.

6. Good learners never run out of questions.

There’s always more to know. Good learners are never satisfied with how much they know about anything.
They are pulled around by questions—the ones they still can’t answer, or can only answer part way, or the
ones without very good answers. Those questions follow them around like day follows night with the answer
bringing daylight but the next question revealing the darkness.

7. Good learners share what they’ve learned.

Knowledge is inert. Unless it’s passed on, knowledge is lost. Good learners are teachers committed to sharing
with others what they’ve learned. They write about it and talk about it, and they can explain what they know in
ways that make sense to others. Because they aren’t trapped by specialized language they can translate,
paraphrase, and find examples that make what they know meaningful to other learners. They are connected to
the knowledge passed on to them and committed to leaving what they’ve learned with others.

Good teachers model this kind of learning for their students, which makes me believe that “good learner”
belongs on those lists of good teacher characteristics.

Method vs approach vs technique

Methodological organization of teaching

practices
Methodology informs teachers about different ways to organize teaching practices. Harmer
(2001), for example, suggests that there are four levels of organization at the level of
methodology, namely, approach, method, procedure, and techniques. The following description
is inspired by this framework. Many elements of this framework are also discussed by Anthony
(1963), on the one hand, and Richards and Rodgers (1986), on the other hand.

Before, describing our framework of the organization of teaching practices, let’s first review
briefly Anthony’s and Richards & Rodgers’ models.
For the sake of the simplification of the above models, approach, method, procedure, and
technique are viewed in the following description as flowing in a hierarchical model. First, an
approach, which provides theoretical assumptions about language and learning, informs
methods. Each method shouldn’t contradict the approach on which it is based. Similarly,
procedures are ordered sequences of techniques that have to be aligned with the theoretical
assumption a method aspires to put into practice.

Approach
An approach refers to the general assumptions about what language is and about how learning
a language occurs (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). It represents the sum of our philosophy about
both the theory of language and the theory of learning. In other words, an approach to language
teaching describes:

1. The nature of language,

2. How knowledge of a language is acquired,
3. And the conditions that promote language acquisition.

Method
A method is a practical implementation of an approach. A theory is put into practice at the level
a method. It includes decisions about:

 The particular skills to be taught,

 The roles of the teacher and the learner in language teaching and learning,
 The appropriate procedures and techniques,
 The content to be taught,
 And the order in which the content will be presented.
It also involves a specific syllabus organization, choices of the materials that will boost learning,
and the means to assess learners and evaluate teaching and learning. It is a sort of an
organizing plan that relies on the philosophical premises of an approach.

Silent Way
Tihi put – The Silent Way
Šta je zapravo „tihi put“? Metod za učenje jezika koji je kreirao Kaleb Gatenjo
Ovaj metod se oslanja na korišćenje tišine kao metode za učenje stranog jezika
Ovaj metod je uveden 1963. godine u knjizi ’Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools:
The Silent Way’
Gatenjo je vjerovao da je učenje stranih jezika proces koji je misteriozan, čak i
mističan.Kako funkcioniše ovaj način učenja
Nastavnik je medijator i fascilitator
Učenik sam mora da uči
Nastavnik samo stvara njegov osjećaj za jezik
Nastavnik pomaže učeniku da se sam „prepusti jeziku“ koji uči.
Šta se dešava na prvom času?
1. Nastavnik uđe u učionicu
2. Učenici su spremni za učenje
3. Nastavnik ništa ne govori na jeziku koji je maternji jezik učenika
4. Sve što on ima sa sobom je kutija drvenih štapića različitih veličina u boji
5. Nastavnik nudi određeni broj riječi neophodnih za razgovor
Kasnije.
Rečenica se postepeno produžava
Učenici stiču samopouzdanje, sklapaju rečenice sami
Akcenat je na govoru (speaking skills)
Nema ponavljanja rečenica i maternji jezik se ne smije koristiti
Cilj je da učenici postanu samostalni korisnici jezika
Što oni više komuniciraju među sobom, to nastavnik više ćuti, zato se ovaj metod zove
tihi put.
Korišćenje ove metode
Ova metoda danas se smatra alternativnom metodom
Izbjegava se prevođenje i ponavljanje
Jezik se uči u kontekstu
Tradicionalna metoda ’tihi put’ se danas najčešće ne koristi, ali su ideje iza ove metode
bile revolucionarne, posebno kada je u pitanju izgovor
Fokus na učenicima koji uče, a ne nastavniku koji predaje
Danas
Iako je ova metoda prihvaćena dobro kada se pojavila, ona je jako problematična
Učenik zapravo nije autonoman, već se njime manipuliše
Ova metoda može izazvati nemir i anksioznost
Od 2000. godine, samo mali broj nastavnika koristi ovu metodu
Najčešće se koristi za učenike koji su nepismeni, imigrante...
 Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia
subliminal accelerated learning
Suggestopedia is a language teaching method originated in the 1970s by Bulgarian
psychologist Georgi Lozanov. The name combines the terms "suggestion" and "pedagogy", the
main idea being that accelerated learning can take place when accompanied by de-suggestion
of psychological barriers and positive suggestion. To this end lessons take place against a
background of soothing music in an emotionally comforting environment, with the teacher
actively planting and unplanting thoughts in and from the learners' minds.

Typical features of a Suggestopedia lesson:

 target language/mother tongue

 teacher-centred
 bright, cheerful classrooms with comfortable chairs
 soothing background music
 positive suggestion and negative "de-suggestion" by teacher
 new identities for learners with TL names and new occupations
 printed TL dialogues with MT translation, vocabulary and grammar notes
 reading of dialogues by teacher, rhythm and intonation matched to music
 reading of dialogues by learners just before sleeping and on rising (homework)
 classroom activities based on dialogues, including Q&A, games and song

Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is
an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate
goal of study.
Language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques, learn and practice the target
language through the interaction with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic
texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and
through the use of the language both in class and outside of class.
Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside
of the realm of traditional grammar, in order to promote language skills in all types of situations.
This method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into
their language learning environment, and to focus on the learning experience in addition to the
learning of the target language.[1]
According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. [2] This is in
contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority.[3] CLT also focuses
on the teacher being a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system
that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language, but rather works on developing sound oral/verbal
skills prior to reading and writing.

Community language teaching

Učenje jezika gdje učenici rade zajedno kako bi razvili aspekte
jezika koje bi željeli da nauče;
Studenti određuju sadržaj lekcija pomoću razgovora;
Tehnike prevođenja, transkripcije i snimanja;
Charls Arthur Curran- 1952.
Metode:
Prirodni pristup:
Faza “rođenja”;
Poboljšanje sposobnosti učenika;
Učenici mogu samostalno govoriti;
Učenici mogu da kritikuju i mogu biti ispravljeni;
Dijete odrasta i postane svjesno.

The Eight Intelligences

Described
Once this broader and more pragmatic perspective
was taken, the concept of intelligence began
to lose its mystique and became a functional
concept that could be seen working in people’s
lives in a variety of ways. Gardner provided a
means of mapping the broad range of abilities
that humans possess by grouping their capabilities
into eight comprehensive categories or
“intelligences”:
Linguistic Intelligence
Linguistic Intelligence. The capacity to use
words effectively, whether orally (e.g., as a storyteller,
orator, or politician) or in writing (e.g., as
a poet, playwright, editor, or journalist). This intelligence
includes the ability to manipulate the
syntax or structure of language, the phonology
or sounds of language, the semantics or meanings
of language, and the pragmatic dimensions
or practical uses of language. Some of these uses
include rhetoric (using language to convince others
to take a specific course of action), mnemonics
(using language to remember information),
explanation (using language to inform), and
metalanguage (using language to talk about itself).
Musical Intelligence
Musical Intelligence. The capacity to perceive
(e.g., as a music aficionado), discriminate
(e.g., as a music critic), transform (e.g., as a composer),
and express (e.g., as a performer) musical
forms. This intelligence includes sensitivity to
the rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre or tone
color of a musical piece. One can have a figural
or “top-down” understanding of music (global,
intuitive), a formal or “bottom-up” understanding
(analytic, technical), or both.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence. The capacity
to use numbers effectively (e.g., as a
mathematician, tax accountant, or statistician)
and to reason well (e.g., as a scientist, computer
programmer, or logician). This intelligence includes
sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships,
statements and propositions (if-then,
cause-effect), functions, and other related abstractions.
The kinds of processes used in the
service of logical-mathematical intelligence include:
categorization, classification, inference,
generalization, calculation, and hypothesis
testing.
Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence. The ability to
perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intentions,
motivations, and feelings of other people.
This can include sensitivity to facial
expressions, voice, and gestures; the capacity for
discriminating among many different kinds of
interpersonal cues; and the ability to respond effectively
to those cues in some pragmatic way
(e.g., to influence a group of people to follow a
certain line of action).
Spatial Intelligenc
Spatial Intelligence. The ability to perceive
the visual-spatial world accurately (e.g., as a
hunter, scout, or guide) and to perform transformations
on those perceptions (e.g., as an interior
decorator, architect, artist, or inventor). This intelligence
involves sensitivity to color, line,
shape, form, space, and the relationships that exist
between these elements. It includes the capacity
to visualize, to graphically represent visual or
spatial ideas, and to orient oneself appropriately
in a spatial matrix.
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence. Self-knowledge
and the ability to act adaptively on the basis of
that knowledge. This intelligence includes having
an accurate picture of oneself (one’s strengths
and limitations); awareness of inner moods, intentions,
motivations, temperaments, and desires;
and the capacity for self-discipline,
self-understanding, and self-esteem.
Kinesthetic Intelligence
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence. Expertise
in using one’s whole body to express ideas and
feelings (e.g., as an actor, a mime, an athlete, or a
dancer) and facility in using one’s hands to produce or transform
things (e.g., as a craftsperson,
sculptor, mechanic, or surgeon). This
intelligence includes specific physical skills such
as coordination, balance, dexterity, strength,
flexibility, and speed, as well as proprioceptive,
tactile, and haptic capacities.
Naturalist Intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence. Expertise in the recognition
and classification of the numerous species—
the flora and fauna—of an individual’s
environment. This also includes sensitivity to
other natural phenomena (e.g., cloud formations
and mountains) and, in the case of those growing
up in an urban environment, the capacity to
discriminate among nonliving forms such as
cars, sneakers, and music CD covers.
Characteristics of young learners and how they learn

Activities for young language learners

Characteristics of teenagers and how they learn

Forget easily because his/her mind is so preoccupied with other
issues
See relationships among similar concepts, ideas, and experiences
and makes inferences
Make personal-social concerns a priority over academic matters
Like to discuss experiences with adults
Show intense curiosity about the world and him/herself
Begin thinking about own thinking (metacognition)
Emotional characteristics
They:
Relate self-esteem and self-concept to degree of physical
development
Experience simultaneous emotional conflicts
Exaggerate responses to anything with sexual implications
Desire attention, sometimes without regard to how it is secured
Shift moods rapidly
Can become rebellious toward adults
Are easy to offend, sensitive to criticism
Believe adults do not understand
May be inconsiderate of others
Show optimism, hope for the future
Display prankish sense of humor
Believe personal problems, experiences, and feeling are unique to
self
Search for the answer to “Who am I?”
Social characteristics
They:
Desire to make personal choices
Desire social acceptance
Seek peer relationships in order to conform to group norms
Have more interest in relations with the opposite sex, but same
sex friendships dominate
Want identification with adults but not always willing to accept
their suggestions
Shows concern for oppressed groups
Show willingness to work and sacrifice for social rewards
Social characteristics (cont.)
Test limits of acceptable behaviors
Need frequent reinforcement that significant adults, including
parents, care
Diminish family commitments and strengthens peer
commitments, but still strongly dependent upon parental values
Easily lose track of time
Like trends, especially those shunned by adults
Need moderate amounts of time alone, in order to regroup and
reflect on daily experiences
Feel vulnerable to social inequities

Activities for teenagers

 Characteristics of adult learners and how they learn
Adults are capable of lifelong learning
Adults want to know why it’s important (purpose) and how they
can use it
Adults like to participate in decision making regarding
learning/training
Learn in their own ways
Need organization
Preconceptions and abilities
New vs. Old learning

Activities for adult learners

The Grammar-Translation Method

reading, translation, grammar
The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) evolved from the Classical Method that was used
from the 15th century in the teaching of Latin and Greek — both long-since dead languages.
Latin and Greek were taught to promote the intellect and virtually no attempt was made to speak
them. GTM, formalized in Germany in the late-18th century, similarly places little or no
emphasis on actually speaking or communicating in the target language. Classwork is highly
structured, with the teacher controlling all activities. The method focuses on the literature and
grammar of the target language, with passages being translated into and from the mother
tongue. Consequently it tends to be very much text-based. Typically, the teacher gives
instructions and grammatical explanations in the mother tongue. Little or no attempt is made to
teach pronunciation.
The name "Grammar-Translation" for this method was actually conceived by its detractors who
focused on these two more negatively perceived aspects at the expense of its more positive
traits

Typical features of a GTM lesson:

 mother tongue
 teacher-centred
 vocabulary taught through wordlists and translation
 reading of literary passages even at low levels, with reading comprehension questions
 practice based on translation of texts to and from MT
 elaborate presentation of grammar rules
 memorization of grammar rules and vocabulary
 vocabulary exercises include antonyms and synonyms, definitions etc based on words in
reading texts
 composition exercises based on topics from reading texts

The Direct Method

mother tongue forbidden
The Direct Method (DM) emerged in the 1890s largely as a response to the perceived inability
of the Grammar-Translation Method to teach learners to genuinely communicate. The argument
was that the Grammar-Translation Method taught learners about the target language but not
how to speak the target-language. In DM, there is no translation. In fact mother-tongue is
expressly forbidden, and all communication is directly in the target language. Vocabulary is
explained through visual aids and miming. Listening and speaking skills are given priority,
though reading and writing play their part. Grammar is deduced rather than instilled.

The Direct Method, also called the Natural Method, emerged first in Germany and France and
was popularized by Berlitz

Typical features of a DM lesson:

 target language
 teacher/learner-centred
 teacher explains new vocab through pictures, realia or miming
 Students are encouraged to speak in the target language in "real" contexts (eg at the
doctor's or going shopping) or about "real" topics (eg sport or money).
  Students are not taught grammar explicitly — they encounter examples and are asked to
deduce the rule.
 Vocabulary is practised by using new words in context.

The Audiolingual Method

habit formation
The Audiolingual Method (ALM) gained attention in the 1950s, largely in the USA where it was
rooted in the military's need during World War II to train large volumes of personnel in disparate
languages. Although it claimed to have turned language teaching from an art to a science, it
shared several aspects with the Direct Method. Both were a reaction to the perceived failures of
the Grammar-Translation Method. Both ban the use of mother tongue, and both prioritize
listening and speaking skills over reading and writing. ALM is nevertheless different in several
ways. It drew on early-20th century beliefs of 1) behaviourism that anything could be learned
through conditioning; and 2) structuralism and structural linguistics that emphasized
grammatical structure. In ALM, grammar is prioritized over vocabulary, and accuracy over
fluency, giving learners few opportunities to produce errors which are seen as potentially
"contagious". Ultimately, the learner will speak "automatically".

The Audiolingual Method has also been called audiolingualism, the aural-oral approach and —
reflecting its military roots — the Army Method

Typical features of an Audiolingual Method lesson:

 target language/some mother tonue

 teacher-centred
 mechanical habit-formation activities with little opportunity for ("bad habit"-causing)
mistakes
 immediate reinforcement of correct responses
 presentation of new structural patterns and vocabulary through oral repetition and
memorization of scripted dialogues
 oral pattern-drills of key structures from dialogues (repetition drills, chain drills,
substitution drills...)
 inductive learning of grammar rules based on dialogues (ie no explicit grammar
teaching)
 use of tapes, visual aids and ultimately language labs
 reading and written work based on earlier oral work, sometimes given as homework
The silent way
The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as
possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible. There are three
basic principles:

- The learner needs to discover or create

- Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods
- Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and says ‘The blue one is
bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the rods to produce other
models, and finally encourages the learners to produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word boundaries, contracted forms,
prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners can use the rods to first represent and then to
manipulate language.