Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Fluid Mechanics
International Union of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics
H. J. Rath (Editor)
Microgravity
Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo
Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hans Josef Rath
Zentrum fUr angewandte Raumfahrttechnologie
und Mikrogravitation, ZARM
Universitat Bremen
Hochschulring/Am Fallturm
2800 Bremen 33
Germany
The intention of the Symposium was to review recent scientific research results in the field
of Fluid Mechanics under strongly reduced gravity conditions and to discuss the "state-of-
the-art" in this discipline. A thematical structure was provided to the large topic of the
IUTAM-Symposium by six invited lectures which reviewed the various aspects of interface
phenomena of fluids under isothermal conditions and Marangoni-effects, combustion
phenomena, physico-chemical processes and multiphase phenomena, fluid handling,
dynamics of convectional driven drops and bubbles, residual acceleration effects, non-
Newtonian fluid flow and aspects of solidification. These invited papers were supplemented
by 22 orally presented contributions and 29 papers presented as posters. In accordance with
the IUTAM-regulations, there was no general call for papers. The contributed papers were
selected by the Scientific Committee from extended abstracts. Unfortunately, it was not
possible to include all papers in the Symposium. Practically all considered contributions
could be accepted for publication in the proceedings. This is the merit of the members of
the Scientific Committee who preselected the contributions from about ninety based on the
submitted abstracts.
The Symposium brought together many scientists from allover the world who are active in
the field of Fluid Mechanics under strongly reduced gravity conditions. The conference had
quite an interdisciplinary character as scientits from various research fields as Fluid
Mechanics, Physico-Chemistry, Combustion, Rheology, Mathematics and Physics took
part. The papers submitted showed in general that there is a progress and an increasing
interest in the field of Microgravity Fluid Mechanics. Furthermore the Symposium has
shown that beside using short-term facilities (drop tower, parabolic flights), Microgravity
long-term experiments could only be the tip of an iceberg of Microgravity Science. It is
necessary to stimulate the use of mathematical and numerical methods, to use more short-
term flight possiblities for Microgravity experiments and to use "small-scale" experiments
under terrestrial conditions to get a wider basis and a precise comprehension of the
different and interesting Microgravity Fluid Mechanics phenomena.
VII
Always many people were involved in the preparation and running of the symposium. I
would like to thank the members of the Scientific Committee who at all stages during the
preparation of the conference, maintained a very close rapport. In addition to the members
of the Scientific committee I would like to thank especially Dr. A. Delgado (ZARM) and
Dipl.-Ing. R. Kroger (ZARM) for their large effort and help. Thanks is also given to Mrs.
B. Schuldt, Mrs. B. Hiller and Mr. A. Nordmann and other co-workers of ZARM. We are
much indebted for the financial support provided by the sponsors which made this
Symposium possible.
The ready and efficient cooperation of Herro von Hagen and the editorial staff of the
Springer-Verlag during the preparation for the printing of the Proceedings is especially
appreciated.
It is our hope that this book will stimulate further research efforts in this exciting field of
Fluid Mechanics.
In the first phase the evolution was strongly related to the activities in other microgravity
sciences. For a wide spectrum of experiments under compensated gravity fluid mechanics
plays a very important role as at least one fluid phase is present in each experiment. This is
the case for example in the material sciences, where molten materials must be treated
adequately, in biology and biotechnology, in combustion sciences, in chemical engineering
and even in some medical experiments.
Through the emphasis of the past activities another microgravity discipline especially on
material science research, the microgravity fluid mechanics focuses on capillary mechanics
and on interface transport phenomena. But at the present Fluid Mechanics has recognized
that there is a wide spectrum of unsolved problems, which can be studied advantageously
in a microgravity environment. This is especially true for the investigation of many basic
fluid phenomena, which have been so far otherwise intractable because of gravity effects in
earth-bound research.
The evolution of Microgravity Fluid Mechanics cannot be better emphasized than by the
scientific programme of this Symposium. Fluid mechanical problems in the broadest sense
are treated: statics and dynamics of fluids with large free boundaries, Marangoni
phenomena, bubbles and drops, multiphase flows, mass and heat transfer in flow fields,
combustion, solidification and even non-newtonian flows.
In spite of this wide range of problems I feel that the topics discussed represent the bases
for the forthcoming of Fluid Mechanics in general. In this sense I would like to thank all
participants for the hard work in ensuring the success of this Symposium.
Professor O. Mahrenholtz
President of the GAMM
Participants
Prof. J.I.D. Alexander Prof. R. Ansorge
center for Microgravity Institut fUr angewandte
and Material Research Mathematik
University of Alabama Universitat Hamburg
M-65,R.I. Bldg. Bundesstr. 55
Huntsville, AL 35899 2000 Hamburg 13
USA Germany
1st Session
Interface Phenomena of Pure Fluids under Isothermal Conditions
Chairman: I.I.D. Alexander (USA)
P. Concus, R. Finn 19
On accurate determination of contact angle
R.M.S.M. Schulkes 29
Liquid bridge ocsillations: analytical and numerical results
W. Eidel 61
Marangoni-convection in a non-spherical liquid drop
G. Lebon, A. Cloot 71
Some problems raised by Marangoni instability in spherical geometry
R. Marek, J. Straub 99
Three-dimensional transient simulation of Marangoni flow in a cylindrical
enclosure under various gravity levels
2nd Session
Residual Acceleration Effects, Fluid Handling
Chairman: J. Vreeburg (The Netherlands)
3rd Session
Convection Induced by Interface-Tension-Gradients: Marangoni-Effects
Chairman: S. Ostrach (USA)
D. Strube 263
Stability of a spherical and a catenoidal liquid bridge between two parallel
plates in the absence of gravitiy
S. Xu 315
Applications of bifurcation theory to the problem of rotating liquid drops
in space
4th Session
Combustion, Physico-Chemical Processes, Multiphase Phenomena
Chairman: P. Joulain (France)
M.Y. Choi, S.Y. Cho, F.L. Dryer, J.B. Haggard, Jr. (invited lecture) 337
Computational/experimental basis for conducting alkane droplet
combustion experiments on space-based-platforms
5th Session
Convection Induced by Interface-Tension-Gradients: Bubbles and Drops
Chairman: J. Siekmann (Germany)
D. Langbein 413
Drop and bubble migration at moderate Reynolds and Marangoni numbers
XXI
* X. Zhang 489
Microgravity liquid-gas interface configuration and surface-tension device
design
6th Session
Non-Newtonian Fluid Flows, Solidification, Applications
Chairman: V.L Polezhaev (USSR)
Contributors 599
* no oral presentation
** originally published in Microgravity Science and Technology, IV/2 (1991) 156-157,
Carl Hanser Verlag
Interface Phenomena of Pure Fluids
under Isothermal Conditions
Static and Dynamic Response of Liquid Bridges
Angel Sanz Andres
Abstract
In this paper a summary review of the latest theoretical studies on the liquid bridge behaviour
is presented. The liquid bridge can be considered as an isothermal model of a crystal growth
technique (floating zone) and in addition has its own fluid mechanical (complex
flow-interface interaction) and technological (semiconfined liquid positioner) interest, which
needs the reduced gravity conditions for fully exploiting its capabilities.
Models for the static equilibrium shapes and stability limits and the dynamical behaviour
(oscillation and breakage) accounting for most usual perturbations are presented.
l. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to make a summary review of the theoretical and
experimental studies performed during the last years concerning the behaviour of liquid
bridges (LB) under isothermal conditions.
The interest and applications of the LB configuration reside in its ability to position of
liquid masses, due to the action of surface tension forces, which are dominant under reduced
gravity conditions. Under these conditions, interfaces can be much larger than on Earth and
buoyancy and sedimentation effects are largely reduced.
Generally speaking, positioning of liquid masses can be achieved by complete
confinement (ampoules, skins, tubes, etc ... ), semiconfinement (supported menisci) and no
confinement (drops mantained in radiative fields). Each type of positioning technique has its
own advantages and drawbacks, and its applications. In many cases (e.g. crystal growth of
monocrystals or processing of high melting point materials) minimum contact of the liquid
with crucibles, absence of perturbations (occurring due to positioning by radiative fields) and
some means of directionally extracting heat from the liquid are required. This is the case of
the floating zone technique (Fig. I a). Of course, the real configuration involved in crystal
II J Rath (Editor)
MLcrogravity Fluid MechaniCS
IUTAM Sympo~lUm Bremen 1991
((l Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg N92
4
Fig. 1. a) Floating zone technique for the crucibleless growth of high melting point
crystals. The resolidified material (1) grows from the melt (2) which is produced from the
feed material (3) by heating up with a thermal source (4).
b) Geometry and coordinate system for the liquid bridge.
growth is very complicated, in such configuration one should consider a melting and a
solidification front, material properties depending on the temperature, energy deposition at
the melt-gas interface, different kind of disturbances, all this effects being mixed with the
capillary effect associated to the existence of a liquid-gas interface. In order to make the
complete problem understandable, it should be splitted in simpler problems. One of those is
the mechanical (for isothermal) model of the supported meniscus, in which solid boundaries
of general shape are substituted by two, more often circular and flat, disks.
The LB configuration has received a large attention over the last years not only due to
its application as a mechanical model of the floating zone technique but also due to the
interest in itself as a fluid dynamical problem. Actually, due to the LB sensitivity to body
forces fields, interest is increasing concerning the LB behaviour under spacecraft
accelerations. The characteristics of main interest are: the geometry of interface, its stability
and the behavior under several perturbations (e.g. displacement, vibrations and rotation of
their supports).
In the following, the general equations (* 2), the worked solutions for the static
problem (§ 3) and the dynamic one (* 4) are presented.
5
2. GENERAL EQUATIONS
Consider a liquid bridge held by surface-tension forces between two parallel, coaxial
solid disks, as shown in Fig. I b, where main notation is introduced.
The behaviour of such isothermal liquid mass is described by the Navier-Stokes
equations and the appropriate initial and boundary conditions (solid supports and interface):
i) Continuity equation:
(1)
DV = _L vp + (2)
Dt p
where V(r,e,z,t) represents the velocity field, P(r,e,z,t) the pressure field, t the time, p and)1
the density and viscosity of the fluid, and G(r,e,z,t) any body forces acting on the fluid.
iii) Boundary conditions at the interface:
A kinematic condition results from the fact that there is no flux of mass through the
free surface, whose equation is given by!(r,e,z,t) = F(e,z,t)-r = 0, namely,
fr + V·V! o (3)
Let T be the stress tensor, and n the unit normal to the interface, assumed to be
positive when pointing outwards from the liquid bridge. The normal equilibrium condition at
the interface is
(4)
where f· Ii is the force acting on an element of surface, Ii· T· Ii is the force normal to the
surface and :R.J and :R.2 are the main radii of curvature of the interface at each point. The
right-hand side of the previous equation is the so-called capillary pressure, where (J is the
interface tension. The equilibrium in the tangential plane at each point of the interface reads:
where T' Ii - (Ii. T' Ii )n is the component of the stress tensor tangential to the free surface.
Additional conditions for the interface are
a) Volume preservation
6
(6)
(7)
(8)
V·V= 0 (9)
Momentum equation:
DV
Dt
= _ VP + OhV 2V + BUg (10)
where Oh = v( p/( 6R o )Jl12 is the Ohnesorge number and ug is a unit vector of the direction of
the gravity field.
Normal equilibrium equation:
F 1
C(z)-Bz+P=O ; C(Z)=( z~)312 (13)
1+Fz
where P here is an internal parameter (a reference pressure). This is a second order ordinary
differential equation whose solution should fulfill conditions (12). Therefore a solution of
(l3) can be denoted as F(z;K,A,v,B).
Finding the shape corresponding to a given set (K,A,v,B) is not so easy (Perales, [1]);
with a shooting (Runge-Kutta) routine one finds the solution for the set (T,A,P,B), where Tis
the slope at z = -A of the meridian curve, and P is the internal parameter that appears in Eq.
(13). A pair of corresponding values K,v is obtained, but not the desired one. With an
iterative loop (Newton-Raphson algorithm) the system of equations K(T,P )=K and V(T,P)= V
can be solved. The problem with this algorithm is that it only works if the initial guess for T
and P is close enough to the solution. Fortunately, if the shape to be found is very stable, the
procedure converges quickly. How close a calculated meridian curve F = F(z;K,A,v,B) is to
an equilibrium shape, can be measured by the deviation E, defined as:
A
E= f[C(Z)-Bz+Pfdz (14)
-A
8
16 2S
V
V I
8 15
001 1
Fig. 2. a) Stability limits of an axisymmetric liquid bridge held between equal, coaxial,
circular disks (Da Riva & Martfnez [2]). Line OC: cylindrical configurations; OD, limit of
spreading with 180 0 angle; OA, limit of edge detachment; AB, absolute minimum volume
limit; BC, limit of capillary instability. V: bridge dimensionless volume; A: slenderness.
b) Typical stability diagrams (minimum volume, V, versus slenderness, A) of liquid
bridges between unequal disks subjected to an axial microgravity field whose direction is
indicated by arrows on the curves. The different sketches show the liquid bridge interface at
selected points of stability limits (Bezdenezhnykh & Meseguer 131).
one of these effects separately decrease the stability of the liquid bridge (the volume of liquid
must be increased or the slenderness decreased to keep a stable configuration), but both
effects together can cancel or, in other words, either one of these effects can be stabilizer by
the remaining one. In the particular case of cylindrical long liquid bridges (A - rr, V = 2rrA,
K -1, B - 0) it was demonstrated in Meseguer [5], that the maximum stable slenderness
varies as
A -_ rr[1- (3)413(
- B -1 -1_K)213]
-- (15)
2 2rr l+K
so that, for a given value of K the critical slenderness increases if B > 0 (gravity points to the
smaller disk) whereas the contrary occurs if B < 0 (gravity pointing to the larger disk). This
behaviour is qualitatively the same regardless the values of K and B. These results are
summarized in Fig. 2b, where the stability limits of minimum volume of liquid bridges
between unequal disks (K = 0.6) have been plotted for two different values of the Bond
number. In the B < 0 case the slope of the stability limit curve is continuous in the range of
values of A of interest, whereas in the case of B > 0 there is a discontinuity in the slope at
point A. Numerical results published in Meseguer [6], show that, in the latter case, when the
stability limit is reached and breakage of the long liquid bridge takes place, there is a sudded
jump in the values of the volume of the drops resulting after breaking, in such a way that if A
< AA, the final configuration consists of a large drop at the top disk and a small one at the
bottom disk, but when A > AA the large drop appears at the bottom disk whereas the small
one is formed at the top.
A summary review of the cases studied is presented in Table 1, which covers also the
electric stabilization and rotation perturbation of the LB.
4. DYNAMIC RESPONSE
Concerning the dynamic behaviour, complexity increases as a new factor, the fluid
flow is added to the previous analysis. Some of the most important features are the breakage
dynamics (the evolution to breakage when a configuration reaches the stability limit) and the
transfer function (resonant frequencies, eigen modes, damping, etc ... ) which are commented
here, although others, as injection inside the LB and rotation (steady and impulsive), are just
acknowledged. A summary description of the studies performed can be found in Tabl~ 2.
Several ways of simplification of the general formulation have been attempted.
1) Except in a few cases most models refers to axisymmetric evolutions. This r-nders
Eq. (10) and mostly Eq. (11) more tractable.
10
2) In cases where deformations of the interface around a given equilibrium shape are
small (linear oscillations, impulsive motions of small amplitude) some kind of linearization
of the formulation can be attempted. The solution of this linear problem has to be
numerically obtained (as the interface shape has not an analytical expression) except in a few
cases (cylinder, catenoid, sphere) in which cases some more algebraic work can be
performed, although at the end some computations should be carried out to solve the
resulting secular equations.
3) Other obvious simplification is to neglect the effect of viscosity which is valid in
the case of liquids with small viscosity fulfilling the condition ,V.Q/v > > 1 (where A is the
wavelength and .Q the pulsation of the oscillatory motion) or Oh < < 1 (in general), as
explained in Sanz & Lopez Dfez [40].
4) Finally, other simplification is to make some assumption on the velocity field.
Most often used is to suppose that the axial velocity component, w, is a function of z and t,
but does not vary with r. There are two models based on this assumption: one is the slice
model (Lee [49], Meseguer [41], Zhang & Alexander [42]) which directly uses this
simplification of the Navier-Stokes equations; and the other one is based on the Cosserat
model (Meseguer [41], Rivas & Meseguer 143 J, Perales [1 j) which have been widely used in
the theory of capillary jets (Green [50], Bogy [51]). Both models allow to calculate finite
deformations of the LB interface and therefore can be used for analysis of the breakage
process or non-linear oscillations. Studies performed show that the accuracy of the results
increases as A increases, A = 2 and A = 1 being the lower limits of validity of the slice and
the Cosserat models, respectively.
Most of the reviewed methods based primarily in linearization add the assumption of
inviscid flow in order to obtain a potential flow formulation, which can be solved in several
ways (separation of variables (Gaiiin & Barrero [39], Sanz [35]) or a more general boundary
element method (Gaiiin [25])). In these cases there is no need for axisymmetric limitations.
On the other hand, slices and Cosserat models include viscosity effects and can be
applied to study linear and non-linear phenomena. Their intrinsic limitations are the length of
the LB and the axisymmetry of the flow.
Concerning LB oscillations, some results obtained with a linear, potential flow model
are shown in Fig. 3. The influence of the volume in the resonant frequency is shown in
Fig. 4, as obtained from three linearized models, namely, Cosserat, slice (Perales [1]) and
potential flow (Gaiiin & Barrero [39]).
Realistic calculations of the LB transfer function need models which include the
viscous effects, that is, slices (Zhang & Alexander [42]) or Cosserat models. Results obtained
by Perales [l] concerning the excitation through one of the disks or the gravity level acting
on the LB are shown in Fig. 5. In the first case both odd and even modes are excited so that
13
~ ---
1.0
06
t
6 12
v 18 24
Fig. 4. Variation with the volume, V, of the first pulsation of resonance, (0, of an inviscid
liquid bridge with A = 1.6, K = 1 and B = O. Line type indicates results obtained from the
Cosserat model (continuous line) or the slice model (dashed line). The black symbols
indicate results from the three-dimensional inviscid model developed by Gaihln & Barrero
[39].
14
the full spectra is excited whereas in the second case, as it is an antisymmetric perturbation,
only even modes are excited. Details concerning the damping of the LB motion after an
impulsive acceleration can be found in Meseguer, Perales & Bezdenezhnykh [38].
..
'If
,
II
III"
' '"
llF
oj
l!F
B
bJ
)a,
I
o IS
I
Ij
llH
, V~\\ i
11
---f",,\ 1
10
I '~
I i 1
~,
1\
0
L1
10
0
,
I
,
/{V}!y--~
j
"".~I
{\
'
~\~\ I 1i
\ ~. I
--- '\ \ \
,
Ll"~ l
\
./ "-
/~
~,.
\ '"
I
Y 1.0 ..... ,... ............
\~ .
--------_......... ",'"
\
\
\
\.
\
\
..
\
\
1 , , , , , " "
• • I I " I,,,
w w
Fig. 5. Transfer functions of a liquid bridge between equal disks, K = 1, slenderness A = 2.6
and cylindrical volume, V = 21tA (Perales [1 D. a) in gravitationless conditions, B = 0, when
subjected to a vibration of amplitude L'iH of one of the supporting disks. Numbers on the
curves indicate the value of the Ohnesorge number, Oh; b) subjected to an oscillatory
microgravitational field, B(t) = Re(Be iffit) . The line S indicates results from the inviscid
one-dimensional slice model. L'iF is the dimensionless amplitude of the deformation of the LB
interface. (0 is the dimensionless pulsation.
The study of the breaking process, as above mentioned, requires the use of the slice or
Cosserat models. A first point is to analyze the influence of the several parameters involved
(B,K,A) and the type of perturbation that initiates the process. The difficulty of
experimentally producing a controlled perturbation which starts the process led to a search
for a measurable parameter of the evolution which does not depend on the initial
perturbation. Such a parameter is the ratio of the volume of one of the drops (resulting after
the breakage) to the whole LB volume, so called partial volume, V" (Meseguer & Sanz, [34]).
Some theoretical results, together with experimental measurements can be shown in Fig. 6
(Bezdenezhnykh & Meseguer [3]). In this case (K = 0.60, B = 0.080) both anti symmetric
stimuli (unequal disks and gravity) are in opposition, and the relative importance of each one
of them depends on the value of the slenderness, A. Bond number becomes more and more
important as the slenderness increases, in such a way that this effect is dominant if A> 3.1;
15
K =0.50
0075
--......
~
0.2 ---
o
1.9 2.1 23 2.5 2.7 29 1\ 3.1 33
Fig. 6. Variation with the slenderness, A, of the partial volume at minimum volume
stability limit, Vp, of liquid bridges between unequal disks (K = 0.60). The symbols
indicate experimental results (Bezdeneznykh & Meseguer, [3)) whereas the curves
correspond to theoretical ones (slices model, Meseguer [41)). Figures on the curves
indicate the value of the Bond number, B .
in that case equilibrium shapes show a neck close to the larger disk, and when the liquid
bridge disruption takes place the final configuration consists of a large drop of liquid attached
to the bottom disk and a small drop attached to the top one. The contrary occurs when A <
3.J: the interface shape is mainly driven by the fact that the disks are unequal in diameter,
liquid bridge interfaces have a neck close to the smaller disk and this position of the neck
determines the volume of the drops resulting after the breaking of the liquid column.
5. CONCLUSIONS
A summary review of the theoretical work performed on liquid bridge behaviour has
been presented; the main features of its stability limits and dynamics (concerning oscillation
and breakage), have been described. Future activities concerning the LB behaviour can be
summarized as follows: development of more complex theoretical models, validation the
these and presently available models by experimentation on earth (refining of the Plateau
tank and millimetric scaling techniques), continuation of the reduced-gravity experiments
(aboard Spacelab and Texus sounding rockets) based on a more frequent access to flight
opportunities thanks to the increased rate of Texus/Maxus campaigns. It should be mentioned
that, as a colateral activity, the LB is being used on earth with the Plateau tank technique for
the study of experimenter support operations of Columbus (telescience).
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Spanish Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y
Tecnologia (CICYT) and is part of a more general endeavour for the study of fluid physics
and materials processing under microgravity (Project No. ESP88-0359).
The author wants to thank ESA for the flight opportunities made available.
16
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17
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31. Perales, J.M., Sanz, A. & Rivas, D., Eccentric rotation of a liquid bridge, Appl. Microgravity Tech. 2
(1990),193-197.
32. Meseguer, J., The influence of axial microgravity on the breakage of axisymmetric slender liquid bridges,
J. Crystal Growth 62 (1983), 577-586.
33. Meseguer, J., Sanz, A. & Rivas, D., The breaking of axisymmetric non-cylindrical liquid bridges, in
Matenals Sciences under Microgravity, ESA SP-191 (1983),261-265.
34. Meseguer, J & Sanz, A., Numerical and experimental study of the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid
bridges, J. Fluid Mech. 153 (1985), 83-101.
35. Sanz, A., 1985 The influence of the outer bath on the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid bridges, J. Fluid
Mech. 156 (1985),101-140.
36. Bauer, H.F., Natural frequencies and stability of circular cylindrical immiscible liquid systems, Appl.
Microgravity Tech. 2 (1989), 27-44.
37. Meseguer, J., Axisymmetric long liquid bridges in a time-dependent microgravity field, Appl. Microgravity
Tech. 1 (1988),136-141.
38. Meseguer, J., Perales, J.M. & Bezdenezhnykh, N.A., Impulsive motion of viscous axisymmetric liquid
bridges. Presented at the International Symposium on Hydromechanics and Heat/Mass Transfer in
Microgravity (1991), Perm.
39. Gailan, A. & Barrero, A., Free oscillations of liquid captive drops, Microgravity Sci. Techno!. III 2 (1990),
70-86.
40. Sanz, A. & L6pez-Diez, J., Non-axisymmetric oscillations of liquid bridges, J. Fluid Mech. 205 (1989),
503-521.
41. Meseguer, J., The breaking of axisymmetric slender liquid bridges, J. Fluid Mech. 130 (1983), 123-151.
42. Zhang, Y. & Alexander, J .I.D., Sensitivity of liquid bridges subject to axial residual acceleration, Phys.
Fluids A 2 (1990), 1966-1974.
43. Rivas, D. & Meseguer, J., One-dimensional, self-similar solution of the dynamics of axisymmetric slender
liquid bridges, J. Fluid Meeh. 138 (1984),417-429.
44. Da Riva, I. & Meseguer, 1., On the structure of the floating zone in melting, Acta Astronautica 5 (1978),
637-653.
45. Da Riva, I. & Manzano, D.R., Impulsive motions of the floating zone, PCH Physico Chemical
Hydrodynamics 2 (1981), 165-176.
46. Harriot, G.M. & Brown, R.A., Flow in a differentially rotated cylindrical drop at low Reynolds number, J.
Fluid Mech. 126 (1983), 269-285.
47. Harriot, G.M. & Brown, R.A., Flow in a differentially rotated cylindrical drop at moderate Reynolds
number, J. Fluid Mech. 144 (1984), 403-418.
48. Meseguer, J. & Sanz, A., One-dimensional linear analysis of the liquid injection or removal in a liquid
bridge, Acta Astronautica 15 (1987), 573-576.
49. Lee, H.C., Drop formation in a liquid jet, IBM J. Rcs. Develop. 18, (1974), 364-369.
50. Green, A.E., On the non-linear behaviour of fluid jets, Int. J. Engng. Sci. 14 (1976),49-63.
51. Bogy, D.B., Steady draw-down of a liquid jet under surface tension and gravity, J. Fluid Mech. 105 (1981),
157-176.
52. Bauer, H.F., Coupled oscillations of a solidly rotating liquid bridge, Acta Astronautica 9 (1982), 547-563.
On Accurate Determination of Contact Angle
P. CONCUS
R. FINN
Department of Mathematics
Stanford University
Summary
Methods are proposed that exploit a microgravity environment to obtain highly accurate
measurement of contact angle. These methods, which are based on our earlier math-
ematical results, do not require detailed measurement of a liquid free-surface, as they
incorporate discontinuous or nearly-discontinuous behavior of the liquid bulk in certain
container geometries. Physical testing is planned in the forthcoming IML-2 space flight
and in related preparatory ground-based experiments.
1. Introduction
Methods for accurate determination of the contact angle formed between a liquid and a
solid at a triple interface are developed, as an application of our general mathematical
comparison principles for the equations describing capillary surfaces. Contact angles are
notoriously difficult to measure, and differing methods often lead to disparate results
that are not easily reproducible. As a consequence of these difficulties, the intrinsic
physical significance of an equilibrium contact angle has come into some question. Two
microgravity experiments are under development for methods that should lead to sub-
stantially improved accuracy in the respective ranges of applicability, and which we
believe will shed some light on the question as to whether contact angle can properly be
regarded as an intrinsic property of materials, as suggested by the classical Young-Gauss
theory. Both methods have the advantage of not requiring sophisticated instrumenta-
tion for measurements, as they depend on global instabilities (or near instabilities)
that occur at values of experimental parameters corresponding to the contact angle to
be measured. Because they rely on such instabilities involving bulk fluid motion, the
H J Rath (EdllOr)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid MechaniCS
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
20
methods hold promise of being much less sensitive than previous ones to surface friction
(resistance at the contact line) and other effects not included in the classical theory.
The first method is based on a discontinuous behavior that occurs in a capillary tube
whose section contains a corner. It is especially well adapted for contact angles,
between about 40° and 140°. The method can be applied whether or not gravity is
present; however, observation of the discontinuity becomes more feasible, and accuracy
improved correspondingly, by letting 9 -> o.
For values of, closer to 0° or 180° another method is proposed. It is based on behavior
that can change very rapidly with contact angle, when 9 is small, although not discon-
tinuously as above. Preliminary calculations indicate that very good accuracy should
be expected; detailed confirmation will require more extensive computer calculations,
which are currently being carried out for particular geometries.
2. First Method
2.1. Background. We suppose first that 9 > 0 (as in a capillary tube on the earth's
surface), and 0 :s: , < ~ (wetting liquid). We consider a vertical capillary tube, in
an infinite reservoir, whose section n contains a wedge with opening angle 2a. We
introduce a disk Bo such that the shaded region shown in Fig. 1 lies in n. Let /lp =
density change across interface, cr = surface tension, '" = g/lplcr. It is shown in [1] (see
also [4] Chapter 5) that if a +, 2: ~ then the height u(x, y) of the free surface interface
relative to the reservoir satisfies
(1)
However, if a +, < ~ then we set k = sinal cos, and find the asymptotic relation
Note that (1) gives a bound that holds for all a 2: ~ - ,. It does not depend on a in
this range. Thus, if we let a decrease to ~ - , from larger values, the fluid height stays
uniformly bounded throughout the shaded region and does not tend to infinity, even at
21
,.,-------
"
.........
'""-........ -----
Figure 1. Wedge domain; coordinates.
/'
the vertex. But according to (2), as soon as a < ~ - , then u -+ 00 at P. Thus, the
behavior changes discontinuously as a moves across the critical value ~ - ,.
2.2. An Example. Consider n as above, water in the earth's gravity field (I\: :::::: ~O~) ,
and 8 = 0,5 cm. Then
4 ·13 1
u < 400 + 2" : : : 0,6 cm
holds if a +, ~ ~; but u -+ 00 if a < ~ - ,. Thus, according to the theory, by changing
a a fraction of a degree, the rise height can be made to jump from less than about 0,6
cm to infinity. Presumably, the jump could be observed optically or with laser beams,
or by placing an electrode into the corner above the critical height. The difficulty with
such an approach is that unless, is reasonably close to 7r /2, the jump will be restricted
to an extremely small neighborhood of P, and correspondingly measurements will be
significantly affected by hysteresis, evaporation from the interface, imprecision of the
corner, and irregularities in the solid surface. We thus consider a modified approach.
2.3. Planned Experiment. Consider a capillary tube whose section n is that of a "near
rhombus", with opposite half-angles al < a2 < 7r / 4 and boundary E, as indicated in
22
Fig. 2. Let Z denote the vertical cylinder over n, closed at the base. For gravity 9 > 0,
consider the capillary surface u(x, y; g), with contact angle ,,!, obtained by introducing
a volume V of fluid into Z. It can be shown that if V is large enough so that the left
side of (3) is positive, and if al + "! ~ 7r /2, then
1m
V
- cos,,!
{) (
1-
~)
kl < u(x.y;"!) < 1m
V {) (
+ cos,,! 1-
~)
kl (3)
throughout O. Here kl = sinaI! cos,,!, {) = radius of inscribed circle, and 101 denotes
the area of O. This estimate holds regardless of g. Further, there holds
where v( x, y) is the lower hemisphere of radius {) / cos,,! concentric with the inscribed
circle and at a height such that the volume bounded over n is V.
Thus, if al + "! ~ 7r /2 the fluid stays bounded above and below and tends to a known
spherical cap as 9 -+ O. But if al + "! < 7r /2, and a2 + "! ~ 7r /2, then the fluid moves
into the smaller corner and forms, in an asymptotic sense, a section as shown in Fig. 3,
with R = ,d~ls 'Y . The area of any such section with opening half-angle a is
and thus if the height of Z is large enough, the base 0 will become partly uncovered with
decreasing gravity, the fluid moving into the smaller corner. Thus, instead of looking
23
for the highest fluid point at the vertex P, it is better to look for the lowest point,
which occurs at a known height over the center 0 of the inscribed circle when 9 =0
and al + l' 2: 7r /2, and is thus easily accessible. The discontinuous change when al + l'
decreases past 7r /2, in conjunction with an observation of the direction of motion of
the fluid (away from the larger corner and toward the smaller one), should lead to an
extremely sensitive contact angle measurement without detailed measurements of the
fluid free-surface in the range l' > 45° that is admissible in the construction.
If l' ~ 45° the above construction is not feasible, as the existence criterion will fail
for the upper and lower corners. We may however replace it by the configuration of
Fig. 4, in which two of the angles are replaced by arcs of the inscribed circle. The
discussion remains unchanged and the relation (3) continues to apply, with nand :E
now taken from Fig. 4. Thus, at least in principle, contact angles in the entire range
o< l' < 7r /2 can be measured by this procedure. A practical difficulty may appear,
however, in that the sectional area (5) filled out with fluid in the corner tends to zero
as a --+ 7r /2, and thus the cylinder would have to be of large height in order to absorb
a significant amount of the fluid into the corner at P. Correspondingly, it must be
expected that the discontinuity as al +1' crosses 7r /2 becomes physically less pronounced.
These considerations are to some extent heuristic; the configuration is known exactly
only when al + l' 2: 7r /2, 9 = 0, and does not lend itself easily to computation when
al + l' < 7r /2. It is proposed to determine experimentally the actual range for which
24
precise answers can be anticipated. It does however seem clear that for small values of
, (say, < 40 0 ) another approach should be sought, and accordingly we consider such
an approach below.
3. Second Method
Figs. 6-8 depict the dependence of ,0 and of d on p for varying values of Q, and of ,0
25
on 0: for varying p. It is seen that even for very small 1'0, the rates of change of 1'0 with
respect to p and 0: can be made small, so that errors in construction of the apparatus
will not lead to large errors in the measured contact angle 1'0'
4. Experimental Considerations
4.1. First Method. Preliminary experiments, using glycerol and fluorinert in rhombic
containers of acrylic plastic, were carried out by D. Langbein in parabolic flight, and
are described in [5]. One sees in all cases the marked effect of the discontinuity as the
critical angle is crossed; however for fluorinert the effects of residual accelerations are
significant, while glycerol, in view of its larger viscosity, did not have sufficient time
during the 20 seconds at zero 9 to achieve its equilibrium configuration. The proposed
experiments to be carried out in space flight will permit a much longer time duration.
Residual accelerations will also then be much smaller, and equilibrium configurations
should be achievable with liquids of widely varying viscosity and density. If contact
angle is indeed an intrinsic property of materials (as we expect it to be) then it should
be feasible by the proposed procedures to obtain reproducible measurements to consid-
erably greater accuracy than has heretofore been possible. In this connection, we note
an earlier "kitchen sink" experiment conducted by T. Coburn in the medical school of
26
50 a = 90°
40
a = 60°
30
20
a = 30°
10
30
p
0.6
a = 60 0
0.4
d
a = 45 0
0.2
a = 30 0
Figure 7. d VS. p.
27
50
p = 20
p = 10
40
p= 5
30
p= 3
20
10
°0~~~-----ro
~--~~~---4~0-----~
~--~
ro~---7~0-----OO
~--~OO
------"
ex
5. Space Flight
The experiments discussed here are scheduled for the International Microgravity Lab-
oratory IML-2 space flight in 1994 as part of a joint investigation with D. Langbein,
T. M. Haynes, and U. Hornung. Preparatory ground-based experiments are planned,
in part along the lines of those described in [2], to aid in estimating the times required
for equilibrium and assessing the role that such factors as contact-line surface friction
and hysteresis, perturbing accelerations, and container surface preparation should play
in design of the space experiments.
6. Acknowlegments
This work was supported in part by the Mathematical Sciences Subprogram of the
Office of Energy Research, U. S. Department of Energy, under Contract Number DE-
AC03-76SF00098, by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant
NAG3-1143, and by the National Science Foundation under Grant DMS89-02831.
References
1. Concus, P.; Finn, R.: On capillary free surfaces in a gravitational field. Acta Math.
132 (1974) 207-224.
2. Concus, P.; Finn, R.; Weislogel, M.: Drop-tower experiments for capillary surfaces in
an exotic container. Paper AIAA 91-0107, 29th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno,
NV, USA, Jan. 1991, to appear in AIAA J ..
3. Finn, R.: A subsidiary variational problem and existence criteria for capillary sur-
faces. J. Reine Angew. Math. 353 (1984) 196-214.
4. Finn, R.: Equilibrium Capillary Surfaces. Grundlehren 284, Springer-Verlag, New
York,1986.
5. Langbein, D.; Grossbach, R.; Heide, W.: Parabolic flight experiments on fluid sur-
faces and wetting. Appl. Microgravity Tech. 2 (1990) 198-211.
Liquid Bridge Ocsillations:
Analytical and Numerical Results
R.M.S.M. Schulkes
Department of Mathematics
Delft University of Technology
P.O. Box 356, 2600 AJ Delft, The Netherlands
1 Introduction
Liquid bridges are employed in various industrial processes. The fact that the stability of the
liquid bridge is determined by the balance between gravitational and surface tension forces means
that liquid bridges have limited stability on earth. This has lead to interest in the application
of processes involving liquid bridge in a micro-gravity environment such as can be achieved
in space, see Walter [1]. However, processes in spacecraft are prone to vibrations induced by
operating equipment or action of the crew. This means that large, unwanted, vibrations may
be excited which can lead to the break up of the bridge. It follows that a detailed knowledge
of the dynamic behaviour, and in particular eigenfrequencies of liquid bridges is important.
The dynamic behaviour of liquid bridges has been studied extensively by, for example, Bauer
[2], Meseguer [3], Sanz [4] and Schilling & Siekmann [5] among many others. Even so, good
analytical estimates of eigenfrequencies have not yet been obtained. The underlying reason for
this is the complicated set of boundary conditions which are to be satisfied on the capillary
surface. In particular the so-called stuck-edge conditions pose a problem due to their local
character. In this paper it will be shown how good analytical estimates of eigenfrequencies may
be obtained by rewriting the boundary conditions on the free surface.
Analytical techniques are generally severely restricted by geometric constraints. It is, in
addition, generally hard to incorporate viscous effects into analytical models since the fluid
flow is in general no longer irrotational thus preventing a velocity potential approach. These
problems can be overcome when a numerical solution technique is employed. Here we present a
finite-element approach in conjunction with an inverse-iteration procedure which enables us to
calculate eigenfrequencies of viscous liquid bridges in complex geometries.
2 Inviscid oscillations
Consider a rotationally symmetric liquid bridge placed between two rigid discs with equal radii
R = a. The discs are separated on distance h as shown in figure 1. We assume that the
fluid volume of liquid between the two discs is equal to V = 7rha 2 so that, in the absence
of gravitational forces, the liquid column (in the unperturbed state) is cylindrical. Neglecting
H J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mechanics
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen ]991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
30
viscous effects and assuming irrotational flows it follows that the fluid velocity may be written
as the gradient of a velocity potential t/J. Assuming rotational symmetry (ie. no azimuthal
dependence) the equations determining the motion of a liquid column are as follows. In the
fluid domain n the velocity potential has to satisfy the Laplace equation
(1)
On the symmetry axis r = 0 and the rigid boundaries z = 0, z = h the impermeability condition
is given, viz.
at/J _ 0 (2)
an - ,
and on the capillary surface at r = a the following conditions are to be satisfied
at/J aTJ
(3)
an = at'
at/J 1 a 2 TJ
(4)
at = a2TJ + az 2 '
'17(0. t) = TJ(h, t) = O. (5)
The quantity TJ(z, t) denotes the dis- z
placement of the capillary surface
from the static configuration. The
equations have been made dimen-
sionless by introducing a time scale
T = ..;pr;rn where L is some capillary surface
length scale and I the coefficient of
~ ______________. .__-+r
surface tension. On the free surface
we have the kinematic condition (3), z=o r=a
the dynamic condition (4) and the Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a liquid bridge.
so-called stuck edge conditions (5).
Without imposing the stuck-edge conditions (5), equation (1) can be solved readily subject to
conditions (2) - (4) by means of separation of variables, see for example Bauer [2]. However, the
local character of the stuck-edge conditions imply that, when taken into account, the complete
set of eigenfunctions has to be used thus preventing an exact analytical expression for the
eigenfrequencies to be obtained. Good analytical estimates of the eigenfrequencies can, however,
be obtained when the boundary conditions on the capillary surface are treated as follows. Regard
TJ(z, t) as an unknown function to be found in terms of the velocity potential t/J(r, z, t) at r = a,
i.e. we aim to solve the differential equation (4) for '17 in terms of t/J subject to conditions (5).
Application of Green's functions yields
J
h
a</> =0 on r = 0, z = 0, z = h, (7)
an
J
h
~~ = w 2 J((z,O</>(a,Od~
at r = a.
o
The unique solvability of equations (7) requires the compatibility condition
JJJ((z,O</>(a,Odzd~ =
h h
0, (8)
o 0
to be satisfied.
For the solution of equations (7), (8) we take
00
</>(r,z) = C + 2: An¢n(r,z),
n:::::::l
where Io is the modified Bessel function of the first kind. It can be shown that ¢n (n = 1,2, ... )
are the eigenfunctions of the problem without edge constraints and that, together with the
constant C, they form a complete set on the domain f!. Substituting for </>, eliminating the
constant C (by means of the compatibility condition) and employing the orthogonality relations
of ¢n on S we find that the following expression must be satisfied for all coefficients An
(9)
with
In here, 8nl denotes the usual Kronecker delta symbol. We note that equation (9) is just an
eigenvalue problem of the form
In order to calculate the eigenvalues the roots of a polynomial defined by an infinite series have
to be found. It can, however, be shown that a good approximation to the nth root may be
obtained by taking only n terms in the series expansion. Good first-order estimates of the first
and second eigenvalue are in fact given by
W~~W~nX[I- 4a
(mr)2 - a 2
[1-(-I)n)Sina+a[(-I)n-Cos a
2(1 - cos a) - a sin a
)]-1 n = 12, (10)
with
2 _ mr [( )2 _ 2] h(mr/a)
Won - h3 mr a Io(mr/a)"
The quantities = 1,2, ... ) are the eigenfrequencies of a liquid bridge without edge con-
Won ( n
straints imposed at the points of intersection of the capillary surface and rigid discs (d. (2)).
Clearly, the term in the large square brackets in (10) is due to edge constraints - we note that
this term is close to unity only when n is large. For the lowest eigenmodes this means that
edge constraints have a marked effect on the eigenfrequencies - stuck edge conditions increase
the eigenfrequencies. It may be shown that w~ given by (10) is strictly positive when a < 27r.
For a > 27r we find w{ < 0 so that WI is imaginary and hence disturbances grow exponentially.
Clearly a = 27r is the stability limit corresponding with the well-known result of Rayleigh (6).
In figure 2 a plot is shown of Wn versus a for n = 1,2,3. The eigenfrequencies are calculated by
taking only the first three terms in the expansion (9).
We conclude our analytical work with a brief discussion of the extension of the results given
above to the case of a Plateau-tank (or neutral buoyancy) situation. We consider the situation
of a cylindrical tank with radius r = b and height z = h. In the tank a liquid column with radius
r = a and density PI is formed. The ambient fluid has density P2. A sharp fluid-fluid interface
will form when the fluids do not mix. This interface will be cylindrical when the gravitational
force is not present or when the two densities PI and P2 are identical. Assuming a cylindrical
fluid-fluid interface, it can be shown that the lowest two eigenfrequencies are estimated by
(11)
W
12.0
Wn
5.0
9.0
4.0
6.0 3.0
2.0
3.0
1.0
.0
.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
h 2.0 4.0 6.0 h
Let us next consider oscillations of a liquid bridge in which viscous effects are not neglected. In
addition we consider rotational effects by allowing the liquid column to rotate about its symmetry
axis. Since the fluid flow is, in general, no longer irrotational it follows that the N avier-Stokes
equations have to be considered. In this paper we linearize the N avier-Stokes equations with
respect to the static configuration of the system. This means that first of all we calculate
the shape of the static capillary surface, denoted by S, after which only small perturbations
with respect to this static configuration are considered. Techniques for the computation of
static capillary free-boundary shapes can be found in Cuvelier & Schulkes [7]. The linearized,
dimensionless equations are as follows:
at ~ xu + 'Vp = Oh'V
8u + 2vWek 2u }
in fl, (12)
'V·u=o
to S. We have introduced the dimensionless numbers Bo == pgL2 I, being the Bond number,
We == pw 2 L3 Ii being the Weber number, and Oh == JlI v'PI L being the Ohnesorge number (w is
the angular velocity and J.l the viscosity of the fluid). The quantities Rl and R2 are the principal
radii of curvature of Sand k is a unit vector in the direction of the z-axis. Note that we do
not assume a cylindrical geometry, the capillary surface S may be deformed under the action of
gravitational forces. For a derivation of equations (12) - (15) the reader is referred to Schulkes
& Cuvelier [8].
In order to apply the finite-element technique the variational form of equations (12)-(15) is
required. Let us assume that all time-dependent quantities are of the form eAt where A is in
general complex. The variational formulation of (12) - (15) is then as follows:
find u and p such that for all suitably smooth functions v and q the following
equations are satisfied
J (Au. v
.
+ 2~k xu· v - pv· v)rdx
1
+ Oha(u, v) + ;:b(u, v) == 0,
o
Jqv·
o
u == O. (16)
b(u, v) == J
S
1 1
(Bok . ns - 2 - 2 - Week x R) . (k
Rl Rl
X ns))UnVn
GUn GUn
+ -;;:;--;;:;-
uSo uSo
)rds,
and is a measure of the potential energy as a result of free-surface oscillations while the functional
a( u, v) is proportional to the viscous dissipation of energy.
The usual finite-element technique, where continuous quantities are approximated by a finite
sum of basis functions with small support, can be applied directly to equations (16). Application
of the finite-element discretization technique in conjunction with a penalty-function approach in
order to eliminate the pressure from the momentum equations, yields and eigenvalue problem
of the form
(17 )
where M is termed the mass matrix, S the stiffness matrix (representing terms due to viscous
forces) and B is a boundary matrix resulting from the functional b( u, v). The vector ii contains
all the velocity unknowns in the nodal points of the finite-element mesh. For details of the
finite-element approach we, once agajn refer to [8]. There we argue that eigenvalue problem (17)
may be solved using an inverse-iteration procedure.
To illustrate the numerical procedure we show first of all how eigenfrequencies of a cylindri-
cal (Bo, We == 0) liquid bridge depend on the viscosity. In figure 4 plots are shown of the real
(4a) and imaginary (4b) parts of eigenfrequencies versus the length of the liquid bridge. The
dots in figure 4a indicate the points at which Im(A) in 4b just vanishes. We note that for vis-
cous fluids, unlike the inviscid case, the value of h at which Im( A) just vanishes does not mark the
35
Rc(.\.) Imp)
0.0 3.0
-0.2
0.5
-0.4 2.0
-0.6
-0.8 1.0
-1.0
transition from stable to unstable oscillations. We observe, for example, that event hough
Im(oX) = 0 for h 2: 4.2 when Oh = 0.6 the real part of oX remains negative. This corresponds
to an aperiodic damping process. We note the qualitative change in the dynamics of a liquid
bridge as the stability boundary is approached. The dynamic behaviour changes from damped
periodic to damped aperiodic after which exponential growth results when the stability bound-
ary is crossed. A detailed stability analysis for We = 0 (see [8]) shows that damped oscillations
can only occur when the functional b( u, u) is strictly positive. For the case of a cylindrical liquid
column with Bo = 0 it is easy to show that b(u, u) is positive when h < 211" (see figure 4a). This
implies that viscosity does not effect the stability of the column corresponding to the stability
analysis for slender liquid bridges by Meseguer [3]. He also found that the stability boundary of
liquid bridge oscillations is uneffected by viscous effects.
We conclude this section with examples of oscillation modes of a liquid bridge in a more
complicated geometry. In figures 5a,b we show vector plots of oscillations of a rotating liquid
bridge anchored between two discs with unequal radii (rl = 0.75, r2 = 0.5) and separated a
distance h = 1. We have taken the volume of fluid equal to 0.3511" and Oh = 10- 2 , Bo = 0.5 and
We = 7. Figure 5a shows a vector plot of the first free surface mode and in figure 5b a vector
plot is shown of an inertial oscillation mode characteristic of rotating fluids.
4 Conclusions
It is shown how good analytical estimates of eigenfrequencies of inviscid liquid bridge oscilla-
tions may be obtained by rewriting the boundary conditions at the capillary surface by means of
Green's functions. In particular for the lower eigenmodes simple expressions can be derived. As
yet the analytical approach is restricted to cylindrical geometries. In order to overcome this re-
striction a numerical solution technique for the calculation of eigenfrequencies is presented. The
36
finite-element approach we have taken in this paper is useful due to the fact that complicated
geometries do not pose a problem . We are in addition capable of taking viscous and rotational
effects into account.
. ........ . . .
.......... . .. ..
L b.
Figure 5: Vector plots of (a) the first free surface mode and (b) an inertial, rotation-induced
oscillation mode.
References
1. Walter, H.U. (ed.) 1987 Fluid Sciences and Material Sciences In Space. A European
Perspective. Springer- Verlag.
2. Bauer, H.F. 1982 Coupled oscillations of a solidly rotating liquid bridge. Acta Astron. 9(9),
547-563.
3. Meseguer, J. 1983 The breaking of axisymmetric slender liquid bridges. J. Fluid Mech. 130,
123-151.
4. Sanz, A. 1985 The influence of the outer bath in the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid bridges .
J. Fluid. Mech. 156, 101-140.
7. Cuvelier, C. & Schulkes, R.M.S .M. 1990 Some numerical methods for the computation of
free-boundary problems governed by the Navier-Stokes equations. SIAM Review 32(3),
355-423.
8. Schulkes, R.M.S.M & Cuvelier, C. 1991 On the computation of normal modes of a rotating,
viscous, incompressible fluid with a capillary free boundary. Compo Meth. Appl. Mech.
Engng., to appear.
Viscosity Effects on the Dynamics of Long
Axisymmetric Liquid Bridges
Abstract
In this paper the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid columns held by capillary forces between
two circular, concentric, solid disks is considered. The problem has been solved by using an
one-dimensional model known in the literature as the Cosserat model, which includes
viscosity effects, where the axial velocity is considered constant in each section of the
liquid bridge. The dynamic response of the bridge to an excitation consisting of a small
amplitude vibration of the supporting disks has been solved by linearising the Cosserat
model. It has been assumed that such excitation is harmonic so that the analysis has been
performed in the frequency domain and the dependence of the frequency of resonance
corresponding to the first oscillation mode on the parameters defining the liquid bridge
configuration as well as the axial micro gravity level has been calculated for several liquid
bridge configurations.
1. Introduction
This paper deals with the dynamics of axisymmetric viscous liquid bridges. It is known as a
liquid bridge the fluid configuration consisting of a mass of liquid held by surface tension
forces between two parallel, coaxial, solid disks, as sketched in Fig. 1. Such a fluid
configuration can be identified by the following dimensionless parameters: the slenderness,
A = Ll2Ro, where L stands for the distance between the disks and Ro = (R 1+R2)/2 is a mean
radius; the ratio of the radius of the smaller disk, R], to the radius of the larger one, R2 ,
K = R 1/R2; the dimensionless volume of liquid, V = V/R~ V being the physical volume; the
Bond number, B = pgR?;ia, where p is the liquid density, g the axial acceleration and a the
surface tension; and the viscous to capillary forces ratio, C = (Oh)l/2 = v(p/aRo) 1/2, v being
the kinematic viscosity of the liquid, which is the square root of the Ohnesorge number, Oh.
Liquid bridges have focused the attention of numerous scientists during the last decades,
and a large number of papers dealing with different aspects of the liquid bridge problem
have been published. One of these aspects is that concerned with the frequencies of
H J Rath (Editor)
MLcrogra . . lty FlUId MechaniCS
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
38
2. Analytical Background
In the following, all physical quantities have been made dimensionless by using the
characteristic length Ro and the characteristic time (pR~/())1/2. The mathematical model
presented in this section is a simplified version of the one presented in [8]. If the
slenderness of the liquid bridge is large enough, say A > 1, the dynamics of the liquid
column can be described accurately enough by using one-dimensional theories such as the
Cosserat model, which has been used to some extent either in capillary jets [9,10] or in
liquid bridge problems [1,3].
In carrying out the analysis the following assumptions are introduced: it is assumed that the
properties of both the liquid (density and viscosity) and the interface (surface tension) are
uniform and constant, and the effects of the gas surrounding the liquid bridge are negligible.
In addition, since only axisymmetric configurations are considered, the problem is assumed
to be independent of the azimuthal coordinate. Under such assumptions the set of
nondimensional differential equations and boundary conditions for the axisymmetric, non-
rotating viscous flow, according to the Cosserat model, are the following:
39
(2.1)
= -S(4(2S + s; - sSzz )(4S + S; )-3/2 + BZ) z -.!.8 C[S2(Q / S)ZZ] zz + 3C[S(Q / S)Z] z
In these expressions S = p2 and Q = F2W, where P(z,t) is the dimensionless equation of the
liquid-gas interface and W(z,t) the axial velocity at each plane parallel to the disks; P(z,t)
accounts for capillary pressure jump across the interface. The subscripts t and z indicate
derivatives with respect to the time and the axial coordinate, respectively. Boundary
conditions are: (1) the interface must remain anchored to the disk edges and (2) the axial
velocity at each one of the disks must be equal to that of the corresponding supporting disks
(which are assumed to be in a known position as a function of the time given by zl = - A +
AA1(t) and z2 = A + AA2(t)), its velocity being z' j (t) = AA' j (t) and z' 2(t) = AA'it)
(2.3)
where prime means time derivative of the function considered. Initial conditions are S(z,O)
= Si(Z) and Q(z,O) = Qi(Z); in addition, one more condition could be introduced imposing the
overall mass conservation during the evolution. Concerning the above formulation it should
be pointed out that boundary conditions must be fulfilled in two points whose position,
although known, varies with time. To avoid the difficulties of these moving boundary
conditions a contraction of the axial coordinate is made and a new variable x is defined so
that the interval of variation of the coordinate z (function of time) is mapped into a fixed
interval. Amongst the different possibilities, a simple linear mapping has been chosen:
A z-g(t) z - g(t)
x X(z, t) (2.5)
A + h(t)
l+~h(t)
where g(t) = (N2)(A2(t)+Aj(t)) and h(t) = (N2)(A2(t)-Al(t)). The function g(t) gives the
variation with time of the position of the center of the liquid bridge (that point of the axis
placed at every moment in the middle of the segment defined by the centres of the disks)
and h(t) is the variation with time of the distance between the disks. In the coordinates x,t
the disk positions are fixed and given by x(-A+AAj(t),t) = -A andx(A+AA2(t),t) = A.
40
If only small perturbations are considered (g(t) « 1 and h(t) « I) the solution of the
problem can be written as a static solution plus a small perturbation i.e.
After introduction of eq. (2.6) in the above formulation, the resulting zeroth order problem
consists of the determination of the equilibrium shape of a liquid bridge at rest, So(x), and it
can be solved with a method similar to the one used in [II]. Concerning the first order
problem, s(x,t) can be eliminated from the formulation and the whole problem formulated in
terms of q(x,t), the resulting equation being
(2.7)
where Cij are functions of So(x) and its derivatives (additional details can be obtained upon
request from the authors). Equation (2.7) is fourth order in the variable x and, therefore,
needs four boundary conditions to be solved. Two of them are derived from eq. (2.4) and
the two remaining can be deduced from the boundary condition (2.3) which implies
sl(±A,t) = 0 and, using the continuity equation (2.1), the boundary conditions become
3. Harmonic Oscillations
Since in the modelling of most of the technological applications (e.g. floating zone
technique) the distance between the disks should be considered constant and the
perturbation is assumed to be due to g-jitter. only in-phase vibration of disks (h(t) = 0,
get) *" 0) will be considered from now on. In the following it is assumed that both the liquid
bridge perturbation, get), and the liquid bridge response, q(x,t) and s(x,t), are harmonic
functions of time, i.e.
where G is a real constant and Q(x) and Sex) are complex functions of the real variable x.
Introduction of these expressions in the first order problem yields:
(3.2)
(3.3)
41
(3.4)
where C j are complex functions of the real variable x derived from the functions C y
appearing in eq. (2.7). To solve the above formulation an implicit finite-difference method
is used, with a centered five-point scheme for the evaluation of the spatial derivatives. This
method is similar to the one used by Meseguer [6] to solve the slice model in the case of an
inviscid liquid bridge in an oscillatory axial microgravity field. Once the value of Q is
known (note that these values must be computed using complex algebra) the value of 8 can
be obtained through continuity equation (3.2). Additional details on the numerical scheme
can be obtained upon request to the authors.
5 5
(a) (b) c=o
A c=o A
f\
\ I.
0.05 \
II ~~\'\ f\
/;
~ QI
//
\ ~
£
2 2
~
"
0.1
I
)
?/
~ ~
o
o
Y 3 w
o
o 3 w
Fig. 2. Variation with the pulsation, OJ, of the ratio of the maximum interface
deformation to the amplitude of the oscillation of the disks, A, of liquid bridges
with slenderness A = 2, between equal disks, K = 1, in gravitationless
conditions, B = 0, and dimensionless volume V = 8 (a) or V = 12 (b). Numbers
on the curves indicate the value of the parameter of viscosity, C.
42
01
\~
~ response has been defined as the ratio
of the maximum interface deformation
I
;7 to the amplitude of the perturbation:
A(w) = (Fma.CFmin)/G, where F,nax and
F min are the maximum and minimum
bridge volume, close to the stability limit, is shown for a liquid bridge with A = 2.8, K = 1,
B =0 and C = 0.05. Note that if V < 15. 1 the maximum in the curve disappears and that,
close to this limiting value of V, the pulsation of resonance slightly increases. This rise in
the value of WI is due to the definition of WI as the value of W where A(w) becomes
maximum, no matter how relatively small it is. However, it is questionable that such
increment in the value of WI could be detected experimentally and therefore, that last part of
the curve corresponding to C = 0.05 in Fig. 3a has been plotted by using a dashed line
instead of a continuous one to indicate that this phenomenon could not be detectable under
normal experimental conditions. Obviously this behaviour is qualitatively similar no matter
what the values of A, K and Bare.
These features of the liquid bridge response, mainly the dependence of C: on the
parameters defining the liquid bridge configuration, A, V, K and B, are of paramount
importance when designing any experiment related to liquid bridge resonances; it would be
even possible to select a fluid and a liquid column configuration for which it were
impossible to observe any resonance.
The mappings of frequencies of resonance corresponding to the first oscillation mode (the
curves of constant WI on the A- V stability diagrams) have been plotted in Figs. 4, 5 and 6
for different values of the geometry parameter, K, and Bond number, B. The first of these
1.6 nr--,.--",-,-,,---,.---.-,,----rr-.---,.,-----,---n---,
1.2
08
a
H 18 2.2 26 3.0
1\
16
V,
12
Fig. 5. Variation with the slenderness, A, and the reduced volume of the liquid bridge,
Vr = V/(2n-A) of the resonance pulsation corresponding to the first oscillation
mode, ill], of liquid bridges between unequal disks, K = 0.7. Numbers on the
curves indicate the value of Wj. The curve labelled as ill] = 0 corresponds to the
minimum volume stability limit. Bond numbers are (a) B = - 0.1, (b) B = 0 and
(c) B = 0.1. In (a) and (c) only zero viscosity (C = 0) has been considered
whereas in (b) results corresponding to viscosity parameters C = 0 (-~) and C
= 0.1 (-----) has been plotted.
45
plots, Fig. 4, corresponds to the case of liquid bridges between equal disks, K = 1, and in
gravitation less conditions, B = O. As it can be observed, in the inviscid case the resonance
frequency becomes zero at the minimum volume stability limit and, in a region close to this
stability limit, the pulsation of resonance increases as the volume of liquid grows. Note that
for each value of the slenderness there is a value of the volume of liquid for which WI
reaches a maximum, the values of the pulsation of resonance decreasing again if the liquid
bridge volume exceeds this maximum frequency volume (this is clearly seen in the left
most curves of the diagram). This phenomenon, namely, the existence for each value of the
slenderness of a volume of liquid for which there is a maximum in the value of the
pulsation of resonance corresponding to the first oscillation mode, has been already pointed
out in [81. The influence of viscosity is also shown in Fig. 4. Observe that the different
curves of constant W] disappear in a region close to the curve of minimum volume in which
the damping becomes critical. In the case of liquid bridge configurations represented by
points inside this region in the A- V stability diagram it is not possible to detect any
resonance corresponding to the first oscillation mode. The behaviour for higher values of
the liquid bridge volume is in this case similar to that of the inviscid case, at least within the
range of values of volume analyzed.
It is clear from Fig. 4 that the mapping of resonances strongly depends on the minimum
volume stability limit, Vm. Then, since Vm varies as K and B change, one could expect that
the frequencies of resonance vary with these parameters in a similar fashion . To visualize
1\
Fig. 6. Variation with the slenderness, A, and the reduced volume of the liquid bridge,
Vr = V/(2nA) of the resonance pulsation corresponding to the first oscillation
mode, W], of liquid bridges between unequal disks, K = 0.7, Bond number B =
0.1 and viscosity parameter C = 0 (e) , C = 0.04 (+) and C = 0.08 (_). Numbers
on the curves indicate the value of WI .
46
such dependence, the mappings corresponding to liquid bridges between unequal disks,
K = 0.7, subjected to different values of Bond number have been represented in Fig. 5a
(B = -0.1), Fig. 5b (B = 0) and Fig. 5c (B = 0.1). Note that in each one of these plots the
behaviour is similar to that shown in Fig. 4, the different mappings being only different in
the low frequency range to become adapted to the corresponding minimum volume stability
limit (corresponding to WI = 0). Additional details on the influence of viscosity on the
frequencies of resonance corresponding to the first oscillation mode of liquid bridge
configurations close to the minimum volume stability limit (K = 0.7, B = 0.1) are shown in
Fig. 6, which provides a close look at the region where the stability limit curve presents a
discontinuity in the slope.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Spanish Comisi6n Interministerial de Ciencia y
Tecnologfa (CICYT), Project No. ESPRR-0359.
References
1. Meseguer, J., The breaking of axisymmetric liquid bridges, 1. Fluid Mech. 130 (1983),
123-151.
2. Sanz, A, The influence of the outer bath on the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid
bridges, 1. Fluid Mech. 156 (19R5), 101-140.
4. Zhang, Y. and Alexander, J .1.0., Sensitivity of liquid bridges subjected to axial residual
acceleration, Phys. Fluids A 2 (1990), 1966-1974.
7. Meseguer, J., Sanz, A. and Perales, 1.M., Axisymmetric long liquid bridges stability
and resonances, App!. Microgravity Tech. 2 (1990), 186-192.
9. Green, AE., On the non-linear behaviour of fluid jets, lnt. 1. Engng. Sci. 14 (1976),
49-63.
10. Bogy, D.B., Drop formation in a circular liquid jet, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 11 (1979),
207-228.
11. Perales, I.M., Meseguer, 1. and Martinez, I., Minimum volume of axisymmetric liquid
bridges between unequal disks in an axial microgravity field, 1. Crystal Growth 110
(1991), 855-861.
Vibrational Behavior of Amphora Liquid Columns
in Microgravity Fields
Summary
A circular cylindrical liquid column changes under the influence of a
steady axial micro-gravity field its static geometry into an amphora-type
geometry. Under this influence the natural frequencies as weI J as the
damped frequencies change with the magnitude of the axial Bondnumber. They
are determined for such an amphora-type geometry for frictionless and
viscous liquids. In addition the response of such systems to axial
excitation is determined for various axial Bondnumbers. It was noticed
that the natural frequencies decrease with increasing axial Bondnumber
and that al I vibration modes in the response show up for non-vanishing
Bondnumber, whereas under pure zero-gravity only odd mode responses
appea r.
1. I ntroduct ion
The vibrational behavior of circular cyl indrical I iquid columns and their
stabil ity has been investigated extensively for incompressible and
frictionless as well as viscous liquids [1-7]. Under axial micro-gravity,
however, an originally circular cylindrical liquid column assumes an
amphora-type geometry. For such a geometry the natural frequencies are
different from those of a circular cylindrical liquid bridge and have
been determined for a frictionless and viscous I iquid column of height
h and diameter 2ra+ro(z)]. It is found that the natural frequencies of
such a distorted amphora-type geometry decrease in compar i son wi th a
perfectly circular cyl indrical bridge [8]. This decrease exhibits larger
magnitudes with the increase of the axial Bond number. It is also found,
that larger aspect ratios of the I iquid bridge exhibit a larger decreasing
effect of the natural frequencies. The largest deviations, however,
appear for the fundamental axisymmetric mode. The response of such an
amphora-type geometry has also been determined for an axial harmonic
excitation, and shows larger response ampJ itudes for increased axial
Bond numbers [91.
ILlRath(Edllor)
Mlf.;rogravlly Fluid Mechantcs
IUTAM Sympo~lUm Bremen 1991
~:) Spnnger-Verlag Berlln Heidelberg 1992
48
It has also been shown, that the deviation from the perfect circular
cyl indrical geometry yields additional resonance peaks at even resonances,
which is in contrast to the odd resonance peaks appearing for a circular
cylindrical liquid column. For a viscous liquid [10] it is found that
damped oscillations as well as aperiodic decay may appear depending on
the Ohnesorg number pv I- loa, and that the decrease of the Bond number
2
80 =pga 10 increases the area for decaying aperiodic motion and decreases
the aspect ratio, for which instabi I ity appears.
~ic Equations
A circular cyl indrical 1 iquid column of incompressible and [Y'ictionless
liquid of height h and radius a (Fig.1) is subjected to a constant axial
acceleration, which yields a static deflection ro(z).
5:oloc Dofloctoon
under ~-9rovlty
2
The magnitude of this deflection depends on the Bond number Bo ~pga la,
where g is the axial acceleration, p the mass density, and a the surface
tension of the! iqu id. For small Bond number Bo the static deflection
from cyl indrical form is given approximately by
2
r o(z) =Bo r 1 (z) +Bo r 2(z) (1 )
where
6tan(h/Za) _ 5-
( h/a)
2 2
8+(h/a) -Ij(z/a) 1 cos(z/a)+ cos(~z/a)
c'os(h/ 2a) 4cos(h/Za)
222
where t." L2 + l L + .!.... ~a~ + _a~
r ar 2 Z 2
ar r a~ az
Equation (3) has to be solved with conditions at the free surface namely
the kinematic condition
(4)
( 5)
at r=a
and
2 2 2 3a 4 2
+ r oz~(") - 2a r ozs~
T
- --r- ( r ozSzz
T T) 1 - -
+2 r oz r ozzsz - gz
at r=a. (8)
The solution of the Laplace equation (3) with the boundary condition
(6) yields
.I ( mcp+-h-
nnz)
<I>(r,cp,z,t)= Z Z C (t)1 (~r)e
mn m h
m= - co M= - co
51
1m are the modified Bessel functions of first kind and m-th order.
An infinite systems of linear differential equations for C (t) (m=O,1,2, .. )
mn
must be truncated to a finite number of time differential equations, which
are then solved assuming a time dependenc;y c;oswt, yielding the natural
frequencies of the amphora-type geometry of the I iquid column by setting
the coefficient determinant equal to zero.
In addition the Rayleigh instabil ity has been obtained from the
analytical results by setting the natural frequency square wZ equal to
zero. The results of this investigation are presented in Figure 2, where
a strong decrease of sLabil ity with increasing Bond number may be observed.
For Bo=O, i.e. in zero-gravity the Rayleigh instability occ;urs at an
aspect ratio .b,=n,
a
while for a Bond number Bo=0.5 the admissible ratio.b,
a
is only 0.7n.
'1l
,Iroo
O.95j
0. 90
,..0 I
o . I unstable
'·'1 . "'I
o.ecl
'1
~
"i
0.71:1
0.0 0.1
s lable
0 .2
~
wL.lBoJ (Jz,,(BoJ
",""IOJ
-~
w~tOI
1.0 1.0 I1"I.OJ
\ .........
i'-.. h 0= 1. 5 1----- .........1 F"" ;:0-. i--+-
I . 21
-....:: t.:::: t--
o. e \ "",,-
""-
0.2 1
"
I . 11
"
C.S
\ I
• I
'"
2.0
o. .'1 f'... o.
• \ ~ I ~ 0 . 11
\ m ·O
n;; I
, h/o·2.0
I
II
o. o. -
'I \
o. 2
I
13 . 0 2.
o. ? I
I
o. 0 0.0
0.'
1\
0.:;1 O.~ 0.4 O.'S
.0
0.0
I
0.' 0 . "2
I 0..3 Q.~ C.S
Bo Bo
3. Experimental Results
Some experimental results have been performed with I iquid bridges of length
h=4 mm under normal gravity. Such a I iquid bridge is presented in Figure 5.
53
4. Axial response
If the amphora column is harmonically excited in axial direction the
above equations have to be solved with the boundary conditions
at ;0; =+
-
-2~' where z
0
is the excitation ampl itude and Q the
I¥I
.SrlTl----lT'r----"TT---."
1.0
1.5
1.0
0.'
o
o .• '-;"L.---:;-----;-..!.:..._-;:-_ _---:::_ _...J JaiPoI
2. 4. Ei. 8. 10.
2 . that with the increase of the axial Bond number the magnitude of the
response ampl itude increases,
3. that with the increase of the aspect ratio h/a of the I iquid column
the magnitude of the response ampl itude decrea s e s .
5. Viscous effects
To determine the damped natural fr equencie s for a vi scous amphora-type
geometry the Stokes equations
av 1 ( 1 0)
~+-grad p+v curl curl v = -gk
at p
divv=O (11)
The conditions u=v=O at z=O, are abandoned and substituted by the sl ip-
conditions, =, =0, i.e.
rep rz
~ + ~ =0 at z=O,h (13 )
dr dZ
l!:'!-+.!.d W O. (1 ij )
() z r d(P
~
dt
= u -wr
oz
at r=a+ro(z)+~(ep,z,t) (' 5)
(' 6)
with R, and R2 being the principal radi i of curvature of the free liquid
surface. The vanishing of the shearstress on the free surface requires
and
'rz =n { d()rW + ~
dZ
} =0 (Hl)
L'> P= 0 • ( , 9)
The instability, which decreases with increasing Bond number, exhibits for
smaller ~ - values just below instability a region, in which only an
aperiodic motion is possible. This region is for BOfO shifted to smaller
aspect ratios ~ in comparison with Bo=O, i.e. the circular cylindrical
liquid bridge (Fig.7).
s•. r - - . - - - - -_ _~
,
'.
"
30. : \ aolpv~:~O
It'), Bo=
'·'· ... l·1 0
::.'~ .~
-'0. ~
0 R.(SI-
-JO'I :,1 0.1
.,.
1m[S, ----.
-50.
...1 1.0 2 •• 3,. 5 .•
h/o
Figure 7:
For very small aspect ratios ~ the liquid column ceases to exhibit damped
oscillatory motion. It just responds by an aperiodic motion. These ranges
depend on the magnitude of the surface tension parameter aa/pv 2.
The smaller this value, the larger the regions, in which aperiodic
motion occurs.
57
References
Summary
An arbitrary temperature field applied at the free surface of a spherical
liquid drop induces both Marangoni convection inside the drop and a de-
formation of the liquid drop. Assuming small deformation this has been
neglected in former investigations and the free surface conditions have
been satisfied at the surface of the sphere which is also a coordinate
surface in spherical coordinates. In the analysis, presented here, the
deviation from spherical geometry of the liquid drop is taken into
consideration. By expanding the free surface conditions into Taylor series
with respect to the elevation of the liquid surface an analytical solution
is presented.
1. Introduction
Manufacturing processes under micro-gravity conditions require for the sake
of the quality of the product the disturbances as small as possible during
a solidification or melting process. One of the problems appearing in
heated liquid or melted systems is presented by the thermocapillary
convection, also called marangoni-convection [1,2]. This motion of the
fluid is induced by a variation of the surface tension resulting from
temperature gradients at the surface of the liquid. The gradient of the
surface tension yields a shear stress, which transmits through viscous
traction a convection of the liquid to the inside of the liquid, an un-
desirable fact in many manufacturing processes. Many theoretical and
experimental investigations have been performed in recent years (for a
detailed list of references see [3,4]. Most of them have studied Marangoni-
convection in a floating zone, see for example [5-7]. Marangoni-convection
in a liquid sphere was studied in [9] for an axisymmetric temperature field
and in [10] for an arbitrary temperature field and both analytical results
were gained by solving the linearized equations. In all these investi-
gations it was assumed that the deformation of the liquid is negligibly
small and the boundary conditions have to be satisfied at r=a, i.e. at the
surface of the liquid without fluid motion. In [11], the authors studied
the two-dimensional Marangoni-convection of both, a drop having a hot
region and a fusion problem with thermocapillary motion of two drops of
different temperatures. The results, produced by solving the governing
nonlinear equations numerically, show that for high Marangoni number and
high capillary number, the fluid flow causes a large deformation of the
fluid surface, which has a significant influence on the surface flow, and
moreover, on the whole flow. In the study, presented here, the influence
of small but finite deformation of the liquid surface is investigated for
an axisymmetric temperature field.
2. Basic Equations
A spherical liquid drop (Fig.I) is subjected at its boundary at r=a to
an arbitrary temperature distribution which induces both a thermal
convection and a deformation s(3~) of the liquid drop. The temperature at
the surface may be given by
div v= 0 (2)
on S (3)
and
63
on S (4)
v
where = utr +vta.
v
+wt<p is the velocity, t is the stress vector, h the unit
vector orthogonal to the surface, a is the surface tension and RI , R2 the
principal radii of curvature. Equation (3) describes the equality of
forces on the surface and (4) means that the normal velocity vanishes at
the surface of the liquid drop. We expand the boundary conditions (3) and
(4) into Taylor series at r=a with respect to ~ and neglect terms higher
than ~2. This yields a set of non-linear partial differential equations in
p,~,u,v and w (see [12]).
3. Method of Solution
In the following we only consider an axisymmetric temperature field, i.e.
at r=a+~(8).
For the determination of the velocity distribution inside the liquid drop
the above results have to be introduced into the appropriate boundary
conditions. The freely floating liquid sphere of density p, radius a and
viscosity n has to satisfy the expansions of the boundary conditions (3)
and (4). Writing An and Cn instead of Ano and Cno respectively, the
velocity distribution for the axisymmetric case reads
Aa
u(r,8) = 1: {C (.!:)n-I +~ ~ (.!:)n+l} Yno(8,q» (5a)
n=1 na en \,_n+... I a
Applying the "divergence" operation upon the Stokes equation renders the
Laplace equation l!.p=O for the pressure. The solution is given by
64
(5c)
(7)
A 2y A, Y
D1 (n,2B' -~+-') + l: {[-n' _n_+ 2B "+(n"-1)(n"+2) - ; +
. 11 all ( n' , n' , ) all n' lla
1 do a
- ---z Of a +-;. i3 ]. r 2(n, n ' , n' , )} i3 =0 (8a)
lla n' lla n' n' ,
65
E B
D (n, E' - -=- +-=- _l... ~ a ) + l: { [ (E' , _1. E' +.!.". E +
2 . a a aT] U I . ( n' ,n' , ) n ' an' a£. n '
(8c)
where D1 and D2 are linear operators. For these and the other abbreviations
used in (8) see [12]. The equations (8) have to be solved numerically.
Neglecting the nonlinear terms in (8) we have the well known results
[9,10], when the boundary conditions are only satisfied at r=a.
4. Numerical Evaluations
For the numerical evaluations a temperature distribution
T=To+T1Y20(3,q»=To+T1J(5/16n)' (3cos 2&-1) is assumed and is shown in Fig.2.
In the following figures the surface elevation ~, streamlines and
components of velocity u and v are drawn (straight lines ---) and compared
with the simplified theory (dotted lines ---) where the boundary conditions
are satisfyed at r=a ([9,10]), i.e. ~=(aT1/2000)ldo/dTIY20(3,<p),
66
2
u=( 3T /5T}) -I da/dT 1 [1- (r/a) ]( r/a)Y 20(3,<p) and
v=(3T/Hm) Ida/dT I [1 - 4/3 (r/a)2](r/a) aY 20 (3,<p)/a3.
In Fig.3a the streamlines are presented for surface tension parameter
a/aT} =0.0625 s -1 and capillary parameter (T/a o ) Ida/dTI = 1.5.
It can be seen that the streamlines close to the center of the drop, say
for r/a < 1/2, are nearly identical for simplified and advanced
calculations but for r/a > 1/2 there are clear deviations. This
deviations becomes higher near the surface of the drop. The streamlines
near the surface of the drop are, compared with those of the simplified
theory, shifted in the same manner as the surface shape of the drop, which
has a spheroidal form. In Fig.3b the surface elevation is shown. It can be
seen that the maximal elevation is about 5%. The figures following now show
the results for a higher capillary parameter (Tl/a o ) Ida/dT I =2. In Fig.4a
the streamlines are drawn. It can be seen that the quantities described
above (compare with Fig.3a) are more pronounced. Especially the deformation
of the surface (Fig.4b) becomes greater (now more than 8%) which can be
seen by comparing with Fig.3b. In Fig.4b also the difference of the surface
elevation resulting from the advanced computation (~=0.08a) and that of the
simplified method (~=0.06a) of calculation is clearly pronounced. In Fig.4c
and 4d the components of the velocity near the surface (r=0.9a) are shown.
It should be noticed that the maximal velocity in radial direction (Fig.4c)
is about 40% higher than predicted by the simplified theory while the
maximum of the tangential velocity component is shifted (12 0 ) into the
direction of the equator and additional the maximal value is some smaller
(6%) .
References
1. Marangoni, C.: Ober die Ausbreitung der Tropfen einer F1Ussigkeit auf
der Oberflache einer anderen. Annalen der Physik und Chemie 143 (1871)
337-354
2. Scriven, L.E. and Sternling, L.V.: The Marangoni effects. Nature 187
(1960) 186-188
3. Myshkis, A.D., et.al.: Low Gravity Fluid Mechanics. Springer, Berlin
Heidelberg (1987)
67
References
4. Napolitano. L.G. and Vivani. A.: Marangoni Convection - An Overview.
First International Microgravity Congress Bremen. Germany 24-26
September 1990
5. Da-Riva, I. and Ruesga. J.M.: Fluid-Physics-Module Experiments.
Proceedings of the Second European Symposium on Material Sciences in
Space. Frascati, Italy 6.-8. April 1976. ESA-SP-114 (Sept. 1976)
265-275
6. Fowle, A.A.; Haggerty. J.J.; Pepron. R.R.; Strong. P.F. and Swanson,
J.L.: Float-Zone Processing in a Weightless Environment.
NASA CR-2768, Nov. 1976
7. Chun.Ch.-H. and Wuest, W.: Experiments on the Transition from a Steady
to the Oscillatory Marangoni Convection of a Floating Zone under
Reduced Gravity Effect. Acta Astronautica 6 (1979) 1073-1082
8. Bauer. H.F.: Theoretical Study about the marangoni convection in a
Liquid Column in Zero Gravity. Acta Astron. II, No.6 (1984) 301-311
9. Bauer. H.F.: Marangoni-Convection in a Freely Floating Liquid Sphere
Due to Axial Temperature Field. Ing.Arch. 52 (1982) 263-273
10. Bauer. H.F. and Eidel. W.: Marangoni-Convection in a Spherical Liquid
Systems. Acta Astron. 15 (1987) 275-290
11. Ohnishi. M.; Yoshihara. S. and Azuma. H.: Computer Simulation of
Thermocapillary Motion with Surface Deformation. 41st Congress of the
International Astronautical Federation. Oct. 6-12. 1990. Dresden,
Germany
12. Eidel, W.: Marangoni-Convection in a Non-Spherical Liquid Drop.
Forschungsbericht der Universitat der Bundeswehr MUnchen.
LRT-WE-9-FB (1991)
68
y
1.0r----------------------------,
0.6
0 .2
-0.2
- I • oLo-.0----0-.-2----0-.-'----0-.-6----,0,-."7
8----'1 . 0
Fig. 1: Geometry of System and Coordinates
-J/n
Fig. 2: Spherical function Y20(3,qJ)
Ua
O. 10r----------------------------,
T=T, +TI Y"f..s.9')
(1,/01) =0.06255.1
ET 11(1, ) d(1ldT=-i .5
0.06
0.02
-0.02
-0.06
?lo
0.10r---------------- -----______~
0.02
-0.02
-0 .06
0.02 0.02
-0 . 02 -0.02
"
-0.06 -0.06
-0 . 10~0-.0----~0-.-2----0-.-.-----0-.6-----0-.8----~1.0 -0.IOO~~.0~--~O-.2~--~0-.~.----0-.-6----0-.-8--~, .0
"/Tt "/Tt
Fig. 4c: Radial component of velocity Fig. 4d: Meridional component of velocity
Some Problems Raised by Marangoni Instability
in Spherical Geometry
G.LEBON,P.C.DAUBY,
Liege University, Institute of Physics,
Sart Tihnan B5, 4000 Liege, Belgium
A. CLOOT,
University of the Orange Free State, Department of Applied Mathematics,
P.O. Box 339, 9300 Bloemfontein, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Several problems concerning Marangoni instability in spherical geometry are discussed. The
system under study consists of a thin liquid shelllimited by two concentric spherical surfaces:
the inner one is rigid and uniformly heated while the outer is free: it exchanges heat with the
external environment and is submitted to a temperature-dependent surface tension. In a fIrst
stage, the spherical support is assumed at rest and the outer surface is non-deformable. The
critical Marangoni number is calculated as a function of the thickness of the layer and its
curvature. When the latter tends to zero, one recovers the classical results for a planar
geometry. The hypotheses of a fixed frame and a non-deformable outer surface are then
relaxed. By allowing the spherical support to rotate around its polar axis with a uniform angular
velocity, overstability occurs. When the support is at rest but the outer surface is deformed, it is
shown that the stability conditions are drastically modifIed.
1. INTRODUCTION
H J. Rath (Editor)
MicrogravllY FlUId MechaniCS
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
72
The lack of theoretical results together with the promises of future relevant experimental
evidence on the subject have motivated the present work. Three different situations are
analyzed. In section 2, the whole system is assumed at rest; in the third section, the spherical
shell is rotating. In both cases the outer surface is assumed to be non-deformable. Section 4 is
devoted to the study of the effects of surface deformations for a non-rotating spherical system.
In the present work, only the linear stability problem is investigated: the normal mode
technique will be used to study the behaviour of the velocity and temperature disturbances.
(2.1)
wherein T j and To are the temperatures at the inner and outer faces respectively.
After scaling the spatial coordinates by Ro - R j , the velocity by /( /(Ro - R j ) with /( the
heat diffusivity, the temperature by I1T = T j - To and applying twice the curl operator to the
momentum equation, one obtains [5,6] the following dimensionless equations for the perturbed
fields ur ' the radial component of the velocity in the spherical coordinates (r,e,¢J), and T , the
perturbation of temperature :
(2.3)
One has dropped all the non-linear terms because the disturbances are assumed of
infinitesimally small amplitude. For the sake of simplicity, one has used the same notation for
dimensionless and dimensional quantities except for r which stands for R / (Ro -R). After the
scaling, one thus has r 0 = rj + 1 since the thickness of the shell is equal to 1.
In equation (2.2), Pr is Prandtl number defined by Pr = v I /(, where v is the kinematic
viscosity.
73
The boundary conditions for the radial velocity at the inner and outer faces
are respectively:
P is the mass density, ~ the surface tension, assumed to be a linearly decreasing function of the
temperature (Ma is thus here a positive quantity).
Relation (2.4.a) expresses the non-slip condition while (2.4.b) is a consequence of the
continuity equation and of the vanishing of uf) and u¢ , the eand cfJ components of the velocity.
Equation (2.S.a) is the non-deformability condition and (2.5.b) expresses the balance between
the viscous tensions and the forces due to the variations of ~ with respect to T (for an explicit
derivation of (2.S.b), see reference [5]).
The boundary conditions for the temperature are
Le., we impose the inner sphere to be perfectly heat conducting and the free surface to be
perfectly insulated.
According to the normal mode technique, we seek solutions of the form
where y;" are the spherical surface hannonics satisfying the eigenvalue equation
At neutral stability and within the hypothesis of exchange of stability Re( CT) =Im(CT) =0 ,
which is briefly discussed in next section, the amplitude functions W(r) and 8(r) obey the
following differential equations :
(2.8)
= a 2/ar2 (W) = 8 = 0 at r = r j ,
W
W = a 2 /ar2 (W) + Ma (I(I+1)/r) 8 = alar (8) = 0 at r = ro' (2.9)
W(r) - A r-(/-1)
- 1
+ A 2 rl + A 3 r-(/+I) + A 4
r(/+2)
' (2.10)
(2.11)
wherein the integration constants AI' ... , A6 are obtained by substitution of (2.10-11) in the
boundary conditions (2.9). This yields a set of six homogenous linear algebraic equations for
which the coefficient determinant should vanish. After calculation of the determinant the
eigenvalue Ma is obtained as a function of I, ro and the ratio b = rj / ro . Onset of instability
occurs at the critical value Mac = mini = 1,2". Ma(/). The quantity Ma is found to be [5,6]
In the limit that r0 tends to infinity and setting a = l/r 0 ,expression (2.12) takes the form
which is exactly Pearson's result derived for the case of a planar layer. This results attests of
the correctness of expression (2.12).
75
In Table 1 are reported the critical Marangoni and wave numbers as a function of ri and
theratiob=ri/ro =ri/(ri +1).
r·I b Mac Ie
0.67 0.4 75 2
1.5 0.6 74 3
4 0.8 76 8
10 0.909 78 20
00
- 80 -
Table 1. Mae and Ie as a function of the inner radius ri or as a function of the ratio b =ri / ro
It is seen that Mac increases with the inner radius for values of ri larger than 1.5. It is
also shown that in general Mac is an increasing function of the ratio of the inner to the outer
radius. According to the definition of the Marangoni number, this amounts to say that the
critical temperature difference IlTe increases with decreasing fluid thickness. This result can be
interpreted by recalling that the surface tension, which is more effective in thin layers, plays a
stabilizing role. Therefore, onset of convection needs a larger temperature difference in shallow
layers than in thick ones. The same property was also noticed by Pearson [7], Nield [8] and
Koschmieder and Biggerstaff [9] in horizontal layers extending laterally to infinity. It is
interesting to remark that a similar behavior was observed in Chandrasekhar's monograph [1]
for Benard convection between two spherical shells.
In this section, we shall essentially point out the main differences that are emerging when
e
the spherical shell is allowed to rotate at the constant angular velocity m z where z is the unit e
vector directed along the South-North axis. The procedure followed in section 2 remains valid
at the condition to replace equations (2.8) by (detailed calculations can be found in [10])
76
(3.1)
(3.2)
m 0 1 2
ri
0.666 Mae = 75.6 and Ie = 2 Mae = 1106 and Ie = 11 Mae = 1558 and Ie = 23
Table 2. Critical values Mae and Ie for 'i =0.666 and 'i =4 as functions of m (for p, =500 and Ta = 104 ).
We have also examined what happens when Taylor's number is varied. It follows from
Figure 1 that the layer becomes more stable as the angular velocity increases. The lowest curve
in Figure 1 has been calculated for Ta = 0 (absence of rotation). It could also be seen for
moderate values of Ta «10 2), the curves corresponding to overstability and exchange of
stability are (almost) identical, whatever the value of m.
77
A last comment concerns the role of the Prandtl number. It is shown in Figure 2 that
stability is increased when Pr increases. For values of Pr greater than 10, the stability curves
becomes rather insensitive to the values of the Prandtl number. Since Pr is proportional to the
viscosity, it results from the calculation that an increase of viscosity reinforces stability. This is
physically understandable as viscous dissipation inhibits the onset of convection.
The main difference between configurations at rest and in rotation is the emergence, in the
latter case, of overstability. However, in the range of variation of the parameters Pr and Ta
considered in this work (10-4 < Pr < 500, 0 < Ta < 10\ it is observed that the marginal
stability curve for exchange of stability (corresponding to m = 0) is located below the curves
corresponding to overstability. As a consequence, it can be stated that marginal equilibrium is
not characterized by an oscillatory behavior, at least for moderate to high Prandtl and Taylor
numbers.
Ma
1600
Figure 1. Effect of variation of Ta on the onset Figure 2. Effect of variation of p, on the onset of
of convection; p, =500. Ri =0.666. m = 1. convection; Ta = 104. Ri = 0.666. The lowest
curve corresponds to m = 0, the other ones to m = 1.
We consider the same configuration as in section 2 (no rotation of the support) but we
relax the hypothesis of a non-deformable outer surface. Instead of being given by r 0 = constant,
the upper free surface will be written as
(4.1)
(4.4)
(4.5)
Deformation of the free surface generates an additional term in (4.4) and a new equation (4.5)
which involves the so-called crispation number Cr = PVI( / (; (Ro - Rj ».
Using classical integration techniques [11] one obtains a nonlinear relation between the
Marangoni number Ma and the other nondimensional quantities which can be formally written
as
Ma = Ma(l,Cr,r)
For a given geometry and referring to a particular fluid, the onset of convection occurs at
the critical Marangoni number
The critical value Mac was derived for several combinations of the parameters Cr and rj
and the main results can be summarized as follows. For a fixed value of rj it is observed (see
Figures 3 and 4) that Mac and Ie remain constant for small values of the crispation number:
Cr < Cr *. But for a value of Cr slightly higher than Cr *, there is a sharp decrease of the Mac
and Ie values. This bifurcation phenomena is the essential feature that is displayed by the
introduction of the deformability of the upper surface.
It is also interesting to compare with the results obtained for a planar but deformable
configuration [12]. In a plane layer, the theory predicts that once the value of the crispation
number Cr differs from zero any configuration becomes unconditionally unstable as it is found
that
60 ',2
Ie
40 B,
:
4r-
"I Cr'
u~.____~----~~'.~~,Lo~g~IO~C~r, 01
I
I
,
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Figure 3. Critical value Mac a~ a function Figure 4. Evolution for the critical wave number Ie
of the crispation number Cr (rl =4). as a function of the crispation number Cr (rl = 4).
In the present problem, a similar behaviour occurs when one takes the limit
I ~1, IE ]l,oo[
However as a consequence of the discrete character of the variable I which can only take integer
values, one has a cut off to the spectrum at I = 2 which prevents Mac from vanishing.
To conclude, it can be claimed that deformation of the surface plays a destabilizing role.
Moreover, it should be stressed that the appearance of a bifurcation has no counterpart in a
planar geometry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fruitful discussions with professor J.c. Legros and his group (Universite Libre de Bruxelles)
are acknowledged. This research has been partially supported by the program "Pole
d'Attraction Interuniversitaire nO 21 ", S.P.P.S., Belgium.
REFERENCES
Abstract: The results reported here are part of a research project aimed at investi-
gating the influence of transient temperature fields on Marangoni convection. In this
publication, theoretical solutions for stationary flow fields of a freely floating drop in
response to a given temperature field are presented. In contrast to existing literature,
the temperature dependence of material constants is taken into account. It is found
that the errors made in the solutions for flow and temperature fields incurred by ne-
glecting this temperature dependence is substantial even at small Marangoni (Mg) and
Reynolds (Re) numbers respectively. Flow and temperature fields for 0 ~ Re :::; 5000
and 0 ~ M 9 :::; 1000 are depicted.
1. Introduction
Marangoni convection is fluid motion driven by a gradient in surface or interface tension.
Surface tension depends on temperature, concentration and electrical charge distribu-
tion along a boundary. The investigations presented here address the phenomenon of
thermal Marangoni convection, i.e. the convection induced by temperature distribution
along a boundary. Thermal Marangoni convection is independent of gravity but in the
presence of gravity, it is often masked by thermal buoyant convection. A good overview
of the phenomena related to the Marangoni convection is given by Ostrach [1] and Da
Riva [2]. Various aspects of this phenomenon have been investigated experimentally
and theoretically, i.e. investigations on the floating zone [3,4,5,6] or migrating drops
and bubbles in fluids [7,8,9].
H. J. Ralh (EdItor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUId MechaniCS
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
82
premise are discussed. Analytical and numerical solutions for the Marangoni flow in
drops for high Reynolds numbers can be found in [14,15].
The aim of this publication is to calculate flow fields in drops taking into account
the temperature dependence of the material parameters.
2. Mathematical Description
2.1 Geometry
For convenience the flow behaviour within the spherical drop is analyzed by using sphe-
rical coordinates (r. represents the radial, -a the azimuthal and cp the meridional di-
rection). The surface of the drop is assumed to be that of a perfect sphere and can
therefore be described by R = const.
2.2 Assumptions
For the mathematical description of the problem the following assumptions have been
made:
- the temperature derivative of surface tension is negative across the whole tempe-
rature regime,
- all influences from the drop surroundings (e.g. mass and momentum transfer) are
neglected,
In order to describe the flow processes within the drop, the continuity, the momentum
and the energy equations are formulated in the differential form. Here, the dimensionless
notation is used:
(2.1)
8u v 8u v2)
Re(l+CpT) ( u - + - - - -
8r r8{} r
=
8p (2U 2 8v 2v cot {})
--+(l+C T) ~u- - - - - - - -
8r 'I r2 r2 8{} r2
8T 18T) (2.2)
+C'I ( 2D rr 8r + 2Dr11;: 8{}
(2.3)
Mg (1 + CpT) ( u 8T
8r + ;:v 8T)
8{} = (1 + CS)~T + C~ [(8T)2
8r (18T)2]
+;: 8{) (2.4)
U.R. U.R.
with Re := v(T.o) j Mg:= a(T. o) (2.5)
C ._~8p. C ._~871• .
p .- p.(T.o) 8T. 'I .- 71. (T.o) 8T. '
The quantities u., v. and w. represent the velocity components in radial, tangential
and azimuthal direction. Further, p. represents the pressure, U. the characteristic ve-
locity, T. the temperature, v. the kinematic viscosity, 71. the dynamic viscosity, a. the
temperature conductivity, p. the density and
~ == r;~~ (r2~) + r;
8r. • 8r.
__ 1_!... (sin{}!...)
sin {} 8{} 8{}
84
the Laplace operator. D rr , Dr" and D"" are the corresponding elements of the defor-
mation velocity tensor and can be found in [13] (all symbols annotated with a * are
dimensional parameters).
The dimensionless numbers Re,Mg,Cp,C~ and C>. characterize the problem in que-
stion. The Reynolds number Re can be interpreted as the ratio of the momentum flux
due to convection to that due to shearing. The Marangoni number Mg describes the
relationship betwe«;n the transport of thermal energy through convection and through
diffusion. The material parameters C p, C~ and C>. characterize the variation in material
data in relation to their reference values.
For the numerical work, the material data for a 20% water-80% glycerine solution at a re-
ference temperature of T. o = T.mutT.m;D = 25°C are chosen (Cp = -T. 4.9 10- 4 o~, C~ =
-T. 5.6 1O-2o~'C>, = T. 1.210-3o~).
The thermal capacity can be taken as approximately constant. The results presented
are for a characteristic temperature difference of T. = 5°C.
The simulation region can be represented by a (r., '19.) plane. It is bounded by the
surface r. = R.(t9.) and the symmetry line '19 = 0 and '19 = 7r respectively. The boundary
conditions on the surface are:
r = 1: (2.6)
(1 (av - -v)r
+ C~ T) -ar s = sgn (!;) (2.7)
The condition (2.6) determines that no tangential flow exists through the free surface
of the drop, thus guaranteeing a stationary state at this surface. The condition (2.7)
describes the tangential stress balance at the surface in t9-direction. At the symmetry
axis '19 = 0 and '19 = 7r the symmetry condition is valid.
The differential equations (2.1)-(2.4) are transposed into a discrete form with the va-
riables u;;, v;;, p;; and 1';; with the help of second-order central difference quotients. The
boundary conditions are discretised similarly. Only at the point R = 1, a one-sided se-
cond order difference quotient is used in r-direction. Via the tranposition to discrete
variables, a system of non-linear algebraic equations is obtained. This is then solved
using a Newton algorithm.
85
3. Results
Here, results for the boundary condition
1
T =-
cosfJ (3.9)
2
are presented. Analytical solutions of the problem described above for temperature-
independent material parameters and small Reynolds numbers are discussed in [10,11).
In the present project an analytical solution valid for arbitrary Reynolds numbers under
the premise of temperature independence (and the assumptions formulated in section
2.2) was found. The calculation of the solution is described in [13,14). These results
serve as comparison for the temperature-dependent data obtained here.
Exemplary streamlines belonging to the velocity field found .in [13,14) are illustrated
in Figure 3.1. The flow is that of a rotationally symmetrical ring vortex. The latter
stretches over the whole (r,fJ)-plane. The material flows along the surface from the
warmer left pole to the colder right pole of the drop. In the vicinity of the symmetry
axis, the fluid flows back to the warmer pole.
For M 9 -+ 0 the temperature field is independent of the flow. The transport of thermal
energy occurs only via diffusion and a temperature gradient is induced according to the
temperature distribution at the drop surface. The temperature distribution is linear
86
from the north pole to the south pole of the drop. The Figure 3.2 shows the tempe-
rature distribution for the Marangoni number Mg = 1000 respectively. The contour
lines represent isotherms. In Figure 3.2 it can be clearly seen that at M 9 = 1000 the
temperature transport is chiefly by convection and the isotherms follow the streamline
closely in a large section of the drop. Only along the surface does the temperature
follow the thermal boundary conditions. Also remarkable is that the temperature is
lower than the reference temperature (T = 0) in the whole interior of the drop.
When the reference solutions are compared with that of the temperature-dependent
ones, it can be seen that the effects of temperature dependence of density and ther-
mal conductivity can be neglected in relation to that of viscosity. This can be directly
deduced by comparing the values of the parameters C p , C~ and C~ in section 2.3. The
changes due to temperature dependence of material parameters occur chiefly in the flow
field. The temperature field is influenced only indirectly by flow field changes at large
Marangoni numbers Mg.
Changes in the flow field can be observed already at low Reynolds and Marangoni
numbers as it is illustrated in Figure 3.3 for Re -+ 0 and M 9 -+ O. This Figure en-
ables a direct comparison of the streamlines of the reference state (analytical solution)
with that obtained for different flow situations. In the case Re -+ 0 and Mg -+ 0 the
streamlines are shifted in comparison to the reference states represented graphically in
87
analyti(ol solution
Figure 3.3: Comparison of the solution obtained taking into account the temperature
dependence of the material constants for vanishing and very large values of Re and Mg
to the reference solution
Figure 3.1 towards the warmer pole. Because of a linear temperature distribution in
z-direction, the temperature in the left half of the drop is higher than the reference
value, leading to a lower viscosity there. In the right half the situation is reversed:
the temperature here is lower and therefore the viscosity higher. As an result, higher
velocity values than in the reference solution are obtained in the left hemisphere and
vice-versa.
If the Reynolds number is increased at constant Marangoni number, see Figure 3.4,
a decrease in the dimensionless velocities inside the vortex is observed. The viscous
drag in the colder half of the drop cannot be compensated by the effect of lower visco-
sity in the warmer half and the vortex experiences a "braking effect" .
If for low Reynolds numbers the Marangoni number is increased, see Figure 3.4, the
velocity diminishes even more rapidly. At large Marangoni numbers the temperature in
almost the whole drop is lower than the reference temperature, thus leading to higher
viscosities and a higher "braking effect" than in the reference states.
For large Reynolds and Marangoni numbers both effects superimpose to reduce ve-
locities even further. This can be deduced from the streamlines depicted in Figure 3.3
for the values Re = 5000 and M 9 = 1000.
88
analytical solution
------ Re - 5000 ; Mg-O
_ . _ . _ .- Re -0 ; Mg -1000
Figure 3.4: The influence of Re and Mg on the stream lines when considering tempera-
ture-dependent material constants
Here it is evident that even for creeping flows especially at high Marangoni numbers the
negligence of temperature-dependency of material parameters can lead to considerable
errors in the solutions found. For large Reynolds and Marangoni numbers the tempe-
rature dependence of material parameters, especially of viscosity, should be taken into
account of in numerical simulation work.
Acknowledgment
The financial support by the Bundesminister fiir Forschung und Technologie is grate-
fully acknowledged.
Literature
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[3] Schwabe, D., Scharmann, A., Preisser, F.: Studies of Marangoni Convection in
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[4] Rybicki, A., Floryan, J .M.: Thermocapillary effects in liquid bridges I. Thermoca-
pillary convection, Phys. Fluids 30 (7), (1987)
[5] Rybicki, A., Floryan, J.M.: Thermocapillary effects in liquid bridges II. Deforma-
tion of the interface and capillary instability, Phys. Fluids 30 (7), (1987)
[8] Szymczyk, J.A., Wozniak, G., Siekmann, J.: On Marangoni Bubble Motion at
Higher Reynolds- and Marangoni-Numbers under Microgravity, Appl. microgravity
tech. I 1, 27-29 (1987)
[10] Shankar, N., Cole, R., Subramanian, R.S.: Thermocapillary Migration of a Fluid
Droplet inside a Drop in a Space Laboratory, Int. J. Multiphase Flow Vol. 7, No.
6, 581-594 (1981)
[11] Bauer, H.F., Eidel, W.: Marangoni-Convection in a Spherical Liquid System, Acta
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[15] Petri, B., Delgado, A., Rath, H.J.: Marangoni Convection in Spherical Drops Dri-
ven by Rotationally Symmetrical Temperature Fields under Microgravity, Procee-
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gravity, Oxford, UK, 10-15.09.1989, ESA SP-295, 321-330 (1990)
Stationary Marangoni Instability in a Liquid Layer
due to Non-Isothermal Gas Absorption
Summar~
Introduction
A mass transfer through a surface separating liquid and gas
phases is often accompanied b~ a heat effect, owing to the
exothermic character of the ph~sical absorption. In many
absorption processes going on at the Earth, the heat of
absorption has a negligible influence on the mass transfer.
But, in the Space, where motions of the liquid under reduced
gravity don't exist, surface tension inhomogeneities due to
temperature gradients may appear and cause spontaneous
movements known as an interface turbulence. This convection
influences the mass transfer. In this connection it is
important to establish the conditions for onset of the
interface convection due to the heat of absorption.
H. J Rath (EditOr)
Microgravlty FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
92
7 V = 0, e 1)
a V 1
+ ( V 7 ) Y 7 P + v 7zy
(2)
a t. P
a
a t.
T
+ ey 7 T )
- a 7 zT, (3)
a
-
c
+ (y 7 C ) 0 7 zc, un
L
a t.
a a aZer aZer
- -a -Z
u v
w - 0, >l
(--
a y
+
a x x
+
a y
Z
(6 )
a T a C
-A ex (T - T 'J - t.H D (7)
a'
a z
T L
a z
CB)
, T T + J3 z,
w + 13 c z
C C (9)
W T
t.H 13 C DL T - T
1 a w
Bi
13 T + T ) , CI0)
1 + Bi A h
T
94
Bi C - C
c 0 w
13 c ( 11)
1 + Bi h
c
where BiT = ~Th/~ is the thermal Biot number, Bic - ach/DL the
solutal Biot number, h the layer thickness. In the case of
absorption the concentration gradient l3 e is always positive.
When the gas temperature To is higher or equal to the wall
temperature, the temperature gradient I3 T is also positive.
Then, the liquid temperature at the free surface is larger
than the wall temperature. For
b.H (C - C D
OWL
T < T + (12)
o W
0(
T
I3 T < 0, and the heating from the wall overcomes that due to
the heat of absorption. Then, we have the typical case of
heating the layer from the wall as is considered first by
Pearson [llJ.
a t
+ C1S)
[Pr.w - Le CO Z - kZ)] C - W.
W - OW - B C - 0 Cl8)
(19)
DB + Bi
T
e - DC = 0 , DC + Bic C - 0, (20)
K Le C1+Bi )Le
1lr .. T (22)
K - Le l+Bi -LeC1+Bi S)
T T
1 + Bi CT - T )A
K - 1 + Bi T'S
T
'S =
t.H. D CC" -C
0
(23)
L 0
'"
The function m coincides with the expression presenting the
Marangoni number in Pearson's problem [11J. This positive
function has one minimum value at some k and given Bi The
T
function 'ltCS) is schematicall~ presented in Fig.1 for
arbitrar~ BiT and Le. It is positive for
1 + Bi -Le
T
oS < So Bi Le
(2'1)
T
References
1. Bird, R.B.; Steward, W.E.; Lightfoot, E.N. Transpoct
Phenomena. New York, London: Jonh Willey 1960.
2. Astarita, G. Mass Tcansfer with Chemical Reaction.
Amsterdam: Elseviec Publishing Company 1967.
3. Oanckwerst, P.U. Gas-Liquid Reactions. New York: McGraw
Hill 1970.
~. Ramm, W.M. Gas Absocption. Moscow: Khimia 1976 eln
Russian).
5. Koutateladze, S.S.; Nakocyakov, U.E. Heat and mass transfer
and waves in gas-liquid systems. Novosibirsk: Nauka 198~
eln Russian).
6. Sternling, C.U.; SCciven, L.E.: Interfacial turbulence:
Hydrodynamic instability and the Marangoni effect.
A.I.Ch.E. Joucna15 (1959) 51~-523.
7. Zierep, J. Ced.) Convective Transpoct and Instability
Phenomena. Kaclsruhe: Bcaun Uerlag 1982.
8. Uelacde, M.G. Ced.) Physicochemical Hydcodynamics:
Interfacial Phenomena. New YOck, London: Plenum Press 1988.
9. Oilman, V.U.; Naidenov, U.I.; Olevski, U.U.: Non-isothermal
Marangoni instability in a falling liqu~d film. Ookl. Akad.
Nauk SSSR 298 (1988) 676-680 eln Russian).
10.Naidenov, U.; Slavtchev, S.: Influence of heat of
absorption on thermocapillary instabilit~ in a thin liquid
layer. Theor. Appl. Mech. CSofia) Cto appear).
11.Pearson, J.R.A.: On convective cell induced b~ surface
tension. J. Fluid Mech. ~ (1958) ~89-500.
Three-Dimensional Transient Simulation
of Marangoni Flow in a Cylindrical Enclosure
under Various Gravity Levels
R. Marek, J. Straub
Lehrstuhl A fuer Thermodynamik, Technical University of Munich
Arcisstrasse 21, W-8000 Munich 2, Germany
1 Abstract
The interaction of natural convection and Marangoni flow in a vertical cylindrical enclo-
sure of aspect ratio 1 with an adiabatic free lateral face and isothermal top and bottom
walls is studied numerically for various gravity levels. The three-dimensional transient
code employs a hybrid finite difference scheme on a staggered grid with explicit time steps
and an iterative pressure-velocity coupling. In zero-gravity an axisymmetric toroidal flow
pattern evolves. In this configuration, heat transfer and fluid flow are studied under zero,
micro and earth-gravity conditions. Flow patterns and isotherms remain qualitatively un-
changed in different gravity environments. Although natural convection by itself forms a
single roll, it is remarkable that no significant disturbance of the axially symmetric torus
mode is observed, when buoyancy and surface tension driven flows interact. The steady-
state heat transfer is calculated for Marangoni and buoyancy convection acting in both
equal and opposite directions. Finally, the dependence of the overall heat transfer rate
and the strength of the thermocapillary convection is established.
2 Introduction
Marangoni convection plays an important role in all natural and technical processes where
a free surface is exposed to a temperature gradient. Recently, materials processing under
microgravity conditions employing floating zone melting and Czochralski growth has be-
come significant. In order to reduce the number of expensive experiments in space, and
to fully take advantage of these promising techniques, it is highly desirable to simulate
fluid flow and heat transfer in such configurations numerically.
From the viewpoints of computing time and costs, it is convenient to apply a two-
dimensional steady-state model for the numerical simulation of the flow in a cylindri-
cal enclosure [2J, [14J. Moreover, eliminating the pressure from the momentum equations
H J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUId MechaniCS
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
100
yields the so-called vorticity-stream function approach with enormous savings in both
memory and computing time. As the resulting vorticity transport equation can easily be
solved [9), this method has found great acceptance. However, its application is restricted
to two-dimensional situations only. Hence, the requirement arises to simplify a given prob-
lem to such an extent that it can be treated two-dimensionally. On the one hand, this
reduction can be reliable in case of symmetrical geometry and boundary conditions, or
if one dimension is assumed to be infinitely extended. On the other hand, one may lose
vital information about the actual three-dimensional flow by this approach, since a two-
dimensional model can only deliver two-dimensional results. Oscillations in a fluid, for
example, are in general three-dimensional and time-dependent, as shown by the calcula-
tions of Kirchartz [5), MihelCic [7), and Rupp et al. [10). As a consequence, the results for
oscillatory convection obtained by two-dimensional numerical schemes are very doubtful.
Nevertheless, the apparently physically realistic results of two-dimensional calculations
are often cited as a proof for the flow being two-dimensional. In our opinion, a three-
dimensional calculation should be applied; it then cannot safely be concluded that the
flow is two-dimensional indeed, unless two-dimensional flow modes are obtained.
In the cylindrical enclosure under consideration, Marangoni convection itself forms a
two-dimensional axisymmetric toroidal flow, while natural convection evokes a three-
dimensional single roll [3], [11], [12). The superposition of both flow modes implies a
resulting flow field which is three-dimensional. We therefore utilize a three-dimensional
finite difference scheme for our calculations.
aT
-(r=R) = 0
Or
u(t=O) = 0
Figure 1: Geometry of the enclosure with boundary and initial conditions (I.e.)
101
T(r,<p,z=O) = To + DoT
T(r,<p,z=H) = To - DoT
f)T
f)r (r=R,<p,z) = 0 (2)
The non-slip condition is valid for both bottom and top walls of the enclosure
v(r,<p,z=O) = 0
v(r,<p,z=H) = 0, (3)
while the lateral face is treated as non-deformable free surface with the Marangoni con-
ditions applying. This assumption is unrealistic for earth-gravity conditions, however, we
wanted to study surface tension driven convection and its interaction with buoyancy flow
in a simple geometrical configuration:
vr(r=R,<p,z) =0
f)v.p 1 f)q f)T
r· a:; (r = R, <p, z) - V.p (r = R, <p, z) = ~ . f)T . f)<p
f)v z 1 f)q f)T
-(r=R,<p,z) = -. - . - (4)
or TJ oT f)z
Initially, a linear temperature profile in axial direction corresponding to pure heat con-
duction is assumed:
T(r,<p,z,t=O)=To+DoT· (I-~) (5)
Furthermore, the fluid is at rest, and a hydrostatic pressure distribution is assumed:
v(r,<p,z,t=O) =0 (6)
• mass:
~~ + V (gv) = 0 (8)
• momentum:
1) (gV)
- - = -Vp - =
Vr
_9
+ g- (9)
1)t
Cp _ 1) (gT) = ). _V 2 T
(10)
1)t
The following dimensionless groups are introduced:
• Rayleigh number:
Ra = 9 z - f3p - H3 - 2!:.T
v-a
• Prandtl number:
Pr= ~
a
• Fourier number:
a- t
Fo=-
H2
• Marangoni number:
Ma = lou I_ 2 f:l.T - H
oT a-TJ
• Bond number:
Bo- g - gz - f3p - H2 Ra
- 1;;1 - --
Ma
103
Q·H aT H
Nu=--=-_·_- (11)
,\ 2 tl.Taz
All properties except the fluid's density are regarded as constant. For the density we use
an extended Boussinesq approximation that accounts for the temperature dependence in
the conservation equations (8)-(10). The density of the liquid is evaluated by:
r=R
r-z-pla.ne
The calculations were performed on a CDC Cyber 99.5. In general, transient three-dimen-
sional calculations are expensive, especially when a fine grid is used. We rather want to
emphasize the interdependencies of several parameters than to obtain solutions of high
accuracy. As a consequence, we employ quite a coarse grid of 12 x 8 x 12 nodes, as a
reasonable compromise between accuracy and computing costs. The relationship of the
calculated results is assumed to be correct, although the absolute values are less exact.
4 Numerical results
I···· ·· ················ ·1 II " \\\ \" \ I I I " " "" -, I I I · · •• ' " , 1111"'1 I.··· 'I
I············ · ·········· ,
. . . . . . . . .... . .. ... . e' · · · · . .. . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • \ •- - - - •••• • ••••• - . . . . . ...... - - I
Figure 3: Development of flow and temperature fields with time in the initially linear
non-isothermal system (Ma =5000, Ra = 1.8 .10- 36 , &= 3.6.10- 4°)
heated side to the lower third of the cylinder in the steady-state case. This is due to the
fact that at the bottom wall relatively cold fluid flows from the center of the enclosure to
the exterior, heats up and is thus accelerated, while at the top wall, relatively warm fluid
flows from the outside towards the axis, cools down, and is thus decelerated.
Choosing a moderate Marangoni number of Ma = 5000, three different gravity levels,
characterized by the corresponding Bond numbers, are studied:
Ra 1.8 E-36 1.8 E02 1.8 E04 1.8 E04 1.8 E04
Ma 5.0 E03 5.0 E03 5.0 E03 5.0 E03 0.0 EOO
Nu 6.922 6.928 7.44 6.29 2.65
T(r,<p,z=O)= To + 211T
T(r,<p,z=H) = To
aT
ar (r=R,<p,z) =0 (13)
106
T(r,cp,z,t==O) == To (14)
Now the toroidal vortex gradually migrates from the bottom to the top of the enclosure
(Fig.4). Due to the abrupt temperature rise at the bottom, an increased heat transfer can
be noticed. Although the transient flow and temperature fields are very different from the
initially non-isothermal configuration, the same steady-state heat transfer (Nu = 7.44) is
obtained. This is not surprising, since the Marangoni number is the same for both the
conditions given by (2) and (5), and by (13) and (14), respectively. Moreover, the identity
of the Nusselt numbers in both configurations is a further indication that the numerical
code works correctly. However, since the lid is inactive for some time, a much longer period
of time passes, until steady-state conditions are reached.
.,........ . ..... ...... ... If"'" I" 11 I 1 1 1 1 / 1 / " , i i / I , ' " I'" II I I I ' I l l , • • • I I
. . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I r ··· 1'1'1 1 111"'. " . ' , I I ••• ..• ,'" 111" , . ",, - "1
.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "" '11111111 " "11 1 "'11 " . " ! l l l l l l l l " " " " 111
1- .. .. • . . . . • · • .. • .t ••• " •• , 1" ' 1111111111111 1 11",,1 '" '1 1111111"111"" . tl'
, •..•..............••.. . \ Ir ··." 1111111111111".1 1 " • . • , 111'1 11 111' II' " " ,
r,··II .... · .. · · , .. · " ' · · 1 , 1 """"111111"".··" /11 " ""111 11 1"'\1"'1'
t ••• , , , ••• • '.' .• ••• •• 'f I I • I I •• , , I I , , , 1 1 , , , \ \ \ , , •• I j I ' . •~ , I I I , , I I I I \ \ \ \ \ \ . , , I
I·"~~··············"""· I t·· ... " " " " " " .. , ........... ·" 1.......... " " " ' 1 \ \ " ' , ..... _-"
\-_ ....... . . . . . . . . . . . & ... _, \ ---_ .... . . . . ... . .. ....... ...... _, \ .. _- ............ , ................ ---,
Figure 4: Development of flow and temperature fields with time in the initially isothermal
system (Ma ==5000, Ra == 1.8.10 4 , 130=3.6)
In order to estimate the significance of Marangoni convection for the given configuration,
pure buoyancy flow with a Rayleigh number of Ra == 1.8.10 4 is simulated under 19-
conditions (Table 1). It is noticeable that the average Nusselt number only amounts to
about 1/3 of the value for pure Marangoni flow. Once more, this shows the dominance of
107
12
11 j I
" 7441I
10
9
I
8
7
6
a-~
cD--6.29
5
~ 4
3
2
1+---------------~~
O+-~~Tnnr-.-r~~--.-~~~_.~~~_._.~
10°
Figure 5: Dependence of the overall heat transfer (Nu) on the strength of the thermo-
capillary convection (Ma) under micro-gravity
a: Buoyancy and Marangoni flow act in the same direction (Jl-g)
b: Buoyancy and Marangoni flow act in the same direction (I-g)
c: Buoyancy and Marangoni flow act in opposite directions (I-g)
5 List of symbols
a thermal diffusivity Ra Rayleigh number
A aspect ratio time
Eo Bond number T temperature
Cp isobaric specific heat capacity v vector of veloci ty = (V., Vop, v z ) T
D diameter of the cylinder z axial coordinate
V substantial derivative a heat transfer coefficient
Fo Fourier number /3p thermal expansion coefficient
§ vector of gravitational = -~(*)p
acceleration = (O,O,gz)T D..r radial increment
H height of the cylinder D..T temperature increment (D..T > 0)
Ma Marangoni number TJ dynamic viscosity
Nu Nusselt number ). thermal conductivity
Nu average Nusselt number for v kinematic viscosity
a cross-section z = const. (! density
p pressure 'P azimuthal coordinate
Pr Prandtl number (7 surface tension
r radial coordinate 'f stress tensor
R radius of the cylinder \7 nabla operator
subscripts:
r radial component r.p azimuthal component
M Marangoni 0 reference value
z axial component
References
[lJ Bird, B.R.; Stewart, W.E.; Lightfoot, E.N.: Transport Phenomena. New York, Lon-
don: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1960.
[3] Crespo, E.; Bontoux, P.; Smutek, C.; Roux, B.; Hardin, G.; Sani, R.; Rosenberger,
F.: Three-Dimensional Simulations of Convection Regimes in Cylindrical Ampoules:
Comparisons with Theoretical Analyses and Experiments. Proc. 6th Europ. Sympos.
Material Sciences under Microgravity Conditions - Bordeaux, France, ESA SP-256
(1986) 529-537.
[4] Harlow, F.H.; Welch, E.J.: Numerical Calculation of Time-Dependent Viscous In-
compressible Flow of Fluid with Free Surface. Phys. Fluids 8 (1965) 2182-2189.
[7] MihelCic, M.; Wingerath, K.: Instability of the Buoyancy Driven Convection in Si
Melts During Czochralski Clystal Growth. J. Crystal Growth 97 (1989) 42-49.
[8] Patankar, S.Y.: Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow. Washington, London:
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation (1980).
[10] Rupp, R.; Mueller, G.; Neumann G.: Three-Dimensional Time Dependent Modelling
of the Marangoni Convection in Zone Melting Configurations for GaAs. J. Crystal
Growth 97 (1989) 34-41.
[1l] Schneider, S.: Laminare freie Konvektion in emem Zylinder bei konstanter und
zeitveraenderlicher Schwerkraft (g-jitter). doctoral thesis, Technical University of
Munich (1990).
[12] Schneider, S.; Straub, J.: Laminar Natural Convection in a Cylindrical Enclosure
with Different End Temperatures. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, to be published (1991).
[14] Wilcox, W. R.; Chang, Ch. E.: Analysis of Surface Tension Driven Flow in Floating
Zone Melting. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 19 (1976) 355-366.
Influence of the Temperature Gradient on the
Oscillatory Instabilities of Thermo capillary Flow
at a Rotating Interface
J. A. Szymczyk
University of Essen, Chair of Mechanics,
Germany
Summary
An investigation is described conclusing the hydrodynamical flow
ensuing from a liquid-gas system which rotates uniformly and
rapidly at 0 rad/s about a vertical axis, and subjected to a
vertical temperature gradient. Because the angular velocity 0
was sufficiently large for primary effects due to Coriolis
forces to arise, centripetal forces always exceeded a small
fraction of those due to gravity. The liquid-gas zone was heated
from above and cooled from below which means a thermally stable
stratification with respect to gravitational acceleration. Velo-
city fields in two silicone oils of different viscosity and tem-
perature field in glycerin-water solution have been visualized
and investigated using inertialess ecospheres and liquid
crystals particles respectively. The onset of thermocapillary
and centrifugal-buoyancy-driven convection, the flow pattern at
the interface as a function of the temperature gradient
(Marangoni number), and the role of the rotational speed are
described and classified. The boundary layer character of the
flow in the liquid and the heat transfer in form of the shape of
the isotherms are investigated and discussed.
Introduction
The important role of convection flows in planetary and stellar
systems has been, for a long time, a primary motivation for
theoretical and experimental studies of convection. Some of the
problems of convection are strongly influenced by the effects of
rotation. Free convection can take place in any external force
field, and in particular the centrifugal accelerations can pro-
duce very rapid free convection currents, causing extremely
effective heat transfer. E. Schmidt first proposed to use this
knowledge for cooling turbine blades, and a turbine incorpo-
rating his ideas was constructed in Germany during the war.
In this study we present experimentally determined regime tran-
sition data for three liquids confined within a cylindrical
annulus of fixed geometry. By means of these data we attempt to
0 0
Siliconoil 600 62,832 1,965 109 4 ,51 10-5 8 82,90 -0,21
AK.-S 5-10-6 55 800 83,776 0
3,4942 109 33910-
, 5 15 147,39 10 -0,49
(T=25°C) 1000 104,719 5,4598-109 272-10-
, 5 23 230,29 -0,70
0
Glycerin/H 2O 600 62.832 5,4598-107 271
, 10-4 8 82,90 -0,07
0 0
80% 3010-6 280 800 83,776 9,7062 107 2,04 10-4 15 147,39 10 -0,15
(T=WC) 1000 104,719 1,5166108 1,23-10-4 23 230,29 -0,17
Table 1: Taylor and Ekman numberso Order of magnitude of acceleration due to centrifugal (bce>, gravity (g) and Coriolis (be) forces for
~
Slroboso:lpc
X....... -I a~
Ros<sIo'U f"oII .... element
IherlTlllml!ter
~ng pIote
E.cpet-I",",*>I
cet
loquod
CooIng pial<!
~ ~;.,. eCemeni
lherrnomet..,.
Data acquisition
systtm
B~~:::t:~~~2~r7 Thof""""p4lo'y
INorongonic.onv.chon
tt. tn l~'OC4' .
lOy« 01
Bock flOw I
Corl motIOn
Heat transfer
For an inhomogeneous density distribution, as existent in the
experimental cell in the original state of heat conduction, a
motionless state is impossible in the presence of a centrifugal
force field. In his book Greenspan [9] has discussed this effect
in some detail. Only in case of a centrifugal acceleration being
a great deal smaller than the gravitational acceleration,
(o2r/g) « 1, the one-dimensional original state can be
described approximately as a state of heat conduction without
convection. Based on this assumption (Froude number, Fr = o2r/g
« 1) many theories have been developed. They indicate that the
basic stratification is linear and that no resulting motion
occurs. Since this is not the case in the present study - for a
very rapidly rotating cylinder we have Fr > 1 , and, as mentioned
previously, the effect of the centrifugal force must be taken
into consideration (see Fig. 3.). The figure shows schematically
the shape of the isotherms for different Froude numbers and
different Marangoni numbers. The isotherms are parallel to the
interface. In the case of heat transfer a complicated macros-
copic kinetics takes place: an elementary transport process as
heat conduction is coupled with convective heat transport
(diffusion has been neglected).
A
, I
~ J- ,-A ,,\' : -A
B ~
\
!I 1I
I-B
\
f- B
I !
C
~ I -C
\.. I ./
I- C
r I r I r
Fig. 3: Isotherms for different Marangoni numbers and
different Froude numbers. (3a) Fr = 8, (3b) Fr = 15,
(3c) Fr 23. Isotherms: A) Mg = 9.12.10 3 ,
B) Mg = 15.4.103 , C) Mg = 18.2.103
Conclusions
The onset of thermocapillary convection does not depend on the
rotational speed and the Prandtl number, and starts immediately
after the temperature gradient is applied. The results show that
the thermocapillary flow is confined to a thin layer at the
118
References
1. Introduction
H J. Rath (Editor)
Microgravlty Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnngcr-Vcr!ag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
120
T = T (z)
T : temperature
Tw : wall - temperature
2. Experimental
thermocouple
convect ion
vortex
syringe
Front, rear and side walls consist of optical glass for visua-
lization purposes. For the measurement and control of the un-
disturbed vertical temperature profile a thermocouple is
installed in the upper copper wall. The vertical position of
the sensor is variable. The bubble is injected via a bore-hole
in the center of the upper plate. For flow and temperature
field visualization the liquid was seeded with liquid crystal
tracer particles. For refractive index matching between the
test fluid and liquid crystals we used an 87 % glycerol-water
solution as test liquid (for more details see section 2.2).
Infrared fIller
L • >.
d=~,
!aserbeam (X)
- L
A[nmj
650
600
550
500
450
Mg '" R2 1*1 1
" • a
dT
dz<Xl
.. /.~.~.,.~--------~
J 1 ' I I . I.
• J . ! . i ••• ~••••
. --. . .
• J •• ~ ••• 1 • ~,•••••••• \
J.l.~.\ .•• •• ,_". \, ••
L 1 • • \ • \,,, " " . • • • J- ",' \ , .\ • •
Jl.\\\.'-.,,"-'- ..... , .... ' r i ' "
T=27,7°C _ 1~ ......... ~ .'-." ........... '-~/'! t tT !
T = 27,1 °c- _1::........:.--;....'....:':......;..\.• ....,~.:.....,.::.......:....._..:......;,.·....:·_~..;,...-<;,;..........;.:;;;~~--:;;.-.t.::......'·:......;,.~l4,~-I-~
T =26,8°C --- ...+-............,.........l...........Ir-w-=--~...................,,,.........~/_~....;.-
•• ~ • "..." ....... • -. • . . • • • -. • ~. • '=
T= 26,6 °C /
J ~ ~ • • • ... • . ..,. . .,. .............
1--+-----
10
~m
s
4. Concluding remarks
References
[1] Raake, 0.; Siekmann, J.; Chun, Ch. -H.: Temperature and
velocity field due to surface tension driven flow. EXp.
Fluid 7, 164-172 (1989)
Introduction.
Microgravity conditions seem to be very useful for crystal
growth processes. Reduced gravitational force strongly weakens
the buoyancy convection, so the convective oscillations in the
melt become impossible [1]. This is the main reason of
numerous attempts to obtain monocrystal materials with
homogeneous internal structure in microgravity. On the other
hand for non-isothermal fluid in microgravity conditions other
driving forces become more significant than on the Earth. The
main of them are thermocapillarity and g-jitter. The
thermocapillary forces exist on the non-uniformly heated free
liquid surfaces and cause motion of the fluid. The g-jitter
appears in space unavoidably because of the vibrations of a
spacecraft. So, the investigation of combined gravitational -
thermocapillary and gravitational - g-jitter convective flows
is necessary for better control of crystal growth processes in
microgravity.
Thermogravitational-thermocapillary convection.
The stability of thermogravitational-thermocapillary
convection in a square cavity with free upper boundary,
isothermal differentially heated vertical boundaries and
adiabatic horizontal boundaries was considered. The map of
stability was plotted in the plane Gr-Ma (see fig. 1). The
shaded region corresponds to the stable stationary flows.
Outside the shaded region the convective flows are oscillatory
unstable. The positive Ma numbers mean that the surface
tension grows with the growth of the temperature (BCJ'/BT<O),
and the negative Ma corresponds to BCJ'/BT>O (inverse
thermocapillaryeffect).
One can see from fig. 2 that rather large g-jitter causes a
hysteresis phenomenon - stationary flows remain stable below
the marginal stability curve of the quasi-quiescent fluid.
References.
1. Material Science in Space. A contribution to the Scientific
Basis of Space Processing. Berlin e.a., 1986.
2. Gershuni G.Z., Zhukhovitsky E.M. Vibration-Induced
Convection in Weightlessness. Fluid Mechanics, 15(1986),
63-85.
3. Gelfgat A. Yu., Martuzans B. J. The Investigation of the
Stability of the Stationary Gravitational-Thermocapillary
Convective Flows of the Fluid with Small Prandtl Number. Fluid
Mechanics, 25(1990), 169-174.
3. Gelfgat A.Yu. Evolution and Instability of Stationary
Convective Flows in the Square Cavity Heated from Below in the
Field of Vertical Vibrational Forces. Mechanics of Fluid and
Gase, 2(1991), 9-18. (rus.) to be translated in English (see
Fluid Mechanics, 1991).
4. Gelfgat A.Yu. Effects of the Magnetic Field Magnitude and
Direction on the Oscillatory Thermogravitational Convection
Regimes in a Rectangular Cavity. Magnetohydrodynamics, 1988,
324-328.
5. Gelfgat A.Yu. The Influence of the Magnetic Field on the
Spatial Structure of the Oscillatory Natural Convection.
Magnetic hydrodynamics, 1(1990), 13-22 (rus.), to be
translated in English (see Magnetohydrodynamics, 1990).
135
-2
B .---------------.-------------~
Ro·/a- s
"
I \
I \
I \
"'- I \
I -.; '----
/\
I { / \
I / \ /
I \ /
I \ /
4 I-,------------~------~~~HY
I
I .1../.
/----1' ~
I Y
I { I
I I ~
I
I /
/
/
/
--- ---
0 1,8 ci.. J,6
3 Gr· 10
-,
;
1
I
"
I.
/. -
I.
2 /.
I.
I.
I.
/.
/.
/.
.- " "
/.
o L-------~ro~------~
20~------~~-------~~--~U~a~~~
a b
Summary
The influence of high frequency vibrations on the stability of
fluid interface is investigated. The autonomous equations for
the mean values and the amplitude of pulsative components are
derived. Three problems are studied on the base of obtained
equations: quasi-equilibrium states of free surface, quasi-
equilibrium structures and stability of the plane interface
under the influence of high frequency horizontal vibrations and
the stability of cylindrical liquid zone surrounded by coaxial
layer of liquid of different density under the influence of
axial vibrations and rotation. The terrestrial experiments with
two immiscible fluids of different densities filled in the
horizontal layer displayed the horizontal vibrations are made.
It has been shown that the high frequency tangential vibrations
can lead to the appearance of quasi-stationary relief on the
fluid interface. The critical conditions for the onset of
relief and the character of its generation are determined with
the help of Lyapunov-Schmidt method. The evolution of forms of
the interface with the growth of the intensity of vibrations is
studied by finite-difference method and experimentally. The
sequence of the spatial period doubling bifurcations and the
splitting of the layer into the system of strata with the
growth of amplitude of the vibrations velocity are found out.
Keywords: fluid interface, high frequency vibrations,
quasi-equilibrium states, instability.
1. Introduction
Vibrations exert different influence on the behavior of the
fluids interface. Thus the vertical vibrations can excite
parametric waves on the fluid surface but on the other hand
they can suppress the Rayleigh-Taylor instability.
Unusual behavior of the system under the influence of
H J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty Fluld \1echamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer~Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
138
(3)
.. ) = = 1,2
( V(1 + k div V(1 = 0, (1 (4)
.. P(1 'V P(1'
[W ]
n =0 , [p WT =0 , (6)
b2
-
2
[pVn WTo ]n + [ p ] n , [0 ] n.
'J J =a ( 'Vn ) n , (7)
of
+ U 'VF = 0, (8)
ot
Square brackets denotes the jump of the value on the interface.
We considered mainly the quasi-equilibrium states. This term
denotes the states with the absence of mean flow 11 = O. Though
generally speaking the pulsative component of the velocity is
not small in this case, the amplitude of the oscillations of
the fluid interface is smalL It is of the order of the
amplitude of the displacement of the vesseL
The
the
quasi-equilibrium
problem which is
states
obtained
can be
from
found
(3)-(8)
from
if
the
we
solution
set u
.. =
of
O.
This problem is non-linear and hence may, in general, possess
nonunique solutions .
.3. ~ surface
We have investigated the case when the fluid partially fills in
the vessel of rectangular cross-section which displays the
horizontal vibrations. In the absence of vibrations the free
surface is plane. The variational principle was formulated in
140
~ Stability cl ~ interface
B = ( k + k )thkH (9)
8 p (p - 1)
141
1/2
2
Here B = b [( Pi - P 2) 1 et g 14 is the dimensionless vibra-
tional parameter, P = p/P2 and H = h [etl (Pi - P 2 )g ]-1/2 is the
dimensionless half-thickness of the layer (01 coefficient of
surface tension, h - half-thickness of the layer).
The bifurcational curves are presented in the Fig.2 for
different values of H. As one can see the longwave
perturbations are the most dangerous in the case of thin layers
while for the thick layers the periodical relief is excited.
The non-linear analysis made it possible to obtain the
depen9.ence of the amplitude of relief on the supercriticalness.
It has been shown that in the case of thick layers for the most
dangerous disturbances the periodical relief appears through
the direct bifurcation at P < 3.535. For P > 3.535 the birth
of relief is finite-amplitude.
2.5
~
~
~
0 k
~ ~
Fig.2 Fig.3 FigA
~ Experimental results
The experimental results which were obtained for the glycerine
and insulating oil placed into the horizontal cavity of the
lengb 160 rom and the thickness of 16 rom are presented in the
Fig.5. The frequency of vibration in this experiment was 50 Hz,
the amplitude of the displacement of the vessel varied in the
range from 0 till 2.5 rom. As one can see we observed the same
phenomena as in the numerical simulation. In the experiment
with thick layers we observed the sequence of the spatial
period doubling bifurcations.
Fig.5
143
Ar-- -----,
50
Fig.6 Fig.7a Fig.7b Fig.7c
144
£.. Conclusions
The influence of high frequency tangential vibrations on the
equilibrium forms and stability of fluid free surface or inter-
face was studied for the cases when fluid partially fills a
vessel and for two immiscible fluids of different densities
placed between parallel plane walls or inside the cylindrical
region. The action of vibration leads to the appearance of
pulsative motion of the fluids. The variational principle have
been formulated for the finding of quasi-equilibrium states of
the free surface. In the case of fluid interface the instabili-
ty of the Kelvin-Helmholtz type can be developing because of
the difference of the pulsative velocities on the interface.
Short waves are stabilized by capillary forces. The suppression
of longwave instability can be ensured by mass forces directed
perpendicularly to the undisturbed fluid interface. For the
considered problems the weak gravitational force plays this
role in the case of plane layer and centrifugal force exerts
stabilizing effect in the case of a cylindrical liquid zone.
References
l.G.H.Wolf The dynamic stabilization of the Raileigh-Taylor
instability and the corresponding dynamic equilibrium.-
Z.Physik B 227 291 (1969)
2.D.V.Lyubimov, A.A.Tcherepanov On the appearance of stati-
onary relief on the fluid interface in the vibrational field.
- Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Mech. zhidk. i gaza 6 (1986)
3.D.V.Lyubimov, A.A.Tcherepanov, M.V.Savvina On the equilibrium
form of the free surface of the fluid in the modulated gravi-
tational field.- The problems of hydromechanics and heat and
mass transfer with the free surfaces. Novosibirsk 97 (1987)
Thermocapillary Flows and Deformations of the
Surface in the Systems of Fluid Layers with the
Longitudinal Temperature Gradient in Microgravity
Summary
The proposed paper considers three relatively poor
studied aspects of thermocapillary convection under the
influence of longitudinal thermal gradients in two- (or multi-)
layered fluid systems. The first is the mutually compensating
action of thermocapillary forces on the fluid interfaces. The
second problem includes strong deformations and breakdown of
the integrity, caused by large temperature differences in thin
layers. The third aspect is the motion of flat drops on
non-isothermal liquid surfaces.
H 1. Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravity FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
146
~ = 2(f+T/(It-1))
f+ah
[
r
2
- ~ ),
2
4It inR a
h = R[-l-#- ), q = 2R[-R-a+ - (1-#))
It -1 T/
(0)
Comparing the expressions for ~ and ~ we see that the
weakening of thermocapillary convection due to the second layer
Of 7J 0.2 if Q4 7J
a) a =
0.15 b) a 1.62 c) = a =
2.50
Fig.1. Velocity profiles in two-layered system
of coaxial cylinders
147
6
v=
2
61)
k = 2(2-01)6/31) ,
Note that pressure gradients in both media are not
equal to each other and to zero, which is due to the
assumption of non-deformability of surfaces r =rJ. and
148
rZ~m~m~ ________________-, Z mm
15 f 5 r-'-------------.
1.0
05
13 t--------+:~--......~-------l
o 12 24
FiS.4. Critical temperature Fig.5. Apparatus for
differences needed to destroy fluid studying the motion of
layers of different thicknesses drops on water surface
(i-ethanol, 2-heptane, 3-decane)
151
a) b) c) d)
Fig.6. Drops of organic liquids on water surface
ter, however, spread into lenses which are so thin that they
practically do not deform the underlying surface (see Fig.6.c).
Such drops in the presence of the temperature gradient began
moving along the flat water surface to the cool side, as in
Fig. 6.d. The measured drop velocity proved to be proportional
to the volume of the fluid and temperature gradient. For the
same values of the Marangoni number speeds of thicker drops are
higher.
Conclusion
All three considered problems are united by common possible
applications. In order to weaken thermocapillary convection in
space technology processes as in the encapsulated zone mel-
ting, for example, the melt (inner layer) is covered by the
encapsulant (outer layer). We have demonstrated that the com-
pensating action of thermocapillary forces at the interface and
at the free surface produces the effect of suppression of
thermocapillary convection. In the melt this effect is enhanced
by the reduced thickness of the outer layer. However, the layer
should be too thin; otherwise it will be torn by thermocapil-
lary forces. The drops which formed after the breakdown display
thermocapillary migration in the direction opposite to the
thermal gradient.
References
l. Zuev A.L., Pshenichnikov A.F. Deformation and breakdown of
liquid film under the action of thermocapillary convection.
Prikl. l1ekh. Tekh. Phiz. (Applied Mechanics and Technical
Physics) 3 (1987) 90-95
2. Loulerque J.e. Deformation of surfaces of a thin liquid film
by thermal perturbation. J. Thin Solid Filma 82 (1981) 61-71
3. Bratukhin Yu.K., Briskman V.A., Zuev A.L., Pshenichnikov A.F
Surface deformation and motion of fluid layers and drops
under the action of thermocapillary forces. Gidromekhanika i
tepiD- maaaobmell pri poluchellii materialov (Hydromechanics
and Heat / Mass Transfer in Material Processing). Moscow:
Nauka 1990 273-281
Residual Acceleration Effects,
Fluid Handling
Fluid Management under Micro-Gravity
Conditions in Technical Applications
G. Netter, MBB/ERNO
J. WeiB, Hochschule Bremen
Abstract
Theoretical and experimental fluid management analysis for surface tension tanks under
micro-gravity conditions are described.
Solutions of the GauB-Laplace equation for rotational symmetry as a system of two ordinary
differential equations and for the general case applying finite difference methods are
described and some results presented. Dynamical calculations were performed for small
sloshing amplitudes as well as bulk motions of the fluid. Experimental test were performed
with parabolic flights, in the drop tower of Bremen, and with the space shuttle experiment
EMTE.
1. Introduction
At the beginning of the Post Apollo Programm in 1970, the interest in EUROPE to investigate
general applications of the Il-g environment had become a substantial technological aspect.
The need of fluid management in spacecraft operating in a micro-g environment has initiated
a number of experimental investigations to substantiate analytical models, describing the fluid
behaviour.
Experiments have been conducted under 1 g as well as under Il-g conditions.
Typical spacecraft technology applications of the Il-g fluid physics are the surface tension
tank, heat pipes and fluid transfer, which presently is an important research and development
activity at MBB/ERNO. Under Il-g conditions surface tension forces are predominant in
determining the location of the fluid within tanks. Furtheron the knowledge of the stability of
the fluid configuration and the reorientation rate due to small accelerations are of importance
for the design of tanks and heat pipes.
Since 1975, MBB/ERNO has become the supplier of a family of surface tension tanks for
satellites such as TV-SAT, TDF, DFS-Kopernikus, Italsat, Eute1sat, Insat II. The functional
performances of all these tanks were verified by ground tests. A second generation of surface
tension tanks was introduced in 1988. Presently, the analytical tools are capable to verify the
functional performance of this new type of propellant management devices.
H. J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty Fluid Mechamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
156
To substantiate the predictions of static and dynamic properties by analytical methods, the
following experimental investigations have been perfonned:
capillary pumping
sloshing orientation
nucleate boiling
heat transportation
neutral buoyancy test (MBB/ERNO - Institut fUr Grenzflache und Bioverfahren)
(MBB/ERNO - ZARM)
micro-g parabolic flight tests on Do 28/KC 135
EMTE Space Shuttle experiment 1985: sloshing experiment / functional perfonnance test
drop test (MBB/ERNO - ZARM):
capillary induced fluid motions, capillary pumping, refill of sump, orientation
Microba balloon drop test: functional demonstration
nf . nw = cos( t'}O)
with llf = unit nonnal vector on the surface
nw = unit nonnal vector on the wall
t'}O = wall contact angle
The left side of (1) is computed from the geometric relation for the mean curvature H of the
surface
1 L·G - 2·P·M + E·N
+- 2·H = (2)
R2 (E.G - F2)3/2
157
with E = 1 + (dz/dX)2
F = (dz/dx)·(dz/dy)
G = 1 + (dz!i)y)2
L = d2z/dx 2 x
M = d2z/dXdy
N = d2z/dy2
For the pressure difference M, which is a constant in case of zero gravity and in absence of
rotation, three fundamental cases will be considered:
a) axial acceleration gx ~ M = MOl + gx·x·p
b) radial accelerations gy ~ M = M02 + gy.y.p
c) rigid solid rotation ~ M = M03 + O.S·00·(y_YO)2.p
where MOi = (unknown) integrations constant
p = density of the fluid
yo =distance of the axis of rotation from the axis of symmetry
00 = angular velocity
So the differential equation gets the form
(3)
dx cos (a)
da cos(a)/y - MIa
dy sin(a)
da cos(a)/y - MIa
The numerical integration of these equations is started at some point (x(j. yo> on the container
wall which determines the initial slope angle a. For the unknown constant MOi an estimated
value is taken. The integration over a is then performed until the slope of the straight line AB
in fig. 1 is reached. The end point (xE' YE) of this integration in general will not lyon the line
AB, but by iterative correction of the constant MOi this can be achieved.
2 1
cot(l'}Ol) = 3' cot(l'}O) + 3' cot(l'}lz)
1 •
• trianglar grid:
by dZ/dX a2,dZ/dy
d 2 Z/dx 2 a4,d 2 z/dxdy
d 2 Z/dy2 a6·
The coefficients at through a6 are determined using neighbouring points as indicated in
the figure. The surface z(x, y) passes through the reference point (large bullet) and the
three neighbours (small bullets), and the six next neighbours (open circles) are best
approximated (least squares method).
Two formulations of the boundary condition are used:
a) extrapolation with a parabola
b) The normal vector on the surface nf is derived from equation (3) at the boundary
point. In order to allow small contact angles the coordinate system has to be rotated
such that Z is parallel to fif at the reference point.
Iteration
The iteration process starts with zi = 0 for all grid points. Only the z-coordinates are changed
to meet the GauB-Laplace equilibrium equation and the boundary conditions. Each iteration
consists of three steps:
a) For every boundary point the contact angle t} is computed using neighbouring points and
the z-coordinate of the boundary point is changed such that It} - t}O I decreases.
b) For each inner point the mean curvature 2·Hi is computed from equ. (2) and the sum S is
computed:
N
S = I (2·H· - g·p·z·/cr)
i =1 1 1
Triangular containers
F
As an example for a container with non-rectangular
DI_ _ _
shape an "open" container with only 3 walls was chosen
~
E
(fig. 2):
Fig. 6 gives a presentation with hidden lines of the same container for a triangular grid.
Fig. 7 shows some results for the open container of fig. 2 with the contact angle t'}O as the
parameter. In all cases the Bond number is zero and the angle between the two verticals walls
is a =90·.
161
3. Dynamics
3.1 General
For the dynamic analysis of the fluid slosh effects, three fundamental cases of fluid motion
must be distinguished:
(1) Sloshing with small amplitudes: The non-linear effects of the equations of motion can be
neglected. Only small amplitudes are considered according to the linear theory.
(2) Sloshing with large amplitude, nonlinear effect must be regarded, but the results can still
be derived from (1) by correction terms from experimental results.
(3) Movement in bulks: The dynamic effects are fundamentally different from (1) and (2)
and results cannot be derived from the motion with small amplitudes.
Numerical results were obtained with a commercially available software Flow-3D Science
for cases (1) and (2). FLOW-3D is a computer software of FLOW SCIENCE for the analysis
of fluid dynamic phenomena. A Finite-Difference method is used to construct a time
dependent solution of the fluid conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy.
For case (3) a software was developed using the same approach as applied by a NASA
program LAMPS (Large AMPlitude Sloshing).
Mp· ;ip=~+f
where Mp is the fluid mass, Yp the velocity vector of the fluid center of mass relative to the
inertial frame, ~ the constraint force normal to the constraint surface (inertial reactive force)
and i the viscous dissipative force on the fluid center of mass tangent to the constraint
surface.
162
4. Test
The objectives of a neutral buoyancy test are to observe the Jl-g liquid surface configuration
under I-g conditions.
Two immiscible test liquids of equal density have been used to represent the propellant and
the pressurant gas. Similarity of contact angle has also been achieved. The comparison of the
observed interface surface at different g levels has thus proven the theoretical Jl-g
calculations.
4.4 EMTE
A sloshing/orientation experiment on a NASA STS mission was performed in June 1985. The
test sample was a model tank representing the OST 01/0 lower compartment.
Measurements of the reaction forces and accelerations at the model tank wall for different
amplitudes, frequencies and liquid load levels were recorded.
to determine the sloshing forces and their reactions on the tank wall,
to observe the orientation time, that means the total amount of time measured for liquid
to move from one end of a tank to the other, and come to rest again still,
to demonstrate the function performance expulsion efficiency.
5. Conclusion
References:
Bakker, G. Kapillaritiit
In: Wien, W. and F. Harms (Ed.): Handbuch der Experimentalphysik,
Vol. VI, Leipzig, 1928.
r different g-levels
Fig. 6: tangular container fo
Fluid shapes of a rec
/ om , the COntact angle is
~o =40•.
are : 10 /1
Bond numbers
166
D E
\\
\}O == 40·
"1t:,
"\\ .
\,
\}O==45
'~ ).
).
,,-""'-'"
~"
'\. '" '>
- ........
~
~ ~
~~ \}O == 50·
~~ \}O = 60·
~
~
~~ ~
\"'-~
\.\.):
c\.~
.~
Fig. 7: Fluid shapes of the open container of fig. 2 for various contact angles \}O
The Bond number is B =0, the angle is ex =90·.
The figures show projections along the line AC of fig. 4.
The Sensitivity of a Non-Isothermal Liquid Bridge
to Residual Acceleration
Abstract
Liquid bridges appear in a variety of industrial processes, for example in the well-known floating-zone
crystal growth technique. This crystal growth method has received much attention in recent years.
In particular, there have been a variety of experiments on spacelab missions. These experiments are
motivated by the fact that the microgravity environment affords the possibility of an increase in the
stability of the melt meniscus and a reduction in buoyancy-driven convection. However, within the
spacecraft there is a residual acceleration with variable magnitude and orientation. Under certain
conditions, the response of the free surface of a liquid bridge to time-dependent residual accelerations
will lead to zone breakage. In this paper the steady and unsteady behavior of isothermal and non-
isothermal liquid bridge systems under normal and low gravity conditions is examined. The full non-
linear governing equations are recast in terms of a stream-function vorticity formulation together with
a non-orthogonal coordinate transformation. The latter allows an irregular free boundary to coincide
with a coordinate line (or surface) without the need to solve a coupled set of Laplace equations. The
resulting equations are discretized using a centered finite difference scheme for space, and an Adams-
Bashforth-Crank-Nicolson scheme is used for time. The equations are solved by the A.D.I. method
and a Picard type iteration is used on the boundary condition for the balance of force normal to the
free surface. For non-isothermal bridges, residual acceleration affects the system by causing internal
buoyancy flows and fluctuations in the shape of the bridge which interact with the thermocapillary
flow caused by surface tension gradients. For the cases examined, the shape of the bridge is found
to be more sensitive to typical spacecraft accelerations than the buoyancy driven flow. The effect of
thermocapillary flow on the surface shape is found to be small for the range of capillary and Reynolds
numbers considered.
1. Introduction
Liquid bridges appear in a variety of industrial processes, for example the well-known
floating-zone crystal growth technique [1]. This crystal growth method has received much attention
in recent years [2-10]. In particular, there have been several related experiments on spacelab missions
[11-14]. These experiments are motivated by the fact that the microgravity environment affords the
possibility of an increase in the stability of the melt meniscus and a reduction in buoyancy-driven
convection. However, within the spacecraft there is a residual acceleration with variable magnitude
and orientation. Under certain conditions, the response of the free surface of an isothermal liquid bridge
to time-dependent residual accelerations will lead to zone breakage [13-15]. In this paper we examine
the interaction between convection caused by the response of the free surface of the zone to oscillatory
axial residual acceleration and convection due to thermocapillary and internal buoyancy forces.
H. J. Rath (EdLtor)
Microgravity Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
,
168
g(l)
Rigid Disk
\jI.... : -1.06 x 10-2
Auid Surface
r~ R(Z.I)
L
T.... =0
Rigid Disk
Fig. 2. The initial steady dimensionless stream-
2 R. =
function and temperature corresponding to Re 2899.
= = =
Gr 0.98. A 4 and Pr 0.0127.
Fig. 1. The model liquid bridge.
2. Fonnulation
2.1 Description of the Model
A cyJinchicalJiquid zone (see Fig. 1) is contained between two parallel coaxial circular rigid
disks (radius =Ro) separated by a distance L The Jiq uid is a non-isothennal Newtonian fluid for which
the Boussinesq approximation holds. The bridge is held between the disks by sUIface tension. The
free sUIfaceofthe bridge is a gas-liquid interface and is described byr= R(z.t). Each disk is maintained
at a constant temperature To. SUIface heating is provided through a parabolic function. T..., which is
a function of the axial coordinate and is an approximation to the heating profile associated with typical
floating zone crystal growth experiments. The heat transfer coefficient at the free sUIface is denoted
by h. In addition, we make the assumptions that the residual acceleration is parallel to the cylinder
axis, the velocity and temperature field and the deformation of free sUIface are axisymmetric, and we
take the sUIface tension at the free sUIface to be a linear function of the temperature. Motion of the
end disks perpendicular to the axis may also occur in practice. The restriction to axial acceleration
precludes an analysis of the effects of such motions.
The governing equations are made dimensionless by scaling length, time and velocity with
Ro, RdU* and U*, respectively. Here U* is a characteristic velocity given by
U· J~~T.
~
where 11T= TMAX - TMIN represents the maximum temperature difference along the sUIface, ~ is
the absolute value of the derivative of the sUIface tension with respect to temperature, and ~ is the
169
(1)
(2)
(a) (b)
- (e)
-
"'MAX = 7.6 x 10-3 "'MAX = 1.37 X 10.2
oR
-+u+w-=O
oR (9)
ot oz'
(1+(OR)2)-t(OT _oR OT)+B~T_L)=O, (10)
OZ or OZ OZ
where the capillary number, Biot number and Proude number are, respectively,
and Yo is the mean surface tension and k is the thennal conductivity. The force balance conditions
normal and tangent to the free surface are given by eqs. (7) and (8) respectively. Equation (9) is the
kinematic boundary condition at the liquid-gas interface. The thennal boundary condition at the
interface is given by equation (10) in which the equivalent heat transfer coefficient, h, models the effect
of the radiant and convective heat transfer between the bridge and the surrounding environment. The
constant A in (7) represents a dimensionless reference pressure difference across the interface which
for this system is determined by the following constant volume constraint [9,16]
Finally, the condition that the contact lines between the liquid end disks are fixed is
R = 1 at z = ± N2. (12)
T MIN - a T MIN. a
(a) (b) (c)
T MIN . a T MIN - a
(e) (f)
allows an irregular free boundary to coincide with a cylindrical coordinate line (or surface) without the
need to solve a coupled set of Laplace equations [17,18]. The resulting equations are discretized
following a semi-implicit difference scheme and solved by theA.D.I. method. The conditions for force
balance tangent to the surface and kinematic condition at the free surface are solved along with the
Navier-Stokes and continuity equations. The condition for the force balance normal to the surface is
used together with an "outer" iterative procedure to determine the free surface shape.
The unsteady free boundary problem for a cylindrical liquid zone is solved as follows. The
10' ....------r-----.,.--------,
lI'''AX-5.23 x 1 0-2
..ffi
z
Q
10" 1"--'-_ __
.....
w
o
(a) (b) ~ 2
w
a:
«
10"
ffi
.....
::!
10~L-_ _ __L~---~---~
10" 10" 10' 10'
FREOUENCY [Hz)
(e) (d)
Fig. 6. Tolerable acceleration [g] vs. Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 5. The instantaneous dimensionless stream- predicted by the 10 model [15] for (1) breakage and
function, with Re = 0, Or = 0, A = 4 and Pr = 0.0127. (2) 10% shape change. for an isothermal liquid zone
at (a) 0.59 s, (b) 1 s, (d) 1.5 s (e) 2 s, after application with 11.=4 and the thermophysical properties of
of an additional 2.5xlQ-2 g, O.51Iz, axial accx!eration. indium.
Note that for this case only. 'I' = 'I'/KRo , where'l' is the
dimensional stream-function cm3 s-l.
173
initial conditions correspond toeitherzeroorfinite steady residual acceleration situations with a steady
thermocapillary flow. These states are calculated using a method close to that described below [16].
For the unsteady calculation our solution scheme is similar to that used by Kang and Leal [17] and
Ryskin and Leal [18]. The following Picard iterative procedure [19] is adopted:
1. guess the free surface shape for the new tirnestep;
2. obtain the approximate temperature and stream-function, vorticity and velocity fields by transform-
ing the governing equations and boundary conditions to a circular cylindrical domain via a non-
orthogonal transformation and solve them using a semi-implicit method;
3. obtain the pressure at the free surface by integrating the transformed momentum equation;
4. use the condition for the balance of force normal to the free surface to decide how to update the free
surface location;
5. return to step 2. Repeat until convergence is obtained by satisfying all equations and boundary
conditions to a specified degree of accuracy for this tirnestep.
breakage of the bridge, the second is whenever the bridge shape changes by more than 10% ofits static
shape, i.e. R(z,t) - R(z,O) = .lR(z,O).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the State of Alabama through the Center for Microgravity and
Materials Research and the Alabama Supercomputer Network, and by the National Aeronautics and
Space Agency through grant NAG8-724.
4. References
[1] W.G. Pfann, Zone Melting, Krueger, Huntington New York (1978).
[2] C. Chang and W.R. Wilcox, 1. Crystal Growth 28,8-12 (1975).
[3] PA. Clark and W.R. Wilcox, 1. Crystal Growth 50, 461-469 (1980).
[4] N. Kobayashi, J. Crystal Growth 66, 63-72 (1984).
[5] W.W. Fowlis and G.O. Roberts, 1. Crystal Growth 74,301-320 (1986).
[6] A. Rybicki and 1.M. Floryan, Phys. Fluids 30,1956-1972 (1987).
[7] R. Natarjan, AIChE J. 35, 614-624 (1989).
[8] Z. Kozhoukharova and S. Slavchev, J. Crystal Growth 74, 236-246 (1986).
[9] J.L. Duranceau and RA. Brown, in Taylor G. Wang (ed.) Drops and Bubbles Third Interna-
tional Colloquiwn 1988, AIP Conference Proceedings 197, American Institute of Physics, New
York, 1989, pp. 133-144.
[10] C.w. Lan and S. Kou, J. Crystal Growth 102, (fJ9-627 (1990).
[11] D.T.1. Hurle, G. MUller and R Nitsche, in Fluid Sciences and Materials Science in Space, Ed.
H. U. Walter (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1987) pp. 313-351.
[12] A. Croll, W. MUller and R Nitsche, Proceedings ofthe 6th European Symposiwn on Materials
Sciences underMicrogravity Conditions, ESA SP·256 (ESA Publications Division, Noordwjyck,
1987) 87.
[13] 1. Martinez, J.M. Haynes and D. Langbein,in Fluid Sciences and Materials Science in Space,
Ed. H. U. Walter (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1987) pp. 53-80.
[14] 1. Martinez, Proceedings of the 6th European Symposiwn on Materials Sciences under
Microgravity Conditions, ESA SP·256 (ESA Publications Division, Noordwjyck, 1987) 235.
[15] Y.Q. Zhang and J.I.D. Alexander, Physics of Fluids A 2, 1966 (1990).
[16] Y.Q. Zhang and J.I.D. Alexander, International Journalfor Nwnerical Methods in Fluids in
press.
[17] I.S. Kang and L.G. Leal, Physics of Fluids 30,1929-1940 (1987).
[18] G. Ryskin andL.G. Leal, J. Fluid Mech. 148, 1-17 (1984).
[19] 1.M. Floryan, Appl. Mech. Rev. 42, 323-341 (1989).
[20] M.D. Lind, Proceedings ofthe AIAA 25th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, Nevada, AIAA-
87-0618 (1987).
[21] 1.1.D. Alexander, Microgravity Science and Technology 3,52 (1990).
Effect of G-Jitter on Liquid free Surfaces
in Microgravity
Y. KAMOTANI AND S. OSTRACH
Introduction
The present work was done mainly experimentally using the 2.2-second drop
tower facility at the NASA Lewis Research Center. The g-jitter was
simulated by vibrating the container sinusoidally. The direction of the
g-jitter was either normal to the free surface or parallel to it. The free
surface motion was recorded by a high-speed movie camera. The experiment
examined several fluid pinning configurations and the effectiveness of a
barrier coating. A scaling analysis was also conducted to guide the
experiment and to interpret the data.
H. J Rath (EdItor)
MlcrogravLty FluId Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
176
Experiment
The natural frequency of the fluid in the 10 cm dia. container was found to
be 0.4 Hz, which was too small to study in the 2.2 second drop tower.
Therefore, smaller containers (2.54-3.18 cm dia.) with a natural frequency
range of 2-2.5 Hz were also used to investigate the free surface behavior
near the natural frequency. In all cases the fluid depth was equal to the
container radius. The container was filled to the rim to obtain a flat
surface both in one-g and in microgravi ty. The rim of the container side
wall was shaped in three different ways. The first was a flat rim, the
second was a 45 degree slanted rim, and the third was a flat rim with
concentric circular grooves cut into the surface (serrated rim). In some
tests the rim was coated with a barrier coating agent to make silicone oil
less wetting.
The container was made of plastic. It was filled with 10 cs silicone oil
which was lightly dyed wi th Sudan IV red dye to make the free surface
easily visible. The motion was recorded by a movie camera operated at 128
frames per second. The camera angle was set looking down slightly on the
liquid free surface. A light box behind the container produced diffused
light to illuminate the liquid surface. The movie film was analyzed frame
by frame by a motion analyzer to determine the amount of free surface
deformation.
The drop rig was placed in a drag shield which allowed the rig to fall
independently from the shield, thereby minimizing the aerodynamic drag.
The acceleration level was about 10- 5 g , which was much smaller than the
o
imposed g-jitter level. Half a second was allowed after a drop for the
free surface to reach equilibrium before the shaker table was turned on,
which left 1.7 seconds to study the effects of g-jitter.
177
The g-jitter aboard spacecraft usually changes its direction and magnitude
rather randomly with time. To simplify the analysis g-jitter was simulated
in the present work by a sinusoidal function of a constant amplitude and
its direction was either normal to the free surface or parallel to it.
When the container was vibrated normal to the free surface, it was a
surface stabi li ty problem in that the surface remained quiet except near
the natural frequencies. On the other hand, in the case of the parallel
excitation the free surface always moved back and forth. For that reason
the two cases are discussed separately herein.
Benjamin and Ursell [5] and others have shown that the small motions of an
inviscid liquid in a vertically vibrated tank are described by Mathieu's
equation,
- f coswt) A = 0 (1)
mn
O"k 3
w2 = (gk +~) tanh (k h) (2)
mn mn p mn
where R is the container radius. Eqs. (1) and (2) are obtained for the
condition of 90° contact angle with a non-fixed contact line, but in the
STDCE since the container is filled up to the rim, the contact line is
178
IlVk3 ).11
.33 [ mn (3)
pg + ~k2 pg + ~k2
mn mn
The minimum g-level computed from Eq. (3) for the present experimental
conditions are shown in Fig. 3. The region above the curve is the unstable
region. As seen in the figure the surface becomes more stable with
increasing frequency. It seems safe to require the g- jitter level to be
below 10- 4 g for the STDCE.
o
179
The conditions of the present drop tower tests are marked in Fig. 3. In
one series of tests the g-levels were just below the stability curve, while
in other tests the g-levels were either just above the curve or very much
above the curve. In the tests in the stable region no fluid motion was
observed during the 2.2 second drop. When the data were taken just above
the curve, a slow sloshing motion of relatively small amplitude (about
several percents of the container depth) was seen but the fluid stayed in
the container at least during the 2.2 second drop. When the g-level was
much above the curve, a very large fluid motion resulted. After a few
cycles of up and down motion, the fluid was suddenly ejected up from the
container in several streams. Based on those tests it seems that the
stability curve of Fig. 3 is reasonably accurate.
In the case of lateral excitation the dominant oscillatory mode was (1.1)
mode (simple sloshing). The natural frequency of that mode can be
calculated from Eq. (2) for a 90 0
contact angle with un-anchored contact
line,
W = ( gk
a-k
+~
3) 112 (4)
1,1 1,1 P
When the contact line is anchored as in the STDCE, the situation may be
approximated by setting k = 2rr/D (meaning one wavelength is equal to the
1,1
container diameter D). Then the natural frequency f in microgravity can
n
be calculated as
f w 12rr (5)
n 1,1
180
From Eq. (5) the natural frequency for the large container (10 cm dia.) is
estimated to be 0.4 Hz. Al though the container was vibrated at higher
frequencies in the experiment, the vibration excited the natural frequency
oscillation as well as the imposed frequency oscillation. The former was
stronger in the transient period. The motion looked like a sloshing motion
in a given cross-sectional plane but actually the wave pattern rotated
around the container axis. Even then the measured frequency (0.4-0.5 Hz)
was close to the above estimate.
(6)
a
(7)
D
Conclusions
1. For g-jitter normal to the free surface the stability curve was
obtained and verified by the experiment.
2. For g- jit ter parallel to the free surface a sloshing motion was the
dominant mode and its amplitude was largest near the natural
frequency. An expression was obtained to predict the ampl i tude when
the container was vibrated at that frequency.
3. For the STDCE it is ~ffe to require that g-level during the experiment
be no larger that 10 g.
o
References
1. Kamotani, Y. and Ostrach, S., J. Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, Vol.
1, No.1, 1989, pp. 83-89.
2. Abramson, H. N., Applied Mechanics Review, Vol. 16, 1963, pp. 501-506.
3. Gollub, J. P. and Meyer, C. W., Physica, Vol. 6D, 1983, pp. 337-346.
4. Ciliberto, S. and Gollub, P., Physical Review Letters, Vol. 52, 1984,
pp. 922-925.
5. Benjamin, I.B. and Ursell, F., Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Series A,
Vol. 225, 1954, pp. 505-515.
6. Dodge, F. T., Kana, D. D., and Abramson, H. N., AIAA Journal, Vol. 3,
1965, pp. 685-695.
Ii ghtbox
liquid container
mi rror
electric motor
batteries
dig ita 1 clock
10- 1 •
• EXPERIMENTAL
CONDITION
1O- 4 L-----------I---------.....L-
10-1 100 10
Frequency (Hz)
10- L
a
IT
I:-------+--~--:-..-*
10- 3 .1 L 10
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 4. Amount of surface deformation at
natural frequency (lateral excitation)
Theoretical Investigation of the Rotating Disks
Flow of One and Two-Phase Fluids in Microgravity
1. Introduction
The investigations presented in this paper have been motivated by problems related to the transport
and positioning of fluids in microgravity. In [1,2) a concept for handling fluids of different density p by
inducing a small centrifugal force with the aid of rotating disks was presented. Because of its high
importance, there is a large body of publications in which the flow of a pure, one-phase fluid generated
by rotating disks is treated, see e.g. [9-14). But only Delgado et al. [3,4,5) have investigated the range of
moderate Reynolds numbers, important when considering the handling of fluids in microgravity. These
authors developed a method for studying the flow induced by permeable or impermeable disks not only
of infinite but also of finite radii ('shrouded disks') .
In [3,4) the equations of motion are solved analytically for disks of infinite radii. For this purpose the
non-linear terms in the Navier-Stokes equations are linearized by perturbing the solution valid for the
creeping flow when the ratio of the angular velocities of both disks s ; W2 /W 1 takes on the value s ; 1.
This leads to equations of motion for the perturbation velocity vector and pressure which can be
translated into a system of linear ordinary equations by using the von Karman transformation [9,10,14).
The analytical solutions thus found are in excellent agreement with those ones obtained by Holodniok et
al. (14) for Re ; 275 and s ; 0.8, who solved the non-linear von Karman equations numerically.
The validity of the method developed in [3,4) is restricted to cases when s does not differ too
significantly from unity. An extension of the method to arbitrary values of s was studied in (5), starting
from a solution for infinite disks which satisfies the creeping flow equations and the boundary
conditions. The solutions found in (5) are of the Batchelor type (11) for s ; 0 and of the Stewartson type
(12) for s ; -1. A comparison with data of Brady & Durlofsky (13) for shrouded disks who used an
asymptotic method (which leads to parabolic equations of boundary layer type), has revealed an
excellent agreement for a large region of the radial coordinate r within the gap and for a wide range of s
values for Reynolds numbers (based on the gap width b) Re < 100.
An asymptotic formulation of the co-rotating disks problem and the interpretation of the results provided
by such methods pose some uncertainties as the solution obtained by integrating along the parabolic
H. J Rath (Editor)
Microgravity flUid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
186
axis (radial direction) must match the boundary conditions prevailing at the edge of the disks. In order
to avoid these problems the full Navier-Stokes equations have been solved numerically by using a
suitable difference scheme [15]. In [15] it is shown that results calculated by the method developed in
[5] approximate flow situations at moderate Reynolds numbers well when compared with solutions of
the full equations of motion especially when s deviates significantly from zero. Moreover, the method
has an added advantage in that numerical work required is substantially less.
Due to the permitted length of the present paper the analysis is focussed on some aspects of the two-
phase flow in the gap between co-rotating disks at low Reynolds number. In contrast to the extensive
bibliography available for one-phase flow, only a few works deal with the corresponding two-phase flow
[6,7,8]. The investigations presented in literature so far concentrate on the determination of the
surface/interface geometry for the case that both phases rotate as a rigid solid (s = 1). Here, an
approximate method (I) similar to that developed in [5] is proposed for calculating the flow situation
when s deviates from unity. The basic behaviour of the surface geometry without secondary motion is
studied very efficiently by using a further method (II).
2. Mathematical Formulation
The theory presented here allows the analysis of the steady, isothermal and rotationally symmetric flow
field of incompressible, immiSCible, non-pOlar, newtonian fluids produced by a pair of co-rotating disks
which are separated by a gap of the width b. In fig. 1 the flow situation studied is represented
schematically. Only the volume force due to a mean residual acceleration g in the negative axial
direction is considered. It is evident that s can be kept in the intervall lsi < 1 by selecting the angular
velocity of the disk which is rotating faster as reference quantity w1.
Fluid
B
For convenience, a cylindrical coordinate system r, Ip and z is employed. The flow fields of the both
fluids A and B are described by the continuity equation and the momentum equation. At the interface
z = TJ (r) both fluids have to fulfil the kinematic condition
187
and the stress balance (the prime (') denotes differentiation with respect to r)
(2)
Equation (1) expresses the fact that no flow through the interface is permitted. In contrast to this,
equation (2) states that, at the interface, the tangential stress components are continuous but in the
normal component a jump occurs due to the presence of the interfacial tension. The sign (=t) in the
interfacial tension term in equation (2) indicates that two different regions have to be considered as
regards the location at which the fluid A takes on the maximum radius R, see fig. 1. The minus and plus
sign correspond to the upper and the lower part of the curve z = TJ (r).
At the rotating (impermeable) disks the non-slip condition has been assumed. The normal stress
balance in equation (2) is described by a second order, non-linear, ordinary differential equation which
requires two further boundary conditions. Here, it is assumed that the interface intersects the disks at
r = r10 and r = r20 with a given angle" (which is considered to be independent of the flow situation),
and that it has a vertical tangent at r = R, compare fig. 1.
A analysis based on considerations of similarity shows that, in general, the interface shape depends on
the Reynolds numbers ReA/B = (PA/B Wb2)/I-'A/B' the Weber number We = [(PA-PB)W 2R3]/(Ba), the
Bond number Bo = [(PA-PB) g R2 ]/a, the ratio of the angular velocities s, the wetting angle t'J, the
dimensionless radius ro * and the dimensionless gap width b* (lengths marked by (*) are made
dimensionless by the radius R).
For the creeping flow in the gap between infinite disks (Re .... 0) and vanishing residual accelerations
(Bo .... 0) Delgado & Rath [16] have found an analytical solution which fulfils the complete set of basic
equations and the corresponding boundary conditions. These authors assumed an intersection angle
t'J = 90° and showed the corresponding equilibrium interface shape to be perpendicular with respect to
the r~-plane at r = R. The velocity field of each phase coincides with that of the corresponding
monocomponent, one-phase flow. The disks induce a pure azimuthal motion i.e. motion in concentric
188
circles whereby the circumferential velocity depends Iinear1y on z. Furthermore. the pressure
discontinuity at the Interface agrees with that calculated for the fluids being at rest.
By perturbing this solution via the introduction of the small order quantities y. + = U + ~r + v + ~ + w + ~z.
p + and €+ • an approximate method (I) similar to that described in [3.4.5) for calculating the one-phase
flow of a pure fluid has been developed (€ + (z) represents the inverse function to 1'/ + (r)). Although this
procedure enables the treatment of more general flow fields. the following considerations concentrate
on the case for which the density PA and also the viscosity Jl.A are negligible with respect to that of fluid
B. Furthermore. constant pressure PA = Po is postulated. As a result of these assumptions. only the
flow field of the fluid B has to be considered.
a +
PB = Po - - - PB 9 z + PB (4)
R
€(z) = R + €+(z) (5)
Inserting (3) and (4) in the momentum equations and neglecting such products which consist of
perturbation velocities and their derivatives. one arrives at the linearized equations of motion for the
perturbation quantities (Oseen's approximation. see also [1.3.5]). The remaining convective terms in the
radial momentum balance are such which correspond to the centrifugal force. Further convective terms
are present only in the circumferential momentum equation and are due to local acceleration and fluid
motion along a curved path.
The non-slip condition requires all components of the perturbation velocity vector to vanish at the disks.
In the approximate method (I) used. the kinematic condition (1) and the stress balance at the surface
(2) are formulated to be fulfilled on the perpendicular interface. i.e. at r = R. From (1) it follows that the
radial component of the perturbation velocity has to vanish at the interface (uB + = 0). An evaluation of
equation (2) for r = R leads to the conditions aVB + jar + VB + jr = 0 and aWB + jar = O. Furthermore.
from the normal stress component in (2) the following equation for the calculation of €+ can be
deduced (here. the prime (') denotes differentiation with respect to z):
a
(6)
R
189
3. Discussion of results
The method (I) proposed offers the advantage that the equations of motion and the normal stress
balance in (2) for the perturbation quantities can be solved consecutively. But, in contrast to the case of
the creeping flow between infinite disks as treated in [16], no analytical solution has been found for
moderate Reynolds numbers. Therefore, the basic equations have been solved by a suitable difference
method which will be described elsewhere. Cases of large aspect ratio RS/b have been considered to
be of great interest, as the influence of the outer wall (which is assumed to be impermeable and
stationary, i.e. sE = WE/W 1 = 0) on the surface is then negligible.
In fig. 2 examples of results for the case of exactly counter-rotating disks are depicted whereby the
aspect ratio is RS/b = 5. As shown, for s = -1 a secondary flow which is symmetric with respect to
z = b/2 occurs. The fluid is forced to move outward in the vicinity of the disks. As a result of this in the
core region a motion against the centrifugal action must take place to ensure mass conservation. But,
even for the relatively high Reynolds number in question ReB = 100, the values of the secondary flow
velocities amount to no more than a few percent of the reference velocity v 1 = r W1. This suggests that
the influence of the meridional flow on the surface determination can be neglected particularly because
a similar ratio of magnitude has been found for other values of s studied.
t=+---R~_ Rs-----1.1
Fig. 2. Examples of numerical results
Therefore, a further approximate method (II) for the determination of the surface geometry has been
studied: in addition to the negligence of any secondary motion, the non-linear terms in the equations of
motion are approximated by expressing them using the creeping flow solution found in [16]. By doing
so, an expression is found in which the pressure balances the centrifugal force and the hydrostatic
190
distribution due to residual acceleration g. From the normal stress condition in (2) the following solution
has been found:
(7)
with
r*
Apo *r *-~
Bo J
e*h *(e) de - _*_ + We r*3
c*
r
rO
r* r*
+8
We(s-l)
**
I e3h*de * + 4We(s-1)2
*2 *
Ie3h*2 de *
b r b r
rO * rO *
This solution can be employed to investigate the basic features of the surface shape with very little
numerical work even when compared with method (I). The evaluation of (7) requires an iterative
Integration procedure similar to that employed in [17]. It is worth mentioning that, for the case of rigid
solid motion, the solution (7) satisfies the complete non-linear equations of motion with the
corresponding boundary conditions as well as the kinematic and dynamic surface conditions.
As only real functions are of interest, the solution (7) is restricted to such flow situations in which the
condition H*2;S;1 is fulfilled. The latter states that equilibrium shapes exist only for suitable values of s,
We, Re, Bo, rO * ' 6 and b * because of their influence on H* . Here, the existence of equilibrium shapes
which Intersect both disks at rO * at an angle 6 has been studied systematicaily for different values of
these influence parameters.
For rigid solid motion and vanishing influence of Bo as well as of We, a perfect spherical surface is
found If rO * = 0 or rO * = sin 6. Under the same assumptions but for arbitrary values of rO *, the surface
shape can be fully described analytically in terms of the hyperelliptlc integral of first and second kind
(this solution will be considered in more detail elsewhere). In contrast to this, no analytical solution has
been found when the inertia terms can not be neglected as compared with the effects of surface tension
(We < -1). But for vanishing rO * ' the minimum value Wemin = - 0.5 which fulfils the condition H*2 ;S;1
(the angle is automatically 6 = o· in this case) can be deduced from the solution (7), compare also [7].
191
The behaviour of the surface shape for different values of We is demonstrated in fig. 3. As can be seen
the shape becomes more and more cylindrical with decreasing value of We. However, when the
absolute value of We exceeds 0.5 the surface can no longer intersect the disks at r0* .
n.*jb * I. 0 r-r_=.,.-F9'==+.:::r:::,-r-------~
-~ ~K ;;:'. ---, We = 0 . 000
O. 9 l-t-+-t-+-r'i<""rl~..,:-f
: . --+-1
o.B1-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-"'\....:.. ,-:;:-
r\ : : . We
We
D - 0 . 450
• - 0 . 480
We = -0.500
O. 7 I-H-t-t-t--+--t--+-~ \.
0 . 6 1-+-+-+-1---+-+-+-+-~
~
0.5 /-j-+-t--+--+-+-+-+-t-l
0. 4 H-+-t--t--t-+-+-+-t-a
0. 3 I-l-t-t--t--t-+-+-+-.!f A rOM
· 0. 001
if V t het a
· 0 . 000
0
0.2 HH-t-t---t--+--t--1'-:'f--\
V ·' ·
80
s
· 0.000
1. 000
V ..·:·:::,
O . I I-~HHI-j~~/~-t---I
~<::..
i..<' '''':: •• ' ::., ,-- .,-
O. 0 L-1-;j~::.:....L..~..d=::±:::::c:.....L-l- _ _ _ _ _ _ _---1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0. 6 O.B 1.0
r*
. 3. Influence of We for small values of ro *
Fig.
In contrast to this, equiiibrium surfaces are possible even for very high (negative) We when rO * tends to
1. This is illustrated in fig. 4 which shows results for Bo = - 0.5. The curves depicted separate the region
10.0
~
- s = 0 .0
IWemin l
--- s =-1 .0
_.- s = 1 ,0
1.5 ,.!i
Ifi"
£'/
5.0
0, 0
0,00 0. 25
---k4
--
0.50
0.0: ::-'
.....-
0. 75 1. 00
r •
o
Fig. 4. Limiting We numbers for the existence of equilibrium surfaces
192
of existence (below the curve) and non-existence of equilibrium shapes. For large values of rO * the
existence of equilibrium surfaces does not depend significantly on {J, whereas even a short deviation of
*2 *
this angle from 0° leads to a violation of the restriction H ~1 if rO is much smaller than unity. As fig. 4
demonstrates, the presence of residual accelerations (60 t- 0) can lead also to a considerable
restriction of the region of existence when compared with the minimum We number found for 60 = O. In
connection with this, a different behaviour is observed in the case of solid rotation (s = 1) and the
counter-rotating (s = -1) disks flow and when a disk remains at rest (s = 0). The presence of a gradient
of the centrifugal force in z-direction for s = -1 and s = 0 leads to a partial compensation of the
deformation caused by residual acceleration effects and, therefore, to an extension of the region of
existence of equilibrium shapes.
For better understanding It must be mentioned that the equilibrium surfaces studied above are assumed
to have the same intersection points at the disks but need not to enclose the same volume. The
situation when volume preservation is postulated for a fixed value of b has been investigated by using
the approximate method (I) as It also allows the study of the influence of secondary flow. Fig. 4 shows
examples of results corresponding to the configuration represented graphically in fig. 1, but for different
values of Re (in [18] a detailed discussion will be presented). In agreement with the secondary flow field
depicted In fig. 1, the surface is symmetrical with respect to b/2. This behaviour can be also predicted
when considering the symmetry of the terms in the left side of equation (6) (and furthermore from H* in
equation (7)). As fig. 5 demonstrates the secondary flow field has no significance in the range of Re
1.0
~
~ I"! - Re 1.000 -
.
We
0.632
1\,
I"! ~ ~-
0.8
• - Re - 10.000
- We -- 0.632
o - Re -100.000
o- We -- 0.630
0.6
E
Ct::
"-
N
)
0.1
Wem ~- O.SOO
lhelo~30.0o
/
0.2 --1.0
S
b - 1. 0
Rm - 1.000
0.0
/
0.1 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
r/Rm
Fig. 5. Influence of the secondary motion i.e. of Re on a bubble of a constant volume 7r Rm 2 b (the
Weber number We m Is defined with the average radius Rm)
193
considered. This is especially so in the case when lWei takes on values smaller than 1, i.e. when the
effects of the surface tension dominate as compared with that due to Inertia. In contrast to this the
influence of the secondary flow becomes more significant for higher absolute We numbers and for
values of s which deviate strongly from unity [18].
In further work the methods proposed will be validated by comparing with data obtained in the Drop
Tower Bremen. Furthermore, they will be improved for other theoretical problems related to
microgravity for which the solution of the exact equations pose tremendous difficulties.
References
1. Delgado, A.; Fuchs, M.; Rath, H.J.; Schulz, U.: 'Quirt -Tank' - A device for management of liquids
under microgravitational conditions by small centrifugal forces. Appl. microgravity tech., I, 1, (1987)
37 - 49.
2. Rath, H.J.; Delgado, A.: Der Quirt Tank, ein Konzept zum Fluid- Management unter den
Bedingungen der Schwerelosigkeit. Jahrbuch der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Luft- und Raumfahrt,
Bd. II, (1988) 924-930.
3. Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: Handhabung von Fluiden in der Schwerelosigkeit mittels induzierter
Rotation. Z. Angew. Math. Mech., 69, 6, (1989) T614-T616.
4. Delgado, A.; Petri, B; Rath H.J.: Fluid Management in Space by Slowly Rotating Disks. Appl.
microgravitytech., 1,4, (1988) 188-201.
5. Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: Rotating disks flow under highly reduced gravity: infinite disks with different
velocities rotating at moderate Re, Archives of Mechanics, (1990) No.4-5.
6. Hung, R.J.; Tsao, Y.D.; Hong, B.B.; Leslie, FW.: Dynamical behaviour of surface tension on rotating
fluids in low and microgravity environments, Appl. microgravity tech., II, 2, (1989) 81-95.
7. Leslie, F.: Measurements of rotating bubble shapes in a low-gravity environment, J. Fluid Mech., 161
(1985) 269-279.
8. Hung; R.J.; Leslie, FW.: Bubble shapes in a liquid-filled rotating container, J. Spacecraft, 25, 1,
(1988) 70-74.
9. Von Karman, T.: Ober die iaminare und turbulente Reibung. Z. Angew. Math. Mech., 1, (1921) 233-
252.
10. Van Wijngaarden, L.: On multiple solutions and other phenomena in rotating fluids, Fluid Dynamics
Transactions, 12, (1985) 157-179.
11. Batchelor, G.K.: Note on a class of solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations representing steady
rotationally symmetric flow, Q.J. Mech. Maths, 4, (1951) 29-41.
12. Stewartson, K.: On the flow between two rotating coaxial disks, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 49, (1953)
333-341.
13. Brady, J.F.; Durtofsky, I.: On rotating disk flow, J. Fluid Mech., 175, (1987) 363-394.
14. Holodniok, M.; Kubicek, M.; Hlavacek, V.: Computation of the flow between two rotating coaxial
disks: multiplicity of steady-state solutions, J. Fluid Mech., 108, (1981) 227-240.
15. Wu, J.; Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: Linearized numerical solution method for rotating coaxial disks flows
at moderate Reynolds number. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference in Laminar and
Turbulent Flows, Stanford, July 15-19,1991.
16. Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: Zur Zweiphasen-Scheibenspaltstromung nichtmischbarer Fluide unter
Schwerelosigkeit. To be published in Z. Angew. Math. Mech., 1992.
17. Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: The influence of the Bond number on the rod climbing phenomenon in
microgravity. Proceedings of the Forum on Microgravity Flows, 1st ASME/JSME Fluids Engineering
Conference, June 23-27, 1991, A. Hashemi, B.N. Antar, I. Tanasawa (Eds.), FED-VOL 111, (1991) 47-
51.
18. Wu, J.; Delgado, A.; Rath, H.J.: Approximate solution of bubble shapes between rotating coaxial
disks under microgravity. Proceedings of the 1st European Fluid Mechanics Conference,
September 16-20, Cambridge (1991).
Transient Convection Caused by Acceleration
Disturbances
Stefan Schneider, Johannes Straub
Lehrstuhl A fuer Thermodynamik, Technical University of Munich
Arcisstrasse 21, W-8000 Munich 2, Germany
Introd uction
Although the first microgravity experiments in materials processing have been per-
formed some years ago, the discussion about the influence of acceleration disturbances
on material specimens is still going on. Such interferences can result from both ex-
ternal (e.g thruster firings) and internal forces (e.g. crew activities). They induce
convection in the liquid samples and are thus responsible for inhomogeneities in the
solid material or the crystal structure, when such g-jitters occur during the solidi-
fication. Experimental investigations of such disturbances can only be performed in
the low-gravity environment of space vehicles or sounding rockets. whereas the onset
and the transient development of the flow field of g-jitter disturbances can be studied
in numerical simulations. Although the inhomogeneities to be expected in the solid
material cannot be predicted, numerical experiments may help to interpret them in
performed experiments, as well as to avoid them in the future.
Numerical model
H J Ralh (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mcchanlc~
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
196
this means we werc able to study g-jittcr disturbanccs in liquids ovcr a wide range of
Prandtl numbers (10- 2 to 10 2 ).
Investigated disturbances
For the test of the numcrical code, the Rayleigh-Benard problem was studied for
cylinders of various aspect ratios (Fig. 1).
Ra > It",.".
IA \ 11.,,:::; 11.",,,.
\
\ \ ft." < Ra"".
7"
o
J
.~"""
' .",...:--- - --- -- - I
I
0.3 " . ..... - -:- .- - - - - - - -
- .
I
If the Rayleigh number is less than the critical value, the initial flow is damped out
after its activation by the perturbation. However. for supercri tical Rayleigh numbers
the maximum velocity increases again, after the initial perturbation has faded away,
and reaches a finite steady-state value after some time. Only in the case of the critical
Rayleigh number, a steady flow develops after the decay of the initial disturbance with
small velocities.
Moreover, several acceieration disturbances, such as
• step pulse,
were examined.
197
Based on the results of our numerical study, general statements can be made about
the influence of acceleration disturbances on convection for materials processing under
microgravity:
• Accelerations perpendicular to the temperature gradient induce greater velo-
cities than those in parallel direction. Experimental facilities in an orbital lab
should be orientated in a way that the expected transient accelerations are
parallel to the temperature gradient in the fluid.
• The effects of residual acceleration can be reduced, if the experimental setup is
aligned in such a manner that the acceleration vector acts in opposite direction
of the temperature gradient.
• Disturbances of high frequency are insignificant.
• The maximum velocities are proportional to the Rayleigh number, i.e. the ve·
locities increase for a given acceleration with the third power of the dimension
in the direction of the acceleration vector.
• Fluids wi th a small Prandll number Pr « 1 (e.g. liquid silicon) are less sensi ti vc
to disturbances than fluids with higher Prandtl numbers.
• In the range of frequencies below the cut-otT frequency F/Pr ~ 10. a strong over-
shooting of the velocity occurs with increasing amplitudes Ra- and increasing
Prandtl number.
• A periodical series of positive and negative accelerations induce lower velocities
than a single pulse of the same duration for !"/Pr> 10.
• The geometrical shape, the aspect ratio, and the thermal boundary condition on
the lateral wall of the cylinder are not as significant to acceleration disturbances
as might be supposed.
• Characteristic features of the transient flow can be studied by examining the
flow caused by a single acceleration pulse.
• The velocities caused by superimposed acceleration pulses can be estimated by
overlapping different velocity graphs, as the velocities are directly proportional
to the amplitude of the interference.
It is obvious that only general statements and recommendations for planning space
experiments can be derived from these results. For very sensitive experiments, special
three-dimensional calculations have to be performed, where all parameters of influence
can be considered.
198
\ o
\ 6
\
\
\
I
\ co
I I o
\ 6
\ I I
\ I
\ I I
\ I I -.a
0
\ I . d
0
\ I I LL
\ I I
\ I .
........ ........ .....
.;: \
..j
0
u u u
\ I' 6
0 0 o
a:: a:: a::
1\ II v \
0 0 o
a:: a:: a::
('.j
/ o
d
/
/'
('.j o CX)
d
xow 'z
*A
Convection Induced by
Interface-Tension-G radients:
Marangoni Effects
Experimental Studies of Thermal
Marangoni-Effects
D. Schwabe
I. Physikalisches Institut der Universitat,
Heinrich-Buff-Ring 16, D-6300 Giessen
Temperature gradients in free liquid surfaces generate surface tension gradients which
drive fluid flow. Such convective phenomena are gravity independent. Many geometrically
different situations can occur in reality considering the free surface shape and the
orientation of the temperature gradient with respect to the free surface. Idealized
situations are the one with temperature gradient perpendicular to the free surface giving
rise to the Benard-Marangoni instability and the one with temperature gradient parallel to
the free surface giving rise to thermocapillary flow. One further Marangoni effect
considered in this paper is the migration of a gas-bubble due to a temperature gradient in
a large tank filled with liquid.
p-1, earth acceleration g and kinematic viscosity v. Marangoni effects can be made
dominating over buoyancy-effects by either reducing the earth accelaration or by reducing
the dimension to give Ma > > Ra. This condition is fulfilled for most fluids in experiments
under normal earth gravity for D in the order of millimeters. But even in such small scale
experiments the effects of buoyant and surface tension forces are coupled and pure
Marangoni effects can often be observed only under microgravity. Some experiments of
the author stressing this point are described now.
In a sounding rocket experiment TEXUS 21 a circular liquid layer of 50 cSt silicone oil
with 75 mm diameter free surface and 5 mm depth was heated from below to exhibit the
Marangoni instability. To reduce the effect of the lateral sidewalls the circular liquid layer
was surrounded by a liquid sidewall (not convecting because covered with a thin plastic
foil) /1/. A convection cell pattern with 1-6-12 configuration (the centre cell surrounded by
6 cells which again are surrounded by 12 cells) established under microgravity. In the 1-g
reference experiments a considerably smaller critical wavelength (more convection cells in
the liquid layer with smaller size of convection cells) was observed. This is due to impUlsive
heating from below: under normal gravity the convective instability will be more buoyancy-
H J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berhn Heidelberg 1992
202
induced because the heat wave and the instability will penetrate the layer from below;
impulsive heating under microgravity will not have this effect because the only motor for
the instability is in the free surface. Impulsive heating under normal gravity intensifies the
role of buoyancy for the instability, giving rise to a smaller wavelength, although Ma > >
Ra in this experiment.
(a) the flow speed of thermocapillary convection is larger than that of buoyant convection
because thermocapillary convection has not to overcome the non-slip condition at a heated
wall and,
(b) thermocapillarity scales with dimension D whereas buoyancy scales as D3; once a
separation of thermocapillary and buoyant vortices has taken place both will occupy a
certain space in the liquid volume and hinder each other because the space is restricted.
The thermocapillary vortex gains importance for increasing driving forces over the buoyant
vortex because any increase (",D) of the former is at the much more dramatic expense (_
D 3) of the latter.
Thermocapillary forces dominate over buoyant forces in small floating zones (cylindrical
liquid bridges between solid cylindrical end plates held at different temperatures) with
radius r = 3 mm and length I < 6 mm. For Pr = 7 and A = I • r- 1 = 1 the steady
thermocapillary flow becomes oscillatory when exceeding a critical Marangoni number
MaC = 7 • 103 /4/. The author has conducted experiments under microgravity on this
transition from steady to oscillatory flow and found only small differences between
microgravity - and ground epxeriments in MaC and in the frequency f of the oscillations
/5/. In recent experiments under normal gravity floating zones have been studied
systematically under heating from above (with counteracting thermocapillary and buoyant
forces) and under heating from below (with thermocapillary and buoyant forces acting in
the same direction) /5,6/. Surprisingly MaC was smaller under heating from above with
counteracting forces (buoyancy giving rise to a stable stratification). The direction of
gravity was also very important for the spatio-temporal structure of the time-dependent
flow at higher Ma /6j. Moreover, especially in zones with Pr = 49, the transition to chaotic
203
states was never reached in heating from below whereas it was already reached for some A
when Ma/Mac > 2.
The discussed examples show the need for further experiments on Marangoni effects
under precisely controlled boundary conditions. Experiments on the pure Marangoni
effects under microgravity are essential for our detailed understanding.
Acknowledgements
The work of the author on Marangoni effects was supported by the Bundesminister fiir
Forschung und Technology (BMFT) under the management of DLR and DARA.
References
Summary
Flows in two liquid layers in a cavity subject to a horizontal temperature
gradient are observed on the ground by visuali:tation of the flow. Flow
veloci ty and temperature distributions are measured and compared to the
mathematical model. They show a good agreement. Some peculiar flow
phenomena which are dependent on Marangoni number are obtained. Benard-like
cells in a special combination of two layers are also obtained.
Introduction
Marangoni convection often dominates convective motion in microgravity
conditions. To control Marangoni convection, a second layer, which has a
free surface, can be put on the first layer as a liquid encapsulant. The
driving force is the surface tension gradient which is caused by either
temperature or concentration gradients on the surface and the interface.
The liquid motion of the first layer can be suppressed or enhanced by
choosing a liquid encapsulant with suitable physicochemical properties.
H 1. Rath (EdItor)
MlcrogravlIy FlUid Mechamcs
I UTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
206
Fundamental Description
a) Definition of Marangoni number
Marangoni numbers are defined here as followings.
This equation indicates that near a free surface (y=l) the intensities of
the two flows are comparable when the Rayleigh number is ten times the
Marangoni number. The Marangoni flow is dominant when these two numbers are
on the same order. Since these two numbers depend on the thickness of the
layer, the Marangoni flow becomes dominant as the thickness decreases.
- 0.1 0.1
U (em/s)
Fig.l. Experimental velocity profile compared to numerical ones
H c
d (] ./dT=-O. 07
(dyn/cmOC)
H C
d (] ,/dT=-O. 03
(dyn/cmOC)
P 26
0.5 ~
24
22
o 25 26 27 28 TeC)
200
1 L(cm)
2
H c
H c
3) 50cst(KF96), °C/cm, Ma 2 =7
~T/L=l
H c
o o 24 25 26 Tce)
Fig.6. Vertical temperature Fig.7-c. Vertical temperature
distribution along the center distribution along the center of
of source,~T/L=O°C/cm source,~T/L=2.5 ° C/cm
c
Fig.7-b. Top view of Benard-like flow, H1=5mm, H2=2.5mm,~T/L=2°C/cm
H c
8'u 6
KF96(10est) I FC70
dO" /dT=-O. 033(dyn/cm·C)
,.,
c
~
o 4
KF96(10est) I FC75
dO" /dT=-O . 04 (dyn/e.·C)
2
o 10 20 30 40 50
Fig . 9. Measured change of interfacial tension with temperature
Conclusions
1. Flows in two liquid layers are successfully observed where Marangoni
convection is dominant.
2. Typical flow patterns which are dependent on the Marangoni number are
observed.
3. Analytical and numerical solutions are in good agreement with the
experimental results.
4. Benard-like cell in two liquid layers is observed .
References
1. Doi. T and Koster. J. N.. "Marangoni Convection in Two Immiscible Layers
subject to a Horizontal Temperature Gradient". 7th International PCH
Conference. MIT. June 1989
Two different types of thermocapillary instabilities with different wavelength and phase-
Figure 1: Shadowgraph-picture: (a) short wave instability (d =1.4mm, t:J.T = 28K); (b)
long wave instability (d =2.2mm, t:J.T =32K)
speeds exist in the investigated d-range. The fig.1 shows shadowgraph pictures of the
two instabilities detected. The pattern of small stripes is produced by interference of the
reflected light from the two sides of a transparent lid that covers the fluid and protects it
from dust and impurities of the surroundings. The small wavy deformations of the black
circular area in the middle are caused by the inclination of the light reflected from the
liquid-surface deformation near the heated inner side-wall which is covered black at its
top.
The first photograph shows a so-called short wave instability which shows 13 wave-
trains travelling in azimutal direction. This kind of instability depends only on d, not
t:J.T. The frequency-dependencies are shown in fig.2.
1.2
)(
0 .8 x x 0 .8 )(
x
\)
" \)
x
0 .6 )(
0 .4 0 .4-
0 .2
0 0
25 30 35 40 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
f\.T/K d/mm
2.4 2
x 1.5
x x
1.6 x
\)
x \) x
x
x 1 x
x x
0.8 x
0.5
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
6T/K d/mm
The short wave instability shows a surface-amplitude that is about IJlm. The amplitude
of the temperature-oscillations is about 0.3K. The second kind of instability we detected
is the so-called long wave instability (see fig.l(b)), that shows wavelengthes of 6mm to
60mm, which means twenty to two wavetrains over the circumference at the heated inner
side-wall of the annulur gap. The surface-amplitude near the hot wall is up to 10Jlm and
the temperature-amplitudes are about 0.5K. The wavelength and frequency both depend
on t:,.T and d. We show the frequency versus t:,.T and d for the long wave instability in
fig.3. For higher Ma-numbers these instabilities exhibit both an azimutal and a radial
component of propagation, looking like a spiral. We measured the angle of propagation
near the heated inner gap relative to the radial direction. The measured angle is about
40 0 to 50 0 for all t:,.T and d. The form of the wave can be understood in terms of an
azimutally travelling point-source near the hot side, periodically deforming the surface
and thereby inducing a wave that is radially travelling outwards.
The critical Marangoni-numbers for the onset of the two instabilities versus dare
shown in figA. The short waves exist therefore in pure form for d smaller than 1.3mm,
whereas the long wave instability is the more dangerous mode for d greater than 1.5mm.
216
60000 I
+ +
50000 + x
x
40000 + x
Ma x
x x
x
30000 l-
xx x + x x
x +
20000 + -
+++
10000 I- -
0 _1 1
d/mm
Figure 4: The critical Marangoni-numbers Ma versus d: (+) short wave instability; (x)
long wave instability
Thermocapillary Convection in a Magnetic Field
*I.V.Barmin, A.S.Senchenkov,**Yu.M.Gelfgat, M.l.Sorkin
*Glavkosmos USSR, Technical Center "Splav",
109497, 9, Baikalskaya str., Moscow, USSR
**Institute of Physics Latvian Academy of Sciences
229021, Salaspils-1, Riga, Latvia, USSR
1. Introduction
The floating zone method has been widely used for high puri-
ty single crystal crystal manufacturing. But its application on
Earth is limited due to the destabilizing action of gravity. Since
hydrodynamic processes are more stable in a microgravity environ-
ment, one can obtain large diameter single crystals by container-
less zone melting (the ClM method) during experiments in Space.
Such experiments were already planned in early 70s.
It should be taken into account that in this situation the
temperature and concentration gradients on the free surface of
the melt induce a capillary convection which can be intense. The
convective flows in the melt may affect essentially the proper-
ties and structure of a growing crystal. For instance, convec-
tion in the melt may lead to a striation in the doping impurity
distribution, morphological instability, structural defects and
so on.
Indeed, a striation pattern and non-uniform distribution
of impurity have been observed along the crystal diameter in
practically all crystals obtained by the ClM method under micro-
gravity. Therefore, in order to obtain crystals with the regui-
red properties the melt flow parameters should be specifically
adjusted.
Practically, thermocapillary convection can be fully sup-
pressed by coating an ingot with an oxide film. This technigue
has been demonstrated by professor Nitsche [1J. It should be kept
in mind, however, that the convection does not always have a nega-
tive effect. For expample, a convective mixing can reduce a longi-
tudinal and radial macrononuniformity in the doping impurity dis-
tribution, especially at low growth rates.
One of the methods used to control convection intensity is
the application of a steady magnetic field. This method is used
H. J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlin HeIdelberg 1992
218
- --- -----
HEATER
SOLI 0
r
-
MELT
SOLI 0
(
)
-
B e:::
0 Z N
1 (
SC (J.~ J1Jr de _ .i
J'Z. aZ. ~
a1/r de) =-1.2.
dZ. a~ z J~
de) + J c
(z a~ 2
JZR.
(5)
= de =0
~
at the crystallization front (z = 0)
~c
dZ + PeU-k)C =
0
0.8
0.7
0.6 0 10 20
Ha
4 r • 0.81
(V) ~ 0.59
I
o • 0.66
3
o
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
z z
Fig.3. The influence of the magnetic field on the vorticity.
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
r
r
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.4
I
0.2 0.2
0
0.95 1. 00 1. 05 1. 10 1. 15 0 2 4 6
q
c
Fig.5. The influence of the magnetic field on the heat flux tran-
sfered from the melt to the growing crystal.
1.~ (§)-~
L P"&
In the presence of magnetic field the magnetic forces Fm and vis-
cous forces Fv have the order of magnitude
!l. ;f
F. ~ 0 B Va
m f
From the boundary condition at the free surface we have:
VB ':! ~ AT
!fa fV L
224
Mn
P?' Ho..
Then
(6)
1.0
./lo
t:. M- Mn
- Pr-
o
~ + 0
,0.5
+ 0
~ 0 M ~ 38
~
.~ + = 380
t::.. : 38000
a 2 4 6
.1
Ha/M 3
References
1. Croell A., Mueller W., Nitsche R. : Floating-zone Growth of Surface-coa-
ted Silicon under Microgravity. J.of Crystal Growth 79, n.l/3 (1986)
65 - 70.
2. Barmin I.V., Gelfgat Yu.M., Senchenkov A.S., Smirnova I.G. : The influen-
ce of the magnetic field on semiconductor materials crystallization by
floating zone method (Russ.). Magnitnaja gidrodinamika 4 (1988) 110 - 114.
3. Kobayashi N. : Computer simulation of the steady flow in a cylindrical flo-
ating zone under low gravity. J.of Crystal Growth 66, n.l (1984) 63 - 72.
4. Ben Hadid H., Roux B. : Oscillatory buoyancy-driven flow in horizontal li-
quid-metal layers. Proc. 6th European Symposium on Material Sciences under
microgravity conditions, Bordeaux, Erance, 1986 (ESA SP-256).
5. Napolitano L.G. : Marangoni boundary layer. Proc. 3rd European Symposium
on Material Sciences in Space, Grenoble, France, 1979 (ESA SP-142).
6. Barmin I.V., Verezub N.A. et al : On some factors influence on semiconduc~
tor materials properties produced by floating zone method under microgra-
vity conditions (Russ.). Gidromekhanika i teplomassoobmen v nevesomosti,
Novosibirsk, 1988.
Experimental Investigation of the Management
of Large-Sized Drops and the Onset
of Marangoni-Convection
M. TREUNER, A. DELGADO, H.J. RATH
ZARM, University of Bremen, 2800 Bremen 33
Abstract
This paper presents results concerning thermal Marangoni-
convection in large-sized drops. The Experiments have been
carried out during KC-135 parabolic flights. Generation and
management of drops with diameters up to 15 rom are described.
Flow and temperature distribution inside the drops were visua-
lized by using liquid crystals. Marangoni-convection was ob-
served under defined thermal boundary conditions. The evident
flow agrees well in its basic features with theoretical
calculations available.
1. INTRODUCTION
The investigation of the thermal influence on Marangoni con-
vection offers opportunities to reduce this disturbing effect
for material processing and manufacturing in a microgravity
environment. The fact that the undisturbed natural shape of a
free fluid volume is a spherical drop, requires experimental
investigations to be carried out on spherical configurations.
In the steady state case the dynamical flow behaviour is char-
acterized by the following dimensionless numbers:
.
diffusivity and the temperature dependence of the surface ten-
sion is denoted by ~r
In the literature, steady flow cases have so far only been
treated numerically. Furthermore the temperature distribution
on the surface has been assumed to be known when defining the
boundary conditions.
H J Rath (EdItor)
\11crogra\,lt~ Fluid MechaniCS
IUTAM S}mposlum Bremen 1991
s Springer-Verlag Berlin HeIdelberg 1992
228
2. EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATION
2.1 Experimental environment
The experiments presented here have been carried out aboard a
KC-135 aircraft. To enable an adequate flow visualization,
drops with diameters of 15 rom were generated. The residual
acceleration during the ~g-periods is in the order of 10- 2 g o
(go: gravity of earth). In order to ensure that the generated
drop remains in the test section, a mechanical positioning
system has been constructed which consists of two wettable
hollow stemples, compare figure 1.
In contrast to the theoretical assumption of a free drop, this
wetting contact leads to disturbances; these have been kept as
low as possible by using stemples with small diameter. An ad-
vantage in this respect is the fact, that the smallest flow
velocities occur at the poles of the drop. The ratio of the
drop diameter to the stemple diameter is about 3.
The wetting area (2) ends with a sharp edge and has a nonwett-
able coating on the reverse side. This prevents a drift of the
drop for most ~g-disturbances.
mIl:lll!H-----5
'G!II~--- 9 HN' In$u/ollon
a HMlling coif
(cOtrStan'an 5 WJ
3
2
, rest Ilu l tl
ambient
temperature
7;,=26,1. ·c
15mm
T> 30'C
T<26,5 ·C
7k =17'C
Fig.4. Observed fluid motion Fig.5. Evaluated tracer
in multiple exposure technique particles
L.
(reference temperatur)
/ 1)( Test data
L d- 14,9 DUD
,I tB 35°C
/ 9 1200 kg/m 3
/
J.l. 21. 5 ' 10- 3 kg/ms
V
I ~= -0.08 . 10- 3 N/mK
L:.T 40 K
V 18.10- 6 m2 /s
o V a = 0.106.10- 6 m2 /s
o Z 3
Real scale radius fmmJ o 63.2'10- 3 N/m
pole
\
(/~.-"
,',' . . ~
"
\.'
theoretical
"" , . "" . ....
\ \ \." '
,
\
.'
\
solution .... ~
..
,\ ."
\ \ '\' . '
area
. •• , .
:.'
,0'· ••
,' ..
!
- - - - - - - _ ____ _ __ J
,cold pole
~I
Fig.7. Comparison of the flow Fig.8. Theoretical flow field
field with the streamlines of for Re=100; T=cos6e , O<9<Tt/6
the theoretical solution T=-l , Tt/6<9<Tt
,:-------------"'1,
ambient
","
------- - ......... temperature . ...........
/'
.,'" '" , fu=26.I.°C
I
I \
\
Maximum
"
... ...
,,
I \
I \ ........
detecting
, area
I
\
------ ...
\ I~' ,,"" - - - - - - ... ....
\. 'I' Pr=170
" '( Mg=I0531
',\ \
,\
.... - _----
.....
T>30°C
T<26.5°C
,, ,,
... - - - - - - - - - - - ___ .....J
~= f7°C
References
Summary
The migration of a gas bubble under the combined action of buoyancy and a downward
temperature gradient is analyzed. Inertial effects are considered negligible, but allowance
is made for convective transport of energy in the model. Results from a numerical solution
of the governing equations are presented and discussed.
1 Introd uction
A gas bubble, when placed in a liquid, will rise due to buoyancy. However, this rise can
be moderated or reversed altogether by the application of a downward temperature gra-
dient. The variation of temperature on the surface of the bubble induces a corresponding
variation of surface tension which results in a tangential stress acting on the neighboring
fluid in the direction from the warm pole to the cold pole since surface tension normally
decreases with increasing temperature. In the absence of any other forces, the bubble
drags the surrounding fluid in this direction so that the reaction propels the bubble in
the opposite direction, namely, that of the temperature gradient.
The literature on this subject has been reviewed elsewhere [1, 2]. The velocity of an iso-
lated bubble subjected simultaneously to the action of gravity and a vertical temperature
gradient was first predicted by Young et ai. [3]. These authors analyzed the problem
subject to several assumptions, the most notable of which is that convective transport ef-
fects are entirely negligible. In this paper, we consider a situation wherein inertial effects
are negligible. However, we permit convective transport of energy in the model. This
allows the use of a formal analytical solution for the velocity field. The energy equation
is solved numerically using the method of finite differences. We present limited results for
the bubble velocity as a function of the governing parameters and discuss them. Space
limitations preclude the inclusion of all the details, and the interested reader is referred
to Merritt [4] for more information.
* Present address: Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas 77252
H. J. Rath (EdItor)
Microgravity fluId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin HeIdelberg 1992
238
2 Analysis
(;onsider the quasi-steady motion of a single gas bubble in a large liquid body in which
a constant downward temperature gradient, VT00, is imposed. We assume the viscosity,
density, and thermal conductivity of the gas to be negligible compared to the correspond-
ing properties in the surrounding liquid. We further assume these properties to be constant
in the liquid. The only physical property which is allowed to change with temperature
is the surface tension, and the rate of change, (TT, is assumed negative. Inertial effects
are assumed entirely negligible in the momentum equation. Under these conditions, the
deformation of the bubble shape can be ignored provided the variation of surface tension
around the periphery of the bubble is negligible compared to the value of the surface
tension.
g!
z
Fig. 1. Sketch of the System
A reference frame translating with the center of mass of the bubble is used, and the origin
of coordinates is chosen as this center. Figure 1 is a sketch of the system. Lengths are
scaled by the bubble radius, a, velocities are scaled by vo , and temperature is scaled by
subtracting the temperature in the undisturbed fluid at z = 0, and dividing by I VT00 I a.
The reference velocity v o , is defined below.
(1)
Here 11 is the viscosity of the liquid. The scaled steady velocity field, v, satisfies the
creeping flow equations with suitable boundary conditions which include the approach to
a uniform stream -U iz as r -+ 00, the kinematic condition and the tangential stress
balance at the bubble surface, and necessary boundedness conditions. Here, iz is the
239
unit vector in the z-direction. The solution is obtained in a straightforward manner, and
the velocity components in the rand () directions are given below. Here, r is the radial
coordinate, and s = cos().
12 1 1 n( n - 1) 1 1
vr(r,s) = s[-(l - "3)
2 r
+ G(l - -)]
r
L
+ n=3
00
4
In[-l
r n-
- --:tl]Pn-1(s)
rn
(2)
2 1 12 1 1
vo(r,s) = -(1- s )2[-(1
2
+ -)
2r 3
+ G(l- -)]
2r
+ f _1
n(n - 1) I [_n_-_3 _ _n_-_1]_C_n_2,,-(s:...,..) (3)
n=3 4 n r n- 1 r n+1 (1 _ S2)!
_1
where C n 2 (s) is the set of Gegenbauer Polynomials [5]. The parameter, G, represents the
relative importance of the gravitational force to the thermo capillary force.
G = a 6p 9 (4)
3 I (TT II \IT I 00
In the above definition, 6p is the difference in density between the liquid and the gas and
9 is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity.
The constants, In, depend on the surface temperature field as shown below.
In = - 1 +1
-1
Pn_1(s)t(1,s)ds,n 2: 2 (5)
Here, Pn represent the set of Legendre Polynomials. Thus, the velocity field v is known
formally in terms of the unknown surface temperature field. After an initial transient
period, the steady scaled temperature field, t(r, s), will satisfy the energy equation given
below.
Ma[U + v· \It] = \l2t (6)
Ma = Vo a (7)
a
where, a is the thermal diffusivity of the liquid. Note that the unknown scaled bubble
speed, U, appears in the energy equation. It is given by
12
U=-[G+-] (8)
2
The temperature field must satisfy suitable boundary conditions which include the ap-
proach to the undisturbed (linear) temperature field rcos(} as r -+ 00, and the vanishing
of the normal heat flux into the bubble since the conductivity of the gas is negligible.
240
Since a finite difference scheme is used, we also used symmetry conditions at () = 0 and
7r which require that the temperature gradient in the () direction must vanish at those
boundaries. V'/e actually solved for the disturbance temperature field T(r, s) = t(r, s) - rs
in order to improve the precision in the calculations.
where
p = Ma· r (10)
,= 2G-l (11)
1,1
0'0=4 (12)
Note the singularity which arises along the rear stagnation line s = -1 (() = 7r). This is
one of the reasons why the analysis is incomplete since any correct solution must be free
of such singular behavior. However, we found that numerically the above result describes
the temperature accurately in the far field at all locations except those very close to the
rear stagnation line.
The numerical solution was obtained basically using the same procedure followed by
Shankar and Subramanian [7]. They solved a similar problem neglecting gravitational
effects. We modified the code to include the appropriate velocity fields given in Equations
(2) and (3). A transformation to ~ = log(r) was used to resolve the temperature field
sufficiently in the vicinity of the bubble and yet provide an adequately precise solution
far away. Equally spaced grid points were used in the ~ and () coordinates. Most of the
calculations were performed with an 81 x 81 mesh, but for comparison, some calculations
were performed with a mesh of 51 x 51, and the differences in U values were found to be
less than 0.5%.
241
An upwind difference scheme was used to represent the convective terms and central
differences were used for all the other derivatives. After discretization, the nonlinear
terms were linearized by using an iterative scheme wherein the temperature field at the
bubble surface calculated from the previous iterate was used to calculate the velocity field.
Successive over-relaxation was used to solve the linear set of equations which resulted from
this process, and 32-point Gaussian quadrature was employed to evaluate the integrals
In appearing in Equation (5). The calculated bubble migration velocity U was relatively
insensitive to the precision of the temperature field solution. Thus, we judged convergence
by summing the absolute values of the differences in the values of T(1, s) at the nodes
on the bubble surface between successive iterates, and requiring this sum to be less than
10- 4 . For the largest values of the Marangoni number for which we were able to get a
solution, At a = 5, we had to relax this to 10- 3 to prevent the solution from oscillating
between two different sets. Convergence of the temperature field in the entire domain was
assumed when the absolute difference between successive iterates, when summed over all
the nodes, was less than 10- 2 .
The value G = 0 corresponds to purely thermocapillary motion, the case studied in [7],
and the results naturally reduce to those of [7]. The value Ma = 0 corresponds to the
case analyzed by Yuung ei al. [3]. The scaied velocity in Figure 2a reduces to the proper
result, (0.5 - G), in this case. Positive values of U correspond to downward motion of the
bubble, and negative values indicate upward motion.
o.6o.-------,------,-------r-----,----,
G=O
G=O.I
________J
-
O.4°r-~~-
(.)
o 0
~ G=0.7
"C -0.20
CD
c(.)
en -0.40
2 3 5
Marangoni Number
Fig. 2a. Scaled bubble velocity U plotted against the Marangoni number M a
The most important feature demonstrated by Figure 2a is that the inclusion of convective
transport of energy in the model reduces the scaled velocity of the bubble, whether it
moves upward or downward. At first sight, this result appears straightforward, but it
is actually intriguing. Note that the thermo capillary contribution to the velocity forces
the bubble downward while buoyancy tries to move the bubble upward. Therefore, when
thermocapillarity dominates the motion (downward migration), a reduction in the velocity
implies a reduction in the thermo capillary driving force, namely the temperature difference
across the bubble. For upward migration, when buoyancy dominates, a reduction in the
bubble velocity implies a stronger thermocapillary influence. This would correspond to an
increase in the temperature difference across the bubble. Finally, we should mention that
where the curves terminate abruptly, we could not get the solution to converge beyond
that value of the Marangoni number. The solution oscillated between two distinctly
different sets. Attempts to refine the mesh to 161 X 161 did not eliminate this behavior
or significantly change the values at which oscillation of the solution was observed. Also,
the convergence criteria were relaxed by up to three orders of magnitude without success.
We might add that when we attempted calculations near the region U = 0, that is near
G = 0.5, we encountered severe convergence problems, and could not get meaningful
results. Clearly further work, both via analysis and numerical techniques, is in order.
Figure 2a only goes up to G = 1.0. It is possible for G to take on larger values, all the
243
, a 2 /1pg
v =--- (13)
° 3Jl
av'
Pe=_o (14)
Q
-0.30
,8 =1.0
--
'::::> - 0.4 0
,8=0.8
-
>-
C3
0 -0.50
~
"'C
G) ,8=0.2
c -0.60
() ,8=0.1
en
=0
-0.70 0
2 3 4 5
Peclet Number
Fig. 2b. Scaled bubble velocity U' plotted against the Peclet number Pe
Figure 2b shows a plot of this new scaled velocity, labelled U', against the Peclet number,
with f3 serving as a parameter. As one would expect, the bubble always moves upward in
this instance, and the velocity decreases in magnitude as the Peclet number is increased.
Also noteworthy is that the slopes of the curves decrease with increasing Peclet number,
demonstrating that the sharpest changes are brought about in the early stages as convec-
tive transport of energy just becomes important. Finally, as noted earlier, U' is unaffected
by changes in the value of the Peclet number when f3 = 0, a case that corresponds to zero
thermocapillary influence.
244
5 Concluding Remarks
It is clear that the Stokeslet in the velocity field which arises because of gravity causes
interesting and intriguing difficulties in obtaining a numerical solution of the present
problem. Therefore, we have been limited in our numerical explorations to relatively
modest convective energy transport effects. However, the problem is sufficiently important
that further work would definitely be in order. We also have noticed interesting topological
features in the flow fields; space restrictions preclude us from presenting details here, but
they will be included in the actual poster.
6 Acknowledgment
The work described here was supported by NASA's Microgravity Sciences and Applica-
tion Division. Support for R. M. Merritt was provided by the NASA Graduate Student
Researcher Program which is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Subramanian, R.S.: The Motion of Bubbles and Drops in Reduced Gravity, in
Transport Processes in Bubbles, Drops and Particles, eds. R.P. Chhabra and D.
DeKee, New York: Hemisphere 1991.
[2] Wozniak, G.; Siekmann, J.; and Srulijes, J.: Thermocapillary Bubble and Drop
Dynamics Under Reduced Gravity - Survey and Prospects. Z. Flugwiss. Weltraum-
forsch. 12 (1988) 137-144.
[3] Young, N.O.; Goldstein, J.S.; and Block, M.J.: The Motion of Bubbles in a Vertical
Temperature Gradient. J. Fluid Mech. 6 (1959) 350-356.
[4] Merritt, R.M.: Bubble Migration and Interactions in a Vertical Temperature Gra-
dient. Ph. D. Thesis, Clarkson University, 1988.
[5] Happel, J.; and Brenner, H.: Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics, Leyden: No-
ordhoff 1973.
[6] Subramanian, R.S.: Slow Migration of a Gas Bubble in a Thermal Gradient. AIChE
J. 27 (1981) 646-654.
[7] Shankar, N.; and Subramanian, R.S.: The Stokes Motion of a Gas Bubble Due to
Interfacial Tension Gradients at Low to Moderate Marangoni Numbers. J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 123 (1988) 512-522.
Effects of the Natural Convection
on Fuel Droplet Evaporation
Jun'ichi Sato
IHI Research Institute. Toyosu. Koto-ku. Tokyo 135. Japan
Introduction
Operating pressures in engine combustors tend to increase and.
for some engines. exceed the critical pressures of their fuel.
However. there are few useful basic data on high-pressure spray
combustion for designing combustors. Droplet evaporation time is
an important parameter for the design of combustors. because the
evaporation time of the largest droplet in a spray determines the
residence time required for the complete droplet evaporation in
the combustion chamber.
H 1. Rath (EdItor)
Microgravity Fluid MechanIcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berhn Heidelberg 1992
246
Experimental Apparatus
Figure 1 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus .
Free-fall aSSUCly
Drao stlJel(]
~
ee
0 Pa, 1.00 HPa
c:
-
~
V;
0
-
_.-
- TO' 73~ K
Q TO= 487 K
c:
0
~
-10
~
0
Q
'">
e
~ -20
~
.r::;
01
OJ
:I:
Tlme------------------------------________~~~
n· Heptan n-HeotM
"'.
PaR 0.101
Ta" 37~ K
"'.., PaR 1.00
Ta" ~58 K
~
i
~
j • Hor..,1 gravl ty (k " 0.0679 .. 2'50<1
o~ICr09ravIIY (k " 0.0683 .,,2'sec l ;;
• Hor oal gravlly (k" 0.207 _2150<>
;; (k" 0 .1 57 ~'sec)
., 0.5 ., 0.5
0.
~
~ "
~
0
'0
'"
l'
~
)
0
5
n-Heptane n-HePtane
Per ' 2 .74 MPa
u Ter ' 570 K u
'"en
..... Pa , 0 .101 MPa '"
en
.....
N 0.5 N 0.5
e
"
-
e e
;:: c:
!3
en
0. 1 !3 0.1
VI
c: c:
8 0.05 0
u 0.05
-'"
c: c:
0 0
• Normal gray I ty
'"g 0.01
• Normal gray I ty \..
0 0 .01
o II lc rogravl ty Q o llierograyity
'">
u.J 0.005 '">
u.J
0.005
0.001 0.001
0 2 a 2
Ambient temperature TalTer Ambient temperature TalTer
behavior (the third pictures in Fig. 3a and 3b). That is, the
quasi-steady evaporation period corresponds to the quasi-steady
vapor layer period.
Conclusions
Droplet evaporation in high-pressure high-temperature atmospheres
has been studied experimentally under normal and microgravity
conditions. A suspended droplet (n-heptane) was employed for
experiments. Some conclusions are as follows:
1. An axisymmetrical vapor layer was observed around horizontal
axis of the droplet at a pressure of 1.00 MPa under
microgravity conditions.
2. After the vapor layer became quasi-steady, the square of the
droplet diameter decreased linearly with time.
3. At a pressure of 0.101 MPa, the natural convection did not
affect the evaporation constant.
4. At a pressure of 1.00 MPa, the natural convection increased
the evaporation constant. The evaporation constant under
normal gravity conditions was about 1.5 times as large as
that under microgravity conditions.
252
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Special coordination Fund for
Promoting Science and Technology through the Science and
Technology Agency of the Japanese Government and by a grant from
the German Space Agency (DARA), Funding No. 50QV89633.
References
1. Katto, Y.: Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineering:
preprint 1960.
2. Law, C. K. and Williams, F. A.: Kinetics and convection in
the combustion of alkane droplets, Combustion and Flame,
19 (1972) 393-405.
3. Law, C. K.: Recent advances in droplet vaporization and
combustion. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 8 (1982) 171-201.
4. Sirignano, W. A.: Fuel droplet vaporization and spray
combustion theory. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 9 (1983)
291-322.
5. Kobayasi, K.: A Study on the evaporation and combustion of a
single droplet. Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineering:
preprint 1949.
6. Ranz, W. E.; Marshall, JR., W. R.: Evaporation from drops.
Chemical Engineering Progress. 48 (1952) 141-146.
7. Nishiwaki, N.: Kinetics of liquid combustion processes:
evaporation and lag of fuel droplets. Fifth Symposium
(International) on Combustion 1954.
8. Spalding, D. B.: Theory of particle combustion at high
pressure, ARS J. (1959) 828-835.
9. Rosner, D. E.: On liquid droplet combustion at high pressure.
AIAA J. 5 (1967) 163-167.
10. Kotake, S.; Okazaki, T.: Evaporation and combustion of a fuel
droplet. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 12 (1969) 595-609.
11. Rosner, D. E.; Chang, W. S.: Transient evaporation and
combustion of a fuel droplet near its critical temperature.
Combustion Science and Technology 7 (1973) 145-158.
12. Curtis, E. W.; Farrell, P. V.: droplet vaporization in a
supercritical microgravity environment. Acta Astronautica,
12 (1988) 1189-1193.
13. Curtis, E. W.; Hartfield, J. P.; Farrell, P. V.: Microgravity
vaporization of liquid droplets under supercritical
conditions. Proc. Third International Collopuium on Drops and
Bubbles: prepress 1988.
14. GOkalp, I.; Chauveau, C.; Richard, J. R.; Kramer, M.;
Leuckel, W.: Observations on the low temperature vaporization
and envelope or wake burning of n-heptane droplets at reduced
gravity during parabolic flights. paper presented at the
Twenty-Second Symposium (International) on Combustion, 1988.
15. Kumagai, S.; Isoda H.: Combustion of fuel droplets in falling
chamber. Sixth Symposium (International) on
Combustion 1957.
16. Isoda, H.; Kumagai, S.: New aspect of dropletcombustion.
Seventh Symposium (International) on Combustion 1959.
Thermal Convection in Microgravity during
a Slow Rotation
V. I. POLEZHAEV. M. K. ERMAKOV
Abstract
Convection in an enclosure for the case of slow rotation of the
microacceleration vector is studied with the help of a new PC-
based dialog system on the basis of the unsteady Navier-Stokes
equations. Temporal behavior of flow patterns and temperature
fields are analyzed in the vicinity of the maximum intensity of
convection.
1. Introduction
Numerous peculiarities of convection in microgravi ty do
not appear in terrestrial conditions (see. for example. overvi-
ew and classification in [1-4]). One feature is the residual
gravitational convection due to the time and space dependency
of microaccelerations induced by dynamics of the spacecraft and
its internal systems (gravity gradient phenomena. vibrations.
rotations etc.). Several authors have payed attention to and
studied this problem (see. for example [5-11]).
Most popular have been the vibrational convective process-
es. Average equations of convection. stability and direct inte-
gration of the unsteady Navier-Stokes equations have been used
for sol ving this problem [6-9]. Conclusions about resonance
frequency for convective motion (maximum of stream function)
[6.7] or most important in practice. inhomogeneities of concen-
tration fields in semiconductor's melts [9] have been studied.
Recently inhomogeneities induced by vibrations with different
but fixed in time orientations of microacceleration for Bridg-
man growth have been investigated [12].
The next step in the study of convection in microgravi ty
is an analysis of convection with time variation of the micro-
gravi ty vector direction. Such phenomena are used usually in
H. 1. Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravity Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
254
2. Mathematical model
The governing equations for thermal, gravitational convec-
tion with the Boussinesq approximation in microgravity consi-
dered in this paper can be written in form, [14,15],
au au au ap ap
+ u + v + v Au + gx(t)--(T-TO)/p, (1 )
at ax ay p ax OT
av av av ap ap
--+ u -- + v -- + v Av + gy(t)--(T-TO)/P, (2 )
at ax ay p ay aT
au av
-- + = 0, (3)
ax ay
aT OT aT
= a AT,
+ u -- + v -- (4)
at ax
ay
where t is the time, (u, v) is~ the velocity vector, p is the
255
Gr=g~L
3AT/v,
2 pr=v/a, w=OL2 /v (6)
where ~= -~ g~, AT=T 2-T 1 .
Test results have been published in [15,16]. For more detailed
analysis of the spatial and temporal behavior of flow and tem-
perature fields the postprocessor possibilities of the dialog
system [15,16) have been extended. A uniform mesh size (31,31)
and second order spatial finite difference schemes are used in
these calculations.
4. Conclusions
1. The origins of the maximum intensity of convection with
the slow rotation of the microgravity vector is not of "reso-
nance type" but is due mainly to interaction between elementary
convection mechanisms. This can explain the dependence of the
intensity of convection upon frequency of rotation and identify
the convection patterns in time.
2. For material science jn space the local behavior (max,
min, etc.) and transition phenomena of convection and tempera-
ture field characteristics (temperature differences, Nu number)
are interesting. Some of them have no maximum in the region of
Wm• Slow rotation may be efficient for elimination of the tem-
perature (concentration) inhomogeneities. More detailed analy-
sis of slow rotation for variations of Ra, H/L and Pr numbers
may be of interest.
258
1.tJO Mu.
f\
I'
- ~ - t
a) cJ
CS
~~\
" ~e,
m~ ~O'
~\...~
b)~ ~ 0 ,~'
0) a\ (I Df. '- c:s ~ V
d)/W] _~
a)
b)
c)
d)
REFERENCES
1. Ostrach S. Convective phenomena of importance for material
processing in Space. In: Mater. Sci. Space. Appl. Space
Processes. N.Y., (1977), 3-32.
2. Polezhaev V.I. Investigating convection and heat and mass
transfer under zero-gravity conditions. Izv Akad. Nauk SSSR.
Ser. Fiz., (1985), v.49, No.4, 635-642.
3. Polezhaev V.I., Bello M.S., Verezub N.A. et al. Convective
261
Summary
We consider a 1 iquid bridge with a free surface held together by surface
tension and with prescribed volume and contact angle between two parallel
plates in the absence of gravity. Using necessary and sufficient stability
criteria, it is shown that the 1 iquid bridge is stable if its shape is
spherical and unstable if it is catenoidal.
H. J. Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
264
cyl inder is 2n: [3]. It is the aim of the present paper to investigate the
stabil ity of the free 1 iquid bridge for two further special cases of the
Plateau surfaces, namely the sphere and the catenoid which have nonperpendi-
cular contact angles. Using a necessary and sufficient stduility criterion
derived by Vogel [7] from an energy principle, we show that the sphere is
stable and that the catenoid is unstable. For the fixed 1 iquid bridge we
recall that the sphere is also stable, which is a special result of the
work of Gillette and Dyson [3] and that the catenoid is unstable for
ratios of plate separation to neck diameter greater than 2.239 ... , and
stable for smaller ratios [2]. Thus, for the system with fixed boundaries
instabi 1 ity occurs for larger volumes than in the case of the system with
free boundaries. The paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we review
the main results of the work of Vogel [7] consisting of stability criteria
which are derived from an energy principle. Here, the main step consists in
transforming the original minimum problem to the investigation of a
corresponding Sturm-Liouville eigenvalue problem. Section 3 is devoted to
the application of these stability criteria to the special cases of the
sphere and the catenoid.
Here, a denotes the surface tension of the 1 iquid, that is the interfacial
tension between the 1 iquid and the air, ~ and ~ are the interfacial
tensions between plate 1 and 2 respectively and the 1 iquid and Sl and S2
are the interfacial tensions between plate 1 and 2 and the air respectively.
265
The first therm describes the energy of the free surface and the two other
terms describe the wetting energy of the two plates (A constant
contribution has been omitted in the total energy).
In the fol lowing we assume for simpl icity equal plates, then
h Z
J(f)=nffdx=V for some prescribed V.
o
(Z.1)
Theorem 2.1:
h
If f(x) is a solution to (2.1) and (2.2), ifn:I f 2 dx=Vand if the
o
quadratic from
B (1f!)
h
f.L: = {1f!: f 1f!fd x= 0 }, where 1f! is an arbitrary smooth function, then
o
f is stable, i.e. a local minimum of the energy functional r(f) subject to
the constraint J(f)=V. If B(1f!) <0 for any 1f!Ef.!., then f is not a local
minimum and thus unstable. Since by an integration by parts,
B (1f!) =
(2.3)
Theorem 2.2:
Assume that the first two eigenvalues of the Sturm-Liouville problem (2.3)
and (2.4) satisfy Ao <0<A 1 • Let o(x) solve L(il»=f with 0' (o)=il>' (h)=O.
267
h
i i) f <l>fdx <- O.
o
In this section we continue the stability analysis of Vogel [7] for two
further special cases of unduloids and nodoids having non-perpendicular
contact angles, namely the cases of the sphere and the catenoid where the
latter are surfaces which are generated by rolling parabolas.
h
and ].l=r
2 3
+r A.
whe re y=x -"2'
This eigenvalue problem can be solved expl icitly with the result
h
r+"2
A=-2. and (rA )1/2=rr(2n-l)/ln --h- n=1 ,2,3, ...
o r n
r--
2
which shows that Ao <0<A 1 . Therefore one can apply Theorem 2.2 of the
previous section which yields after some elementary calculations the
stability of a spherical liquid bridge.
where c is the neck radius of the catenoid. Again one has to consider the
corresponding Sturm-Liouville problem which reads in this case
and
W'( -z ) =W'(Z ) =0
o 0'
where
h
x -"2
Z : = 1. -
c c
References
11. Delaunay, C. with a not of Sturm, M.: Sur la surface de revolution dont
la courbure moyenne est constante. Journal de Mathematiques 6 (1841)
309-320.
13. Quade, W.: Schranken fUr die Eigenwerte der Sturmschen Randwertauf-
gabe zweiter Ordnung. Math.Z. 51 (1949) 92-125.
Equilibrium Shapes, Stability and Dynamical
Behaviour of Liquid Captive Menisci under
Gravitational, Centrifugal and Electrical Fields
ABSTRACT
The stability boundaries as a function of the bridge slenderness, the ratio of permittiv-
ities and a dimensionless voltage parameter, have been determined by means of a statical
analysis based on normal mode decomposition. Experimental and theoretical results are
in good agreement.
Finite elements and separated variables methods have been used to obtain the equi-
librium shapes and bifurcation points for axisymmetric non-cylindrical bridge and drops
of arbitrary volume subjected to an electric field.
H, J. Rath (EdItor)
Microgravlty Fluid Mechamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen [991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin HeIdelberg 1992
272
Figure 1: Liquid bridge, and both pendent and sessile drop configurations.
The liquid or gas volume V may be held between two parallel, coaxial disks (liquid
bridge configuration), or be in contact with a single coaxial support (pendant or sessile
drop configurations). When an a.c. potential difference U is applied to the boundary
(electrodes) the non-dimensional electric field and Navier-Stokes equations for the in-
viscid motion of both inner and outer incompressible fluids are, after the appropriate
simplifications (Ganan and Barrero [2], [3], Ganan [4], Gonzalez et al. [5]):
V'. Ei =0 (1)
(2)
273
D yi
- - - -V
Dt -
( i
- B
pi +p1---pO
- z -p1-_- pOW
- (k A2 X)2 - fo ~ xE2)
-fi_-fi
-
pi
(W)
-2 - - -
p1 _ pO
t kAy}.
'
(3)
where superscripts j = 0 and i refer to outer and inner fluid respectively, f is the electrical
permittivity and ~ = '5 U~)T is the electrostriction parameter.
The whole system is assumed to be rotating as a rigid body, and the drop dynamics
is then described in a coordinate system solidly rotating with both inner and outer fluids.
In what follows we will use cylindrical coordinates x(r,<p,z). The acceleration due to
gravity g and the rotation constant speed Ok are taken along the z-axis (see figure 1).
Only positive rotation speeds are considered since, owing to the symmetry, no additional
results can arise for negative rotation. All variables in (1), (2), and (3) and figure 1 have
been non-dimensionalized using a reference density p = p1 + pO, a characteristic length
flo which is either the bottom radius for bridges or the support radius for drops, and
a characteristic time tc = (p R~ 0-- 1) t, where
0- and p1 are surface tension and density
respectively. The Bond B == g(p1 - pO)R6 0--1, Weber W == 02(p1 - pO)R~ 0-- 1 and the
dimensionless electrical X = (fo - fi)U 2 2- 1 0-- 1 k;;t numbers stand for the ratios of grav-
itational, rotational and electrical forces, respectively, to surface tension. Our analysis
(Gaiiein [4]) represents the first-order approximation to the dynamics of captive drops of
liquids of very low viscosity (e.g. water, water-based solutions, most melted metals and
minerals, many organic liquids, blood, etc.).
Equations (1) and (2) must be solved subject to the following boundary conditions:
(i) The normal component of the velocity must be continuous across the interface and
vanish on the solid surfaces.
(ii) The interfacial surface behaves as a fluid surface, i.e. if the interface is described
using a function f(r,<p,z,t) == F(<p,z,t) - r being equal to zero at the surface, it
must satisfy the equation
Df of
-=-+y}·Vf=O
.
(4)
Dt at
(iii) The tangential component of the electric field is continuous across the interface.
(v) The pressure jump across the interface is balanced by surface tension. Furthermore,
applying conditions (iii) and (iv) one obtains the equation:
·2·2 W 2
\7 . n + x(E~ / f3 + E; ) = .6.II - Bz + 2r (5)
where n the outward unit normal on the interface, E~ and E~ are normal and
tangential components of the non-dimensional electric field for the inner liquid at
the interface, and .6.II is an eigenvalue for the following condition (vi):
(vi) The liquid volume V of the bridge or captive drop is kept constant.
Equations (1)-(5) with conditions (i), (ii), (v), (vi), and (vii) define a boundary prob-
lem whose solution determines the interface position as a function of the space coordinates
and time.
:E
00 00
wave number and Wm,n is the n-th natural frequency of the system for a given m.
A method for finding the solution to the dynamical problem has been presented in
Ganan and Barrero [2], [3], and Ganan [4]. In the following, focusing our attention on its
applications, we report theoretical results obtained using the above mentioned method.
Some experimental results are also given for comparison.
" r--------===~
Figure 2 shows the first natural frequencies
~
Wm,l of liquid bridges as a function of the
" Bond number (no rotation) for different slen-
dernesses Ho. The volume of these bridges
.., is that for which their equilibrium shapes
'" are cylindrical when B = 0 (V = 7rHo).
The dashed line represents liquid bridges
whose axisymmetric (m = 0) and trans-
verse (m = 1) modes have the same fre-
quency, so that the two modes may be simul-
... taneously excited. There exists a particular
bridge for which WO,1 = WI,1 = 0 correspond-
ing to a slenderness Ho = 1.9528. Notice
that more slender bridges have an axisym-
metric break up while shorter ones behave
Figure 2: non-symmetrically.
The influence of the Bond number on the natural frequencies of drops attached to a
circular support is given in figure 3 for different drop volumes and two support geome-
tries (flat disk or tube end). These volumes may be written as V = 7r(2 + 3 cos a -
cos 3 a)/(3 sin 3 a) when B = O. Short dashed and dot-dashed lines represent liquid drops
with the same axisymmetric and transverse frequencies. As in the previous case, there is
also a transition between the symmetric and non-symmetric breaking. Also, increasing
the tube depth has the same effect on the frequency as decreasing the drop volume.
276
Figure 3: First frequencies Wi for the symmetric and transverse modes of a non-
surrounded drop (either sessile or pendent) vs. the Bond number B, for different values
of the dimensionless volume V = 7r(2 + 3 cos 0'- cos 3 0')/3 sin 3 a and the two geometrical
configurations shown in the insert. For a given volume, a is the angle of the equilibrium
(spherical) profile in the absence of gravity (B=O). Drops having m = 0 and m = 1
modes with the same first frequencies are given in short dashed line [for configuration (a)]
and dot-short dashed line [for configuration (b)].
Tables 1-3 Experimental measurements of natural fre-
quencies in both symmetric and transverse
Liquid Brid,e (m=l) cases of liquid bridges, and pen-
".117,& m.m 3 , It _ e.f mm, B _ 0 .10:
... .."
m.O m_1 dent and sessile drops have been performed
,-I
... Theor.
i ."
Exp. e-rr . Theor-.
11 .2'
E..p.
10.t
en.I")
' .T
(Gaiian and Barrero [3]). These results are
~
... '2'.7'
U . i8
2'.0
.502.3
U
2. 1
28 .61
SO.IT
27.'
~O . 7
U
• .2
given, for comparison with the theoretical
'" .st.tt 10.2 U 10.1IS0 7& .• 3.1 frequencies, in tables 1-3. As it may be
P~lIIderl.l Drop
V = lOS mm 3 I ~ :;:; !o mm, B _ !I.57 seen, the maximum discrepancy is below 4%.
m _ 0
m_1
These discrepancies may be due to: 1) er-
~
,-I
. T~cor .
le,22
U.2;t
£Jl:p.
18.2
"" ,I
ur. (")
0.1
LO
Thur .
7 .06
2,5..&41
Exp.
7,3
25.18-
......
m ,(")
rors in the optical determination of the reso-
".. 79.3) 77.1 2 .• 51.9' S&.S 1.1 nant frequency (maximum amplitude vs. fre-
". U3. 2 U.s.S 2.0
Sellile Drop
33.72 152.$ 1.'
quency); 2) non-linear effects associated to
Ii _ 33 . 12 ornm 3 , Ro _ 2 mm, B _ o.le
m;;o: 0 m _ 1 larger oscillations in the neighbourhood of
.. ThifloCo'_
71.72
ElEp_
n .•
IIltf.(,,)
0 ,3
Thcor .
lIU6
E.p.
15.5
.rr.(")
3 .•
the resonant frequency; 3) evaporation of a
....... IfJ3.1
:nS.2
lI!" .6
:271 ,0
0 .'
1.1
&2 .07
118 . 1
&1.6
UT.'
0,'
0 ,2
small fraction of the drop volume during the
experiment; 4) variation of surface tension
'" 37t.2 3,gO ,2 U 1" .0 111 .1 1 ,3
Results taking into account the influence of rotation on the small oscillations of liq-
uid captive drops will be given in the following. For W #- 0 the frequency spectrum
277
4W
{wm,n} is split into two sets corresponding to the elliptic w2 > -.--) and the hyper-
p' _ pO
bolic w 2 < .4W ) regimes (see also Myshkis et al. [ID.
p' _ pO
In the elliptic region (w 2 >.4W), one may observe the splitting of frequencies
p' _ pO
corresponding to the forward (m = 1) and backward (m = -1) modes, while both have
the same value for non-rotating menisci. Furthermore, the frequency of the first mode
decreases for m = 1, and increases for m = -1 as W increases. In fact, this effect is a
characteristic of the first modes m = 1 and m = -1 for all captive menisci.
One of the most interesting features discovered for the elliptic spectra is that two
different modes (m = -1, n = 1; and m = -1, n = 2) eventually collapse into a single
one when the value of the rotation speed is increased. Above the value of the rotation
speed for which this happens, both disappear from the elliptic spectrum (see figure 4 for
the first and second m = -1 modes and R2 ::; 1.5). This phenomenon is described in
figures 5a-b. The right half of each graph shows the instant of minimum amplitude of
the interfacial motion ( maximum amplitude of the velocity), and the left half shows the
interface at a time ~ later.
2w
278
.. ,
(0) 10)
---c·.. ······
,-,~ ........ (I)
..., .•!.'
- I
~
~-.,...,.",.4:.·"'· ·· ····1
_. -->..\_---------------.---
Figure 5: Surface deformation and velocity fields for a) the first and b) second oscillation
modes m =: -1 for the liquid bridge of Fig. 4, for (I) W~ = 0.3, (II) W~ = 0.65, and
(III) W~ = 0.80.
To illustrate the effect of the vessel radius R 2 , figure 6 shows how the first backward
mode is modified for this bridge when R2 increases from R2 = 1.5 to R2 = 2 (W = 0.8).
A similar behavior may be observed for most of the capillary menisci under rotation as a
rigid body inside a cylindrical container.
t -- _ J f £ / I I I I I ••
Figure 6: Surface deformation and velocity field for the first backwards mode (m = -1,
n = 1) of the same liquid bridge of Figs. 4-5 for W = 0.8, a) R2 = 1.5, b) R2 = 2.
The influence of rotation in the asymmetric oscillations m = 1 and m = -1 of a
non-surrounded captive drop in the absence of gravity and in contact with a circular flat
279
support (disk) has been also calculated. The contact line is fixed at the edge of the disk.
If the frequencies WI,1 and W-I,b and the rotation speed f! (which is IWI t in this case) are
normalized with the frequency of a drop with the same volume in the absence of rotation
one finds that all the curves W±l,l(f!) collapse for values of the drop volume ranging
W~,l'
from V ~ 0.4 to V ~ 50. The following general formula holds for the first frequency
m = 1 and m = -1 of a rotating liquid captive drop with B = 0 (Gaiian [4]):
In general, the isorrotational field was found to stabilize the meniscus when pi < po.
However, when / > po this effect may reverse depending on the geometry of the meniscus,
the Bond number and the oscillation mode under consideration. Finally, notice that the
oscillation modes corresponding to the lower wave numbers are the most affected by the
280
isorrotational field because the characteristic times of rotation and oscillation are of the
same order.
The cylindrical solution is the only analytical one known in closed form for all values of A,
x, and f3 (A = Ho /2). Its linear stability is examined by means of a static modal analysis
in the azimuthal coordinate (Sanz [9]), which determine an infinite set of nested surfaces
of bifurcation points (Gonzalez et al. [5]). A dynamical study for W =0 (Gonzalez et al.
[10]) shows that the stable region is bounded by the surface with the minimum value of
A. Continuity arguments lead to the same statement for all W. In figure 9 the stability
map for three selected values of the Weber number Wand f3 = 0.55 is presented.
Two different ways of destabilization are possible: the axisymmetric mode m = 0 (solid
lines), and the C mode (m = 1), with dashed lines. The strongly stabilizing effect of the
applied electric fields, as well as the destabilizing role played by the rotation is readily
apparent from the figures. There is no theoretical limit for stabilizing a cylindrical liquid
bridge with a given slenderness and angular velocity by means of an electric field, the
only practical limit is the breakdown strength of the dielectric liquid. On the other hand,
the more different the permittivities, the lower the necessary field is in order to stabilize.
Here we will restrict ourselves to axisymmetric deformations. Since in this case the equi-
librium and Laplace equations cannot be solved in analytical form, numerical methods
have to be used (Ramos and Castellanos [11]).
To solve this problem, the equilibrium equation (5) was discretized using a centered
finite difference scheme of second order for z-derivatives, the potential was obtained using
linear finite elements on the functional
281
I
I
I
I
Qxisymmetric mode ,/
c-mode ,"
, ,I
,,
x I
,•
,,•
I
5
,,
+ ,,
,,
I
,
,,
I
,, ,, ,
,,
I
, ,
, I
,,
w.... 33/ ,, ,
,, ,,
O~~~~~~~~~'~~~~~~~~
2 3 4 5
Figure 9: Bifurcation curves in the X - A plane for f3 = 0.55 and three values of the
Weber number: (a) W = 0; (b) W = 0.2; (c) W = 0.33. Solid lines correspond to
bifurcation to an axisymmetric shape, and dashed lines to a C mode.
which was minimized, and finally the volume constraint was discretized using linear
finite elements for F(z). This leads to a system of nonlinear equations whose solution is
obtained by the Newton-Raphson method.
An alternative method for finding the solution of the equilibrium shape is an iterative
integration of the equilibrium equation written in intrinsic curvilinear coordinates along
the interface profile. The separation of variables is used to solve the Laplace equation for
the electric potential. Results are in close agreement with those reported by Ramos and
Castellanos [11) and will be presented in a forthcoming paper.
Equilibrium shapes. Since the Newton method has safe properties only if the initial
guess is close enough to the real solution, a continuation method in the parameters X,
T = V (If it was used to reach the desired ones. We present in figure 11 a bridge with
f3 = 0.5, T = 2.0 and Ho = Hoi Ro = 3.0 subjected to two different electric field intensities
X = 0.01 and X = 6.25. We also present the contribution of the polarization charge to
the potential. It may be easily shown from this figure that the main effect of the field
is to align the interface with the applied electric field except for a small region near the
fixed contact lines. The same behaviour was obtained for different permittivity ratios and
volumes.
282
b)
z z
Figure 10: (a) Equipotentials of \II ( polarization charges contribution to the potential)
for a liquid bridge with T = 2.0, f3 = 0.5, A = 3.0 and X = 0.01. (b) Equipotentials of \II
for the same liquid bridge with X = 6.25.
Bifurcation and stability. At each step the Jacobian of the Newton method was
computed in order to evaluate the possibility of bifurcation. To determine the set of
bifurcating points we started from a known stable equilibrium shape for a given X and A
and increased the parameter A until the Jacobian of the Newton method went to zero.
This method was used to determine the bifurcation curves in the X - A plane for a
fixed relative permittivity, f3 = 0.55 and a set of different values of the parameter T. These
curves are plotted in figure 13. The value of f3 was chosen to compare with theoretical
and experimental data reported in Gonzalez et al. 1989. Notice that the curve for T = 1
is the same as the one given in figure 9a. Due to the relationship between bifurcation
and neutral stability, these curves delimitate the region of stability. From the continuity
of physical properties and the well known fact that for a cylindrical bridge the region
below the curve in the X - A plane is unstable (Gonzalez et al. 1989), it may be deduced
that the same will be true for each curve of given T. That is, bridges with given Tare
only stable if the set of parameters (X, A) belongs to the upper region delimited by the
corresponding curve. When X = 0, the results of minimum volume are coincident with
those given by Martinez and Perales [12J.
T=0.7
0.8
O.
1.
x
.5
3.5 4 4.5 5
A
Figure 11: Graph in X-A plane of liquid bridges bifurcation curves for a set of different
T= V/ 7r A values when f3 is fixed to 0.55.
REFERENCES
[1] Myshkis, A.D.; Babskii, V.G.; Kopachevskii, N.D.; Slobozhanin, L.A.; Tyuptsov, A.D.:
Low-gravity fluid mechanics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag 1987.
[2] Gaii an , A.; Barrero, A. 1986. Equilibrium shapes and free vibrations of liquid captive
drops. Physicochemical Hydrodynamics. (Ed. Velarde, M. G.). Plenum Press 1986, pp.
53-69.
[3] Gaiian, A.; Barrero, A.: Free oscillations of liquid captive drops. Microgravity Sci.
Technol., ITI (2) (1990) pp. 70-86
[4] Gaiian-Calvo, A. M.: Oscillations of liquid captive rotating drops. J. Fluid Mech 226
(1991) pp. 63-90.
[5] Gonzalez, H.; McCluskey F. M. J.; Castellanos, A.; Barrero, A.: Stabilization of
dielectric liquid bridges by electric fields in the absence of gravity. J. Fluid Mech., 206
(1989) pp. 545-561.
[6] Lamb, H.: Hydrodynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1932.
[7] Rayleigh, J.W.: The theory of Sound. Dover 1945.
[8] Greenspan, H.P.: The theory of rotating fluids. Cambridge University Press 1968.
[9] Sanz, A.: The influence of the outer bath in the dynamics of axisymmetric liquid
bridges. J. Fluid Mech. 156 (1985) pp. 101-140.
[10] Gonzalez, H.; McCluskey, F. M. J.; Castellanos, A. and Gaiian, A.: Small oscillations
of liquid bridges subjected to a.c. fields, in Synergetics, Order and Chaos (Ed. Velarde,
M.G.) Singapoore: World Scientific 1988.
[11] Ramos, A. and Castellanos, A.: Shapes and stability of liquid bridges subjected to
a.c. electric fields. J. Electrostat. (submitted 1991).
[12] Martinez, I.; Perales, J. M.: Liquid bridge stability data. J. Crystal Growth, 78
(1986) pp. 369-378.
Linear Stability of Marangoni-Hartmann-
Convection
*
K. Nitschke, A. Thess , G. Gerbeth
Summary
The Marangoni instability in an electrically conducting fluid
layer subjected to a homogeneous magnetic field is studied by
means of linear stability theory. He have found a suppressing
influence of a vertical magnetic field on both types of primary
Marangoni instabilities. One observes a constraining of the flow
to a shallow Hartmann layer below the free surface with increa-
sing magnetic field. The wavelength of the first unstable mode
decreases thereby. A comparison between the stationary and the
oscillatory Marangoni instabilities shows that the latter is
more sensitive to an application of a magnetic field. The unde-
sired decrease of the instability threshold under reduced gravi-
ty can be counteracted by the presence of a magnetic field.
Introduction
H. J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravity FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM Sympos1Um Bremen [991
if' Spnngcr-Verla~ Berlin HCLdclherg 19q2
286
Mathematical formulation
For the normalized critical values Hac/Ha o and ac/a o (Ha o and
are the critical values of the nonmasnetic problea (Ha=O»
obtain the followins numerical fits (error < 5%):
Case (i): Ha < 10 (small aasnetic fields):
Hac/Ha o 1 = 0.037 Ha1.858 (21)
ac/a o 1 = 0.017 Ha 1.508 (22)
Case (11) :15 < Ha < 30 (moderate masnetic fields) :
Mac/Mao 1 = 0.044 Hal. 783 (23)
ac/a o 1 = 0.076 HaO. 84O (24)
The spatial structure of the first unstable modes is shown in the
fisures 6 - 9.
290
Ha Mae ae we
o -969.11 0.19 2.11
1 -1124.02 0.21 2.33
3 -2418.28 0.25 3.51
5 -5603.14 0.32 5.69
1 -11161.45 0.44 10.18
Discussion
(i) The system remains the wavelength of the unstable mode un-
changed. Then only considerably higher temperature gradients
across the layer are able to create local temperature gradients
(surface tension gradients, respectively) required for an onset
of Marangoni instability.
(ii) The system lowers the distance between the roll cells. Then
already smaller temperature differences across the layer compared
to that in case (i) are sufficient to create the necessary sur-
face tension gradient. One has to to take into account that an
additional energy input is necessary for the stronger surface
deformation and to compensate the higher shear stress production.
Conclusions
References
__- __t
T2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - z=d
Z= d .. '1 (x, t)
x T1 z=O
Mal
0,4 0,8 a-
FIG.2.Neutral curve for station- FIG.3.Neutral curve for oscilla-
ary Marangoni instability at tory Marangoni instability at
Beve~gl Hart~2nn number (Pr=0.02, seve:al Hartm~gn numb~2B
C=10 ,Bo=10 ) (Pr=U.02,C=10 ,Bo=10 )
.!!9...c...
Mal No c.
2.2
-7500
1.9
-5000 1.17
1.3
-2500
1.01------..-:::::=...---
10- 4g 19
FIG_4. Neutral curve for oscilla- FIG.5.Critical Marangoni number
tory Marangoni instability undgr for overstability as a function
reduce~ gravity (Pr=0.02,C=10- g of gravity for different Harg-
Bo=10- (dashed line) and Bo=10- mann numbers (Pr=0.02, C=10- )
296
FIG.6 Plot of the streamfunctions for Ha=O (upper picture) and Ha=30
(lower picture) (stationary Marangoni instability)
Z=l
/
Vz
Ha:30
o z-O
-1 -1 o
(arbitrary units 1 (arbitrary units 1
Ha=5 Ha-5
I
-
/
Z =1 Ha=10
/ Ha=30
Z
.
Z=O
z=O -1 1
-1 0
(arbitrary units)
(arbitrary units 1
FIG.B.Perturbation of the tem- FIG.9. Perturbation of the mag-
perature distribution at the netic field at the critical
critical point for several Hart- point for several Hartmann num-
mann numbers bers
Numerical Analysis of the Sensitivity of Crystal
Growth Experiments to Spacecraft Residual
Acceleration
Abstract
The use of numerical models as an integral part of the development of space experiments not only
provides guidance necessary for optimal, cost-effective use of space laboratories. As an illustration
of the type of results that can be obtained for materials processing experiments, we discuss the analysis
of the sensitivity of the Bridgman-Stockbarger method using an idealized model. A range of opemting
and boundary conditions are applied to examine the system behavior for a variety of accelemtions,
including those arising from attitude changes and actual accelemtion data measured on-orbit. To
characterize the system sensitivity we examine the dopantnon-uniforrnity at the melt-crystal interface.
For steady and transient accelemtions, including accelemtion profiles measured on Spacelab-3, the
compositional non-uniforrnity is insensitive to time-dependent accelemtions chamcteristic of rela-
tively "quiet periods'; but is susceptible to steady accelerations greater than 10-6 g and to certain types
of transient disturbances and oscillations. We find that the largest compositional nonuniforrnities
occur for disturbances with amplitudes above 10-6 g and frequencies below 10-2 Hz. These
nonunifomities are barely detectable at early times, reach a maximum after the velocity transient and
subsequently decrease over the characteristic concentration diffusion time. The system is found to
exhibit marginal sensitivity to only one of several "g-jitter" profiles synthesized from SL-3 measure-
ments with frequencies between 10- 1 - 10 Hz.
1. Introduction
The low-gravity environment associated with a spacecraft in low earth orbit gives rise to a residual
acceleration vector that has steady and time-dependent components. The nature of the residual
acceleration has been discussed in several papers [1-4]. The opportunity to grow crystals in a low-
gravity environment has the potential to minimize or effectively eliminate the effects of buoyancy-
driven convection in melts and solutions and has been of great interest to crystal growers. Bridgman-
Stockbarger type crystal growth methods have received particular attention and several space
experiments have been conducted (see for example, references [5-9]). Over the last few years,
particularly since the design and development of the Space Station, free-flyers such as Columbus, and
the EURECA platform, there has been a growing interest in identifying the effects of residual
acceleration on the results of space experiments. This interest has been motivated by two factors. The
first is the recognition that for experiments in which the primary goal is to suppress or eliminate
gravitational effects, the limited opportunities to conduct space experiments demand quantitative
H. 1. Ralh (Editor)
Microgravlly FlUid Mechanics
I UTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer.veriag Bcrlm Heidelberg 1992
298
assessment of both the effects of residual acceleration and the extent to which experiment operating
conditions can be adjusted to minimize these effects. Secondly, the sensitivity of various experiments
to residual acceleration can be used as design consideration of future space laboratories. In the latter
case, it must be emphasized that the extent to which residual acceleration tolerance can be used as a
design factor will be limited by cost. Thus, it would seem that the residual acceleration sensitivity
analyses should be most useful for experiment design. In many cases it would appear cost effective to
design the experiment to meet the environment rather than the reverse.
With these thoughts in mind, several studies of the low gravity tolerance of crystal growth by the
Bridgman-Stockbargertechnique [10-19] have been made. In this paper we present selected examples
of our most recent results [10-12] for time-dependent acceleration and give a brief summary of our
previous results for steady accelerations [12]. The model system, that has been deliberately chosen
to represent a worst case example of the Bridgman technique (in terms of axial and radial tempera-
ture gradients) is described in section 2. The results are presented in section 3 and summarized in
section 4.
2. Formulation
The 2D model system depicted in Fig. 1 represents the directional solidification of a dilute two-
component melt. Solidification takes place as an ampoule of width W is translated through fixed hot
and cold zones which are separated by adiabatic sidewalls. These are an idealization of the radiation
barriers which are used in some furnaces [20]. Translation of the ampoule is simulated by supplying
a doped melt of bulk composition c;;;, and density Pm, at a constant velocity Vg at the top of the
computational space (inlet), and withdrawing a solid of composition Cs = cs(x,t) from the crystal-melt
-------------w-------------
INLET (Vg) T = Th
o
HOT ZONE
T=T h
MELT
ADIABATIC
ZONE
L '"-+-+-++-t--t--t--+-+-t-t-l- T = Tm
COLD ZONE
CRYSTAL· MELT INTERFACE
interface at the bottom. At the crystal-melt interface, located at a distance L from the inlet, the
temperature is taken to be T m, the melting temperature of the crystal. The boundaries of the hot zone
are held at a higher temperature T h. The interface is held flat since we wish to confme our attention
to compositional non-unifonnities caused by buoyancy-driven convection, rather than variations
resulting from non-planar crystal-melt interfaces.
The governing equations are cast in dimensionless form using L, K/L (K is the melt's thermal
diffusivity), Pm12/I}, Th-Tm, and c;:;; to scale the lengths, velocity, pressure, temperature, and solute
concentration. The dimensionless equations governing momentum, heat and solute transfer in the
melt are then
au
at + (gradu) u = -gradp + Pr ~u + Ra Pnlg(t), (1)
divu = 0, (2)
at
<*)
+ U· grad8 = ~8, (3)
where, u(x,t) represents the velocity, x = ilL, 8 = (T(x,t) - T m)/(Th - T ~ the temperature and C =
em(x,t)/c;;; represents the solute concentration. Pr = viI(, Ra = P(Th- T~L3g/v1(, and Sc= vlD are,
respectively, the Prandtl, Rayleigh and Schmidt numbers, and v is the kinematic viscosity andD the
solute diffusivity. The term g(t) in (1) specifies the orientation of the gravity vector. The Rayleigh
number is taken to be the value of Ra at the Earth's surface, thus the magnitude of g is the actual
acceleration magnitude relative to 1 g.
The following boundary conditions apply at the crystal-melt interface (x = 1)
Pe Pr iC
8=0, U· N= S~ , uxN=O, a;z-=Peg (1-k)C, (5)
where Peg = VgL/D and N is the unit vector normal to the interface and is parallel to the ampoule wall.
We define the measure of compositional nonunifonnity in the crystal at the interface to be the lateral
range in concentration given by
where Cs is the (dimensional) solute concentration in the crystal, and Cay is the average concentration.
The following boundary conditions are applied at the "inlet" (x = 0)
PegPr iC
8= 1, U· N =Sc
- -' uxN=O , ax = Peg (C-l). (7)
PegPr
u· N =- - , u· ew = 0, grade· ew = 0, (8)
Sc
with e = 1 in the isothennal zone and grade . ew = 0 in the adiabatic zone. Here e w is the nonnal to
the ampoule wall. In this model transient effects related to the gradual decrease in the melt length are
ignored. It is thus implicit that the ampoule is sufficiently long for transient effects to be negligible
[10-12,18,19].
The governing equations are recast in the stream-function vorticity formulation and solved using
a pseudo-spectral Chebyshev collocation technique [12,21] which incorporates the influence matrix
method [22].
operating conditions and magnitudes and orientations of the acceleration vector. For a given set of
operating conditions and steady acceleration magnitude, our results show that the acceleration
orientation is crucial in determining the value of 1;. Alternatively, it can be seen that adjustment of
the operating conditions (growth velocity, temperature profile ampoule size, etc.) can be used to
obtain optimum growth conditions for a given orientation and magnitude of the steady acceleration
vector.
Figures 2 and 3 show the compositional nonuniformity as a function of the Peclet number
Pe=Vmax l)D (where Vmax is the maximum computed velocity) and GrSc, where Gr = RaPr -1 is the
Grashof number. The regimes I a-b and II correspond to transport regimes as defined by Camel and
Favier [23]. In practical terms, these figures show that there is a maximum in compositional
nonuniformity whenever convective and diffusive transport of the dopant have comparable magni-
tudes. Thus, if three of the parameters in the set {Ra, Peg, Sc, g. N/lgl} are held fixed, a maximum in
300 4
250
Convective
Regimes
200
3 Ic
~ 150 (145)6
""
- - - ....!.ao)~
~
100
6 (92)
2
Cl
50 ~ Ib
(13)6
0 II
·1 2 3
log V..... UD=log Pe
18 Advective-Diffusive
Fig. 2. ~ vs log Pe = log VmaxL/D. For curves 2 and 3 Regime
the acceleration was oriented parallel to the crystal- 6(11)
melt interface; for curve 1 the acceleration was
perpendicular. Vmax is the maximum magnitude of the
computed melt velocities for each case.
log V.L.ID=log Peg
Fig. 3. log GrSc vs.log Peg =VgLalD, for the results of
numerical simulations for steady acceleration parallel to
the crystal-melt interface. Here the adiabatic wne
length, La instead of L, is used to compute Peg. The
regions I a-c and II correspond to transport regimes as
defined by Camel and Favier [23]. I a-c are convective
regimes, II is the diffusive regime. Numbers in paren-
theses indicate the value of non uniformity ,~, associated
with each of the numerical results. The maximum in ~ is
associated with a transition from a convection-controlled
to a diffusion-controlled dopant transport environment
302
At higher Sc the nonunifonnity is increased since the flow within the solute layer is still significant.
However, eventually at steeper gradients (large Sc) the solute layer becomes so thin that the flow
cannot penetrate sufficiently to cause extensive lateral redistribution of solute. For the cases we
examined, the maximum nonunifonnity occured at Sc=20, whereafter it decreased with increasing
Sc. It is interesting to note that the difference between the maximum and final values of ~ is smaller
for the higher Sc cases than for the lower values of Sc. For two sample time series synthesized from
the SL-3 database we found the model to be insensitive in one of the cases with ~(t)« 1%. For the
other case the system exhibited marginal sensitivity. For the insensitive case the acceleration
consisted of 46 components with frequencies in the range 0.14 Hz <f< 10Hz, the acceleration profile
which resulted in marginal sensitivity consisted of 27 components and 0.03 </< 1 Hz. Fig. 6 shows
~(t) for the latter case. A sample of the acceleration time series is shown in the inset.
4. Discussion
We have investigated the sensitivity of the Bridgman-Stockbarger technique to residual
accelerations corresponding to steady accelerations and single and multicomponent oscillatory
disturbances. One important finding is that short-time results will not necessarily give reliable
predictions oflong-time sensitivities, i.e. the response of the system after times on the order of L2/D.
For the Ge:Ga model system (Sc= 10), we found that for acceleration frequencies less than 10-2 Hz,
20
2.5.--,.--,..-,........,,........,,........,r--1r--1
(c)
18 12.13
~
0IJ'12.12
16
12.11
14 3 4 5 6 7 8 12.1~.!::2~80::-3-:80~4,.....-;:;80~5-80=6:;--::=-.,,:!
TIME [secJ TIME [secJ
~ 12
><J"
10
6
(a)
4
0 2500 3000
large amplirude flucruations occurred in ~ for acceleration amplirudes above 1O-{) g. Accelerations
of 10-5 g at 10-3 Hz led to composition nonuniformities on the order of 60%. As the frequency was
increased, larger accelerations were required to give significant nonuniformities. The most noticeable
difference in the response of the Ge:Ga system to different frequency accelerations was in the behavior
of the velocity and composition transients as the system adjusted from the zero velocity initial state
to the final state where the system oscillated with the frequency of the driving force. The acceleration
time-series synthesized from SL-3 data contained frequencies greater than the characteristic frequency
associated with diffusion, i.e.DIL2. As a consequence the transient behaviorof~(t) was similar to that
for single component disturbances J> DIL2.
In terms of residual accelerations characteristic of spacecraft environments (remember that
accelerometers on board SL-3 were not capable of measuring the steady acceleration components
associated with gravity gradient and atmospheric drag), the model Bridgman-Stockbarger system
appears to be most sensitive to steady accelerations (with magnitudes> 10-{) g) oriented parallel to the
crystal-melt interface. We expect this to be true for other directional solidification systems, but
emphasize that the magnirude of the acceleration which results in a significant compositional
nonuniformity will depend on the operating conditions and thermophysical properties of the particular
system under examination. Our results also indicate that for a given system the operating conditions
0.6
0.4
5
nYE(aoc)
0.2
may be chosen such as to optimize the growth conditions. Thus, as efforts are made to better
characterize the residual acceleration environments of space laboratories, experiments can be designed
to take full advantage of the scarce opportunities for long duration low-gravity experiments.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through grant
NAG8-684 and Delivery Order Contract 41/NAS8-36955, and by the State of Alabama through the
Center for Microgravity and Materials Research and the Alabama Supercomputer Network. The
authors would like to thank Melissa Rogers for processing, and the Marshall Space Flight Center for
providing, the SL-3 acceleration data.
References
[1] H. Hamacher, R Jilg and U. Mehrbold, in: Proc. 6th European Symposium on Materials
Sciences under Microgravity Conditions, Bordeaux, December 1986 ESA SP-256 (1987) 413.
[2] J.I.D. Alexander and CA Lundquist, AlAA 1. 26 (1988) 193.
[3] R Monti, 1.1. Favier and D. Langbein, in: Fluid Sciences and Materials Science in Space, A
European Perspective, Ed. H.U. Walter (Springer, Berlin, 1987) p. 237.
[4] J.I.D. Alexander, Microgravity Science and Technology, 3 (1990) 52.
[5] H.e. Gatos, in: Materials Processing in the Reduced Gravity Environment of Space, Mater.
Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., Vol. 9, Ed. G. Rindone (North-Holland, New York, 1982) 355.
[6] AF. Witt, H.e. Gatos, M. Lichtensteiger, M.e. Lavine and CJ. Hermann, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 125 (1975) 276.
[7] 1.T. Yue and FW. Voltrner,1. Crystal Growth 29 (1975) 329.
[8] V.S. Zemskov, Soviet Phys.-Dokl. 22 (1977) 170.
[9] D.TJ. Hurle, G. MUller and R Nitsche, in: Fluid Sciences and Materials Science in Space, A
European Perspective, Ed. H.U. Walter (Springer, Berlin, 1987) p. 315.
[10] 1.I.D. Alexander, 1. Ouazzani and F. Rosenberger, Proc. 3rd International Colloquium on
Drops and Bubbles, AlP Conference Proceedings 197, ed. Taylor G. Wang (American
Institute of Physics, New York, 1988) p.112.
[11] 1.I.D. Alexander and 1. Ouazzani, Proc. 6th International Conference on Num. Methods in
Laminar and Turbulent Flow, C. Taylor, P. Gresho, RL. Sani and 1. Hauser (eds.) (Pineridge,
Swansea, 1989)1035.
[12] 1.I.D. Alexander, J. Ouazzani and F. Rosenberger, J. Crystal Growth 97 (1989) 285.
[13] V.I. Polezhaev and AI. Fedyoshkin, Izvestiya Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Mekhanika Zhidkosti
i Gaza 3 (1980) 11.
[14] V.I. Polezhaev, AP. Lebedev and SA. Nikitin, Proc. 5th European Symposium on
Materials Sciences under Microgravity, Schloss Elmau FRG, ESA SP-222 (1984 ), 237.
[15] G.B. McFadden and S.R. Coriell, in Proc. AIAA/ASME/SIAM/APS 1st National Fluid
Dynamics Congress, Cincinnati, July 25 th-28 th (1988)p. 1572.
[16] P.R. Griffm and S. Mokatef, Appl. Microgravity Techn. 2 (1989) 121.
[17] P.R. Griffm and S. Mokatef, Appl. Microgravity Techn. 2 (1989) 128.
[18] e.J. Chang and RA Brown, 1. Crystal Growth 63 (1983) 343.
[19] P.M. Adornato and RA Brown, J. Crystal Growth 80 (1987) 155.
[20] Y.M. Dahkoul, R. Farmer, S.L. Lehoczky and F. Szofran, J. Crystal Growth 86 (1988) 49.
[21] R Peyret, The Chebyshev Multidornain Approach to Stiff Problems in Fluid Mechanics,
Proceedings ofICOSAHOM 89, June 26-29, 1989, Como (Italy).
[22] U. Ehrenstein and R Peyret, Int. 1. Numer. Meth. Fluids 9 (1989)499-515.
[23] D. Camel and J.J. Favier, 1. Crystal Growth 47 (1986) 1001.
Thermocapillary Bubble Migration - An Oseen-Like
Analysis of the Energy Equation
Abstract
I Introduction
H J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlly FluId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berhn HeIdelberg 1992
308
surface tension, A is the constant temperature gradient in the liquid, Rl is the bubble radius
and JL is the liquid viscosity assumed constant. Energy conduction is neglected in their
analysis of the energy equation. It is curious to note that at low Re and Ma, the scaled
bubble velocity is 1/2 (Ref 10). As pointed out in Ref 2 & 4, the analysis in Ref 3 is not
completely justified because the energy equation without conduction has singularities at the
front and rear poles on the bubble surface. Furthermore, the boundary condition on the
bubble surface cannot be satisfied. To remedy these issues, Balasubramaniam (Ref 4)
performed a similar analysis, permitting a thermal boundary layer to occur in the vicinity of
the bubble wherein conduction of energy is important. An approximate integral method
was used to analyze the energy equation. Like the result in Ref 3, this analysis also
predicted the bubble velocity to reach an asymptote for large Ma, with a smaller numerical
coefficient (0.235 instead of 1/3). However, due to certain internal inconsistencies in the
analysis, the thermal boundary layer thickness was obtained incorrectly to be proportional to
lIMa. It is shown below that for the velocity profile used in Ref 4, the correct scaling is
1/,ffM..
To shed more light on the bubble velocity behavior for large Ma, an Oseen-like
approximation is used here in the energy equation. Basically, in a coordinate system
attached to the bubble, the velocity field in the convection term in the energy equation is
replaced by the free-stream velocity, which is the bubble velocity. This implies that the
velocity field is taken to be uniform; the flow also penetrates the bubble surface. This is
unrealistic and has consequences that are discussed in Section III.
1. Governing Equations
The basic equations for thermocapillary bubble migration for large Reynolds and Marangoni
numbers are given in Ref 4 and are reproduced below
(Jf v (Jf 1 V2
v00 + u=
ur + -r -nt
Uf]
= lVla
TT::" T (1)
(Jf
Atr=l , ==0
ur (2)
309
normalized by VR. r is the scaled radial coordinate, 8 is the tangential coordinate (see
Figure 1); u,V are the scaled velocity fields in rand 8 directions and v00 is the scaled bubble
potential flow theory in the limit of large Re. Eq 5 determines v00 and is an expression for
the conservation of mechanical energy where the kinetic energy of the flow is dissipated
predominantly in the region outside a flow boundary layer (see Ref 4 for details).
v 00 + M aa(l-b) y b dy em -
ilI' + ilI' _
v
M 2a-l
a
[J2T+
CJY2 ... ]
Balance of convection and conduction terms gives a = 1/(1+b). Thus, for b=1 (from eq(4»
a=1/2 and the thermal boundary layer thickness is proportional to 1I,fFlla. If on the other
hand, b=O (see the Oseen approximation below), then the thermal boundary layer thickness
is proportional to lIMa.
3. Oseen-like Approximation
using an assumed profile for T to solve eq(l) and obtained v00 = 0.235. A thermal boundary
310
layer was pennitted to occur near the bubble surface. The temperature profiles both within
and outside the thermal boundary layer were guessed. It turns out that the assumed profile
in the outer region does not satisfy the outer energy equation (Leo, with conduction
neglected) even in an integral sense. This introduced errors in the integral analysis that was
performed, leading to an incorrect estimate of the thermal boundary layer thickness as being
proportional to lIMa when it really should be l/..jflla.
In this study, a different type of an approximation is made, viz., an Oseen type of
an approximation for the convection terms. Oseen approximation (or linearization) is used
in fluid mechanics typically in the low Reynolds number regime (Ref 11). It has also been
used in the analysis of some boundary layers (Ref 12,13). The velocity field far away from
the bubble u = -voocosO and v = voosinO is used in eq(1) instead of u,v given by eq(4). The
resulting energy equation is solved subject to the boundary conditions, eq(2 & 3). The
calculated temperature field on the bubble surface is finally used in eq(5) to predict the
bubble migration velocity. (Original velocity fields from eq(4) are used in eq(5). The
Oseen flow is a uniform flow and does not dissipate energy by viscous heating;
consequently meaningful results cannot be obtained by using it in eq(5)). Thus, as far as
the mechanical energy balance and the migration velocity are concerned, the Oseen
approximation amounts to calculating an appropriate surface temperature gradient for use
in computing the rate of work done by the surface forces in eq(5).
The energy equation to be solved is
(Jf
1 - cosO dr + rsinO em
(Jf
=
1
MiiV V2T
00
(6)
4. Solution
From the analysis in Ref 14, the general solution to eq(6) that satisfies the far field
condition (eq(3)) is
L DnKn+~ (~ Mavoor) P
00
Kn+~ (~Mavoor) = [Ma~ooip exp(-~ Mavoor). We will revisit the consequences of this
approximation later. Using this relation in eq(7) and determining Dn from eq(2) finally
gives the following result for T
v00 is to be determined from the above solution and eq(5). Eq(5) may be simplified as
v00 = f
-1
1
T(1,cosl1) cosl1 d(cosl1) (9)
Verification: In view of the approximation used involving the Bessel function, the solution
(eq(8» needs to be verified. It is easily seen that both the boundary conditions eq(2 & 3)
are satisfied. For large Ma, the given solution also satisfies the Oseen-like equation (eq(6»
outside the thermal boundary layer and wake (i.e., for exp [~ Mav00(1 +cOSI1)(1-r)] « 1) and
along the rays 11 = 0, Z, 1(; for r ~ 1 (including the boundary layer).
ill Discussion
In comparing the results with those in Ref 3,4, it must be pointed out that the Oseen
velocity field (uniform velocity field) is different from that used previously (potential flow
past a sphere). Yet, the result for the bubble terminal velocity is the same as in Ref 3.
The boundary layer solution (the second term of eq(8» is remarkably similar to the
boundary layer and wake function that appears in Ref 4; however, in view of our earlier
comments about the incorrectness of the thermal boundary layer scaling, this similarity
may be coincidental. Figure 1 shows a plot of the isotherms of the solution, eq(8), for Ma
= 300. ·The boundary layer and wake regions are clearly seen. The isotherms in the wake
region are qualitatively similar to those in Ref 5,6,7. It is seen from eqs(6,8) that the
8-conduction term is important in the vicinity of 11=1(; on the bubble surface for large Ma.
This is in agreement with the surface temperature distribution shown in Ref 7.
312
From the solution (eq(8», the thennal boundary layer scales as lIMa, in
agreement with the scaling analysis presented earlier. This is a thin boundary layer
compared to the one obtained using the real velocity fields (which scales as l/v1fJi.). The
unifonn flow in the Oseen approximation penetrates the bubble surface. Consequently, the
radial diffusion of energy is countered by the convection of energy due to this penetrating
flow; this is the reason why the Oseen boundary layer is thinner. The penetrating flow also
has energy associated with it. For 9<.1C/2 the flow carries energy into the bubble and for
1C/2<9<.n, the flow carries away a smaller amount of energy from the bubble, as it is cooler
in this region. Thus the bubble is an energy sink: when the Oseen approximation is used. In
reality, no energy should enter or leave the bubble in the limit of negligible thermal
conductivity of the gas inside it.
What then are the merits of the Oseen analysis? In the opinion of the authors,
the merits are: (i) The scaled bubble velocity is predicted to reach an asymptote for large
Ma, a conclusion reached both in Ref 3 & 4. Thus it appears that the bubble velocity is a
global quantity that is not very sensitive to the flow and temperature distributions near the
bubble surface (i.e., in boundary layers). Furthennore, the bubble velocity scale is the same
as that obtained in creeping motion with inertia and convection neglected. (ii) The thermal
boundary layer and wake structures have not been amenable to analytic treatments when the
real velocity fields are used, but the Oseen analysis is able to capture both structures. This
is chiefly because the outer temperature field in the Oseen analysis is simply that which
exists far away from the bubble, viz., the linear temperature field. While the scalings of
these regions will be different, some of the features are expected to be present in the case
with real velocity fields as well. Examples are the importance of the 8-conduction term in
the vicinity of the rear stagnation point; the qualitative similarity of the isotherms in the
wake region and the temperature drop on the bubble surface which is 3AR J from eq(8) for
large Ma versus typical values of 2.2ARJ reported in Ref 7.
The only parameter that appears in the problem formulation (eqs(1)-(6» is the
Marangoni number. In particular, the Reynolds number (or alternatively, the Prandtl
number) does not explicitly appear. A major assumption of the above analysis is that the
potential flow velocity fields can be used within the thermal boundary layer. In the case of
a rigid interface, this requires the Prandtl number to be much less than one. However, in
the case of a mobile interface, corrections to the fluid velocity within the flow boundary
layer are small; consequently, the potential flow assumption is adequate throughout the
entire domain (Ref 4). This is evidenced by the numerical calculations in Ref 7 for Pr=1O,
Ma=500. We therefore speculate that in the limit of large Re and Ma, the bubble terminal
velocity may not be very sensitive to the value of the Prandtl number.
313
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Prof. R. S. Subramanian, Clarkson University for his comments
and keen interest during the course of this investigation and in particular for pointing out
the boundary layer scalings mentioned in Section II.
References
12. J. A. Lewis and G. F. Carrier,"Some Remarks on the Flat Plate Boundary Layer,"
Q. Appl. Math., Vol 7, pp. 228-234, 1949.
Figure 1.-Isotherms near the bubble, Ma = 300. The arrow indicates the
direction of migration of the bubble.
Applications of Bifurcation Theory to the Problem
of Rotating Liquid Drops in Space
Xu Shuochang
Institute of Mechanics, Academia Sinica,
100080, Beijing, China
§ 1.lntroduction
Motivated by the importance of containerless processing technology, many scien-
tists have been investigating the dynamics problem of rotating liquid drops (shape,
stability and oscillations) [1-2]. Apart from the scientific interest for fluid sciences and
material sciences in space, the rotating liquid drops have high interest for cosmogony,
geophysics and nuclear physics as well.
The theory of rotating liquid drops endowed with a surface tension was stimu-
lated by Plateau's experiments, 100 years ago, with globes of oil suspended in a liquid
of the same density, and the theory of a rotating drop with self-gravitation, in the field
of astronomy goes back to Newton's investigation on the figure of the earth. Since
then, the theory has been developed by many illustrious scientists, among them
Maclaurin, Jacobi, Thomson, Riemann, Poincare, Liapunov, Jeans, Darwin and
Cartan, etc. Early works on this subject were reviewed by Jeans [3] and Lamb [4]. Af-
terwards, the survey of it was made in succession by Lyttleton [5], Ledoux [6] and
Chandrasekhar [7]. The theory of rotating liquid masses with a surface tension and a
uniform electric charge arisen in nuclear physics is reviewed in [8]. Wang et.al. [1] and
Brown ([2] § 4.5) have reviewed on the dynamics problem ofliquid drops.
The bifurcation theory is a classical subject initiated by Poincare in cosmogony.
But up to now, there have been disputes whether the stability of rotating systems
should be judged by secular stability criteria or by dynamical ones.
Early in 1883, Thomson and Tait predicted without proof that the stability of a
rotating liquid system depends on whether the total potential energy attains its mini-
mum when viscosity is taken into account. This is caIled Thomson-Tait stability
criteria in engineering sciences. Furthermore, Thomson (Kelvin) first made experi-
ments of fluid rotor gyros and posed the so caIled HColumbus Egg Problem".We have
investigated these problems for a long time, and we have proved the above Thomson
and Tait's prediction for the rotating liquid stars [11]. We have dealt with the
Columbus problem in some cases and proved the theory to be in consistency with the
Kelvin's experiments only when viscosity is taken into ,,~count [12]. Furthermore, we
H. J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravity FlUId Mechanics
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
316
have applied the bifurcation theory to rotating liquid stars [13,16]. Above investiga-
tions can be similarly extended to rotating drops in space. Following the conceptual
demonstration of Gaiiieo and Einstein, and on the basis of the Kelvin's experiments
and our further experiments of fluid rotor gyros, we will design a conceptual linear se-
ries of experiments in order to demonstrate the truthfulness of secular stability series.
no / ( 8T / pa 3 )2!
W =
where no denotes the rotational angular velocity, T the surface tension, a the equator-
ial radius and p the density. When w<0.584, the drops have the axisymmetric equilib-
rium shapes. SUCil a succession of configurations form a linear series AB (see Fig.I).
Suppose that the drop has uniform density p and semiaxes a,b and c, and is rotating
around axis c with angular velocity no [I].
At the bifurcation point
B(WB = 0.584), the sequence of equilib-
c c rium figures passes from the sequence
of axisymmetric shapes to triaxial
shapes. When W > 0.584, there are al-
ways two equilibrium shapes, the for-
B mer are secularly unstable but
dynamically stable up to point D
_____ a - b
_ _ _ _ _ _LA
(Wo = 0.679), at which the drop be-
c
comes dynamically unstable. For the
Fig. 1. Evolution of rotating liquid drop
Maclaurin sequence of rotating
incompressible masses in gravitational
equilibrium, which is a sequence of oblate spheroids, the corresponding point occurs at
eccentricities of the spheroid equal to e=0.8127 and 0.9529 respectively". At its first
neutral point B(WB = 0.584), the rotating drop must be secularly unstable and at this
point a stable sequence of triaxial forms branches-off in a manner analogous to the
way the Jacobian sequence of ellipsoids branches-off from Maclaurin sequence of
spheroids.
317
6= jl{ -('I'+I)±
<1> J <1>2 -IofJ 2 U
('1'+2) } (3-1)
Where
~ (t, r)= e~' ~ ( r)
- - - disturbing displacement vector, (3-2)
1= I (~, r) = HJpo ~ r 0 d't
there existed a certain eigenfunction ~ K satisfying {/ U(~ KJ;) < 0, then, setting
2 2 - -.
a = - [ 0 8 U(e K,e K) > 0, we can deduce that the corresponding eigenvalue
6 K satisfies Re6 K > 0 from Eq .(24) of the Lemma I, i.e., unstable. The Theorem
1-3 in paper[ll] can be proved by the very same mention.
then ,the sufficient and necessary conditions of the stability are '1'2 - [ 8 2 U < O.Be- 0
cause '1'2 :s;; 0, 8 2 U > 0 only is a sufficient condition of the stability. In the region
'1'2 / I < 8 2 U < 0, Coriolis force may induce a stabilizing effect. It is a region of secu-
ditions, but could not calculate the growth rate of the instability. Thus, the question
whether secular instability should have been unstable with initial infinitesimal
amplitude increasing exponentially with time could arise[lO]. Some investigators hold
that only the initial infinitesimal amplitude for dynamic instability increases
exponentially with time, but the amplitude for secular instability linearly vary with
time, the growth rate depending on the magnitude of viscosity, and when viscosity dis-
appears, so does the growth rate [5].
At first, from Eq.(3- 1), when 'I' = 0, i.e. in the cases when dynamic and secular
stabilities disappear simultaneously, we get
02U
6=6
, J-
=
02 U
I
1
+ ~ + <l>
412 21
>0 (4-2)
At this moment, it will not be overstable any longer, even if viscosity exists; in this
case, small disturbance will increase exponentially with time, and the viscosity effect
only reduces the growth rate of instability. Such a view that secular instability would
also cause small disturbance to increase exponentially with time is of great difference
from earlier concepts. For the small viscosity case, the growth rates of instability
would hardly depend on viscosity. Approximately from (4-2), we have
6 = 67 + i6/
_!<I> o 02U
2 '1'. J_'I'2+1 0 02U
_ '1'2 +1 0 02 U - I + I 1 '
cases, but also cleared some perplexing questions about secular instability.
By the same way as in paper [11], we can explain the essence of the interaction be-
tween the viscosity and Canolis fcree by applying the conc.eptof vortex lines stability,
and comment on the dispute over relation between secular stability and dynamic sta-
bility, which is very similar to the dispute over ND' Alembert Paradox N •
is, the sufficient and necessary conditions for the stability under the constraints - ~
and - ~ < {J <~, (where rx,{J;y are three Candan's angles) are that the
gyros be oblate, i.e.
C I + C 2> A I + A 2 (5 - 1)
where A I ,C I andA 2 ,C 2 are the principal moments of inertia of the shell and the fluid
rotor respectively.
The above criteria are a concrete application of the Thomson - Tait stability
criteria for fluid rotor gyro. In this case, the total potential energy of the gyros is
L(8)=O:(C I +C 2 -AI -A 2 ) sin 2 8 (5-2)
where 8 is the angle between the symmetry axis and vertical direction. The condition
(5-1) says that the potential energy attains its minimum.
8 4
For the Kelvin's experiments (C I < < C 2,A I < < A 2)' C 2 = 15 xpca A2
= ~ xpa 2 (a 2 + c 2)c, we can obtain the sufficient and necessary conditions of stability
C2 - A 2 = 15
4 xpa 4c(2
a - c 2) > O·
,I.e. c < a, wh'ICh"IS stnct consIstence
. WI'th t h e exper-
iments.
321
oblate. Our experimental tools are very simple. We have used tin tubes with radius
50mm and cut them into cylinders with heights 20mrI1, 30mm, 40mm, 50mm, 60mm,
70mm, 86.Smm, 95mm, and 120mm respectively, then sealed their tops and bottoms.
The central part of top and bottom of every cylinder is connected with a 4 mm diame-
ter steel tube. The cylinder filled with water is made as the rotor of fluid rotor gyros.
Axis of gyros is made of a 2 mm diameter copper wire with a threaded nut on it. The
distance of the rotor's gravity centre to the fixed point is adjusted by the nut. The end
of the axis is made of either a needle or a spherical surface in the shape. The copper ax-
is is inserted in the central steel pipe of the rotor. The top of the axis is held by the fin-
ger of one hand and then set into rotation at 5 - 10 revolutions per second around its
axis with the other hand. lfthe gyro is stable, then it can stably rotate when it is put on
the table, otherwise it will topple over.
Results of experiments show that the six cases, where the height of the rotors are
smaller than 70mm, are all stable; other cases are unstable, that is if we put the gyros
on the table, the gyros will immediately topple over. The gyros tend to be more stable
with decreasing the height of the gravity centre and with increasing their spining veloc-
ity.
If the height of the rotors is H = 86.5mm, its equivalent ellipsoid is a sphere, the
gyro is in a critical stable state.
ill. A conceptual linear series of fluid rotor gyro experiments
Three centuries ago, Galileo designed a conceptual inclined plane experiment to
demonstrate successfully the law of inertia. So did Einstein several times following
Galileo. Now we will follow them by devising a conceptual linear series of experiments
on the basis of Kelvin's experiments and our further ones, in order to demonstrate the
truthfulness of secular stability series.
Suppose that an oblate spheroid shell filled with water is set in a frame and rotates
around a vertical axis with constant angular momentum. We imagine that the solid
shell is changed gradually from oblate shape into prolate ones with constant angular
322
momentum, then the argular velocity of the rotor is changed gradually from small to
large.
We can represent the configurations
t I P,
a-c
c=--
a
of the above-rv-entioned fluid rotor gyros
on plane (O,o)(Fig. 2). PIS corresponds
'--.i.-..:..- to secular stability series, the configura-
e<O
---$-- tions of which are oblate fluid rotor
§ 6. Conclusions
1. The experimental evidence proves the truthfulness of secular stability. The
comparison for rotating liquid drops with self-gravitation and those with a surface
tension, and Kelvins experiment are given in Table. I.
Table 1
Invisid Cases Viscous Cases
Dynamic Dynamic Secular Secular
Stability Instability Stability Instability
Maclaurin's 0<e<0.8127
0.9125<e<1 0<e<0.8127 0.8127<e<1
Spheroid 0.8127 <e<0.9125
Rotating 0<(1)<0.584
0.679 <(I) 0<(1)<0.584 0.584<(1)
Liquid Drops 0.584<(1)<0.679
Fluid Rotor a>c
a<c<3a a>c a<c
Gyros Theory 3a<c
Kelvin's
- - a>c a<c
Experiments
323
References
Summary
experiments have been carnea out to determine the cntIcal tnermal Kaylelgn number for
onset of convection in a horizontal layer of density-stratified fluid with a free surface when
heated from below. Three different aqueous solutions were used: salt. glycerol, and acetic
acid. The rates of change in surface tension with concentration for these three solutions are
positive. nearly zero. and negative. respectively. Compared to the rigid-rigid boundaries. the
critical thermal Rayleigh number was found to be larger by 11.2% for the salt solution and
smaller by 10.0% for the glycerol solution. With the acetic acid solution. however. the effect
of the free surface was found to be negligible.
I. Introduction
When solidifying an alloy melt. simultaneous thermal and concentration gradients are
generated which may cause double-diffusive convection in the fluid. If there is a free
surface present. surface tension gradients generated by nonuniform surface distributions of
temperature and solute will also contribute to the motion. When such processes are carried
out in the reduced-gravity environment of an orbiting space laboratory. the surface tension
effects become prominent. although buoyancy-driven convection due to concentration
gradients may still exist down to very low gravity levels [I]. In order to gain some insight
on the combined effects. we recently conducted a series of laboratory experiments on the
effects of surface tension on the onset of double-diffusive convection and obtained
interesting results. some of which were unexpected.
The effect of surface tension on the onset of convection in a horizontal fluid layer being
heated from below was first studied by Nield [2] using a linear stability analysis. Davis
and Homsy [3] generalized the problem to include the effect of a deformable free surface
using an energy stability analysis. They found that stability is enhanced compared to the
case with a planar free surface. Recently. Gouesbet et al. [4] carried out a linear stability
analysis of the problem with emphasis on the possible occurrence of overstability. They
were not able to find examples of overstability when the layer is heated from below.
McTaggart [5] studied the stability of a fluid layer with both concentration and thermal
gradients in the absence of gravity. She found that for the aqueous solutions of MgS0 4 • for
which the rate of change in surface tension with concentration is positive. onset of
convection is in the overstable mode. Castillo and Verlarde [6] generalized the energy
stability analysis of Davis and Homsy [3] to include the concentration gradient.
H J Rath (EdItor)
Microgravlty FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIum Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
326
In our experimental study. a horizontal fluid layer with a stable concentration gradient is
sUbjected to heating from below and cooling from above. The upper free surface was
observed to be planar. except at the boundaries. throughout the experiment. For such a
layer with free-free boundary conditions and in the absence of surface tension effects.
Veron is [7] found the critical thermal Rayleigh number for onset of convection to be
Under laboratory conditions. Rs is usually very large. :2! IOLI07. Then. the type of
boundaries will have minimal effect on the critical thermal Rayleigh number when surface
tension effects are ignored. If. however. surface tension forces are to be taken into account.
their effect may be aiding or opposing the buoyancy-generated convection. depending on
whether the rate of change in surface tension with respect to concentration is negative or
positive. The objectives of our experimental investigation are (I) to establish whether the
surface tension effects are noticeable when the Rayleigh numbers are of the order of 106 to
10 7 and (2) to determine the magnitude of the aiding or opposing effects of surface tension.
To carry out these experiments. we used aqueous solutions of salt. glycerol. and acetic acid.
The surface tension of the salt solution increases with concentration. that of the glycerol
solution remains nearly constant. and that of the acetic acid decreases with concentration
(Fig. I). In the following. we first describe the experimental apparatus and procedure. then
we report the results and discussion.
The experiments were carried out in two tanks with identical inside dimensions of 24 cm x
12 cm x 5 cm deep. The first tank had a brass bottom and glass sides and was used by
Murray and Chen [8] and Chen and Chen [9] in experiments with a porous medium. The
second one had a stainless steel bottom with plexiglass sides and was made specially for
experiments with acetic acid solutions. The design of the tank and the data-acquisition
system are described in [8] and [9].
The solute gradient was obtained by successively introducing into the test tank four fluid
layers of equal thickness (1 cm) but with decreasing concentration. The concentrations of
327
these layers were ~S. 2/3 ~S. 1/3 ~S. and O. from the bottom layer up. For the three
different solutions used in the experiments. the concentration of the bottom layer was
selected to yield a specific gravity of 1.066; 1.2 wt% for salt. 3.74 wt% for glycerol. and 6
wt% for acetic acid. The filled tank was let stand until a smooth gradient was established
by diffusion. The waiting periods were 16 hr. 21.5 hr. and 25 hr for salt. glycerol. and
acetic acid solutions. respectively. because of the difference in the mass diffusivity of each
solute. The time evolution of the concentration distribution within the tank was calculated
by a one-dimensional diffusion model for the salt solution (Fig. 2) up to 20 hr. Because of
the nondiffusive nature of the top and bottom boundaries. the density distribution assumes a
nonlinear shape.
For experiments with rigid-rigid boundaries. the temperature difference across the tank was
initially adjusted by approximately 1°C steps. These were reduced to approximately 0.5°C
when the critical value was approached. Temperature difference adjustments were made at
4.5-min intervals. the diffusion time for a 2-cm-thick water layer. For experiments with a
free surface. the top plate's temperature had to be reduced much more than 0.5°C for each
adjustment because of the air gap. The actual amount of temperature reduction was
obtained by trial and error.
The onset and subsequent development of the convective motion in the fluid are illustrated
by a series of shadowgraphs (Fig. 4) that were taken during the same experiment with a salt
gradient. A record of the heat flux and ~T encountered during the evolution is shown in
Fig. 5. The experiment was started at 0915. At 1546. 26 min after the last adjustment of
the temperature difference. convection along the bottom wall started in the form of plumes
rising from the bottom wall (Fig. 4a). as noted in the classic experiment of ShirtcJiffe [10].
A further upward adjustment of ~T was made at 1605. We note here that even without
the final increase in ~ T. the same development of the convection process would have taken
place. but at a slower rate. At 1630. Fig. 4b. the entire bottom wall was covered by
convection plumes and a plume was starting at the top wall. At 1710. Fig. 4c. the two-layer
convection pattern was established. although remnants of concentration gradients can still be
328
seen. At 1715. Fig. 4d. both layers became essentially constant density-convecting layers.
thus resulting in a large increase in heat flux during the 5-min interval (see Fig. 5). The
three subsequent shadowgraphs, Figs. 4e. f. and g. recorded at 1730. 1745; and 1750.
respectively. show the gradual thickening of the interface due to diffusion across the
interface. By 1800. Fig. 4h. the fluid in the tank became homogeneous. with a concomitant
large increase in heat flux between 1755 and 1800 (Fig. 5). At 2033. Fig. 4i. the
shadowgraph shows the typical turbulent convection characteristics of a uniform density
fluid.
Evolution of the heat flux during this process is shown in Fig. 5. It is seen that after the
onset of convection. the heat flux increased dramatically while .0. T decreased slightly owing
to the increased heat transfer rate at the boundary walls. Data are shown every 5 min after
the onset of convection. The large increases in the heat flux between 1710 and 1715 and
again between 1755 and 1800 are related to events explained above. The black dots denote
data obtained from an experiment on turbulent convection in water. It is seen that these
data points merge nicely with those obtained after the salt solution was thoroughly mixed.
These points agree well with the correlation Nu = 0.10 RaO.31 Pr O.05 suggested by Silveston
[II] as presented in Turner [12].
3.2 Rigid-Free Boundaries. In this series of experiments. the fluid layer was prepared
similarly to the previous case to a depth of 4 cm. The top cooling surface was raised by
plexiglass inserts to 9 mm above the free surface. Many experiments dealing with surface
tension effects were performed with a very small air gap between the free surface and the
cooling plate (e.g .• [13]). According to the analysis of Ferm and Wollkind [14]. small air
gaps tend to enhance the stability of the layer. Further. the large evaporation rates of
aqueous solutions preclude the use of small air gaps since condensation on the top wall
substantially alters the gap shape and size in the course of the experiment.
The temperature difference between the bottom wall and the top free surface was obtained
by extrapolating the linear temperature distribution within the fluid to the free surface.
This method becomes unreliable when convection is present in the tank. The heat flux data
collected from six different experiments prior to the onset of convection are shown in Fig.
6. The least-square-fit straight line through the data points yields a slope within 4.5% of
that for the rigid-rigid boundaries.
The onset of instabilities in the presence of a free surface is a gradual process in contrast to
the clearcut development of convection in the rigid-rigid case. Due to the edge effect. small
circulation cells first appeared at the two ends of the tank at approximately 80-90% of the
critical .o.T. These developed very slowly. and they were essentially confined to the
corners. With further increase of .o.T. penetrative convection plumes start to descend from
the free surface. The shadows of these plumes were very weak. Although they were
clearly visible by eye. it was difficult to capture them on film. The convection processes
329
intensify initially. but eventually fade away. For the salt solution. upon one further upward
adjustment of t:..T. convection cells appeared from the bottom wall. From here on. the
development of the convection process is much the same as in the rigid-rigid case. For the
glycerol solution. after the first appearance of the penetrative convection plumes along the
upper free surface. it required two upward adjustments of t:..T to cause the onset of
convection cells from the bottom. This is also true for the acetic acid.
For this series of experiments. the critical t:.. T is defined as the largest value of t:.. T across
the tank for which there are no convection plumes from the bottom wall. Even though
penetrative convection cells may have started earlier. they do not persist. nor do they have
any effect on the heat flux. Once convection starts at the bottom wall. there is an
immediate increase in the heat flux. For each of the solutions tested. two separate
experiments were performed and the critical t:.. T's determined. The corresponding critical
thermal Rayleigh numbers were then calculated using the thermophysical properties
evaluated at the mean temperature for the solution at the mean concentration. Because of
the small solute concentrations in all three solutions. the values of thermal diffusivity and
the thermal expansion coefficient of pure water were considered to be appropriate. Values
of kinematic viscosity are given by Weast [15]. and their variations with temperature were
assumed to be similar to that of water. The results are summarized in Table 1.
For each experiment. the values of the mean temperature. T m' solute Rayleigh number. and
Marangoni number are given. The experimentally obtained critical t:..T and the
corresponding critical Marangoni and thermal Rayleigh numbers. Me and R T.c . are
tabulated. As can be seen with the salt solution. whose surface tension increases with salt
concentration. the presence of the free surface enhanced the stability of the system. The
critical thermal Rayleigh number R T.C increases 11.2% beyond that for the rigid-rigid case.
For the glycerol solution. whose surface tension is not materially affected by the changes in
concentration. the presence of the free surface destabilized the system with a decrease in the
average RT.c of 10.0%. The surprising result was that for the acetic acid solution. the
presence of a free surface had no effect on the stability of the fluid layer. The average
R T.C differs from that for the rigid-rigid case by -2.9%. within the error limit of
approximately 5%. Since the surface tension of the acetic acid solution decreases with
increasing concentration. it was expected that the stability of the fluid would be reduced.
Currently. we are developing a quasi-steady stability analysis of the problem. results of
which may provide an explanation of this experimental result.
4. Conclusions
(a) The onset of convection in the rigid-free boundary case is quite different from that of
the rigid-rigid boundary case. In the latter. when t:.. T exceeds the critical value. convection
plumes start along the bottom wall and their growth eventually homogenizes the fluid layer.
In the former. penetrative plumes start at the free surface; however. they do not intensify.
330
With further increases of ~T. convection starts at the bottom wall and subsequent
development is similar to that of the rigid-rigid case.
(b) The presence of the free surface enhances the stability of a stratified salt solution and
destabilizes a stratified glycerol solution. but essentially has no effect on the stability of the
stratified acetic acid solution.
This research is supported by the National Science Foundation through Grant MSM-8702732
and NASA through Grant NAG3-1268. for which we are grateful.
References
1. Chen. C.F.: AIAA Paper 90-01222 (1990).
2. Nield. D.A.: J. Fluid Mech. 19 (1%4) 341-352.
3. Davis. S.H.:Homsy. G.M.: J. Fluid Mech. 98 (1980) 527-553.
4. Gouesbet. G.: Maquet. J.: Roze. C.: Darrigo. R.: Phys. Fluids A 2 (1990) 903-91l.
5. McTaggart. C.L.: J. Fluid Mech. 134 (1983) 301-310.
6. Castillo. J.L.: Velarde. M.G.: J. Fluid Mech. 125 (1982) 463-474.
7. Veronis. G.: J. Mar. Res. 23 (1%5) 1-17.
8. Murray. B.T.: Chen. C.F.: J. Fluid Mech. 201 (1989) 147-166.
9. Chen. F.: Chen. C.F.: J. Fluid Mech. 207 (1989) 311-321.
10. Shirtcliffe. T.G.L.: Nature 213 (1967) 489-490.
II. Silveston. P.L.: Forsch a.d. Geb. des. Ingen. 24 (1958) 59-69.
12. Turner. J.S.: Buoyancy Effects in Fluids. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press 1973.
13. Koschmieder. E.L.: Biggerstaff. M.I.: J. Fluid Mech. 167 (1986) 49-64.
14. Ferm. E.N.: Wollkind. D.J.: J. Non-Equilib. Thermodyn. 7 (1982). 169-190.
IS. Weast. R.C. (ed.): Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Cleveland: CRC Press 1974.
Exp. No. Tm10C RSK1Q-7 MSK1Q-5 .o.Tc,oC Mc K1 Q-5 RT•C Klo-e % Change
a. Salt
b. Glycerol
c. Acetic Acid
O ..... LT C. . C1
.....YC:I.OL f •• C1
• • AlCn1C' &C'. f'. C)
'0.0 ~-----------------.....,
a.• 10,0..
40,0 ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
:2:0.0 JO.O .... FII.1 V.rtauon or Surface T.rulon .ath Concentn.Uon
CONCENTRATION : wt7.
: :~~:..
....._.,.-
... -
.l '"' ......
•.• t1:""""T"T"!"""---------------,
.... ,..------------------...,
O .O~
..
2····
l<
'"=
0.0& .... _......... ,•. ,.. ,_...... .. ........................ _.L.. ~.~ .......,.. ~ ........,......,.... ,..
.... "-----------"'------_
0.0 1.0 4-0 • ..0 ...
.....10.D "1.3 _ Plux IIaIa Do. Ulo allld-RIIId 80........... CUe
dUI1ft.1 the Conduetton State.
o.Jla T. C
~
b g
c h
d i
e
333
0 .11
0.&
0 _.
>e
x
2 0 .3
.'\0 -1500
~:I:
0.2 o _I I H
0
\
,
0-1Il)
0 .1 0 -1110
0
.-... ...
•• 10\",
o ....u
~
JII .~_
O.O.J
..3.. .....
!(
'"
:z:
~ I .
1I.•al .•," ..... ......... , ... , ,.~ ••. __ . . . _•.• _..... ".".m"'! •• ~ ••••• "~..~~ ....... _ ••• ~ •••••• _
• f
" ... Heal nux Data CDr th• •'Ild-Pre. Boundarln ca..
.... ~•.:-.---..-.---.:.....---..-.----.-.•----.J,... durtna the ConducU.on State.
Della T . C
Combustion,
Physico-Chemical Processes,
Multiphase Phenomena
Computational/Experimental Basis for Conducting
Alkane Droplet Combustion Experiments
on Space-Based-Platforms
MUN Y. CHOI, SEOG Y. CHO and FREDERICK L. DRYER
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544-5263
Abstract
Recent advances in the understanding of droplet combustion clearly illustrate the serious
experimental constraints imposed by the diagnostic capabilities and the short observation times
available in current droptower facilities. In this paper, the need for conducting spherically
symmetric droplet combustion experiments on space-platforms is discussed and further
analyzed utilizing a recently developed time dependent computational droplet combustion
model that permits the incorporation of time and temperature dependent transport
characteristics and complex combustion kinetics. A method first demonstrated for methanol
droplet combustion, including full detailed elementary combustion kinetics, is applied with
semi-empirical kinetics to estimate the combustion properties of n-heptane droplets for various
pressures, oxygen indices, and diluents. Based upon the calculations, particularly for droplet
extinction phenomena, results suggest two different regimes of behavior. At low oxygen
indices, droplet burning extinction becomes a very strong function of oxygen index (strongly
affected by kinetics), while at higher oxygen indices, it becomes a more weak function of
oxygen index and in fact is more difficult to determine. The oxygen index separating the
ranges over which these different characteristics are noted is dependent on the diluent chosen,
being higher for helium, and lower for nitrogen.
Introduction
The importance of isolated droplet combustion process has promoted extensive experimental
and theoretical investigations for nearly 40 years [1,2). In terms of practical relevance, the
knowledge of individual droplet burning characteristics provides valuable insights into some
of the more complex sub-mechanisms involved in spray combustion[3). Results are also
important to the field of liquid fire safety, especially as a mechanism of studying how such
characteristics are affected by the absence of gravitational forces[4,5).
II J Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogranty FlUid MechaniCS
I LTA\1 SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin HeIdelberg 1992
338
and diffusive processes inherent in non-premixed flames. The use of droplet combustion as
a critical research problem has, however, been impeded by the relative lack of sophisticated
experimentalidiagnostic and analytical tools. The NASA-Lewis n-aikane droplet combustion
program has focussed primarily on measuring dimensional information from the photographic
data to study droplet burning rate and flame-standoff ratios. However, detailed investigations
of transient characteristics such as extinction and flame structure dynamics will benefit
substantially from more sophisticated measurements such as species concentration
distributions. The diagnostic techniques necessary for such measurements in microgravity
experiments are only now being developed.
Even prior numerical models that have accounted for the effect of variable thermochemical
and transport properties, non-unity Lewis number, and forced convection[13,14], have
continued to employ various assumptions in estimating the thermochemical and transport
properties. For example, the specific heats of the fuel and air were assumed to be equal and
constant[13], the gas density, the Schmidt number and the Prandtl number were assumed to
be constant[14], thus failing to consider that the temperatures vary over a factor of five, and
that the diffusivities of some of the important chemical species, notably hydrogen radicals,
vary drastically from the mean. Furthermore, all of these models treated chemistry with
simple, uncalibrated, global approaches. In spherically symmetric, non-convective
environments this latter assumption may be particularly deficient.
processes
Mathematical Model
Diffusion·Reaction Eq.
Cas & Condensed Phase
P.D.E Solver
Sensitivity Analysis
Engineering Model
ignition, burning rate, flame standoff, and extinction phenomena, in addition to other
parameters such as the critical ignition diameter(not previously addressed by asymptotic or
numerical methods). This model was validated utilizing the burning rate, flame standoff and
extinction diameter measurements for the methanol droplet experiments conducted at the
NASA-LeRC droptower. The comparisons of the computational and experimental results are
described in the following section.
0 0
0 102000
.6
.,u .4 1000~
:;:l
0 --Ok 1000~
------c 30H
...."
.4
.!:: u .!::
Q, .-._._.- Hl) 0-
u
In
In
cJ
S
u
---c S
" ·_·-CO.
.2 500 u
5 I- .2 500 I-
S - --T
0 0 0 0
0 2 4 6 6 10 0 2 4 8 8 10
r/rp r/rp
3b. Ignition 3d. Extinction
Fig.3. Computational Temperature And
Species Profile For Methanol Droplet
From Reference (6).
342
conditions, the ignition source is situated closer to the droplet surface and features a more
disperse energy distribution. Furthermore, the experimental ignition behavior reveals
substantial effects of internal mixing that is neglected in the computational model. Hence, the
computed ignition delay time is considerably shorter than the experimentally observed
valueCThis must be taken into account in the experimental design).
Shortly after the introduction of the ignition source, as the droplet begins to vaporize
vigorously[Figure 4], fuel vapor accumulates near the surface. It subsequently diffuses
1.5
........
N
'"
.......
~
~
OJ
+J
0::'"
01
s:::
s:::
s..
::> .5
CXl
extinction
time (s)
Fig.4. Computational Burning Rate For A Methanol Droplet
From Reference (6)
outward and mixes with the ambient oxidizer. As the droplet continues to vaporize, the gas
mixture near the droplet surface reaches the lean flammability limit, and a partially-premixed
flame develops due to the high temperature imposed by the ignition source. Transition to a
fully developed diffusion flame occurs as the initial mixture of oxygen and fuel vapor is
rapidly consumed. The chemical species composition and the temperature profiles at the onset
of ignition are presented in Figure 3b.
343
After the establishment of the diffusion flame, the close proximity of the flame results in rapid
vaporization of the liquid fuel and the burning rate exceeds that found for quasi-steady burning
by more than a factor of two[Figure 4]. This causes the spherical flame to progress outward
to establish a dynamic equilibrium between the fuel gasification and consumption rates.
As the quasi-steady droplet burning continues[Figure 3c] and the droplet size continuously
regresses, the spherical flame finally extinguishes at the instant the heat/mass transfer rates
exceed the critical chemical reaction rate. At extinction, the burning rate is dramatically
reduced[Figure 4] and substantial leakage of both fuel and oxidizer through the reaction zone
occurs[Figure 3d]. In addition to the reduction in the burning rate, the collapse of the radical
pool is used to identify the onset of extinction.
1 . 0 . - - - - r - -- - - - - - - - - - - - , 1 . 7 5 , . . - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - ---------.
,:~,.:.."
'\<,\""
1.50
~. . t·". . ~. . . .,
...lli<- i ~ 1. 25
N
i ! 1.00
OJ
..,
'\~
.'\.\'\
0.6
o i, .....,
OJ
'+-
o 0.4 ! '\-., Run 299
"" 0 > 0 . 75
c
OJ
..,<- I '-. c
~
:> ;; 0 . 50
0-
Vl
0.2
I Aun 305
co
I ~~- 0 . 25
- O. ! 0.2 0.5 O. B -0 . 1 0 .2 0 .5
time (s) time (s)
Fig.5a. Square Of Droplet Diameter vs. Fig.5b. Droplet Burning Rates For The
Time For Methanol Combustion In 50% Experimental Data Plotted In Fig. 5a.
Oxygen-Helium Microgravity Environment.
344
Experiments conducted with methanol droplets in air in the 2.2 second droptower displayed
non-'d2-law' behavior[6,21). It was suggested that diffusive transport and subsequent
condensation of flame-generated water on the fuel surface modifies the burning rate of the
droplet, similar to what was proposed earlier for alcohol vaporization in moist
environments[30). It was also speculated that product/intermediate absorption at the droplet
surface was a primary factor promoting the extinction mechanisms[6,21].
In addressing this issue, ground-based pool burning experiments[25) and freely-falling droplet
combustion studies[26) revealed substantial amounts of water and formaldehyde absorption
during combustion[28). The computational modeling results for methanol compared favorably
with the droplet combustion data. Indeed, the calculations show that water is at first absorbed
at the surface, and later in the droplet lifetime, as surface water concentrations increase, it
begins to vaporize into the gas-phase. This causes noticeable changes in the measured droplet
burning rate.
These experiments suggest that the combustion of initially pure methanol droplets display
multi-component burning behaviors. However, both pool burning and free-falling droplet
experiments utilizing n-heptane have produced negligible product and intermediate absorption
during the combustion period[25,26). Thus, the modeling of spherically symmetric n-heptane
droplet combustion need not incorporate the additional complications of multi-component
burning behaviors.
345
In the case of spherically symmetric n-heptane droplet combustion in atmospheric air, recent
experiments in the NASA-Lewis 2.2 second drop tower[31]produce droplet burning rates some
40% lower than those defined in the early drop tower experiments of Kumagai and
co-workers[36]. The slower burning rate data correlate with relative droplet/gas convection
rates determined by monitoring the motion of soot agglomerates relative to the droplet, and
show that droplet/lab relative motion utilized in earlier experiments do not properly
characterize the effects of convection on quiescent burning. More recent experiments[33] have
also shown that the burning rate of n-heptane droplets may be influenced by changes in
ambient pressure(increasing with reductions in pressure), again through some phenomena
relating to the formation and presence of soot(sooting is substantially reduced under this
ambient condition). A physical model for soot formation and collection within the droplet
diffusion flame structure remains to be formulated and included in modeling efforts.
However, recent experiments show that sooting can be experimentally controlled by varying
the ambient pressure, through diluent substitution, and oxygen index reduction. Combinations
of these initial conditions can be found for space-based experiments which create conditions
of little or no soot formation, thus creating experimental conditions more similar to the present
numerical modeling assumptions. Existing model formulations also need to be modified to
consider axi-symmetric gas phase convection relative to the droplet surface. Thus, future
346
In the present work, experimental values were utilized where available[36]and supplemented
with theoretical estimations assuming ideal gas properties. Transport and thermochemical data
were estimated by using TRANSPORT PACKAGE and CHEMKIN codes[16,17].
Finally, no validated, detailed chemical kinetic mechanism presently exists for the combustion
of n-heptane. This deficiency is likely to remain for the near future. Thus, as an alternative
to detailed mechanisms, reduced chemical kinetic mechanism developments are being
addressed[38]. For the present studies, a two-step, semi-empirical model with reversible
CO/C02 chemistry was utilized[See Table III].
TABLE III [Reduced Kinetic Data For n-HeJ!tanel
The rate parameters for the reaction of heptane with the oxidizer were calibrated by comparing
suspended droplet extinction diameter data[lO]of n-heptane at low pressure(no soot
formation)with calculations[See Table IV].
TABLE IV [Extinction Diameter]
Yo Pressure Experimental Calculated
0.232 125 torr 0.34 mm 0.34 mm
0.232 100 torr 0.42 mm 0.46 mm
0.232 75 torr 0.59 mm 0.65 mm
0.253 175 torr 0.29 mm 0.35 mm
0.253 150 torr 0.37 mm 0.45 mm
Figures 6 and '7 show results determined by varying the ignition energy condition for which
~
I-
...,
OJ
OJ 1. 5
E
'"
Q
c::
0
+-'
<::
0>
.5
...,'"
u
I-
u 0
.1 .15 .4 .45 .5
Mole Fraction o f Oxygen Mole Fraclion of Oxygen
the location of the ignition temperature distribution relative to the droplet surface, the
maximum temperature, and the energy content of the thermal wave were varied. The
displayed functions represent the minimum droplet size for which no amount of ignition
energy would produce ignition. At this droplet size, the combination of the thermal energy
transport to the ambient environment and that absorbed by the vaporization processes depleted
the ignition energy from the flammable regions at a rate more rapid than the critical chemical
heat release rates required for ignition. As oxygen index was decreased, the amount of energy
required to achieve ignition increased. At the limiting oxygen index, no ignition energy could
be found which would initiate droplet combustion.
Critical ignition diameter is a parameter not available from asymptotic approaches, and this
condition defines the limiting initial droplet diameter that can be utilized in experiments(the
critical ignition diameter is always larger than the extinction diameter). In order to assure that
quasi-steady burning conditions are achieved prior to the onset of droplet extinction, an initial
droplet diameter significantly larger than the critical ignition diameter should be utilized. As
expected, the critical ignition diameter is considerably increased by substitution of helium for
nitrogen diluent and by reducing the pressure. Extinction conditions are also shifted to higher
oxygen indices by diluent substitution. These data show that energy transport to the ambient
surroundings dominates the determination of critical ignition diameter conditions.
Figures 8 and 9 display the extinction diameter found as a function of ambient pressure and
~
15
...'"
I- 1.5
..,'"
l-
'"
E l1!
0
'" '"
o
c c:
0 o
.., .;;
u u
c: c: ,5
.., ' :;
>< x
'"-' '"-'
0
I , ~5 .3 O.2~'-'-'-:,~=5.w...J...J..7
.3..L.J.....LL-:I
, 35::"-,-W...J,.l...L..-'-'--':'.l:5=~
Mole fraction 01 Oxygen Mole fraction or Oxygen
diluent selection. It is important to note that there are essentially two different regimes of
droplet extinction phenomena, one in which extinction is very dependent on oxygen indices,
and one in which the dependence is weak. Extinction occurs at a critical Damkohler number
defined by the ratio of the characteristic chemical time at extinction [tel and the characteristic
time for diffusive processes[td =de/IDg such that tjte =Daexl. This observation leads to the
inquiry of whether the same kinetic phenomena are important when tc is of the order of 10-3
seconds(d. of order lOOxlO- 6 m) and when tc approaches one second(d. the order of 3000xlO-6
m). Address of this question will require experimental measurements to be made over a wide
range of initial droplet diameters and therefore burning times. Figures 10 and 11 present the
2.5
OJ 1.5
+'
'"
ex:
.5
.15 .2 .25 .3 .1 .2
Mole Fraction of Oxygen Mole Fraction of Oxygen
Fig.IO. Computational Burning Rate vs. Fig.ll. Computational Burning Rate vs.
Oxygen Mole Fraction For n-Heptane Com- Oxygen Mole Fraction For n-Heptane Com-
bustion In Oxygen-Nitrogen Environment. bustion In Oxygen-Helium Environment.
burning rates for n-heptane droplets, calculated for various oxygen indices in nitrogen and
helium diluent conditions, respectively. The combinations of the above data can assist in
defining those experiments that could be performed in ground facilities and those which can
only be performed under space-platform conditions.
Droplets smaller than 1 mm cannot be successfully studied due to the high residual velocities
imparted by the deployment and ignition mechanisms. It is also apparent that successful
experiments must utilize droplets small enough to be produced, deployed and burned to
extinction(in atmospheric air) within the 5 second constraint imposed by the drop tower. Thus,
the limiting diameter of 1.56 mm coupled with the 1 mm lower bound represents an
insufficient range for parametric investigations for evaluating the effects of the initial droplet
size on spherically symmetric droplet combustion characteristics.
Conclusions
Droptower studies have served an important role in providing preliminary information on
droplet burning characteristics. Innovative methods(Le. use of oxygen-helium environments)
extend the range of parameters for which droptowers may be utilized for combustion studies.
However, to fully develop and investigate the physical model of droplet combustion,
experiments must be conducted on space-based platforms. Computed parameters and the
degree of detail for which those parameters may be defined emphasize the need for advanced
instrumentation beyond what is presently available. Advances in both experimental and
computational components in the next phase of micro gravity droplet combustion studies offer
great promise of improving our understanding of complex fluid mechanical!chemical
interaction problems.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by NASA-Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, OH, under contract
#NAS3-24640. MYC was partially supported through the NASA Graduate Researcher
Fellowship Program. The authors would like to acknowledge the helpful comments and
discussions provided by Professor Forman A. Williams and Mr. John Card of UCSD.
352
References
26. Choi, M.Y., Cho, S.Y., Stein, Y.S., and Dryer, F.L., "Absorption OfIntermediates And
Products In Free-Falling Droplet Combustion", Eastern States Section Of The
Combustion Institute. Extended Abstract. (1990).
27a. Lee, A, Law, C.K., and Makino, A., "An Experimental Investigation Of The Droplet
Vaporization And Combustion Of Alcohol Fuels", Eastern States Section Of The
Combustion Institute. Extended Abstract. (1990).
27b. Lee, A., Law, C.K., Work in progress. (1991).
28. Choi, M.Y., Cho, S.Y., Dryer, F.L., and Haggard, J.B., "Some Further Observations
On Droplet Combustion Characteristics: NASA-LeRC-Princeton Results", AIAA/IKI
Microgravity Science Symposium. Moscow, USSR. (1991).
29. Choi, M.Y., Dryer, F.L., and Haggard, J.B., "Some Observations On The Burning Of
Methanol Droplets In Microgravity Using Various Inerts", Eastern States Section Of
The Combustion Institute. Extended Abstract. (1989).
30. Law, c.K., Xiong, T.Y., and Wang, C.H., Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 30, no. 7,
p. 1435. (1987).
31. Choi, M. Y., Dryer, F.L., and Haggard, J.B., "Observations Of A Slow Burning Regime
For Hydrocarbon Droplets", Twenty-Third Symposium(lnternational) On Combustion,
The Combustion Institute, p. 1597 (1991).
32. Shaw, B.D., Dryer, F.L., Williams, F.A, and Haggard, lB., Acta Astronautica 17, p.
1195. (1988).
33. Choi, M.Y., Dryer, F.L., Haggard, J.B., and Borowski, B., "Observations Of The
Burning Behavior Of Hydrocarbon Droplets In Reduced Pressure Environments",
Eastern States Section Of The Combustion Institute. Extended Abstract. (1990).
34. Shaw, B.D. and Williams, F.A, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 33, p.301. (1990).
35. Weinberg, F., Personal Communications. (1991).
36. Kumagai, S., Sakai, T, and Okajima, S., Thirteenth Symposium(lnternational) On
Combustion, The Combustion Institute, p.1139. (1971).
37. Parks, O.S. and Huffman, H.M., J. Am. Chern. Soc. 52, p. 1032. (1930).
38. Williams, F.A. and Dryer, F.L., Work in progress. (1991).
Ignition Delay of Premixed Gases
under Microgravity Conditions
Introduction
There have been many studies of hot surface ignition of premixed combus-
tible gases reported in the literature. In these studies, all experiments
were made under normal gravity condition, suffering from the complicated
effect of gravity. Therefore, it is very difficult to interpret these results
and also to investigate the ignition mechanisms.
Additionally, knowledge of the hot surface ignition of premixed combus-
tible gases under microgravity condition is needed to achieve proper designs
of space systems which should guarantee safe operation and reasonable const-
ruction costs. Thus, in this study, experimental and numerical studies have
been conducted on the hot surface ignition of premixed combustible gases under
microgravity condition. For comparison of the experimental results, experi-
mental study under normal gravity condition have also been conducted.
~x~e~imental ApparaJlls
The experimental apparatus is given schematically in Fig. 1. The comb-
ustion chamber is a duralumin cylinder fitted with parallel glass windows, of
60 mm in diameter and 16 mm in length. The hotwires employed in this study
were of nickel and tungsten with 0.15 mm in diameter and 40 mm in length. The
hotwire is heated electrically by the control unit. Microgravity condition
was obtained by using the free fall method [1]. To minimize the influence of
air drag, the falling assembly was mounted inside the drag shield. The
clearance between the falling assembly and the drag shield was regulated to a
certain value, which is sufficient to keep the falling assembly and drag
shield separated during the freely falling.
Generally speaking, an ideal heat source for hot surface ignition pro-
H 1. Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mechanics
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlmlleidelberg 1992
356
1111 Wire
1111
Vout
~ontrol,
Hot ,Wire
Unit
Switch
36V
~
/~ L r ~
i
vides with that it increases its temperature up to the desired value ina
short period as possible and maintains a constant temperature thereafter. To
realize this heat source, an ignition circuit which heats a hotwire electric-
ally to the desired temperature in about 10 ms and maintains its temperature
constant was made. The circuit diagram is given in Fig. 2. To keep the
hotwire temperature constant, the hotwire plays a part in the function of one
resistor of a Wheatstone-bridge. The potential difference between connections
of RA-R B and Rc-the hotwire drives the OP-amp, whose output current is ampli-
fied by Trs. Therefore, the change in resistance, i.e. the temperature, of
the hotwire yields the desired feedback effect so that the temperature of the
hotwire maintains constant. The constant value had been adjusted beforehand
by varying the resistance of RC.
Experimental procedure
The combustible premixed gases employed in this study were stoichiometric
methane-oxygen and methane-air mixtures. The falling assembly and the drag
shield was hung in the uppermost position of the falling tower by a steel
wire, as shown in Fig. I. The initial pressure and the initial temperature
of the gases were atmospheric pressure and room temperature, respectively.
Immediately after the wire is cut by a cutter, the switch of the ignition
circuit is turned on. When the combustible gas ignites around the hotwire,
the onset of the flame, namely ignition, is detected as a sudden heating of
the hotwire, and consequently, in a sharp decrease in OP-amp output voltage.
Accordingly, ignition can be determined by change in the OP-amp output voltage
measured by a digital storage oscilloscope.
357
Os cilloscope traces of the OP-amp output and the signal from the photo-
diode which measures the light intensity from the hotwire are given in Fig. 3.
The time is given from when the switch of the ignition circuit is turned on.
About 10 ms is found to heat up the hotwire for both traces . Thereafter, it
is shown that the temperature of the hotwire is constant, which can be con-
firmed especially from the photodiode output trace .
The output signals of the OP-amp and the photodiode when the gas ignites
are given in Fig . 4. When the gas ignites, the OP-amp output voltage decrea-
ses quickly because of the heating effect of the hotwire . Simultaneously,
the signal from the photodiode, which detects the light from the hotwire and
the fl ame, increases rapidly. Thus , it is found that ignition occurrence can
be det erm i ned successfully . The time of the ignition occurrence is defined
as the ignition delay.
V
V 40 V
V
I I
o I I a O~~~--~~--~~--~-L~L-~O
100 200 100 200
ms ms
Fig .3 Oscilloscope traces of the Fig.4 Oscilloscope traces of the
OP-amp output and the OP-amp output and the
signal from the photodiode signal from the photodiode
(without combustion) (with combustion)
ap a(pVr)
+ o
at r ar
pk
at r ar r ()r ar p
where Pk' Ok and (Pk)c are the mole fraction, the diffusion coefficient and
the formation rate of species k, respectively, and p, p, T, and E are the
density, the pressure, the temperature and the specific total energy of the
gas mixture.
The viscous stress u rr is given by
av A a(vr)
2/1~-- +
ar r 8r
aT , phkO k
il(Pk/ P)
--
qr -/C~
L
--------- --
ar k ar
gases. Thermochemical data for these species were assembled from JANAF
tables [8). As elementary reactions, 39 reversible equations are considered.
The rate constants of the equations are cited from Ref. [2-5].
The boundary conditions are given by
g.)[I2~Lm~QtaLre_s~~H~
Ignition delays for the stoichiometric mixture of methane and oxygen were
measured under normal gravity and microgravity conditions, the nickel wire
being used. Their dependence upon the hotwire temperature is plotted in Fig.
5. The results under both conditions seem to agree with each other when the
hotwire temperature is as high as 1250 K, while, at lower temperatures, the
ignition delay under microgravity condition is shorter than the results ob-
tained under normalgravity condition, and the difference between them become
I I 1
1000 I- -
Vl 0
o No rmal gravity
E
'" Micro gravity
>,
800 - -
a;'" 0
"0
0
C '"
:::; 600 I- 0
c: 0
'" <l>
400 - 0 B e -
0
§ 8
Q
I'
200 -
0 I
i '"
l ~
1180 1200 1220 1240 1260
WIre temperature K
Fig.5 Ignition delay of stoichiometric methane-oxygen mixture
measured under normalgravity and microgravity conditions.
360
400 400
0 8
e
VI
eVI e
M1cro grav1ty
Normal gravity ,., 0
0
>. 0 '"
'"
0; 0;
'0
'0
g
c:
<:: Q 0
g :;
0
:; 200 0 200
c:
~ §
c:
0 ~
0
~
0
0
0 [3
0 0 0
0
0 0
1400 1600 1800 1400 1600 1800
Wire temperature K Wire temperature K
is consumed practically, is apart from the hotwire surface because the hotwire
absorbs heat from adjacent gas as chemical reaction develops. On the other
hand, the calculated ignition point on the methane-air mixture is nearby the
hotwire surface because the hotwire temperature is so high that the adjacent
gas suffer less loss of heat to the hotwire.
Numerical result
Prediction of the ignition delay dependence upon the hotwire temperature
for the stoichiometric methane-air mixture is given in Fig. 7, with the
experimental results obtained under microgravity condition. The solid line
and single points represent numerical and experimental results, respectively.
Chemical reaction rate of the mixture around the hotwire decreases in keeping
with the hotwire temperature. As chemical reaction rate decreases, the amount
of radical species which are removed by diffusion becomes comparable with that
supplied by chemical reaction. Accordingly, the ignition delay increases
rapidly with decreasing hotwire temperature. The predicted hotwire temper-
ature did not agree with the experimental results. This disagreement is
probably due to the surface catalysis of the hotwire, which is not included in
the numerical model.
~
e
~
~
~
~ 400
~
~
0
~
c 0
~
~§
200
800
0
1500
Wlre temperature K
Conclusions
Experimental and numerical studies have been conducted about hot surface
ignition of premixed gases under normal gravity and microgravity conditions.
With methane-oxygen mixture, measured ignition delay was influenced by gra-
vity, and this effect of gravity intensified with increasing ignition delay.
On the contrary, with methane-air mixture. no remarkable effect of gravity was
observed.
Numerical prediction and experimental result with methane-air mixture
agreed with each other qualitatively, but quantitative agreement was not
obtained. This disagreement is probably due to the surface catalysis of the
hotwire, which is not included in this model.
References
(I)Niwa, M. et al., 26st Symposium on Combustion, pp 395 (1988), (Japanese).
(2)Westbrook, C. K., Dryer, F. L. and Shung. K.. P .. Combustion and flame.
52, pp 299 (1983).
(3)Westbrook, C. K. and Dryer, F. L.. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci .. 10, pp 1
(1984)
(4)Baulch. D. L.. et al., Evaluated Kinetic Data for High Temperature
Reactions. Vol. 1 (1976), Butterworths.
(5)Lawrence, R. T .. et aI, 21st Symposium (international) on Combustion.
pp 965 (1986).
(6)Hirschfelder, J. 0., Curtiss. C. F., and Bird. R. B.. Molecular Theory of
Gases and Liquids, (1964), John Wiley & Sons.
(7)Monchick, L. and Mason, E. A., Journal of Chemical Physics .. 35, pp 1676,
(1961).
(8)Stull, D. R. and Prophet, H., JANAF Thermochemical Tables. 3rd ed.,
(1986) U. S. Dept. Commerce, Washington.
Velocity Measurement by PIV in Flames
A. SANZ ANDRES
Abstract
Combustion science involves many complex phenomena, some of them entangled by gravity
effects. Reduced gravity will be a mean of sorting out the role of some processes, thus
allowing a better understanding of the phenomena. A set of combustion areas with reduce
gravity relevance has been identified. Among these areas, one experiment was selected: the
laminar jet diffusion flame (LJDF). In order to study one of the most interesting experimental
characteristics in combustion, the velocity field, a Particle Image Yelocimetry (PlY)
instrument, together with a LJDF workbench, has been set up. Main concerns in PlY applied
to flames are: tracer selection and seeding, optical system, velocity range, photography and
film interpretation. Attention has been payed to these subjects. Measurements performed
with a LJDF are reported and critically discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Combustion science deals with the study of the interactions of many complex effects,
namely: convective and diffusive mass transport, conductive, convective and radiative heat
transport, chemical reactions. All these phenomena coexist when a material is burning. There
are two main reasons for experimentation on combustion in reduced-gravity conditions: basic
understanding of some aspects of combustion processes and study of fire safety. Gravity
influences combustion processes. Reduced gravity will mean absence of sedimentation and
of buoyancy induced convection. The absence of sedimentation will allow to obtain clearly
defined initial conditions (e.g. in cloud combustion) and avoid changes in geometrical
stability of burned solid and liquid products. But the main advantage is the reduced
buoyancy-induced convection of outmost importance in gases when there are large
temperature gradients. When buoyancy forces are reduced, the equilibrium between different
transport phenomena (mass, momentum, heat) is altered. Among others, the combustion
experimentation areas of more relevance to be investigated in space are [1-3]: 1) minimum
ignition energy in premixed gases, 2) flammability limits in premixed gases, 3) combustion
in nonflowing premixed gaseous media, 4) instabilities in laminar premixed flames, 5)
extinction of laminar premixed flames, 6) laminar diffusion flames, 7) boundary layer
2. PIV DESCRIPTION
This is a particle tracking technique with coherent optical analysis [4-6]. A plane in the
fluid, seeded with microparticles, is illuminated by a thin sheet of light from a pulsating
source. Each particle scatters the light which is then collected and added on an image plane.
A point or speckle for each light pulse appears on the image plane and from the distance
between two or more consecutive points the local modulus and direction of the velocity can
be inferred. When the images of the individual particles can be distinguished, the technique is
known as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). When the individual images overlap, a random
speckle pattern appears. This last technique is often known as Speckle Velocimetry (SV).
Both techniques, which are otherwise quite similar, differ in the tracer concentration, but
image analysis (reconstruction) is identical in both cases. The analysis of the stored
information can be performed by Spatial Filtering or by Young's Fringe Analysis. Young's
Fringe analysis [7] consists in illuminating a small region of the recorded image with a
collimated coherent beam so that pairs of successive images of each particle act as two holes
in the screen of a Young interferometer. Interference fringes appear on the image due to an
integral effect of the different pairs. The modulus and orientation of the average velocity in
365
the interrogation spot is deduced from the fringes. The velocity data in selected grid points
are stored for later analysis. Most critical items detected in the case of application of PIV to
flame study are: 1) tracer selection; 2) tracer seeding; 3) optical system; 4) velocity range; 5)
films; and 6) image interpretation.
Tracer Selection: Criteria for tracer selection are light scattering performance [8] and
satisfactory tracking [9]. The region of particle diameters for satisfactory tracking is that
shown in Fig. VII-7 in Fristrom & Westenberg [9]. Typical particle trace diameters for P =
105 Pa are in the range 1 11 to 20 11. A more detailed analysis can be found in [3].
Tracer seeding: Speckle velocimetry, as well as any particle tracing or visualization
method, requires an efficient particle seeding system. After paying due attention at several
systems 19-12J the device seiected to seed the gas fiows IS that based on the principie of the
reverse-flow cyclone separator [13] but employed in essentially the opposite purpose [3].
Optical System: The optical system has been designed to form a pulsed light sheet 50 x
10- 3 m high, 0.5 x 10- 3 m wide along the combustion chamber. The arrangement is shown in
Fig. 1. The system fulfills three different objectives: time modulation of the light beam, light
sheet formation and image formation. The laser-light source is a multi-line Innova 70-4
Argon-Ion 4 W laser manufactured by Coherent Inc. By using the strongest lines, 514.5 x 10-
9 m (1.7 W) and 488.0 x 10- 9 m (1.3 W), a 2 W output could be achieved.
Time modulation of the light beam is achieved by using an acousto-optic modulator
(AOM) and a zero order stop plate. The chopped first order laser beam is converted to a light
sheet. The light-sheet crosses the combustion chamber through the axis of the burner. The
light scattered by the seeded tracer particles placed within the light-sheet in the
perpendicular direction, is gathered by a lens and focused onto a photographic film. In front
2ti
3
0 0
0
1
t 1
~
,8
I,
I
4 5 6 7
111213
CItl UJ (
~9
r--
r-i-.10
Fig. 1. Sketch of the optical system. 1) Ion-Ar Laser, 2) and 3) Mirrors, 4) Acousto-optic
modulator (AOM), 5) Zero order stop, 6) Negative spherical lens, 7) Cylindrical lens, 8)
Mirror, 9) Combustion chamber, 10) Beam stop, 11) Photographic camera, 12)
Interference filter, 13) Absorption filter.
366
of the lens two filters have been placed in order to reduce flame emission gathering by the
lens: an interference filter and an absorption gelatine filter which reduces red and yellow
light from the flame to the film. The camera uSed is a I'".J'ikon F~v1-2 w'ith a lens tv1icro-t-rikkor
(f = 105 x 10- 3 m, F/2.8).
The particle image diameter, de, is [14] de = (m2dp2+ds2)1/2 , ds = 2.44(m+ l)FA, where m
is the optics magnification, d s is the diameter of the Airy disk, F is the aperture number of the
collecting lens and A is the wavelength of the light used. With m = 0.5, F = 2.8, A = 0.5 x 10-
6 m (for Argon-ion laser) a value d s = 5.1 x 10- 6 m is obtained. For dp = 9 x 10- 6 m a value
de = 6.8 x 10- 6 m. However, focussing at F = 2.8 is very critical because of the short focus
depth. Thus, unless very careful procedure is taken larger de will be obtained.
Velocity range: One of the most critical requirements was the measurement, with a
single laser, of the local velocites both within the flame and in the surroundings. Since
maximum to minimum velocity ratios of the order of 100 were observed in preliminary tests,
typical PIV dynamic ranges L'lv = 10, fall too short of the target and large regions of the flow
field would have velocities out of the measurement range. Therefore, some modification
should be introduced in order to achieve larger values of L'lv. A double range time modulation
of the light sheet illumination has been used to this aim. It is accomplished by using a
combined pulse train as sketched in Fig. 2. A detailed analysis of the relationships between
the parameters involved (maximum speed, particle image diameter, exposure and
interexposure times of pulse trains) can be found in [3].
Photography: The large speeds to be measured require very low exposure times, thus
either large laser power or large sensitivity films should be used. Sensitivity and resolution
(which set a limit to the PIV dynamic range) are conflicting requirements for films. So that a
trade-off should be accomplished.
Film Interpretation: In the PIV technique film frames of the flow with the double or
multiexposed images of the tracers containing the particle displacements are obtained, which
, ,- -
,,, ,
r - -
,
j- - ,
05
)
, , ,
, , ,
, , , ,
_., Q
.
,- ,. ,,' - ,,
, ,
I·
l(n 2 -l)8't 2 i
~ il
-.. ..-
~
I ot l .
0' tl
Fig. 2. Combined pulse train for time modulation of the laser beam. 8ti: exposure time,
8'ti: interexposure time. i denotes the range: 1, slow range; 2, fast range.
367
CONTACT
PRINT
ON X·Y TABLE SCREEN
Before performing the search for the position of the maximum in the FFf (containing the
fringe information), some image processing is needed. The scheme followed is similar to that
described in 1161. The measured fringe distance typically ranges between 4 to 25 (work is
under way to increase the dynamic range by reducing the minimum value). To increase the
resolution, a bi-parabolic interpolation between the neighbouring points in the FFf [16] is
made. To validate the software procedures above mentioned, images of Young fringes like
those obtained from the analysis of PlY images are needed of known characteristics (mainly
fringe separation). Such images should contain Young fringes whose brightness decreases
with the distance to the image center and blurred by the typical speckle noise produced by the
scattering of coherent light at the contact print. A procedure to create such synthetic speckle
noise- Young fringes (SNYF) has been developed . The main point is that results from
algorithms to find the maximum on the FFf of the Young fringe images depend in some
extent on the noise present in the image. Images of the typical SNFS image and the resulting
SN image are shown in Fig 4. Test performed showed that errors produced by the
interpolation are of some 0.5 %.
3. EXPERIMENTS
Jet diffusion flames oscillate except at very small flow rates and reported flame lengths
are, in general , refered to the mean height value. The low fuel flow rate required to achieve
steady diffusion flames is in conflict with the seeder performance so that fuel flow is difficult
to seed. A number of tests were conducted to asses the PlY suitability, and to explore the
influence of different factors: tracer concentration, films, type of tracers and laser power. The
368
a b
r a. -."
C ·.... .. ... .
.~~s: ...~:.
-» - ...
.
III •
.
._... ..-...---.;,. .
• ••,...;;:
....... #
~
c d
parameters that have been used along these tests are the following: ambient pressure (10 5 Pa)
and temperature (300 K); fuel volume flow rate 1.6 x 10- 6 m3.s-l; fuel exit velocity, 30 x 10-
3 m.s- 1; outer jet flow rate, 30 x 10- 6 m3x 1; outer jet velocity, 30 x 10-3 m.s- 1; 9 x 10-6 m
diameter Al203 tracers; 14 x 10- 6 m Zr02 tracers; optics magnification 0.5; exposure and
interexposure times ofrange 1 and 2, O't] = 2.5 x 10- 3 s; 0'12 = 250 x 10-6 s; 012 = 50 x 10- 6
s; camera shutter speed 1/15 (= 66 x 10-3 s). The quoted values of the flow rates are the
largest that can be achieved with this configuration with steady flow. At larger flow rates the
flame either oscillates or is blown off the burner tip. Two types of tracers were used: Al203
and Zr02. Both types of tracers affect the flame luminosity. The spectrum of Al203 seeded
flames has been described in 1171. A strong emission at the Sawn bands was reported. The
configuration of Zr02 seeded flames looks roughly the same as that of A1203, but with
369
a b
'o.-------,------.,------,-------,
°2~
0 ------~--,---~--.---~----~
20
~ig.5 . a) PIV image of a laminar jet diffusion flame. Main garameters .are: range 1
mterexposure, 0'11 = 2.5 x 10- 3 s, range 2 exposure, 012 = 50 x 10- s, range 2 Int~rexposure,
0't2 = 250 x 10- 6 s, and camera shutter speed 1/15 ('" 66. x 10- 3 s). b) Velocity field. y:
vertical distance [mm] measured from the burner rim. r: radial distance [mm] measured from
the burner axis. The two velocity ranges are clearly shown. Vector lengths are proportional to
the flow speed. In range 2 (inner region) velocities are 10 times larger than in range I
(surroundings) so that they are divided by this factor to allow a joint display.
rrl2
.. ...".....
"..--'
I I
- .. ,
j --... r---:-"-'.'/
.
-'--.
1-.••-•...--
1t12
lei
I
1.6
al I I
bl
0
o
I
'.
:
I
20
1
.. i ,2
_ 1_ : '.
Ivl vy
o ·......... · 1·:'~I'"
", 1'"-· I
-
08
I
20
i' 'J,
o
.~.....,., ....';,' /'
~
'''. I ~---- 04 I 1
I
.... ,
20 I
v, I I _-: 1
.1
-----..
I
1 .....I o __ I '.'"-. 02
o
0
0
, . . . .-.. .. t ... .--..........-.. .~ 0 Vr
20 o 20 20 o 20
Fig. 6. Variation with radial coordinate r [mmJ of the velocity components at distance y from
the burner rim. a) Radial variation of radial speed Vr , axial speed, Vy and velocity modulus
IVI are scaled in fringe number. e: velocity inclination with respect to the horizontal. One
fringe represents 8 mm.s- 1 and 80 mm.s- 1 in ranges 1 and 2 respectively (obviously e is not
influenced by the range change). In Vy and Vr slots all data taken are plotted. Rejected
values are not shown in IVI and e plots. y = 12 x 10- 3 m. b) Velocity components in m.s- 1
after appropriate scaling of each range . y = 28 x 10- 3 m.
371
-. _.... "--------
TtI2
161
....
1.6 0
1.2
Vy
~
0.8
I
,- I
,
o· ~ ,
I
0
_.. ........ . ..
. r---
20
0
V,
0 1.0
Y
Fig.7. Variation with axial coordinate y (in Imm], measured from the burner rim) of the
radial, Vr , and axial, Yy , velocity components [m.s-1]and of the velocity inclination, e [rad].
4. CONCLUSIONS
A selection of an experiment (LJDF) has been performed between a set of relevant
combustion areas to be investigated in Ilg conditions, and a setup for LJDF production has
been accomplished. A non intrusive diagnostic instrument (PlY) has been setup for
measurement of velocities in flames and application was made to the LJDF experiment.
High speed films has been used in order to reduce the laser power needed (not available
in space platfoms in a tradeoff with) paying in low resolution and, thus, lower SNR. Software
simulation of Young fringes appearing in PlY was carried out to analyze the effect of the
several paremeters involved. Results are reported elsewhere [3].
Maximum flow speed of LJDF in l-g were much larger than expected for Ilg conditions;
so that the double range time modulation of the laser illumination had to be adapted.
In spite of the above mentioned problems velocities in a total range of 0.03-1.6 m.s.-I,
with a 3% accuracy (in each subrange), have been measured in LJDF, over a field of view
of 40 x 40 x 10- 6 m 2 . Further work is needed to reduce the minimum number of fringes
which mainly limits the attainable dynamic range.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank I. Da Riva for helpful discussions. A substantial part
of the work was supported by ESTEC/Domier under contract RAA-DS-11433 A 03235. Also
acknowledged is the image processing infrastructure made available though the Spanish
Comisi6n Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologfa (CICYT, Project No. ESP88--0359).
372
REFERENCES
1. Berlad, A.L., 1983, "Fundamental Combustion Experiments in Microgravity", in
"Material Sciences under Microgravity", ESA SP-191, Paris, pp. 183-190.
2. Berlad, AL., 1986, "Combustion Studies in Low Gravity", Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics, Vol. 108, New York, pp. 201-224.
3. Da. Riva et aI., 1990, "High Temperature Facility Technology Study. WP 9000",
ESTEC/Dornier Contract RAA-DS-11433 A 03235, July 1990.
7. Glisvik, KJ., 1987, "Optical Metrology", 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, Chap.
6, pp. 154-156.
8. Witze, P.O., Baritaud, T.A., 1988, "Particle Seeding for Mie Scattering Measurements in
Combustion Flows", in "Laser Anemometry in Fluid Mechanics - III", LADOAN,
Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 489-502.
9. Fristom, R.M., Westen berg, A.A, 1965, "Flame Structure", McGraw-Hill, New York.
10. Chen, L.D., Roquemore, W.M., 1986, "Visualization of Jet Flames", Combustion and
Flame, Vol. 66, No.1, pp. 81-86.
11. Glass, M., Kennedy, I.M., 1977, "An Improved Seeding Method for High Temperature
Laser Doppler Velocimetry", Combustion and Flame, Vol. 29, pp. 333-335.
12. Strehlow, R.A, Reuss, D.L., 1980, "Effect of a Zero g Environment on Flammability
Limits as Determined Using a Standard Flammability Tube Apparatus", NASA CR
3259, Washington.
14. Adrian, R.J., Yao, C.S., 1985, "Pulsed Laser Technique Application to Liquid and
Gaseous Flows and the Scattering Power of Seed Materials", Applied Optics, Vol. 24,
No.1, pp. 44-52.
15. Pickering, CJ.D., Halliwell, N.A., 1984, "Speckle Photography in Fluid Flows: Signal
Recovery with Two-Step Processing", Applied Optics, Vol. 23, No.8, pp. 1128-1129.
16. Wozniak, K., Wozniak, G., Roesgen, T., 1990, "Experimental Investigation of the
Thermocapillary Flow around a Bubble by Means of Laser-Speckle- Velocimetry", ESA
SP-295, pp. 337-342.
17. Krinkels, M.CJ.M., 1990, "High Temperature Facility Technology Study", WP 9340,
NLR Progress Report.
Stability of the Vapour Phase in a Rotating Two-
Phase Fluid System Subjected to Different
Gravitational Intensities
ABSTRACT
An experimental study is presented of the stability of a bubble immersed in a
liquid phase with both phases in an isothermal, constant volume, constant mass system
that is subjected to both centrifugal and gravitational fields. The stability of the bubble
was examined in both ground based studies and in an aircraft flying Keplarian
parabolas. It was found that for a given gravitational intensity there is a lower limit of
the rotation rate for which the bubble will remain stable. If the rotation rate becomes
less than this value the bubble becomes unstable and breaks into two or more smaller
bubbles. The lower limit of the rotation rates for which a bubble remains stable
increases approximately linearly with increases in the gravitational intensity.
INTRODUCTION
A number of instabilities at fluid interfaces have been previously identified.
These include the Rayleigh-Taylor instability that arises when a more dense fluid
overlays another fluid in a gravitational field and the interface is subjected to an
acceleration [1, 2]. A second type arises when a droplet is subjected to a velocity field
that elongates the droplet [3, 4].
An analytical study of the stability of a liquid droplet immersed in a rotating,
denser liquid has been reported by Rosenthal [5], but gravitational effects were
neglected. He found the possibility of an instability developing if the rotation rate was
increased too rapidly.
We investigate an instability that can arise when a vapor phase is immersed in a
liquid phase and the system is subjected to both a gravitational and a centrifugal field.
The centrifugal field causes the bubble to become elongated in a direction parallel to the
axis of rotation [6]. In the absence of gravity, the longitudinal axis of the bubble
coincides with the axis of rotation and the bubble is stable. If a gravitational field is
now applied to this latter circumstance, the longitudinal axis of the bubble moves off
the axis of rotation with the result that the bubble is subjected to a shear by the greater
velocity over the top of the bubble than that over the bottom. The shear is in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bubble (in contrast to the circumstance
considered in Refs. [3,4]). For a given rate of rotation, we fmd experimentally that if
the gravitational intensity exceeds a limiting value, the bubble becomes unstable and
breaks into two or more smaller bubbles.
EXPERIMENTAL ApPARATUS
A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus that was used in the study is
shown in Fig. 1. A glass cylinder that was 16 mm inside diameter, 22 mm outside
diameter and 250 mm long was used as the experimental vessel and water as the
experimental liquid. The water was distilled, deionized and filtered (18 Megaohm,
71.22 ± 0.18 ml/m at 24.1 ± 0.1°C) before it was used to completely fill the glass
cylinder. The cylinder was closed by two stainless steel end plates that were sealed to
the glass cylinder by polytetrafluoroethylene rings. The end plates were held in
position by three bolts that extended from one end of the cylinder to the other. (The
bolts are not shown in the schematic.) The stems of the end plates were placed in self-
aligning pillow block bearings for support of the cylinder and to minimize friction
effects.
One end plate served the dual purpose of housing a threaded piston that could
be retracted to change the volume of the cylinder and of carrying the pulley belt that was
connected to a variable speed motor. The volume change that resulted from rotating the
threaded piston could be simply calculated by measuring the number of rotations, and
making use of the pitch of the threads (0.8 mm), and the cross-sectional area of the
piston, Ac (154 mm 2 ).
The speed of rotation was measured with a tachometer which had a sensitivity
of ± 0.017 Hz in the range of rotation rates that we examined. The variable speed
motor (Pine Instrument Co., USA) could rotate the cylinder at speeds up to 75 Hz.
The other end plate housed a thermistor that could be used to monitor the temperature of
the liquid. The thermistor was connected to a ohmmeter through a slip ring (Michigan
Scientific, USA) which was fitted to this end plate. The thermistor was calibrated
using a constant temperature heat bath before being used in an experiment. It had a
sensitivity of ± 0.2°C.
The phase boundary was photographed with a video camera (Sony, CCD-V99,
8 mm) that could be played back to examine the bubble shape frame by frame. The
framing rate was 30 per second. The images recorded from each experiment were
stored (Scion Image capture board and Apple MacIntosh IIx computer) for later
examination.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
After the cylinder had been filled with water and the end plates fastened into
position, the piston was retracted to introduce a vapour phase. By weighing the
375
cylinder before and after filling, the total mass of H20 within the cylinder could be
determined.
Experiments with this system were then conducted under normal and under
variable gravitational conditions. The latter were conducted in an aircraft (KC-135) that
flew Keplarian parabolas and thereby provided a spectrum of gravitational intensities
that ranged from ± 0.03 to 1.8 times the normal intensity, go. The reduced
gravitational intensity lasted approximately 25 ± 5s.
A. GROUND-BASED STUDIES
The apparatus shown schematically in Fig. 1 was used to conduct a series of
experiments at normal gravitational intensity. The procedure followed was to rotate the
cylinder at a sufficiently high rate so that the bubble almost extended the entire length of
the cylinder. This was expected to bring all of the bubbles in the system to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder and to merge them into one vapor volume. Then the
rate of rotation was slowly reduced until the bubble broke into several smaller bubbles.
It was found that if the rate of rotation was slowly reduced or if the rotation rate
was reduced to a particular value and the system allowed to remain at this value for a
period of time before the rotational rate was altered again, approximately the same
limiting value of the rotation rate was found to lead to the bubble breaking into several
smaller bubbles.
After a series of experiments had been conducted with the volume of the system
set at one value, this parameter was altered and the experimental procedure repeated. A
second sample of liquid was also prepared and the experimental procedure repeated
with the mass of fluid being different.
In these experiments, the gravitational intensity was known and the lower limit
of the rotation rate was measured for which a bubble was stable in the system. When
the video tape was reviewed frame by frame, the observation was that in one frame the
bubble was present, then the rotation rate was reduced again, and the bubble would
become unstable and break apart. Thus the limiting rate was between the two measured
rotation rates. It was taken to be the average and an error range assigned that covered
the interval between the two rates (see Table I).
Also the length of the bubble just before it broke apart was recorded in these
experiments. An uncertainty in the measured length resulted from a nonlinear effect in
the camera lens. A calibrated length was measured at the center of the cylinder and an
error range was assigned on the basis of the accuracy of the calibration measurement.
These error bars are also shown in Table I.
B. STUDIES UNDER VARIABLE GRAVITATIONAL INTENSITIES
The same experimental apparatus (Fig. 1) was placed on the KC-135 aircraft
and exposed to a series of Keplarian parabolas. A series of experiments was conducted
376
to detennine if the rotation rate changed as the aircraft went through a parabola. The
rate of rotation of the cylinder was measured with a tachometer while the cylinder was
rotating in the 10\\'-g phase of a parabola, and then 111easured several times as the
gravitational intensity increased when the aircraft went through the remainder of a
parabola. After perfonning this procedure on several parabolas, it was concluded that
the rotation rate did not change significantly during a parabola once it had been set.
In the low-g phase of a parabola, it was found that the bubble was stable over a
wide range of rotation rates but if the rotation rate was held constant at a particular
value, then as the gravitational intensity increased due to the motion of the aircraft, the
bubble became unstable and broke into two or more smaller bubbles. In some
instances, there was a second or third break-up of the bubbles.
An experimental procedure was developed that allowed the gravitational
intensity at which a bubble became unstable to be recorded. In the low-g phase of a
parabola, the bubble was positioned in the cylinder away from the ends and the rotation
rate was set at a particular value. The rotation rate then remained unchanged as the
aircraft went through the remainder of the parabola. Both the image of the bubble and
the accelerometer reading were recorded in each frame of the video tape. After the
flight was completed, the recording from the video camera was reviewed and the
gravitational intensity at break-up noted for each particular rotation rate. A summary of
these results are shown in Fig. 2.
In these experiments, the rotation rate was known (to within ± 0.083 Hz) and
the gravitational intensity was changed due to the motion of the aircraft. When the
video tape was reviewed, the observation was that in one frame the gravitational
intensity was a particular value and a single bubble was present. In the next frame, the
gravitational intensity was different and the bubble had broken up. The gravitational
intensity at break-up was thus between these two values. The average was taken and
an error bar assigned that covered the range of possible gravitational intensities.
EXPERIMENT AL RESULTS
The experiments performed at normal gravitational intensity, go (Le. in the
ground based studies), indicated that there is a lower limit to the rotation rate for which
a bubble remains stable. The results obtained are summarized in Table I. In the fIrst
three cases listed there, the temperature and the total number of moles of H20 within
the cylinder were constant but the volume was different in each case. The experimental
procedure was repeated at each volume. The length of the bubble examined more than
doubled as a result of the change in the system volume. However there was no
signifIcant change in the value found for the lower limit of the rotation rate for which
the bubble was stable.
377
In the last case shown in Table I, the number of moles of H20 within the
cylinder, the total volume and the temperature were changed. Note that although the
bubble length in this latter case is within the range measured for the other values of
these system parameters, the lower limit of the rotation rate for bubble stability is
changed in this case, but not to a large extent.
For the sake of comparison, the experimental apparatus was placed on the
aircraft with the system parameters total mass of H20 and total volume unchanged from
the last case shown in Table I. The gravitational intensity at which a bubble became
unstable was measured as a function of the rotation rate using the procedure described
above. The results are summarized in Fig. 2.
As may be seen there, the gravitational intensity at which the bubble became
unstable increased approximately linearly with an increase in the rotation rate. Also the
value obtained for the limiting rotation rate in the ground based studies compares
reasonably well with the values obtained in the aircraft. There was a difference in the
temperature between the ground based study and that in the aircraft. This could have
played a role.
CONCLUSION
When a vapor bubble is immersed in an isothermal fluid system of constant
volume and mass, and the system is subjected to a centrifugal field, the effect on the
bubble is to elongate it along the axis of rotation [6]. If a gravitational field is now
applied that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, then depending on the intensity of
the gravitational field, the bubble can become unstable and break apart. For given
values of the system volume, mass and temperature, the measurements reported in
Fig. 2 indicate that as the rotation rate is increased the gravitational intensity required to
destabilize the bubble increases linearly. The destabilizing gravitational intensity is
insensitive to the bubble length, to the system volume for a given mass, but it does
depend to some degree on the system mass. The role of temperature has not been
established.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Canadian Space Agency and the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council.
378
REFERENCES
5. Rosenthal, D. K., The shape and stability of a bubble at the axis of a rotating
liquid, J. Fluid Mech. 12, 358-366 (1962).
TABLE I
Variable
Speed
MOIOf
oeon""Jle:
o
Self-Aligning Self-Aligning
Pillow Bearing
Pillow Bleek Bearing
8mmVideo
CCDCamen
Maonlosh !lx.
SOON Image CapIUM 2 Board
2.0
""
:J
.e
.D
;r
1.5
.:!l'"
-~ 1.0
!1'"
.SO
(;i
c:
-B 0.5
-~
>
e
0
0_0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
00, Hz
Fi.gure 2: Measured upper limit (solid squares) of the gravitational intensity at 36.8° ± 1.8°C for
which a bubble in a rotating system remains stable and the measured lower limit
(open symbol) at 31 ° ± OS of the rotation rate at normal gravitational intensity for
which a bubble in the same system remains stable. The other experimental
parameters are given in Table I.
Mathematical Modelling of Microsphere
Formation under Short-Time Weightlessness
Summary
The expansion of a liquid shell filled with solute gas under
intensive heat exchange is an important step in the fabrication
of spherical microspheres in a heated tower [1]. The present
study is devoted to mathematical modelling of the above men-
tioned process.In Section 1, the authors present the general
model considered to be applicable to describing all stages of
the spherically symmetric expansion of a liquid shell under the
above-mentioned conditions. However, the performed calculations
show its insufficient efficiency. This can be explained by a
very strong time change of thermal conditions and, consequent-
ly,fluid characteristics in producing microspheres in a heated
tower. For example, for glass microspheres (on which production
description the authors of the present ~aper oriented their
studies), the temprrature2ffrop~ reach 2000 K and fluid viscosi-
ty ranges from 10 to 10 cm /s while the process duration is
1 s. An abrupt change of parameters leads to the necessity of
using a small time step, which increases the computation time.
In Section 2, the authors propose various approximate models
for different stages of the shell expansion. These are compared
in numerical experiments. In Section 3, the phenomenological
model, derived under the thin layer approximation without the
assumption of spherical symmetry, is briefly described. It -
could be applied to the investigation of the final stage of
microsphere formation, its stability and refinement.
1. Governing equations
The proposed models are based on the following assumptions:
1. Solute gas is a passive impurity, i.e., its concentration
does not affect the physical characteristics of the liquid.
2. The material of the microsphere is a viscous incompressible
fluid with temperature-dependent coefficients of viscosity V,
diffusion D, heat conductivity ~ and surface tension U.
H J Rath (EdItor)
M1CrOgravity FlUid Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
382
r E 0i (t) , (1 )
r E 0z(t), i 1,2,3, (2 )
v(r,t) = V(t)/r,
z p(r,t) = peri (t),t) -
r
z
V(t)/r 1 ,
z
r~ v(t)/r z ' (4 )
383
-1
pz)/ri)-12VJ~(8)C-4dC-G(8(r1't))/r1-G(8(rz,t))/rz] (5)
r1
P1 (t)/R8(r,t) (6 )
'Y - 1 r dP1
v (r, t) (£
18r - when r E 01 (t) (7 )
'YP1 3'YP1 dt
dP 1 (3 (J-l)
(£ 8 - 3'YP1 ] (8)
1 r --;;- v Ir=r -0
dt r1 1 1
D Bc
v(r 1 +0,t) - --I (mass) (9 )
P1 Br r=r 1
--I
Bc
i 1,2 (energy) (10)
D Br r=r
i
and one for the chemical potential of the gas. The latter could
be written in the form of Henry's law
384
"e:
c{r,t) = c{",), 8 (r,t) = t ke" ("'),
e: e: 1
r i = ",at, vet) __ '"e:30t31-i.
i 1,2. (14)
-- --
----
1.5
- 0
- 0
,/
/'"
/
/
/
/
0.3 ~~==- ______________
o 0.1 t, S
Fig .1.
386
1.5
/
"./'
-- ---- -- - ---
/
/
/
/
0.3 ~~~~~~~::=-_----,.-...
o 0.1 t. s
Fig.2.
It turned out that in the heating regime, the models with tern
perature averaged in 0 and the temperature continuity condition
give slower expansion of the shell than does the exact model.
When the difference between the initial glass temperature and
387
-- -- o
/
,/"
/"
....- -- - -
/
0.3 ~~=- ______________---.,.-_
o 0.1 t, S
Fig.3
--
1.5
--
/
,/"
/"
....- --- --
/
0.1 t, S
Fig.4
388
The simplest model taking into account this effect is the fol-
lowing: the gas temperature in and around the shell is indepen-
dent of radius, the fluid temperature is a linear function of
radius, the thermal conditions on the fluid-gas boundaries have
form (14). The resulting calculations demonstrate that this
model allows practically full agreement with computational
results based on the exact model to be attained making use of
the appropriate coefficient ~. At the same time, it is much
more efficient as compared to the exact model. The calculation
duration for one process variant according to this model is
approximately 10 times less.
References
1. Dorogotovtsev V.M., Merkulyev Yu.A., Startsev S.A. Investi
gation of heat-mass-fluid dynamics processes in hole-
microsphere technology under low-gravity conditions. Hydro
dynamics and Heat/Mass Transfer under Weightlessness. Novo
sibirsk, (1988) 95-102.
R. Shankar Subramanian
Summary
Recent experimental and theoretical results from research on the motion of bubbles and
drops subjected to a temperature gradient are presented and discussed. Interesting fea-
tures unique to this problem are identified.
1 Introduction
Drops and bubbles are encountered everywhere. Their motion as well as their growth
and dissolution have been the subject of numerous scientific studies [1]. On earth, their
movement is usually determined by the action of the gravitational force coupled with the
difference in density between a drop and a continuous phase. Thus, gas bubbles rise in a
liquid, and drops more dense than the continuous phase sink in it. From a fluid mechanical
point of view, drops and bubbles behave in a similar manner, both possessing a mobile
interface in contrast to a rigid object. As we shall see, it is this interfacial mobility which
is critical to the motion of bubbles and drops due to interfacial tension gradients, the
subject of this talk.
The literature on interfacial tension driven motion occurring in bulk fluids dates back to
the nineteenth century. Ample reviews are provided by Scriven and Sternling [2], Levich
and Krylov [3], and more recently by Ostrach [4]. Basically, a variation of interfacial
tension caused by a gradient of temperature and/or composition at a fluid-fluid interface
results in a discontinuity in the tangential stress. This cannot be sustained by both
fluids being at rest, and motion ensues. There also are questions of stability when the
interface is at a uniform temperature and composition, but conditions exist such that
small perturbations in the system will lead to variations in one or both of these entities.
H.J.Rath(Edltor)
Microgravi[y Fluid MechanIcs
IUTAM SympOSIUm Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
394
The classical Benard cells are due to disturbances leading to interfacial tension gradients
which drive sustained cellular motion. We will not consider stability problems here.
The focus here will be on the motion of drops and bubbles driven by the interface. A
helpful survey of the literature has been given by Wozniak et al. [5], and I have recently
written a review in [6] where I have discussed the motivation for studying this subject.
This talk will not be a review of the literature, for which the reader can go to these
references. Instead, I shall try to describe interesting results from some recent research in
my laboratories on this subject.
In 1959, Young, Goldstein, and Block reported on the results of some interesting ex-
periments on gas bubbles [7]. This article laid the foundation for virtually all of the
subsequent work in this field. Young et al. were motivated by the recognition that when
a gas bubble is placed in a liquid possessing a temperature gradient, the interfacial tension
at the bubble surface will vary with position due to its dependence on temperature. Typ-
ically, the surface tension is at a minimum at the warm pole and a maximum at the cold
pole. The resulting gradient in surface tension leads to a tangential stress at the interface
in the direction of the cold pole. The neighboring fluid is dragged in this direction by
the stress. As a consequence, the bubble propels itself in the opposite direction, namely,
that of the temperature gradient. Therefore, bubbles suspended in liquids should move
toward hot regions, and a bubble can be held stationary in a downward temperature gra-
dient. This was demonstrated in [7] with air bubbles in Dow-Corning silicone oils. Since
the interfacial tension depends on species concentration at the interface, one can expect
similar behavior by applying a gradient of species concentration in the surrounding fluid.
However, temperature gradients are much simpler to control and maintain, and therefore
all of the experimental research to date in this area has involved the use of temperature
rather than composition gradients. The phenomenon is termed "thermocapillary migra-
tion." Liquid drops behave in a similar way. The key is the mobility of the interface which
both drops and bubbles share, and which distinguishes such objects from rigid particles.
The difference between drops and bubbles is simply in their physical properties. The
viscosity and density of a gas are negligible when compared with the same properties in a
liquid. In thermocapillary migration problems, also pertinent is the fact that the thermal
conductivity of a gas is negligible when compared to that of a liquid.
Young et al. [7] also developed a theoretical description of the problem. They considered
the steady motion of a fluid sphere under the combined action of gravity and a downward
temperature gradient. Under conditions of negligible convective transport of momentum
and energy (limit of zero Reynolds and Peclet numbers), they solved the Stokes and
Laplace equations for the velocity and temperature fields in and around the drop respec-
395
tively, and specialized the solution using the boundary conditions for the problem. From
a balance of the forces on the drop, they obtained a result for the migration velocity of
the drop. When this velocity is set equal to zero, the temperature gradient needed to hold
the bubble fixed is found to be linear in bubble radius and independent of the viscosity of
the continuous phase. Despite the scatter in the data of Young et al., this trend is clearly
evident. Some pitfalls in the experimental apparatus and technique used by Young et
al. were eliminated subsequently by Hardy [8] who obtained data with very little scat-
ter. Hardy presented results mainly when bubbles were almost stationary; however, he
also reported some data on bubble migration velocities, but found them to be somewhat
smaller than those predicted by theory.
2 Experiments
We have adapted the design of the apparatus used by Hardy, and made experimental
measurements of thermo capillary migration velocities of air bubbles in silicone oils [9],
and drops of ethyl salicylate (ES) in diethylene glycol (DEG) [10]. In both cases, the
dependence of the migration velocities on the bubble/drop radii predicted by Young et
al. was verified. Also, the thermo capillary contributions to the velocities were found to
scale linearly with the applied temperature gradient as predicted in [7].
Other work on gas bubbles and liquid drops that has been performed both on earth and in
low gravity is discussed in [6]. Here, I would like to briefly mention some interesting results
from recent experiments [11]. In these experiments, a rectangular cell was completely filled
with DEG. Then, drops of ES were observed as they rose upward under the action of a
vertical temperature gradient toward the top solid surface of the cell. When the velocity
of a drop was plotted against the distance of separation from the top surface of the cell, a
remarkable feature was observed. It was noted that in some experiments, the drops rose
more rapidly in the vicinity of the surface than they would have if isolated. This behavior is
shown in Figure 1 which is reproduced from reference [11] with permission from Academic
Press. Plotted are the velocities of three drops of approximately the same size, scaled
with the velocity they would have when isolated, against the separation distance from the
upper surface, scaled by the drop radius. The scaled velocity is labelled the interaction
parameter n, and the scaled separation distance is H. The applied temperature gradient
was 1.3I< /mm. The data demonstrate that n is significantly larger than unity for a
substantial range of separation distances. The observed behavior is against intuition since
the normal expectation is for neighboring surfaces to retard the motion of suspended
objects. There is a rich body of literature, both experimental and theoretical, which
supports this expectation. Why then did the drops behave in this unusual manner in the
above experiments?
396
1.5
z
o
5<l 0.5
a::
.-Z
lLJ
oI ~ 3 4
SCALED SEPARATION DISTANCE, H
Fig. 1. Interaction parameter n plotted against scaled separation distance, H, for ethyl
salicylate drops moving upward toward a horizontal surface in diethylene glycol;
VToo = 1.3K/mm. Data on three drops are plotted; Radius = 168 pm for all three
drops. The smooth curve represents the theoretical prediction. (Reproduced with
permission from Academic Press).
The explanation lies in the fact that the drops were migrating under the opposing influ-
ences of gravity and thermocapillarity. The role of the gravitational force on the drop
was to provide a contribution to its velocity which was downward. In contrast, the ther-
mocapillary contribution was upward. The net velocity was a resultant of these two
contributions, which can be simply added algebraically, since under the conditions of the
experiments, the non-linear terms in the governing conservation equations were negligible.
The disturbance flows from motion caused by these two types of driving forces decay at
different rates.
When a drop moves purely due to a body force such as gravity, the disturbance flow
produced by this motion decays as l/r where r is the distance measured from the center
of the drop. A drop moving due to gravity would therefore be affected by a neighboring
surface when it is approximately ten radii away. Even at such large distances, an isolated
drop would produce significant disturbance flows whereas a nearby surface would tend to
retard these flows, increasing resistance to the motion of the drop. In fact, we performed
397
In the experiments \-vherein unusual behavior ,~las observed, both grit\' ity a.nd thernluca,p-
illarity were playing comparable roles in influencing the motion of the drops. Thus, as the
drop approached the top surface, the gravitational (downward) contribution to its velocity
was reduced substantially whereas the thermocapillary (upward) contribution was hardly
affected until the drop was very close; hence the observed effect. I should note that we
had observed similar behavior earlier in the case of gas bubbles moving downward toward
a horizontal surface in silicone oils [12].
Similar behavior may be expected when drops move in the vicinity of fluid-fluid interfaces.
We have not performed experiments in the presence of such surfaces. However, we have
predicted that the retardation from the presence of free surfaces should be weaker than
that from the presence of rigid surfaces [13, 14]. It is interesting to note that, under
certain conditions, purely thermocapillary migration of a drop normal to a plane fluid
surface can be more rapid when the drop is near the surface than when it is far away!
This happens when the thermal conductivity of the drop phase is large compared to that of
the continuous phase. In this case, the driving force for thermocapillary migration, namely
the temperature difference over the surface of the drop, is enhanced by the presence of a
neighboring isothermal plane surface. If the surface is rigid, the hydrodynamic resistance
offered by the surface is strong enough to overcome this effect and the consequence is a net
retardation of the drop. In contrast, the increased resistance due to a fluid plane surface
is much weaker, and so the enhanced driving force actually leads to larger velocities as
the drop approaches the plane surface. More details may be found in [14].
3 Theory
Now, I would like to comment on some interesting theoretical results. Over the last
two decades, several theoretical problems involving the prediction of the velocity of a
bubble or drop in a temperature gradient, subject to various assumptions, have been
solved [6J. However, there are interesting topological features in the flows even in the
398
most elementary of these problems, namely that solved by Young et al. [7]. Some of this
structure is reported by Merritt [15], and I would like to present it here along with some
additional observations I have made recently about this problem.
It is convenient to work with scaled variables. Let the length scale be the bubble radius,
a, and the velocity scale be v o , given by
Vo =
laT I I 'VT I
00 a
(1)
11
Here aT is the rate of change of interfacial tension with temperature, I 'VT I is
00 the
magnitude of the downward temperature gradient imposed in the continuous phase fluid,
and 11 is the viscosity of the continuous phase.
It is straightforward to obtain the following result for the streamfunction in the contin-
uous phase, scaled by the product av;, in a laboratory reference frame. Note that the
streamfunction is merely a superposition of that arising from gravity driven motion, which
for a gas bubble, is a Stokeslet, and that from purely thermocapillary motion, which is a
potential dipole.
1 sin 2 ()
\lI(r, ()) = [Gr - - ] - - .
2r 2
(2)
Here, r is the radial coordinate, scaled by a, and () is the polar angle measured from
the direction of the applied temperature gradient. G is a parameter which describes the
relative importance of the gravitational force when compared to the thermo capillary force.
G = a /::;.pg (3)
3 laT II 'VToo I
In the above definition, /::;.p is the difference in density between the liquid and the gas and
9 is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity.
399
1 0.02 4 -0.04
2 0.06 5 -0.08
:3 0.12 6 -0.12
STREAMLINES
G=O.t5
Fig. 2. Streamlines in the laboratory reference frame for a gas bubble. A downward
temperature gradient is forcing the bubble to move downward, against its natural
buoyant rise; G = 0.15.
Streamlines for a typical situation when the bubble is moving downward are shown in
Figure 2. Note how the far field flow is upward. This is from the slowly decaying Stokeslet.
It is upward because the hydrodynamic force on the bubble is downward, balancing the
hydrostatic force on it. The reaction force on the fluid is directed upward leading to flow
in that direction. Note that this Stokes let flow is always upward regardless of the direction
of bubble motion. This flow due to the Stokeslet opposes the flow in the neighborhood of
the downward-moving bubble along the stagnation streamlines. This leads to the dividing
streamline on which W = O. Also, note the flow near the bubble is very similar to that
arisin~; from a purely thermocapillary dipole. The dipole falls off rapidly, and thus the far
field flow is dominated by the Stokeslet. It is straightforward to show that the dividing
streamline is located at r = 1/V2G. As one might anticipate, when G=1/2, the bubble
is stationary, and W = 0 on the bubble surface r = 1. For values of G greater than 1/2,
400
SOLID SURFACE
Fig. 3. Streamlines in the laboratory reference frame for a liquid drop moving away
from a solid surface. (Drawing for thermocapillary motion reproduced with permission
from Academic Press).
Finally, I should mention that I have discussed some interesting flow structures that arise
in purely thermocapillary migration problems in [6]. As an example, Figure 3, where
the drawing for thermo capillary motion is reproduced from [14] with permission from
Academic Press, and that for body force driven motion is taken from Barton [17] shows
predicted streamlines in meridian section for a drop moving away from a neighboring rigid
401
plane surface in Stokes flow. Contrasted are the streamlines for motion driven by a body
force and that driven purely by thermocapillarity. In the latter case, convective transport
of energy is neglected. For details, including the scales, the reader should consult [14]. The
streamlines in the case of body force driven motion show no unusual features. In contrast,
when the drop moves due to capillarity, note the appearance of a dividing streamline and
reverse flow. That is, along the forward stagnation streamline and in its vicinity, the
fluid far from the drop is actually moving toward it, while fluid near the drop moves
away from it as expected. This fascinating flow field can be expected to have interesting
consequences for neighboring objects caught in the flow.
The explanation for this behavior is simple. and applies to a variety of thermocapillary
migration problems. For the Stokes motion of an isolated bubble or drop in a continuous
phase possessing a uniform temperature gradient under conditions of negligible convective
transport of energy, the temperature field on the bubble/drop surface is a pure Legendre
Polynomial, Pl(S). Here, s = cosB, is the polar angle in spherical polar coordinates,
measured from the direction of the applied temperature gradient. This produces a flow
field which has fore-aft symmetry, and velocities which decay as 1/r 3 as noted earlier.
Note that the fluid extends to infinity in this problem in all directions, and the lack of
convective transport leads to perfect fore-aft symmetry.
Any breaking of the symmetry of the above problem, such as by neighboring surfaces, in
general, yields a temperature field on the drop surface which can be expanded in a series
of Legendre Polynomials. For n ~ 2, each pure mode of this surface temperature, Pn(s),
drives a flow consisting of n cells, with the velocity field decaying as 1/rn. Thus, even the
slightest disturbance of the symmetry will excite the second Legendre mode, P2 (s), which
will cause a flow that decays as 1/ r2. Naturally, this will dominate in the far field due to
the more rapid decay of the flows driven by all the other Legendre modes including P1 (s).
For the case illustrated in Figure 3, the far field flow caused by the P2 mode of the surface
temperature field opposes that generated by the PI mode, leading to the occurrence of
a dividing streamline and a reverse flow region. We have observed similar results when
including convective energy transport, and when introducing an eccentric bubble within
a drop undergoing thermocapillary migration.
4 Concluding Remarks
I hope that the brief discussion provided here serves to show the reader that thermo cap-
illary migration problems possess qualitatively interesting features. I also have tried to
demonstrate that even in the simplest of cases, theory predicts fascinating flow topol-
402
ogy. There remain several unsolved problems in this area which is fertile ground for both
experimental and theoretical research.
5 Acknowledgment
The work described herein was supported by NASA's Microgravity Sciences and Applica-
tion Division. I also wish to thank Dr. R. Balasubramaniam of NASA's Lewis Research
Center for helpful discussions.
References
[1] Clift, R.; Grace, J.R.; Weber, M.E.: Bubbles, Drops, and Particles. New York:
Academic Press 1978.
[2] Scriven, L.E.; Sternling, C.V.: The Marangoni Effects. Nature 187 (1960) 186-188.
[4] Ostrach, S.: Low-Gravity Fluid Flows, in Annual Reviews of Fluid Mechanics, 14,
eds. M. Van Dyke, J.V. Wehausen, and J.L. Lumley, California: Annual Reviews
1982, pp. 313-345.
[5] Wozniak, G.; Siekmann, J.; Srulijes, J.: Thermocapillary Bubble and Drop Dynam-
ics Under Reduced Gravity - Survey and Prospects. Z. Flugwiss. Weltraumforsch.
12 (1988) 137-144.
[6] Subramanian, R.S.: The Motion of Bubbles and Drops in Reduced Gravity, in
Transport Processes in Bubbles, Drops and Particles, eds. R.P. Chhabra and D.
DeKee, New York: Hemisphere 1991.
[7] Young, N.O.; Goldstein, J.S.; Block, M.J.: The Motion of Bubbles in a Vertical
Temperature Gradient. J. Fluid Mech. 6 (1959) 350-356.
[8] Hardy, S.C.: The Motion of Bubbles in a Vertical Temperature Gradient. J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 69 (1979) 157-162.
[9] Merritt, R.M.; Subramanian, R.S.: The Migration of Isolated Gas Bubbles in a
Vertical Temperature Gradient. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 125 (1988) 333-339.
403
(10) Barton, K.D.; Subramanian, R.S.: The Migration of Liquid Drops in a Vertical
Temperature Gradient. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 133 (1989) 211-222.
[11) Barton, K.D.; Subramanian, R.S.: Migration of Liquid Drops in a Vertical Temper-
ature Gradient - Interaction Effects Near a Horizontal Surface. J. Colloid Interface
Sci. 141 (1991) 146-156.
(12) Merritt, R.M.; Subramanian, R.S.: Migration of a Gas Bubble Normal to a Plane
Horizontal Surface in a Vertical Temperature Gradient. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 131
(1989) 514-525.
[15) Merritt, R.M.: Bubble Migration and Interactions in a Vertical Temperature Gra-
dient. Ph. D. Thesis, Clarkson University, 1988.
[16) Sadhal, S.S.; Johnson, R.E.: Stokes Flow Past Bubbles and Drops Partially Coated
With Thin Films. Part 1. Stagnant Cap of Surfactant Film - Exact Solution. J.
Fluid Mech. 126 (1983) 237-250.
[17) Barton, K.D.: Thermocapillary Migration of Drops. Ph. D. Thesis, Clarkson Uni-
versity, 1990.
Thermocapillary Migration of Bubbles
at Moderately Large Reynolds Numbers
Abstract
The thermocapillary motion of bubbles in a liquid environment induced by temperature
gradients in the continuous phase is studied. The problem is analyzed under conditions where
convective momentum and heat transfer are important. The problem is formulated by assuming
simultaneously hydrodynamical and thermal boundary layers over the bubble. A simple ana-
lytical expression for the terminal migration velocity in terms of the physical properties of the
liquid and the temperature gradient applied is obtained.
1 Introd uction
The migration of bubbles in a liquid environment may be produced by thermocapillary
forces if temperature (concentration) gradients are present in the continuous phase. The
temperature gradient generates a surface tension gradient over the bubble surface which
induces shear stresses both inside and outside the bubble. As a result, the bubble expe-
riences a motion in direction opposite to that of the surface tension gradient i.e., towards
the warmer regions. It has been recognized that this effect may be of a great interest
for material processing in microgravity conditions. The problem was firstly analyzed by
Young et al. [1]. In their theoretical analysis, the convective transfer of heat and momen-
tum was neglected. This assumption, which corresponds in dimensionless terms to the
limit of vanishing Reynolds and Peclet numbers, is not fulfilled in many real situations.
In fact, experimental results have shown a systematic discrepancy with respect the above
theoretical analysis (see for instance, Hahnel et al.[2]), which is attributed to the convec-
tive heat transfer inside and outside the bubble. The influence of the convective terms
in the energy equation has been studied by Subramanian [3] and more recently, Shankar
and Subramanian [4] have provided numerical results for low to moderate values of the
Peclet (Marangoni) numbers. It must be noted however, that, if the fluid viscosity is not
very large, both, the Peclet and the Reynolds numbers, may reach the order of unity.
Consequently, an analysis allowing for the convective terms in the energy equation as well
H. J Rath (Edllor)
MlcrograVlty Flu1d Mechamcs
IUTAM SympOSIum Bremen 1991
© Springer,Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
406
as the inertial terms in the momentum equation is required. A numerical analysis for
high Reynolds and Marangoni numbers have been provided by Szymczyk and Siekmann
[.5], Their numerical results show that for a given Prandtl number, the migration velocity
tends towards an asymptotic value for large Reynolds numbers.
In the present work, the problem has been revisited in order to study the migration of
bubbles in conditions where convective momentum and heat transfer are important. We
formulate the problem by assuming that there are simultaneously, both, hydrodynamical
and thermal boundary layers over the bubble. A simple expression for the terminal
migration velocity has been obtained in terms of the physical properties of the fluid and
the temperature gradient applied. The analytical expression obtained for the terminal
velocity has the same form as that calculated previously by Young et al. in the opposite
limit of low Reynolds and Peclet numbers; the difference between the two results is the
numerical coefficient. The analysis provides a numerical value for the terminal velocity
which corresponds to an asymptotic value for large Reynolds and Marangoni numbers in
agreement with the numerical results quoted above. A similar problem has been previously
studied by Crespo and Manuel [6] which give only qualitative correct results, because the
thermal boundary layer was not correctly analyzed.
polar coordinate system (r, (), 1» with the origin at the bubble center are:
divv= 0 (1)
aT =0 (5)
Or
J-l(avo _ vo) = ~ 00" (6)
Or r R a()
and far away from the bubble r -> 00:
(7)
p= poo (8)
divv = 0 (10)
Va = '\l<p (15)
408
where
1
<p = -(r + -2) cos 0 (16)
2r
This solution does not satisfy the tangential stress condition (14) at the interface. Con-
sequently, we introduce a hydrodynamical boundary layer of depth 0 ~ 1 and the new
variables:
v = Vo + vI, r - R = oy, v'o = ou (17)
it must be noted that this is a boundary layer in order to satisfy a boundary condition on
the velocity gradient and not on the velocity itself, consequently, only a small perturbation
in the velocity is introduced (0 < < 1). The appropriate value of 0 turns out to be
0= c. Using Vo given by (15), considering the pressure distribution corresponding to the
irrotational solution and neglecting terms of the order of c 2 , the following equation for u
is obtained [7,8]:
3. au 3 au a 2u
2 aO
+ -ucosO
- Sill 0-
2
- 3y cosO-
ay
=-
ay2
(18)
au . aT
y = 0: ay = 3 Sill 0 + I aO (19)
2 fO (au) (. 2
(23)
U = - 3( sin 0)3 Jo ay y=o Sill 0:) do:
This solution will produce a singularity in U and also in u for 0 = 1r. To avoid it, the
integral of (23) must be zero; from (19) the following condition is obtained:
4
I = - -::Jo=--;;~m~-s-:-in-;;2:-C0:-Cd:-:-0 (24)
Note that the above singularity is inherent to the boundary layer approximation used here.
Actually the condition (19) is similar to the one formulated in previous analysis, e.g. a
vanishing net force on the bubble (see for intance ref. 5). In order to obtain the numerical
value of I the derivative ~~, must be determined. As it happened with the velocity, it could
be expected that the temperature field will correspond in first approximation to the ideal
flow solution. This was the procedure followed by Crespo and Manuel [6] which obtained
from (12) with Cl = 0 for the temperature gradient over the interface the expression:
409
aT/aO = l/voe = (~sinOtl, and from this the value 'Y = 3. However, this is not correct
because the corresponding value of T turns out to be singular over the whole interface.
Consider equation (12) with 61 = 0 and introduce the inner coordinate:
r = 1+ Y (25)
where <p(Y sin 2 0) is a function to be determined using condition (9). Equation (27)
represents the ideal temperature field near to the interface which is obviously singular for
Y = O.. Thus, we have to introduce a thermal boundary layer with the inner coordinate:
", = Y/6~/2, and the equation (12) becomes:
3. aT aT a 2T
- Sill 0 - - 3", cos 0 - + 1 = - (28)
2 aO a", a", 2
where the velocity field is Vo given by (15) since the mechanical boundary layer is only a
small perturbation of the ideal flow. The boundary conditions to be satisfied correspond
to zero heat flux at the interface, and a matching condition for", -+ 00 with the ideal
temperature solution:
aT
",=0: a", =0 (29)
2 1
", -+ 00: T = 31n (1 + cos 0) + 3 In", + <p(0) (30)
o= 0: T regular (31)
where <p(0) is a constant. The solution of the above system is:
2 1 " ,
T = 31n (1 + cos 0) + 3 1n g( 0) + f( g( 0)) + constant (32)
where:
g(O) = (4(2+cosO))i (33)
3(1 + cos B)2
and
e
fl(O = exp( -3 2 ) Jo exp(3 2 )dt
(~ t2
(34)
where fl(O is the derivative of f(O. From (32) to (34) ~ at z = 0 may be evaluated
and introduced in (23), the following value for the constant T
24
'Y = 8 _ 31n3 = 5.1 (35)
is obtained, giving for the terminal velocity in dimensional form:
R d(J dTo
voo=---- (36)
5.1fl dT dz
410
3 Concluding remarks
The results obtained arc summarized by the analytical expressions (35) and (36) for the
terminal velocity. The final expression given here is analogous to the one obtained by
Young et al. [1] for zero Reynolds number (in the absence of gravity), the only difference
lies in the value of the numerical coefficient, which in their case is I = 2. Thus, it may be
noted that the convective transfer (thermal and mechanical boundary layer) reduce the
terminal velocity in accord with previous numerical analysis 4,5. According to expression
(36), our analysis gives the value 1;' = 0.196 for the dimensionless terminal velocity as
defined in 5. This numerical value agrees well with the results given by Szymczyk and
Siekmann [5] for Reynolds number of order of 100 and Prandtl numbers or order of unity
or larger. These numerical results [5] show that the nondimensional velocity decreases
with Reynolds number and it looks as though in the limit of Re infinity a value around
0.2 is reached (0.196 predicted by our model); as the Prandtl number decreases, higher
Reynolds numbers are needed to reach the above limit, this is also in agreement with
our model that requires that both the Reynolds and Marangoni numbers (Ma = RePr)
should be large. As a matter of fact for Pr = 0.01 and Re = 100 the numerical results
[5] give a nondimensional terminal velocity of 0.5 (viscous limit).
Recently, Shankar and Subramanian [4] have reported numerical results for the termi-
nal velocity for moderate values of the Marangoni number. A direct comparison between
their results and the expression (36) is not expected to be valid because in their analysis
only the convective heat transfer is retained and inertial terms are neglected (a zero value
of the Reynolds number), in contrast to the above analyses where both, hydrodynami-
cal and thermal boundary layers have been considered. However, their numerical results
[4] may also be used to validate expression (36) for the terminal velocity. In the range:
20 :s; Ma :s; 200 Shankar and Subramanian [4] have proposed the following equation (a
logarithmic fit) for the terminal velocity in dimensionless form : ~ = log~:!1.84' where M a
is a Marangoni number defined with the scale velocity Vo = voo;'. A good agreement (less
than 10 per cent) with the proposed value 5.1 is obtained for Ma 2': 100. The exact value
of 5.1 corresponds to M a = 530 which is outside the range of validity of the equation
proposed in [4]. Furthermore, it should be stressed that the result obtained here is ana-
lytical and predicts an asymptotic value of I for large values of Re and M a and for any
value of the Prandtl number of the liquid (as long as RePr » 1). On the other hand,
It must be noted that the result given here is similar to the one obtained in the problem
of the bubble motion in a gravity field, where as it has been shown in the classical work
of Levich [8], the high Reynolds limit and the Stokesian limit differ only in a numerical
factor.
411
References:
1. N. O. Young; J.S. Goldstein and M.J. Block., The motion of Bubbles in a vertical
temperature gradient, J. Fluid Mech. 6 (1959) 350-356
4. N. Shankar and R.S. Subramanian: The Stokes Motion of a Gas Bubble Due to
Interfacial Tension Gradients at Low to Moderate Marangoni Numbers. J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 123 (1988) 512
6. A. Crespo and F. Manuel: Bubble motion under reduced gravity. ESA SP- 191 June
( 1983) 45-49
7. D.W. Moore: The boundary layer on a spherical gas bubble. J. Fluid Mech. 23
(1963) 161-176
ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
H 1. Rath (Editor)
MlCfograVlty Fluid Mechamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heldelherg 1992
414
(-~o) 1) ex +1) in f ex
+ (1)
21) ex+ 31) in
where
do ~T = ~ 2R"VT (2 )
dT dT
(3)
(4)
where
(5 )
(6)
(8 )
(9)
416
in that case the homogeneous solutions of Eqs. (6) and (9) are
given by
piT] (O, -2qvm (m+l) I m- 1 Pm-l (cos{)) , 0, -2 qvm (m+l) I - (m+2) P m+1 (CoS{)) } (11)
(12 )
where
(13 )
equal half the Reynolds number and half the Marangoni number,
respectively. im(qr) and ~(qr) are modified Bessel functions.
im(qr) converges at the origin, i.e. inside the migrating
particle. ~(qr) converges at infinity, i.e. outside the
migrating particle.
5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
1.0
~
u(O) 0.8
OA
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.8
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.8
OA
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
7 TAYLOR SERIES
u(O,O) L C(m,n)Me~I:' ( 14 )
m,n==O
8 SELF-CONSISTENT TREATMENT OF Uo
The general solution of the inhomogeneous Eqs. (6) and (9) may
be based on a Green's function formalism. The Green's function
applying to Eq. (9) reads
422
( 18 )
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
5 10 15 35 40
9 CONCLUSIONS
10 REFERENCES
Summary
Recently, a number of works has been devoted to thermocapil-
lary effects for a droplet due to the factors which were not
noticeable in liquids at rest inside and outside the droplet
and became apparent only during motion of the liquids. These
effects are often appreciable and unusual. In the present
work, examples of such factors as uniform heat generation
(absorption) inside the droplet are considered in detail. The
analysis is valid for low Reynolds and Peclet numbers. Only
stationary situations are dealt with.
Introduction
It is well known that thermo capillary forces can play an im-
portant role in many earth phenomena and microgravity experi-
ments. After Young, Goldstein and Block (1] , thermocapillary
effects for a droplet have been associated with the presence
of an external temperature gradient. In the work (2), the
motion of a droplet with a surface exo(endo)thermal chemical
reaction in an originally homogeneous medium was theoreti-
cally analyzed. In this case, surface tension gradients
appear owing to the relationship between flow and mass(heat)
transfer, and the thermo capillary effects are appreciably
different from those in work (1]. Recently, new examples of
the thermocapillary and solutocapillary effects due to the
motion of a droplet in homogeneous surroundings were consi-
dered (for instance, [3-5).
H J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravlty Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© SpTlnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
428
numbers are small, and in the general case of the same or-
der. The external fluid is of infinite extent.
(~ - ..",,,,) .A-".. = 0
where the following notions have been introduced:
-.e == ~2. ~ =.13.
'XJ.) 11
+ i (3
i
=-
tl1 1
.1 - 1. 'iii
)
'" ~S
The equations (.3) mean that A",
= 0 for"'" :j: """.... , and is 1/-",
arbi trary for m = m"" ( "" = ),4 ••• ). The additional correla-
tion for the quanti ties U and 112 is supplied by the force
balance condition on the droplet. According to [6] ' the hyd-
rodynamical force is
ff' = 47t~J. AJl / fk
The sum of the force (4) and of some external force on the
droplet is to equal zero. So the constant ~ can be found,
and then from (2), the droplet velocity 14 •
(~ -15 aiJ.)m+j+i (3
(* - ff:s~j}m-+J. +(3
u
As seen from (5) the hydrodynamical force on the droplet can
be either a drag or a thrust.
431
j}-="[(~-Az.L)m+i-+ i rl [(~-;s-'diJ.)m+~-t~Ti
A F tL B F
References
1. Young, N.O.; Goldstein, J.S.; Block, M.J.: The motion of
bubbles in a vertical temperature gradient. J.Fluid Mech.
6 (1959).
2. Ryazantsev, Yu.S.: Thermocapillary motion of a reacting
droplet in a chemically active medium. Fluid Dynamics 20
(.1985). Transla ted from Russian by Consultants
Bureau, New York.
3. Golovin, A.A.; Ryazantsev, Yu.S.: Drift of a reacting
droplet due to chemoconcentrational capillary effect. Flu-
id Dynamics 25 (1990). Translated from Russian
by Consultants Bureau, New York.
4. Rednikov, A.Ye.; Ryazantsev, Yu.S.: On thermocapillary
motion of a droplet with internal heat generation. Prik-
ladnaya Matematika i Mekhanika 53 (1989).
Translated from Russian.
5. Ryazantsev, Yu.S.; Rednikov, A.Ye.: The influence of heat
generation in a droplet on thermo capillary force. Tokyo:
Proc. of the 17th International Symposium on Space Techno-
logy and Science (1990).
6. Happel, J.; Brenner, H. Low Reynolds number hydrodynamics.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965.
Steady and Oscillating Convection Phenomena
Caused by an Air Bubble Beneath a Heated Wall
D. Raake and J. Siekmann
Lehrstuhl fur Mechanik, Universitat-GH-Essen, D-4300 Essen, F.R.G.
1 Introduction
For the given material properties of the test liquid and the air in the
bubble the convection phenomena are governed by the thermal boundary condi-
tions at the walls of the test chamber and by the geometrical shape of the
bubble. In our experiments the thermal boundary conditions at the walls are
controlled by heating the horizontal upper wall at a constant wall tempera-
ture and cooling the lower wall, kept at a lower constant wall temperature.
On the side walls the adiabatic condition is approximately realized as it
could be checked by the horizontal fringes of the interferograms. This
H J. Rath (Editor)
MlcrogravLty flUId MechaniCS
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
436
1/
Mg - Re • Pr (1)
a
as the product of the Raynolds number Re and the Prandtl number Pr. The
definition of these numbers follows immediately from eq. (1). Furthermore p
cation, the fluid was heated from above controlling the copper wall tempe-
rature and cooled from below by a thermostatic cooling cycle.
The temperature in the test chamber was measured with a thermocouple
of 0.5 mm diameter which was traversed by a computer controlled stepping
motor. For the determination of the vertical temperature gradient IBTjBzl
in the viclnity of the upper wall, at z = 1 mm and r - 45 mm, empirically
determined relations for the temperature gradient and the temperature
difference between the upper and the lower wall of the test chamber, found
from many series of experiments, were used for the different test fluids.
The experiments were carried out with bubbles of various radii after a
chosen value of the temperature gradient had been adjusted.
For visualization of the unsteady flow, horizontal and vertical light
sheets and a schlieren interferometer with Wollaston prism were used. The
experiments with the light sheet technique were carried out with neutrally
buoyant hollow micro glass spheres as tracer particles (diameter ~ 0.1 mm)
whose density was matched with the density of the silicon oil. The light
sheet observations of the flow were made with light scattered from these
particles.
The movement of tracer particles in the meridian plane of the bubble
was studied with a vertical light sheet having a thickness of about 0.1 mm.
By using a horizontal light sheet with a 45° mirror arrangement under the
bubble, the tracer particle motion in different planes parallel to the
heated wall could be observed by traversing the experiment chamber verti-
cally relatlve to the light sheet. A schlieren interferometer with a Wolla-
ston prism has been employed to visualize the oscillatory density field.
and depends on the temperature gradient as the driving force of the thermo-
capillary convection. An example of a velocity field is presented in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1: Particle paths in a vertical light sheet for the steady basic flow
(mirrored picture at the symmetry axis, taken from experiment with
silicon oil AK 5, v = 5.0*10- 6m2s- 1 at 25'C)
rB - 5 mm, rB/zB - 1.852, 18T/8zlz=lmm - 1.65 K/mm
r
B
6 mm; aT
GZ
I = -2.05B~
mm
z=lmm
-1.0
-2.0
~.O
-4.0 J ,
mm
1-+1+I-+I....,IH-I+-+1-41_" -.-
-0.0 o 0.6 1 2
Z
Between the steady fundamental state and the non-periodic regime two types
of oscillatory flows can be identified from the kinematic point of view.
The first oscillatory group is one with azimuthally and axially travelling
waves in the flow field and the other oscillatory pattern shows an azimut-
hally stationary but axially travelling wave. The first group can be
assigned to azimuthal wave numbers n ~ 1, and the second one to n - 0, as
discussed in more detail by Chun et al. (1991).
The investigated oscillatory motion of the thermocapillary convection
always begins with azimuthally travelling waves, having a wave number
n > 1. If higher heat fluxes were applied to the bubble, the wave number
increases until a region is reached where the transition to the second kind
of the oscillatory motion begins. This shift of the oscillation is going on
wi th a remarkable shift of the frequency and an increase of the axial
ampli tude of the oscillation and reduces the wave number to n ~ 1. These
modes (n - 0 and 1) are mainly selected at higher Hg-numbers.
From a large body of experimental data the steady state and the oscillatory
modes of the thermocapillary convection are clarified in terms of kinematic
structure in time and space employing the wave number as the ordering
element.
Some of the following important aspects remain to be investigated in the
future
to obtain experimental data comparable with theories based on the
linear stability concept. Experiments should be done by quasi-
stationary heating of the upper wall with bubbles formed under
isothermal condition beforehand,
the hysteresis behaviour of the mode selection for increasing and
decreasing of the driving thermal gradient,
extension of experiments on the transition from the steady into the
first oscillation modes at larger rB/zB ~ 1.5,
measurements of temperature oscillations with thermocouples located
around the bubble in order to achieve better accuracy in recording the
wave periodes tp.
442
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the German Bundesminister fur Forschung und
Technologie (BMFT) under administration of the Deutsche Agentur fur
Raumfahrt (DARA). The authors very gratefully acknowledge the experimental
assistance of P. Franke, A. Himmel, G. Hansmann and K.H. Menze.
References
Chun, Ch.-H.; Wuest, W. 1979: Experiments on the transition from the steady
to the oscillatory Marangoni convection of a floating zone under
reduced gravity effect. Acta Astronautica 6, 1073-1082
McGrew, J.L.; Bamford, F.L.; Rehm, T.R. 1966: Marangoni Flow: An Additional
Mechanism in Boiling Heat Transfer. Science 153, 1106-1107
Raake, D.; Siekmann, J.; Chun, Ch.-H. 1989: Temperature and velocity fields
due to surface tension driven flow. Exp. in Fluids 7, 164-172
Summary
Fluid dynamics of contInuous flow electrophoresis is studIed
on the basis of the Navier-Stokes equations averaged over a
transverse coordInate. Development of a parallel flow at the
entrance ot the electrophoretIc chamber is discussed for the
case of zero-g conditions and the case of a body force exerted
on the fluid. The instability of the fluid flow in the chamber
related to the non-uniformity of the fluid viscosity is evalu-
ated analytically.
I. Introduction
H. J. Rath (Edltor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUId MechaniCS
I UTAM Symposium Bremen ]991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm HeIdelberg 1992
446
2s
Ld1
'\.~/ z'/
/
~~
y'
0.125
1/ a '----_---'d
2l
*r-------------~------------,
- 1~----77----~~----~----~
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0
z
Fig. 2. Vertical velocity profiles at y = 1.6 (a) and y = 3.2
(b) for hn 6.4. Re = 60, rid = 15. an = 0.5, G = -7.5'10 5 ;
solid line: a = 0.02; dashed line: a = o.
o'V ~3P 2
lIT + (V''V3 )V + V 'V3 V + g~(T -T) (2)
P w
2
pCp (V''V3 )T X ~3T + q (3 )
-
-;-1 a '7 a {j
'V3 ox' + J Oy' + k
az'
V being the fluid velocity vector. p the pressure. t the time.
g the acceleration due to body force. ~ the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the fluid. X the thermal conductivity. V
the kinematic viscosity. T the temperature. p its density taken
at a temperature equal to the temperature of the cooled chamber
walls Tw . q the heat generation rate. Cp the specific heat
capacity. x'. y'. z' the Cartesian coordinates. and i. j. k the
unit coordinate vectors.
The specific feature of the CFE chamber. even of the wlde-gap
chamber. is that its width 2d is much smaller than its length
2l and height h. This condition is used here and in [5.6] to
simplify eqs. (1-3) by neglecting the transverse velocity of
the flow and by representing the velocity components and tempe-
rature as follows:
vY,z (4)
T = 1 T
2 c
try' ,z' )'(1 - x,2/d2 .) + Tw (5)
(V> being the mean velocity of the fluid and T
c
the charac-
449
1 G -
riV 'V 2 P + Re
Lv + - tln (7 )
3Re 2
1
m't =
Re Pe
Ltl (8)
(v> 7. pc V
G Re , Pr --p-
V X
y = y'II, z = z'll.
G belng the Grashof number, aTo the difference between the in-
let fluid temperature To and the temperature of the wall Tw ' Re
the Reynolds number, Pr the Prandtl number, y,z the dimension-
less coordinates, n the unit vector of the body force forming
the angle a with the y axis, tl the dimensionless temperature
defined as follows [6]: t = (3aTolTc - 1)·tl + 1.
The boundary conditions for eqs. (6)-(8) were the no-slip and
adiabatic conditions at rigid boundaries; the axial velocity
and the temperature at the inlet were taken equal to 7./a and 1,
respectively. At the outlet the axial temperature derivative
was equal to zero, and the axial velocity was equal to unity.
EquatIons (6)-(8) were solved by a finite difference method
the details of which can be found in [5,6] and in references
cited therein.
I z
I
I
I
I
I 1'2
I
I
l v1 1 I I
I I I
I I I
L___ --\~)L---- -~ t
Fig. 3 Basic flow of two layers with different viscosities and
a disturbance of their interface.
Heat effects were also neglected, and eqs. (6,7) were assumed
to be valid for each layer. Thus, the following dimensionless
equations were used:
(9 )
Red i = 1, 2
used as the velocity scale. Unlike eqs (6-8), eqs. (9) use the
half-width of the chamber d and the ratio d/<V>1 as the length
scale and the time scale, respectively, because the chamber is
assumed to be lnfinite and effects of the edge walls, entrance
and outlet are neglected. The basic steady parallel flow of the
layers is given by
Viz O. i = 1,2,
1
(10 )
m
According to the theory of linear stability, eqs. (9) were
linearized, small disturbances of pressure, velocities and
lnterface between the layers were taken proportional to
exp ( tRY + st) for a comp I ex constant s and a wave number R
[7]. The real part of s is the time growth rate. It can be ob-
tained from the dispersion relation given by
o (11 )
5. Conclusions
The analysis of the fluid flow in the CFE chamber shows that an
increase in the chamber width and in the concentration of the
mixture can lead to parallel flow distortions even under zero-g
conditions. The mechanism of flow distortions consists in the
formation of a stream and reverse flows at the entrance of the
chamber and in the lnstability of the buffer and the mixture
flows caused by their different viscosities. The viscosity
ratio corresponding to the maximum growth rate of the flow dis-
turbances is approximately equal to 4.33. Thermal convection in
the CFE chamber caused by steady or slowly varying body force
is shown to be negligible in microgravity.
References
Summary
3.1 From the test results, the propellant could cover the
outport of the tank throughout the draining period,
expulsion efficiency in about 99%.
L Conclusion
liqu id
tt o-=--
·0--- .:
~Q:
-
oas
x iquid
A. CRESPO
E.T.S. Ingenieros Industriales, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid
Jose Gutierrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
J. HERNANDEZ
E.T.S. Ingenieros Industriales, Universidad de Murcia
Paseo Alfonso XIII 36, 30071 Cartagena, Spain
Abstract
It is shown that, under microgravity conditions, the dominant mechanisms of fire spread
are radiation and forced convection due to a ventilation system. A burning object is
supposed to pyrolize because of the heat radiated from the flame, and the resulting velo-
cities of the evaporated gaseous fuel can be of the same order of magnitude of the ambient
ventilation velocity, which is relatively small; the mixing region and the flame are then
at a finite distance from the burning object. Infinitely fast chemistry is assumed, and
the flame i 3 a surface inside the mixing region. The thickness of the mixing region near
the forward stagnation point is much smaller than the size of the body and increases
downstream with distance, until far enough it occupies a region of the order of the size of
the body. The initial part of the mixing region can be analyzed using a boundary-layer
approximation, and the downstream region is considered as a self-similar, fully-developed
jet or wake. From typical orders of magnitude of the involved quantities it is found that
a significative part of the mixing region can be laminar. Simple expressions are obtained
to calculate the characteristic parameters of the fire.
1 Introduction
Fire is one of the most important hazards in technological activities, and microgravity
research in space laboratories should not be an exception. Mathematical models are
extensively used in fire research; they are usually ofthe zone type (Emmons [1], Mitler [2]),
in which the fire compartment is divided in several 'zones', one of them being the flame.
Gravity is one of the dominant mechanisms in fire spread; therefore, under microgravity
conditions cJternative approaches to the classical ones should be used. In this work a flame
model is presented to be used as a basis for the future development of a compartment
fire model in microgravity. This flame model is described in the next section and shown
schematically in Figure 1: the burning body is surrounded by a mixing region whose
thickness is small compared to the body size until a region far enough downstream is
reached, where both become of the same order.
The ambient air velocity due to the ventilation system is supposed to be responsible
for convective transport. As this velocity is low, significative parts of the mixing region
could be laminar, the flame will be long, and typical residence times will be large. The
low air velocity could also be of the order of the pyrolization velocity of the burning
H J. Rath (EdItor)
MlcTogravlly FlUid MechaniCS
lUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
@Sprmger-Verlag Berlm lIeldelberg 1992
460
Air "- - - - - - -
------
-----
Fuel
------------ -----
body, resulting in a considerable detachment of the flame from the body surface; then,
the only mechanism of feed back of heat from the flame to the body is radiation. Due
to the large residence times, soot formation and radiation cooling are enhanced in flames
in microgravity, which show significant changes in color and luminosity when compared
to normal gravity flames [3]. Then, radiative heat transfer to the body is expected to
be more important than in normal gravity, although the flame temperature would be
smaller because of the larger radiative energy losses. In Section 3 the balance between
radiative heat transfer and vaporization heat at the body surface is used to estimate the
pyrolization velocity; then, ideal flow theory is used to calculate in first approximation
the flame position.
The mixing region is thinnest in the forward stagnation point, where the largest gra-
dients of mixture fraction could lead to flame extinction. This possibility is investigated
in Section 4. In laminar flows, typical conditions seem to be far from extinction. Bahadori
and Stocker [3] argue that larger radiation cooling in microgravity is also responsible for
the observed quenching at the tip of the flame; this other effect has not been considered
here, but it is expected to produce shorter flame lengths than predicted.
In Section 5 the far-downstream mixing region, where the flame tip is located, is
investigated. The character of this region depends strongly on the ratio of the densities
of air and fuel. The value of this ratio is uncertain: on one hand the gaseous pyrolization
products are supposed to have a larger molecular weight than air, and on the other hand
their temperature is also larger.
the distance of the dividing streamsurface to the body is of the order of the body radius.
The heat needed for the vaporization of the body is transferred by radiation from the
flame, which is imbedded in the streamsurface. Sufficiently far at the rear of the body the
ideal theory predicts that the dividing streamsurface, and consequently the flame, would
be a cylinder of radius bo extending to infinity.
If diffusion is taken into account, fuel and air will meet along a mixing layer of finite
thickness, whose inner structure is analyzed assuming infinitely-fast, one-step chemical
reaction; Prandtl and Lewis numbers for all species equal to one; constant specific heat
at constant pressure, and that the thickness of the layer is much smaller than its length.
Laminar mixing can also be assumed in a significative part of this layer near the front
stagnation point. For a typical body size of the order of 10 cm, and downstream distances,
s, of this order, the Reynolds number is of the order of 1000, giving a typical thickness
of the mixillg region of U.1 to 1 cm and a Reynolds number based on this thickness of
10 to 100, thus justifying the laminar flow assumption around the stagnation point. The
typical diffusion time is of the order of 1 s, which is expected to be much larger than
typical chemical reaction times. In the limit of infinitely fast chemistry all the mass
fractions of all the components can be expressed as functions of the mixture fraction Z;
this can also be done with the temperature if radiation losses are neglected, although
this assumption is less justified in a large fire, particularly in microgravity. Tamanini [4]
assumes instead that the radiated power is a constant fraction, (, of the heat of reaction;
then, the temperature and density can also be expressed as known functions of Z. The
flame will be the surface where Z is equal to its stoichiometric value, Zst.
The ideal theory will be a valid approximation if the layer thickness is much smaller
than bo; for downstream distances of the order of and even much larger than the body
diameter, do, this approximation is expected to hold. On the other hand, for sufficiently
large values of s or x mixing will occur across the whole wake in a fully developed fashion
with self-similar profiles of the flow magnitudes.
3 Inviscid model
Let us assume that the overall heat transfer by radiation from the flame to the body can
be expressed as /Ofu(TJ - T~)7rcPa, where /Of is an average value of the flame emissivity,
considering the flame as an emitting and non-reflecting surface enclosing the body, which
is assumed to be a black body. The average velocity of the fuel leaving the body surface
will then be
/Ofu(TJ - T~)
Vv = QvPo . (1)
Using Modak's procedure [5], the value of /Of could be obtained from the composition
and properties of the hot gases in the mixing layer, whose governing equations will be
described in the next section. However, there still remains the problem of calculating the
soot volume fraction in microgravity. The flame temperature is given by
Tf = Too + Yooo/rs
1 + Yooo/rs
[To - Too + Q(l -
cp
0] . (2)
If Vv were uniform over the body surface, the ideal flow solution would be the supe-
rposition of a source at the origin and a uniform stream with a doublet. However, there
462
is more radiation from the rear of the flame were the mixing region is thicker and tf
is also larger, so that Vv would also be larger in the back of the body. This situation
is better approximated with the superposition of a uniform stream and a single source,
omitting the doublet. With this simplification, there is a favorable pressure gradient and
no boundary-layer separation in the body is expected.
Due to the different densities of fuel and air, the ideal flow solution has a discontinuity
in velocity and composition, but not in pressure, along the streamsurface separating fuel
and air. Inside it, the flow field is the superposition of a source of intensity
(3)
_
Uo - U oo
(Poo )1/2 , (4)
Po
and outside is the superposition of a uniform stream of velocity u= and a source of
intensity q(po/ p=)1/2. The equation of the dividing streamsurface is
(5)
(6)
The velocities along the dividing streamsurface in the air side and in the fuel side are,
respectively,
T1
Yint -
_ T1 (P=)1/2 .
Vext - (7)
po
counterflow diffusion flames an expression for Xq is obtained assuming Lewis number equal
to one, constant density across the flame, and strain rate equal to the value corresponding
to the external inviscid flow. However, due to density variations across the flame, a jet is
formed in the region of higher temperature, and the strain rate is increased at the flame
location. Also, if Lewis number of fuel and oxidizer are not equal to one, the combined
effects of the nonuniform strain rate due to density variations and the variation of flame
location due to non-unity Lewis number, make the actual value of Xst different from that
obtained from Linan's analysis. On the other hand, the value of Xq obtained in [6] is still
valid if density-variation effects are retained, but is not longer applicable for non-unity
Lewis numbers.
Kim and Williams [7] have performed an analysis of the counterflow mixing of two gas
streams having different temperatures, with density changes taken into account, which
can be apphed to study the extinction conditions near the stagnation point. We have
applied this model to flames with different values of Zst, strain rate a and Pool po, and for
Lewis numbers equal to one. From Eqs. (8) to (10), introducing the similarity variable T)
and the non-dimensional stream function F( T)) as defined by
(12)
(13)
where a = dVext/ds Is=o= uoolbo, and assuming Poo/1oo = Po/10, the following equations are
obtained:
F'" + FF" = ~(F'2 - p;), (14)
Z"+FZ' = o. (15)
The boundary conditions are
(Abramovich [8]): an initial region where the mixing thickness is much smaller than bo, a
transition region, and a fully-developed mixing region, extending to infinity downstream,
where the cross profiles of mixture fraction and other flow quantities are self-similar. The
flame is the surface of stoichiometric mixture fraction, and, for small values of Zst, as it
is the usual case, the tip of the flame will be located in the fully-developed region. Only
this region will be studied, although this means that the origin of x will be undetermined
in a distance which is much smaller than the flame length L.
Three limiting cases are considered to study this region:
a) Turbulent jet: Poo ~ Po, so that U oo ~ Uo.
b) Turbulent wake: Poo ~ Po, so that U oo ~ Uo. In the case that the difference between
U oo and Uo is not small, or even when U oo ~ Uo, it is expected that the convective terms
(17)
(18)
, roo
Poc,11Zb 2 = 2 Jo puZr dr. (19)
Conservation of momentum and mixture fraction are expressed by the equations
(22)
Eliminating the velocity between Eqs. (20) and (22) and integrating, the following equa-
tion is obtained giving b(x):
(23)
{
K = I, U oo < uo, y > 0,
K = -I, U oo > Uo, y > 1.
465
Turbulent jet
If Uo ~ Uoo , then y <t:: 1, and in Eq. (23) the first term will be dominant, giving
(26)
It is also expected that it ~ u oo , and from Eqs. (20) and (21) it is obtained
it = UO(~)1/2~, (27)
Pst 0.23x
(29)
Turbulent wake
If Uo and Uoo are nearly equal, so that t =Il-u oo /uo 11 / 2 is a small parameter, then y ~ 1,
and in Eq. (23) the third term of the l.h.s. will be dominant, giving
(30)
(31)
(32)
either be laminar or associated to the turbulence that the fuel and air jets would have
before mixing.
The conservation equations for mass, momentum in x direction and mixture fraction
will be
o(pu) + ~ o(pvr) _ 0
(33)
ox r or - ,
ou ou 0 ou
pur- + pvr- = -(rf-l-), (34)
ox or or or
oZ oZ 0 oZ
pur- + pvr- = -(rpD-), (35)
ox or or or
for the three unknowns u, v and Z. As it was stated before, p = J(Z). Taking into
account the boundary conditions for u, the solution of Eq. (34) is obviously u = uo = u oo .
A similarity variable based on the Howarth-Dorodnitzyn transformation has been chosen:
~ = f; pr dr u, (36)
PooDooxC
where C is the Chapman-Rubesin parameter, which is assumed to be constant,
lDr2
C = ----'---- (37)
PooDoo f; pr dr
If Z is supposed to be of the form
Z = G(O/x, (38)
introducing Eq. (38) into Eq. (35) the resulting equation for G(O is
The solution of Eq. (39) satisfying the condition Z -+ 0 for r -+ 00, is canst· exp( -0.
The constant is determined by the condition that the total flux of Z should be equal to
that at the initial section, as expressed in Eqs. (19) and (21), giving
Z = b5 u o exp( -~) .
(40)
2DooC x
The flame length will then be
(41 )
6 Conclusions
A model has been presented that describes the behavior of a flame in a fire in microgravity
conditions, and gives simple analytical expressions to calculate the characteristic magni-
tudes. Quite long flames are obtained from Eqs. (29), (32) and (41), indicating that in
practical situations the flame could not be fully developed because it would be larger than
the compartment. The possibility of flame extinction has also been investigated, and it
does not look possible in laminar conditions. This model is ready to be incorporated in a
more general fire model.
467
7 Acknowledgments
This work has been made under contract ESP88-0586-C02 of the Space Research Program
of the 'Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologia' of Spain. We are very grateful
to professors 1. Da Riva, A. Linan and F.A. Williams for their encouragement and fruitful
discussions.
8 Nomenclature
a Strain rate
b Radius of the downstream mixing region
bo R"dius of fuel jet
cp Specific heat at constant pressure
C Chapman-Rubesin parameter
do Diameter of burning body
D Diffusion coefficient
F Non-dimensional stream function
G(O Defined in Eq. (38)
L Flame length
q Source intensity
Q Heat of reaction per unit mass of fuel
Qv Heat of vaporization of fuel per unit mass
r Radial cylindrical coordinate
rs Stoichiometric ratio
s Coordinate along dividing streamsurface (origin at the stagnation point)
T Temperature
Tj Flame temperature
To Temperature of fuel
Too Temperature of ambient air
U Velocity in x direction
u A verage value of U in cross section
Us Velocity in s direction
Uo Velocity of fuel jet
U oo Air velocity
v Velocity in r direction
Vv Vaporizing velocity of fuel
Yint Internal velocity along the dividing streamsurface
Vext External velocity along the dividing streamsurface
w Velocity in z direction
x Axial coordinate (origin at the center of the burning body)
y Non-dimensional radius of mixing region (Eq. (24))
Yooo Mass fraction of oxygen in ambient air
z Coordinate normal to s
Z Mixture fraction
Z Average value of Z in cross section
468
Centerline value of Z
Stoichiometric mixture fraction
Spreading rate parameter
Small parameter, Eq. (30)
Emissivity of the flame
Fraction of Q to account for radiation losses
Similarity variable in stagnation point
Viscosity
Similarity variable for laminar wake
Density
pst Density of stoichiometric mixture
po Fuel density
Poo Air density
(J' Boltzmann constant
Scalar dissipation rate of Z
Scalar dissipation rate of extinction
Stoichiometric X
Stream function
References
[1] Emmons, H. W., "The Calculation of a Fire in a Large Building," J. Heat
Transfer, 105, 151-158, 1983.
[2] Mitler, H. E., "The Physical Basis for the Harvard Computer Fire Code,"
Home Fire Project Technical Report 34, Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard
University, 0-91, 1978.
[3] Bahadori, M. Y., and Stocker, D. P., "Oxygen Concentration Effects on Micro-
gravity Laminar Methane and Propane Diffusion Flames," 1989 Fall Technical
Meeting. The Eastern Section of the Combustion Institute, 71- 1 to 71-4, 1989.
[4] Tamanini, F., "An Integral Model of Turbulent Fire Plumes," XVIII Symp.
(Int.) on Combustion, 1081-1090, 1981.
[5] Modak, A. T., "Radiation from Products of Combustion," Fire Research, 1,
1521-1531, 1979.
[6] Lilian, A., "The Asymptotic Structure of Counterflow Diffusion Flames for
Large Activation Energies," Acta Astronautica, 1, 1007-1039, 1974.
[7] Kim, J .S. and Williams, F.A., "Theory of Counterflow Mixing of Fuel with Hot
Reaction Products," Meeting of the Western States Section of the Combustion
Institute, 1990.
[8] Abramovich, G., "The Theory of Turbulent Jets," MIT Press, 1963.
[9] Peters, N. and Gottgens, J., "Scaling of Buoyant Jet Turbulent Diffusion Fla-
mes," to be published in Combustion and Flame, 1991.
Thermal Scaling of Two-Phase Heat Transport
Systems for Space: Predictions Versus Results
of Experiments
A.A.M. DELIL
Summary
Measured low-gravity two-phase flow pressure drops are compared with ther-
mal gravitational modelling and scaling predictions, as a first step to as-
sess the possibilities of the modelling and scaling approach and to define
experiments with the NLR ammonia test rig for the development of the capil-
lary pumped ESA two-phase ammonia experiment (TPX) in Get Away Special 557
and of the mechanically pumped ESA two-phase R114 heat transport system.
Nomenclature
Subscripts
P prototype m momentum
M model p pore
c condenser s entropy
f friction tp two-phase
g gravitation v vapour
g, liquid w water
Introduction
done to develop reliable space systems whose proper non I-g performance can
be predicted using results of experiments with scale models on earth. Sca-
ling considerations can be useful also for in-orbit technology demonstra-
tion (predicting proper performance of space heat transport systems using
outcomes of in-orbit experiments on model systems having reduced geometry
or different working fluids) or for defining in-orbit experiments to ex-
clude gravity-induced buoyancy effects, for a better understanding of mel-
ting, diffusion, crystal growth, etc. The magnitude of the gravitational
scaling varies with the objectives from to 10- 4 g for terrestrial scaling
of orbiting spacecraft, 1 to 0.16 g for Moon base and to 0.4 g for Mars
-2 -4
base systems, 10 or 10 to 1 g for excluding gravity-induced distur-
bances on physical phenomena under investigation, low-g to another or the
same low-g level for in orbit technology demonstration.
Even in single-phase systems scaling is not a simple problem, since flow
and heat transfer are equivalent in the model and the prototype system only
if the corresponding velocity, temperature and pressure fields are iden-
tical. Dimensionless numbers can be derived either from the conservation
equations for mass, momentum and energy or from similitude considerations,
based on dimension analysis. Identity of the velocity, temperature and pres-
sure fields is obtained if these dimensionless numbers are identical in
model and prototype system.
Scaling two-phase systems is much more complicated because, in addition to
the aforementioned fields, the spatial density distribution must be consid-
ered and also because geometrical scaling makes sometimes no sense e.g. as
dimensions as bubble diameter and surface roughness are system independent.
Previously presented similarity considerations [1] identified the set of 18
dimensionless numbers shown in Table 1. These ~-numbers describe the phy-
sical phenomena involved. If all dimensionless numbers are identical in
prototype and model, there is perfect similitude, perfect scaling. It is
evident that this is not possible for two-phase flow and heat transfer: the
phenomena are too complex, the number of important parameters is too large.
Fortunately also distorted scaling can be useful. Therefore a careful esti-
mation of the relative magnitudes of the various effects is required: ef-
fects identified to be minor, make the identity of some ~-numbers to a su-
perfluous condition. Therefore a first step in scaling two-phase systems is
identifying important physical phenomena to obtain the ~-numbers for which
471
TABLE
Importance of TI-numbers in the various loop sections [I]
51l"1 -
Tf2=Re~ ..
oIL ,. geometry
(O;D/]..I) 1, = inertia/viscous
··· ··· ··· ·· ···
·
-I.
·· ·· ·· ··
113 '" Fr £ '" (v /gD~l = inertia/gravity
TI4 = Ell R, (/::"pjpv ) R- .. pressure head/inertia
·· ·• ··
"5 "" cos J '"' orientation with respect to g -I.
11& "" S '" Elipfactor = vv/v R,
°v ip t
·· ··
117 density ratio
·
= =
·· ·· ··
1f'j = Wet'" Cpv 0/0) 1, = inertia/surface tension -I.
TllO'" Pr.2. "" (Cpv/ k ) ,
··· ··
1f11'" Nu i = (hUlk) i = convective/conductive
Tl12"" kv/kR, " thermal conductivity ratio
·
1 j S Cp)Cp t - specific heat ratio
· ··
'If
·
n1l." lili/h =0 enthalpy number"" X '" quality
tv 3 4
·
1T15- MOl'" (p£O /\.ltgi,; capillarity/buoyancy -I.
vI capl ap)
·· ··
'If Ib= Ma =
2 1/3'
TI17= (~/~,) (J,g)
1118= L ptShi:\/kt1JR,(T-To)
the phases, leading to annular flow (fast moving vapour core and slowly mo-
ving liquid annulus for the lower flow rates. For increasing flow rate the
slip factor increases introducing wavy annular/mist flow). Such a behaviour
is reported [3,5] to occur for vapour fraction a > 0.76, within the range
29 < p /p < 833. It was confirmed during KC-135 experiments [4,7]: annular
R. v
flow is the only flow pattern observed in adiabatic lines for X ~ 0.13. The
above confirmation can be easily verified using the a-X-relation
(l-a)/a (1)
while inserting the simplified Zivi correlation for the slipfactor [8]
S (2)
leading to
(3)
a,"
EVAPORATORS
I
a,"
HLATERS FOR
o p .'
u
,•,
Oe"RIMINGa MOw · ~
il'RIE _HEATirtG
p.. • 103 ~tlml
T,
•• ~•
a"",
• 10--3 Ph/",'2
,. l' .3_10- 2 NJIft
• • ,. '.Im/12
II.: (I.-X)'
•,,
L
a OU1
,ol"----r--r-l ";
Ffl~ · tD · ~ 7·;:X2}
OIU-WA'I'
...... lyE
& FllMfRlVUtET
OIME - WIlY
V"'!.VI:
----
'DO
CORING BU!Ii8LV
Fr (4)
tp
When comparing low-g and vertical downward terrestrial flow one has to cor-
rect the latter for slip factor reduction by gravity (assisting the down-
flowing liquid layer). Anyhow, vertical downflow is the preferred two-phase
line orientation for a terrestrial model because of the axial-symmetric
flow pattern.
Similar conclusions can be drawn for the straight condenser. For a swirl
type condenser the orientation is expected to be far less critical because
of inertia effects (like in a swirl evaporator). In the condensers the flow
will change from pure vapour via wavy annular mist to pure liquid flow.
(dp(z)/dz)f
(dp(z)idz)m
(dp(z)/dz)
g
(8)
L
c
f [(dp/dz)f + (dp/dz)
m
+ (dp/dz) ]dz.
g
(9)
o
For calculating pressure drops in adiabatic lines the same equations can be
used, keeping in mind that (dp/dz)m approaches zero (which means a negligi-
ble vapour quality gradient in the adiabatic flow).
Quantitative Considerations
t 10- 1 10- 1
. -... C
i
pt1Pw·510
!
~
...
~t' ·51
10- 2 FAICTION 10- 2 UD -118 fAICTIQN"
':'E ':'e
::; M
.;;-
.
Q GIllAVITV '"~
Q
{ 10- 3 N
10-4
••..,. C
Ptlpw _21..s
10- 1 Slllll,,-'. 10- 1
L,ID ·n•
.1 .3 .5 .7 .9 .1 .J .5 .7 .9
)(OFlI- :rIle X OR I - llLc _______
I>P IPII
'<00
10IIII
.' .3 .5 .7
QUALITY X
.9
To support the development of the ESA TPX, experiments will be carried out
using the NLR two-phase test rig: figure 5 lllJ. This ammonia rig, having
the same line diameter as the TPX loop, can be used for development, tes-
ting and calibration of TPX components and for scaling low-gravity adiaba-
tic and condensing flow as discussed in the preceding section (terrestrial
low temperature vertical down flow minimises the impact of gravity, hence
simulates low-gravity behaviour).
X 2WAVVALVE T••
tK 3-WAY V"tYE
-0 CONfIICl VALVE
'VALVE
I!J FILTER
-
PRIE:$S.U III [ SENse III
0 TEM.PERATUR!E :U;8S0ft
0 FLOW METEI';
TfilANSI'AREM' SECTIOII
FLOW DllllEcnON
DATA LINES
Qi.Mo a PtoJ/lJt4
1...- 2)
0.001
1~ ~~1±00~2~00~~~~4oo~~!00~~~~1±00~8oo 100 200 ~ 400 SOO ~ 100
TEMP€RATURE IDC) TEMPERATURE 1°C)
Fig. 6: The groupings P£cr3/~£4 and vo/P£ for various fluids, as a function of
the temperature [1]
X l-WAV VALVE
-0 CONTROL VALVE
-f MANUAL VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
-I VALVE
[!] f lLTEA
® PRESSURE SENSOR
CD nMPERAlURE SE.NSOA
® FLOW METER
TRANSf'AREIfT SECTION
""""""" flOw DIRECTION
Conclusion
References
Abstract
The transient rise of a liquid under microgravity into a capillary gap formed by two
parallel plates of breadth b and distance a is studied experimentally and theo-
retically. The experiments were performed in drop tower runs of the FALLTURM
BREMEN. The theoretical approach via Bernoulli's equation is outlined in some detail.
The results show good agreement between the theoretical and experimental data.
Introduction
The primary design objective for a surface tension tank is to cover the tank outlet
with propellant whenever outflow is demanded. This ensures that only the propel-
lant, and none of the pressurisation gas, will leave the tank until the propellant is
nearly depleted. Surface tension propellant management systems consist of devices
to establish propellant flow under low acceleration levels to the outlet from whe-
rever the bulk liquid is located in the tank and to hold enough propellant to sup-
port all engine operations when the acceleration on the tank is not settling liquid
over the outlet [1]. During the 4.74 seconds of the drop tower flight we have inves-
tigated the liquid inflow in a special vane. The vane is configured to form a liquid
column between two parallel plates which provides the flow path. Under micro-
gravity conditions the fluid rises into the capillary perpendicular to the previous flat
fluid sudace. The drop tower operation (step from 19 to zero-g) simulates the low
acceleration level after firing of the thruster for satellite path control.
Consider a liquid column moving under its own capillary pressure in a gap of rec-
H J. Rath (Editor)
Mu:rogravlty FlUid MechanlC~
IUTAM Symposium Bremen [991
CO Spnngcr-Verlag Berlm lIeldelberg 1992
480
tangular cross section. The geometry and the system of coordinates is shown in
figure 1.
[ross section
between 3 and 4
1 9 surface -
l4--L..-L--<C-.....'--L--L-f-"---<---<'--''--''--.L-...L..I 0 9 su r fa ce ••• •
As a result of earlier performed experiments and analysis [2] the reservoir is de-
signed to fit the boundary conditions of the theoretical model. In the new design
the curvature in the reservoir and the volume of fluid to be included in the analysis
are better known. For the following equations, a list of symbols is provided at the
end of the paper.
J Cit~uds+.!.(u2-U2)+.!.(P
2 s t PSt
-p)+g(z -z )+.!.6pls=o
S t Pt'
(1)
t
relating all velocities to the meniscus velocity dz/dt (equals u.) and setting
A.IA, ~ O. The second term of (1) reads
(3)
(4)
assuming the contact angle to be zero. For the inner area one must distinguish
between the rectangular closed area 134 and the open cross section 145 .
For complete ly wetting fluids, the Friz formula [3] is a good estimation for the dy-
namic contact angle:
cos~=--------~--~~~-- (6)
213 1/2
[1 + 11.S6(z1]/0) ]
1 1 +20(--) 1
1
-20cos~ (-+-) for zs;x-z.,
1 (p _p ) = a b R-r (7)
pSi _20(cos~_1) +20(_1_) for z>x-z •.
a b R-r
Assuming vanishing gravity, the fourth term in (1) equals zero. For the pressure
drop due to dissipation, one must take into account three terms: pressure drop at
the entrance, head loss in the rectangular channel and the capillary gap.
.6p I3 = ~£z2
2 . (8)
The loss coefficent ~ for the rectangular inlet (ab) is assumed to be 0.62 ... 1.28, ac-
cording to the loss coefficent for the parallel plates and cylindrical tube, respecti-
vely. The pressure drop due to laminar friction for the rectangular channel reads,
482
from [4]
(9)
The pressure drop in the capillary gap is computed from laminar flow between pa-
rallel plates
121] ( z-x+z ) Z.
= --u (to)
o .
cp a
a +-
9.121] {- b}2. P .2
zz + ~-z for z,;x-zo,
1
- L>p I =
P 1
5
1 ab 2
2
(11)
The equation for the acceleration of the fluid volume now reads from eqs. (1)-(11):
j
2
1 1 1
20cos(x(a+1»-20(R_r)-9.121] {a + b}.
----;;:b 70 2
zz-(1+~)2 forz,;x-zo
.. 1
z=- 2
z+~5 1
20(~- -b) -20(-R )-9.121] - -
1 {a+b}. 121] . 70 2
xz ---u(z-x+zo)z-(t+~)-2 forz>x-zo
a -r ab cp a
(12)
Integrating twice eq. (2) using a Runge-Kutta method with the initial conditions
for t=O:z=z=O yields the graphs in figures 2 -4. The program runs were performed
with different ~ (Ksil and cp (Phil- factors for the entrance pressure loss and the
form factor of the wetted area, respectivly, as stated in the parameter field.
Experlmenu
The liquid under investigation was contained in a cylindrical plexiglass tube (R=50
mm) with the capillary gap (a=5mm, b=20mm) mounted inside as shown in fig. 1.
483
Parameter:
250
Ksi/Phi- 1.011.0
Ksi/Phi- 0.75/1.0
200
Ksi/Phi- 0 .75/0.9
+ Ex perimen!
150
100
50
0 +-~-----+--------~------~-------4------~
o 2 3 4 5
Time [sec)
Exp. and computed data for SF 0.65 cSt
Figure 2: Experimental data for Silicon fluid 0.65 cSt compared with computed results
Parameter:
250
Ksi/Phi- 1.0/1.0
Ksi/Phi- 0.75/1.0
200
Ksi/Phi- 0.75/0.9
+ Experiment
150
100
50
0 +-~------r-------~--------~--------4-------~
o 2 3 4 5
Time [sec)
Exp. and computed data for SF tOO cSt
Figure 3: Experimental data for SF 1,00 cSt compared with computed results
484
Parameter:
250
KsilPhi • 1.0/1.0
Ksi/Phi • 1.0/0.9
200
Ksi/Phi • 1.25/0.9
+ Experiment
150
100
50
0 +-~-----+--------+--------+--------1-------~
o 2 3 4 5
Time [secl
Exp. and computed data for FC-77
The cylindrical (r=20mm) inlet was designed to establish a calculable surface in the
outer annulus. The rise of the meniscus into the capillary gap was observed with a
video camera and a photocamera. Figure 5 shows two photographs of silicon fluid
1,00 cSt after 1.1 and 2.4 seconds.
The liquids used in this investigation are Dow Corning 200 Silicon Fluid 0,65 cSt
and 1,00 cSt and FC-77. A small amount of color was added for better visibility of
the fluid meniscii. The properties of the test fluids are:
As figure 5 shows, the capillary gap is filled with fluid up to the meniscus. At the
485
border of the gap one notices a small shadow due to a curvature of the free sur-
face. This is taken into account by the factor cp for the area between the plates.
The shape of the meniscus at the top is semicircular in the paper plane as assum-
med for the calculation. At the bottom a small amount of liquid is located at the
outer side of the capillary plates.
Figure 5: Photographs of rising silicon fluid after 1.1 and 2.4 seconds
Conclusion
Good agreement between experiments and the calculation is reached. The slope and
the character of the penetration velocity of a liquid in a capillary gap is predictable
by the theory. The entrance pressure loss factor for a rectangular inlet is not
exactly known. Values between 0,75 and 1,25 were assumed for the calculations.
Further investigation is needed to explain why one cannot use the same ~-factor
for all liquids to obtain good agreement with the experimental data. The second
parameter to investigate is the form factor cp accounting for the area filled with
fluid between the parallel plates. As figure 5 shows, not the whole area is filled,
thus a cp-factor of 0,9 is assumed.
486
Best agreement between experimental and computed data for the silicon fluids is
reached with the parameters cp=0,9 and ~=0,75. For FC-77 the curve with the para-
meters cp=0,9 and ~=1,25 fit the experimental data. First, it is to be remarked that
the ~-factors used are reported for stationary flow which is violated in this case.
Second, the entrance lengths to establish a laminar Poiseuille flow are different.
The entrance length reads, from [5],
z [mm/s] Re dh
Silicon fluid 0,65 cSt 40 - 70 615 - 1077 64 - 110
Silicon fluid 1,00 cSt 30 - 70 300 - 700 32 - 72
FC-77 20 - 40 250 - 500 28 - 53
Because steady state is not reached, the lowest and highest velocities are used to
calculate the Reynolds number. It is obvious that the higher dynamic viscosity of
FC-77 leads to lower Reynolds numbers and shorter entrance lengths. This may
have an influence on the entrance pressure loss. The factor ~ accounts for the ad-
ditional dissipation at the entrance to the flow channel. The boundary layers at
both sides of the channel grow together, the laminar Poisseuille profile is reached
after the entrance length. The boundary layer leads to a higher wall shear stress
and thus to higher viscous friction at the wall.
Acknowledgement
The drop tower experiments were performed in the frame of the surface tension
tank development for MBB-ERNO. The technical support and the trustful coopera-
tion with Dipl.-Ing. G. Netter and Dipl.-Ing. H.D. Bruhn are gratefully acknowled-
ged.
487
list of symbol
References
[1] Netter, G., Beig, H.-G., Preliminary results from the EMTE fuel slosh flight ex-
periment, Proceedings of symposium: 'Fluid dynamics and space', VKI, Rho-
de-Saint-Genese, 25126 June 1986 (ESA SP-265, August 1986)
[2] Dreyer, M., Delgado, A., Rath, H.J., Kapillarer Pumpmechanismus zum Bewegen
von Fluiden unter Schwerelosigkeit, DGLR-Jahrestagung 1990, Friedrichshafen
[3] Friz, G., tiber den dynamischen Randwinkel im Fall der vollsUindigen Benetzung,
Zeitschrift fUr angew. Physik 19.4 (1965), p. 374-378
[4] White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill New York 1986
[5] Atkil1lson, B., Brocklebank, M.P., Card, C.C.H., Low Reynolds number develo-
ping flows, AIChE Journal, Vol. 15, No.4, 1969, p. 548
Microgravity Liquid-Gas Interface Configuration
and Surface-Tension Device Design
Zhang Xiuqing
Abstract
Introducti'ln
H J. Ralh (Edltur)
Mlcrogravlly FlulU Mcchanlc~
IUTAM Sympo!>lum Bremen 199\
(~) Spnng,cr-Vcrlag Berlin I\clde!hcrg. 1992
490
Environment
middle-bottom
down-tank
Experiment Results
4lt
~">l- (--[(R,+R,-(R',-R',)1JI)/2]') /(
3 3
,-1.0 &.
4x 4x
,">1- {--[(R,-R,t<R',-R',)1II)/2]'} 1 ( - - R',)233~
3 3
,-1.0 '"
channel
Design equation
(3)
where h,-A,X,'
A,- A,L,IK,
A,: factor of flow drag
498
~,-~Q''''II \ G,TU,I .., ... u ... yCll.a ..... U.LtlUlO'-OI va. ... ut:J
n,=n.+n,-2
(4)
(j s l.2.3.--.n)
Conclusion
References
H. 1. Rath (Editor)
MlCrogravlty FlUId Mechamcs
lUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
504
.
of the suspended particles can be controlled accordingly (Fig .
-,
1<1) •
f 9 + 6 E B =pp 9 + 6p E pB
Here, p , pp and 6 , 6 p are the respective densities and
conductivities of the matrix and disperse components, E and E
P
the electric field tensions in the matrix melt and disperse
component particles, B - the external magnetic field induction,
g - the acceleration due to the gravity. A similar situation is
also characteristic of weightlessness which allows one in some
cases to model it on Earth and maintain it in experiments and
technological processes for an unlimited time interval.
(2 )
(3 )
Thus, we can summarize that the suggested melt decay model and
507
References
a) b)
S
400
ZI1g + Pbs
f=P9+ jS Zrlg + Pbs
200
f =ppg+ ~ 0 20 40 60 %Pb
C)
". r-..
STAGE I STAGE If STAGE III
.
• • ••
Zn+ Pb - -
•• ••••
- 1
-/. ,,- . -
--If, • 9
•• ••• •
d) e) t)
1 - net) 10- 2
h/a.~ Rc..M
---Rclt)
0,8 103
0,6 2"-:
--..j 10- 4
1~
I / 10- 5
--
0,4 I ,.,'
0,2. v~ .. --
~
J~ -- ~--: ~.- ~- - _.- 10- 6
.J t,s 10- 7
o 20 40 60
,
a) b) c}
1 iB
k=1--.
kg v JoBo
e) f)
1- a. =2.MM
2. - a. = 1CM
1-a.=1cM
10~ 2 -a. = 5CM
3 - a. :10C'1.tO,M/S
Abstract
Under normal gravity conditions the measurement of the thermal-conductivity A is often stron-
gly influenced by the occurrence of thermal convection. Heat transfer by convection superposes
the heat transfer due to thermal conduction. For liquids with low viscosity such as aluminium
melts discrepancies of up to 85 % have been reported in literature [7]. Errors in measurement
caused by convection are of great importance in this case. These errors can only be reduced by
suppressing natural convection. Systems in which the gravity effects are compensated (micro-
gravity) offer decisive advantages.
In this paper a new apparatus based on the transient hot-wire method which enables accurate
measurements in fluids with low viscosity is described. First measurements in which ambient air
is used as the test fluid are presented. The measurements were carried out aboard an aircraft
and in the Drop Tower Bremen. The results obtained are compared with those measured when
gravity effects are present and with literature data available. A very good agreement of the
microgravity results with the latter has been found.
Introduction
The exact determination of thermal conductivity of fluids is centrally important for the model-
ling of molecular transport processes and for the optimization of terrestrial and orbital processes.
Molecular transport mechanisms in pure media are dependent strongly on temperature and
less on pressure. Also important in the case of mixtures is the concentration [10,11,12]. For
ideal gases and simple solid bodies there are well-founded theories to explain the heat conduction
mechanism. In the presence of a liquid phase the modelling of heat transport becomes more
difficult because of complex molecular interactions, so that a satisfactory theory does not exist.
The model development and testing is complicated because the existing data available are un-
certain. For example, values for A-values obtained by different experimentators show differences
of up to 85 %. A chief source of error is the influence of gravity.
The importance of precise data on thermal conductivity ,\ for the optimization of physico-
chemical processes is directly evident. Firstly, a large number of processes exists, in which
thermal energy is exchanged as a result of temperature differences in fluids at rest and for
which exact data are required for design and optimization. However, a study of the relevant
H J Rath {EdIlOr)
Mlcrogra\'\t} Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
512
literature shows that such data for the common industrial media are still relatively uncertain.
Heat conduction data for mixtures have only been measured in individual cases, although these
are of prime practical importance. The calculation equations given in the literature are only
approximate (errors of 50 % are common).
For the determination of the heat conductivity), of fluid media in a terrestrial laboratory, the
gravitation vector leads to restrictions in the measurement technique. The temperature gradient
which is necessary for the determination causes interference through convective currents (natural
convection or density stream). A large part of instrument development has been concentrated
on reducing this interference.
The experiment presented here allows the accurate measurement of the heat conductivity of
low viscosity fluids with the help of the unsteady hot-wire technique (time-dependent tempera-
ture field) under microgravity, without the interference of thermal convection.
The insteady hot-wire method depends on the measurement of transient temperatures, the-
reby requiring much shorter measurement durations as compared with a stationary method like
the two-plate method. Also advantageous is the relatively low apparative requirement for the
reduction of error parameters, such as the undesired heat transfer on the boundaries of the
measurement cell. Because of the short experiment times, one does not require an auxiliary
heater to compensate for possible changes in enthalpy.
20.00
17.50
15.00
~
12.50
I..
0 10.00
I..
I..
LLJ 7.50
m 5.00
a:
2.50
0.00
0.000 4.000 8.000 12.000
Measuretime [sec]
However, one major problem in measuring the thermal conductivity), in fluids with low
viscosity using the transient hot-wire method is the early onset of convection in the presence of
gravity. Depending on the viscosity of the fluid e.g. on the Prandtl number, which is typically of
the order of 1-102 for the fluids in question the time between starting measurement and starting
convection may be less than 0.5 seconds. Unfortunately, the short remaining measuring time
causes errors in measurement which are of a higher order of magnitude than the disturbancys
caused by the apparatus. Figure 1.1 shows the behavior of the time dependent error in percent
versus the measuring time. This error is due to the correlation of the data within a sample. It
can be clearly seen that the error rises up to 20 % if the measuring time is less than 1 second.
513
Therefore a longer time for measuring is necessary. Under microgravity convection is strongly
suppressed and the measuring time can be long enough to minimize errors due to time limitation.
1. the medium 1 is an infinitely long cylinder with the radius Tl and a linear heat source with
constant heating power (hot-wire)
3. for t= 0 both media have the initial temperature (ill ilo ), and medium 2 has the
temperature of medium 1 (ill = il 2).
ql 4. a ql
=- -In(-) + --lnt -
?
il2(t) R (1.1)
4 . 11" • >'2 Tl 4 . 11" • >'2
Using the slope of this function the heat conductivity>. can be calculated.
The temperature change (dil2) of the hot-wire is measured as a change in its ohmic resistance.
Experimental Set-up
Figure 1.2 shows schematically the set-up of a measurement cell using the hot-wire technique
and the necessary electronic equipment. The experimental set-up for the measurement of the
thermal conductivity consists of a cylindrical measurement cell in which a platinum hot-wire
with a diameter of 0.025 mm is mounted. Two peltier-heaters fixed to the measurement cell
regulate the fluid temperature in the cell under test.
The .hot-wire is fed by a constant current source to guarantee a constant heat flow per unit
length ql. To measure the temperature rise of the wire via its ohmic resistance the hot-wire was
used as a resistance of a Wheatstone Bridge circuit in former experiments. In this application
however errors in the determination of the constant heat flow are caused by the variation of the
resistances of the Wheatstone Bridge due to thermal effects. Because of the resulting current
fluctuations, an in steady heat flow arises.
514
"0
>. ~
1i.
Q.
Microprocessor Board c
0
"
III
U
; i
~
:;;.,
0
I
Q. Data Aquisition Control Unit ::I:
3-Axis
Accelero
meter
1<J I
Current
Source
I
L
r
In this experiment another circuit is used to avoid these errors. The hot-wire is fed directly
by a constant current source without any other ohmic resistance. The voltage across the wire
is compared to a reference voltage given by a digital-to-analog converter which is fixed at a
calculated value taking into account the fluid temperature at the beginning of the measurement
and the heating current supplied to the hot-wire.
Information about residual accelerations disturbing the quality of the measurement is obtai-
ned additionally by a three-axis accelerometer.
Results
The experimental-setup described above has been tested during parabolic flights with Cara-
velle as well as during drop tower tests. These two facilites offer microgravity for short periods
with a different level of microgravity. Compared to the drop tower with a microgravity time of
about 4.7 seconds the time when gravity is compensated increases up to 20 seconds in parabolic
flights. The main disadvantage of parabolic flights however is a poorer microgravity level as
compared to the drop tower.
In these tests the fluid tank was filled with air. Figure 1.3 shows a typical measurement curve
for this experimental set-up obtained during a hardware test under 1 g - conditions. Compared
to equation 1.1 the behaviour of the plotted curve differs very strongly with the theoretical
515
20.00
18.00
,---,
U
lS.00
ci>
a>
a
L.........I
14.00
a> 12.00
L-
::>
~ 10.00
L-
a>
Co 8.00
E
a>
I- S.OO
4.00
2.00
10-2 10- 1 10 0
Time [sec]
description after less than 0.3 seconds thus leading to a very short measuring time. The early
onset of an additional convective heat flow leads to a higher cooling rate of the hot-wire than
that predieted by assuming pure thermal conduction. An additional disadvantage of the short
time for measurement is the error caused by time ( see also figure 1.1 ). As clearly shown in
figure 1.4, these disadvantages are avoided by carrying out measurements under rnicrogravity
conditions.
Figure 1.4 shows two similar measurement curves recorded during a parabolic flight with
Caravelle (left plot) and a drop tower flight (right plot). It can not only be seen that in both
cases the predicted curve of equation 1.1 is fitted much better over a longer time than under 1 g
- conditions (see also fig. 1.3), but also that very low residual accelerations available in the drop
tower leadB to significantly extended measuring times. Comparing the two measurement curves
the level of the residual accelerations is not so decisive for the quality of the measurement as
supposed.
One major problem in determining the thermal conductivity with this method is evident.
In calculating the temperature rise versus time on the base of theory one makes use of fluid
material constants which are not dependent on temperature. In reality this assumption is only
approximately valid. Increasing the temperature the thermal conductivity increases, too. This
means that the temperature rise of the curve as calculated from theory 1.1 when plotted versus
the logarithm of time does not fit equation 1.1. The measurement curves under microgravity
conditions show this effect very clearly as illustrated in figure 1.4.
It may be helpful to attempt to indicate a criterion for choosing the temperature gradient
required to achieve a given degree of accuracy in the determination of the corresponding thermal
conductivhy. Using a lower temperature difference the measured curve fits the predicted linear
shape over the whole temperature range much better as it is shown in figure 1.6. Further cor-
rections concerning the temperature dependence of A are also faciliated for small temperature
differences.
516
8.00 8.00
.en 8
.en 6.00
8
.... .....
5.00 5.00
4.00 4.00
.!! :J
.....'" .
;;;...
c.. 3.00
.
E
I-
c.. 3.00
2.00
.
E
I- 2.00
1.00 1.00
0.00 0.00
-2 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 -1 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Time [sec] Time [sec]
Nomenclature
A thermal conductivity
Ii heat flow per unit length
to starting of the measurement
{)l temperature of the wire
{)2 temperature of the fluid
a temperature conductivity of the hot-wire
Tl radius of the hot-wire
K a constant
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Bundesminister fiir Forschung und Technologie (BMFT) of the
Federal Republic of Germany and the Senator fiir Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kunst des Landes
Bremen.
517
8.00 ~---------------------.
7.00
U 6.00
..
C.
o
..5
5.00
4.00
-:;;
...
:t 3.00
..E
I- 2.00
Equation 1.1
1.00
0.00 '---'-...L.-LU.J..lJJL-....L...LJLJ...J.J.W_...L.-..L...l...L.Ll.W_..L.....L....L...L.IJLLJJ
10- 2 10 0
Time [sec]
30.00
29.00
I Measurement
,......., 28.00 C Literature
E
~
• 27.00
..... 26.00
3:
E
L......I 25.00
<II 2• .00
-c
.0
E 23.00
<II
-I
22.00
21.00
20.00
10.00 14.00 18.00 22.00
Temperature [Oe9. c]
References
[1] de Castro,N.;Calado, G.;Wakeham, A.; Dix, M.: An apparatus to measure the thermal
conductivity of Jiquids;J. Physics E,90(1976),1037
[2] Carslaw, H.S.; Jager, J.C.: Conduction of heat in solids; Second ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford
(1959)
[3] Haarmann, J.W.: A contribution to the theory of the transient hot-wire method; Physica,
52(1971),
605
[4] Healy, J.J.; de Groot, J.J.; Kestin, J.: The theory of the transient hot- wire method for
measuring thermal conductivity; Physica, 82(1976); 392
[5] Clifford, A.A.; Kestin, J.; Wakeham, W.A.: A further contribution to the theory of the tran-
sient hot- wire technique for thermal conductivity measurements; Physica, 100a(1980);370
[6] Stalhane, B.; Pyk, S.: Ny metod fOr bestamning av varmeledungskoefficienter, Tekn. Tidsk.,
61 (1931),389
[7] Hahne, E.; Song Y.W.: Messung der Warmeleitfahigkeit von R1l5 bei hohen Driicken nach
der Hei6draht-Methode, Warme und Stoffiibertragung 24,79-85, Springer-Verlag (1989)
[8] Greger, R.; Delgado, A, Rath, H.-J: Measurement of the thermal conductivity of fluids with
low viscosity under microgravity, The Forum on microgravity flows, first joint ASME-JSME
fluids Engineering conference, Portland, Oregon, to be presented (1991)
[9] Rath, H.-J: Transport coefficient measurements in drop tower experiments, Gordon Research
Conference, Plymouth State College, Plymouth N.H, to be presented (1991)
[10] Iglseder,H.; Rath, H.-J; Beeck, J.; Konigsmann, H.J.; Oelze, H.: BREM-Sat: A small Uni-
versity Satellite,ESA SP-298,Frascati,Italy,(1989) Research programm of the german spacelab
mission D-2, 1. Experimenters working group meeting D-2, Aachen (1989)
[11] Iglseder,H.; Rath, H.-J; Schlomm, P.: BREM-Sat: A small University Satellite,ESA SP-
298,Frascati,Italy,( 1989)
[12] Iglseder,H.; Rath, H.-J; Beeck, J.; Konigsmann, H.J.; Oelze, H.: BREM-Sat: Ein Uni-
versitats-Satellit zur Durchfiihrung von Raumflugexperimenten in den Forschungsbereichen
Umwelt-, Hyperschall- und Reentry Technologien,Pressemitteilung, Bremen (1989)
Free Motion of an Unsupported Tank
that is Partially Filled with Liquid
J.P.B. Vreeburg
National Aerospace Laboratory NLR
P.O. Box 90502, NL - 1006 BM Amsterdam
INTRODUCTION
At NLR, the motion of a partially filled tank is studied for its relevance
to the control of manoeuvering space vehicles with liquid stores. For
numerical simulations a number of computer programmes has been developed.
An experimental programme with investigations on parabolic flight, in
suborbital and orbital trajectories has been defined and is in
preparation. The present immediate objective is the synthesis of the so-
called Wet Satellite Model experiment which includes the development of a
diagnostic instrument (nballistometer n ) and the launch of a test article
in a seven-minute parabola by sounding rocket. The scientific
justification of this experiment is elaborated in somewhat greater detail
in reference 1.
The next sections report on analyses that have been performed in support
of the NLR investigations and contain some preliminary results obtained
during parabolic aircraft flight.
THEORY
Basic Formulas
The equations of motion for a partially filled tank are obtained from the
principles of conservation of linear and angular momentum. The derivation
of these equations is somewhat complicated since they are wanted in a
coordinate system attached to the tank. Use will be made of the Reynold's
transport theorem (Ref. 2) that allows to pass from a Lagrangian
description to an Eulerian description of the motion, viz.
H 1. Rath (EditOr)
Mlcrogravlty flUid MechantcS
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berhn Heidelberg 1992
520
d
at
J f dr
D
Dt J f dr (1)
"t "t
where "1 is the fixed region in space, enclosed by (regular) surface a"l
that coincides with a moving and deforming region "t at time t-t 1 .
f represents a scalar field, with certain restrictions on its behaviour,
while Y.n represents the (outward) normal velocity on a"l and use has been
made of the divergence theorem:
..".:;:/
aK
at
=-=/
aK
at"
l£
- [ (YA+Oxr).V
- - -
1K+OxK
- - -
(3)
then!:
-
=-x-x-A and -A
V = a~A
at
/ l£ =-A
x
(5)
Then
dT ~ J 1: x P y dr (6)
"t
521
_
F~m{V
-A +Oxr
- -c +Qx (Q x !:c) } + JV
P { :~ /
.£
+ (!!. \1) !! + 2Q x !! } d.,-
L
(7)
!! + 2Q x !! } d.,-
(8)
where m - body mass, !:c - body center of mass location, B- inertia tensor
about A and VL indicates the volume of the body that contains (incompres-
sible) deformable material and use was made of equations (1) to (4).
Deformable Material
The integral terms in equations (7) and (8) represent the contributions to
the (internal) force and moment on the compound body due to velocities
relative to coordinate system A. These velocities are related to the
forces that act on the material (solid, fluid, etc.) continuum, by the
Cauchy equation (Ref. 2):
P~
(9)
Dy
P Dt (10)
If [ (!! x Q) . V90 - 9o!!. (V x Q) +!! x V (Q.9o) 1da = - fc E x (90 x~) d-y (11)
S
where E and g are arbitrary vector fields and surface S, contour C and
unit vectors!! and ~ are depicted in figure 1.
For a liquid volume VL enclosed by a solid tank wall Sw and a free liquid
surface S5' as in a partially filled tank, particular boundary conditions
apply:
(13)
Then, the RHS of equation (10) can be integrated for incompressible liquid
to:
merits closer investigation (Ref. 5). Equations (14) and (15) have not
been found in the literature.
DF
Dt
~~ + (~. 'l)F 0
If equation (10) is substituted in equations (7) and (8) one will find
that as a consequence m,Kc and R are to be calculated by integration over
the rigid part of the body only. Thus, in the new formulation the liquid
effects are introduced as external force or torque acting on the rigid
body.
Tank Model
The configuration of interest is sketched in figure 2. It consists of a
rigid tank with an annular cylindrical void, partially filled with liquid.
Attached to the tank, at location Kw, is a momentum wheel (rotor) with
variable angular speed ~. The liquid flow in the tank can be modelled by
the Navier-Stokes equations wherein the radial velocity, i.e. normal to
the cylinder walls, has been put to zero. Origin A of the tank- fixed
coordinate system is on the tank axis of symmetry. The aggregate body is
denoted by EB for Ejectable Ballistometer, which is the name of the test
article in the WSM experiment.
Simulations
At NLR has been developed a method for the simulation of a solid body with
a cavity partially filled with liquid (Ref. 6). The coupled problem is
partioned into two subproblems, viz. the motion of the solid body and the
motion of the liquid in the cavity. The two subprocesses can be integrated
with different time steps.
524
Results obtained with this method for the EB tank model are presented in
figures 3 and 4 (Ref. 7). Figure 3 represents a solid body motion with the
liquid frozen in its iniLlal L:onfiguration. It then occupies 20 em of the
full tank length of 28 cm. Liquid mass is 2740 gr; the tank mass is 4507
gr. The motion of the tank is initiated by the constant transfer of
angular momentum during a period of 1 s, totalling 0.12 kg m2 s-l. The
angular momentum vector is inclined 45' with the tank axis. Figure 4 gives
the tank response for inviscid liquid; all other parameters are equal.
Clearly, the nutation rate of the tank is much reduced in comparison to
the frozen liquid case. More details, including plots of the liquid motion
in the tank, are given in the reference.
EXPERIMENT
CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a derivation of the equations of motion for a partially
filled tank. A closer investigation of viscous effects at the contact line
is warranted. Reference is made to reported results of a numerical
simulation, performed at NLR, of a free motion in microgravity conditions.
The configuration of an instrumented breadboard model for parabolic flight
is described and initial experiences with data interpretation are
reported. An illustrative example of the data records is provided.
REFERENCES
surface S
10
-\l
...,....... Wx
.; 0 .75
>-
I-
U
0
..J 0 .'
W
>
II:
<
..J
:::> 0.25
(!)
z
<
0 .0
10
TI M E (SECI
Figure 3 : Angular velocities of the tank (with frozen liquid) with respect to
the body-fixed coordinate system.
528
\b
r ,
-~
I>- 1
-
/
'.0
g
f0-
~~ ~~
...J
--
W
>
/
cr: Ob
~
::J
CI
z "'v
«
0 ,0 /
8 ,0
TIME ISEC)
Figure 4: Angular velocity of the tank (with liquid) with respect to the
body-fixed coordinate system.
eo
70
50
'0
40
'6
D
30
20
10
-10
- 20
1.721 1.723 1.72' 1.727 1.729
(Thou.and.)
tJrneba •• 2 em/.
-- QF1 -- QF"2 -- QF....
Introduction
In the experimental fluid mechanics the hot wire and the hot
film anemometry still belongs to the standard measuring tech-
niques. This is because of the simple design, the easy hand-
ling and the high temporal and spatial resolutions. Thermal
anemometers are therefore very often used for measuring the
velocity components in different directions. They represent
also an important aid in investigating turbulence and
combustion processes.
H J. Rath (Editor)
Mlcrogravlty Fluid Mechanics
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlm Heidelberg 1992
530
Basic considerations
A + BUD (1)
The hot wire and hot film probes were run by a TSI constant-
temperatur-anemometer of the 1150 series. The probes used are
all industrially produced standard probes (TSI hot wire pro-
bes 1210-T1.5, 1211-T1.5 with a diameter of 4 llm and an
aspect ratio lid 312.5 and hot film probes of the type
1210-20, 1211-20 with a diameter of 51 and an
aspect ratio lid 24.5). The temperature of the wires is in
all cases hold fixed at 250°C. In the tests performed so far
533
.--__--=" ======.----__
l'_D_W(_._"~_~_PL_Y__~I ----~-----·
-r.-:::~:::::=__=~=;---..--l COt~UI:Ol.'Ml(l
•
•
f'0$11I0.-. ~WSCijt
""'(O(D
A(j; · (t ....' •• l
flOl( . SI.N'OlI
IU"Ul.lO
,klil; (llAt."l
1.26
1.24 -
1.22 -
1.2 -
1.18 -
~
~
~ 1.16 -
1.14 -
1.12 -
1.1 ~It l*
1.08
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
velocity [cm/sJ
Figure 2: Root mean square error of the mean voltage as a
function of the velocity
Results
o.~
0.6
.8E
::J
z
0.55
~
~
:J
z
0.45
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Reynolds - Number
0.7
0.6
1»
J:J
E
::J
z
0.5
~
~
::J • An<tews [5)
z o CollIs &. Wiliams (6]
• Hatton (7]
• Hegge Zijnen [2]
0.4 ~ Kilg [1]
- Kremers &. UIsamef [4]
~ McAdams (3]
0' - /IQ elCpefments
- TerrestrillJ experi/TIeIQ
0.3
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Reynolds - Number
The two prongs that hold the hot wire have always a much
larger cross section than the hot wire itself and therefore
537
~_~knowledgment
References
(1972 )
INTRODUC'TION
Van der Waals forces are known to be very short ranged. They
hardly extend over more than hundred nanometers. For a parti-
cle to experience van der Waals attraction or repulsion by a
solid, its spacing has to be very small. Particle pushing, if
at all, therefore arises at very small distances from the
solidification front only.
H, J. Ralh (Editor)
Microgravity Fluid Mechantcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
542
I mm
30
60
90
120
ISO
I
180
~"tl"'r' ',,'. ~
~.s.1~·;: ,j ...•.- :' ':'~, ', .. ' ~~' 0)
~
210
I
G
Fig. 2:
1
A typical sequence of micrographs representing the
transition from particle repulsion to encapsula-
tion, The sample consisted of latex (sterene divi-
nyl benzene) spheres of 5.7~m mean diameter in dis-
tilled water. As the planar ice-liquid interface
advances through the sample, three different phases
of the process may be distinguished.
(1) Initially, all particles are being repelled and
accumulate ahead of the ice-front which is still
propagating rather slowly with velocity below the
cri tical value V e '
(2) The particles are gradually left behind as
their critical velocities are reached. Some
particles are only swept along for a very short
distance before they get entrapped.
(3) Finally, the interface velocity has increased
to a value beyond v e , all particles are seen to
remain in their initial position while being encap-
sulated immediately upon arrival of the front (from
Korber 1988).
544
melt 3 melt 3
particle 2
particle 2 radius R,
solid 1
solid 1
Fvsc = 6 n:T1V R~ /d
545
half-space + half-space -2 -3
parallel films -4 -5
cylinder parallel to film
sphere + film
crossed cylinders
parallel cylinders -5 -6
sphere + cylinder
sphere + sphere -6 -7
546
10-9
--
Z
( I)
10-18
\
-
()
~
"'-" ."
0
10-11
de ." Fvee
ur12 ...........
---_V > Vc
--.-
ur13
(1)1
Hr14 gl
cal
1i) V < Vc
:Sl
10-15 ()
'Sl
01
10
ur16 1
I
10- 17
10-1 10 8 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4
distance d (nm)
3- ~
I~) \ ~t 1
7 '.iJ;' .......
'"
particle 2-
n
~ ~4tJ
W {l/:l:o, Id 1 -
.,t
",mi.)
30r-----~----_r----~
...
•c - R1 ~. 78
10
_, _ Rw,
...:: . ., - R-t
• , -R~
O+----r----~--~--~----+_--_+ 0
2 6 0 100 200 300
Ru.m) _ C(K lan) _
---------------------------------------------------~
S1 graphite Al A1203 4.2
:l
0.1-0.5 rounded ...
~
graphite Al SiC 0.38 0-3 angular C
graphite Al SiC 0.15 0-15 angular
graphite Al SiC 0.38 0-15 angular
graphite Al SiC 0.15 125-160 angular
graphite Al SiC 0.38 125-160 angular
'. . -T
.:.-: ... -
.0.0 • -. .
. "t.-. o~ e.
. , . . . • •: .0 0
• •,
0
-' ... : ••• f ot
· • ,0.0··. 0 -t..
0 o • • ~.
o· 0 ° ••0 • • • •
....
.... _".0,_ ...o.9
0" o . : eo
0
• 0
3% 6% 9%
0.8
--
ca ca
c.c.
0 Z
a...
Q) 0
0.6
-
.c C/)
a...
E Q)
:::l C/) 0.4
C :::l
Q)-
> 0
:;:::c: 0.2
co-
Q)
...
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
volume fraction of particles
Fig. 10: The investigation of particle migration in non-
transparent matrices requires a careful choice of
the size and number of incorporated particles. A
too small number of particles does not enable
detection of their final displacement, a too large
number provokes coagulation. (a) Cuts of mathemat-
ical samples containing 3, 6, 9 and 12 percent by
volume of particles. The cuts have been obtained by
randomly distributing particles with equal diameter
into a given volume and adapting the diameter shown
accordingly. (b) Relative particle number in
clusters of N particles. At 10 percent by volume of
particles only 50 percent of them exist as singles,
2 percent belong to pairs, 13 percent form trip-
lets, etc.
551
·· ............................
o 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x • K X • • )( • )( )( )( x x x X JC
+ + +
electrolyte copper
0.' mmtmln :\
55 min
5.5mm
0.4 mmtmln '
25 min
10 mm
·· ·
·· . ·• ·• •
+
·
0 0 x x 0 0 0
·...·• • ·· ·· • · • ··.
x 0 0
x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x
+ +
9.Bmm 0 0 0 ••
• Cb (
0 • 0 x
0 + 0
x 0
0
...··• · · · · • • • ..
0 0 0
o 0 0 x + 0 0
' ,
000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o • x x x
..
1.0 mmtmln Q 8 x x x x x x x x x x x x x
· " • · · • " ··
10 min 0 (>"8 + 0 0 +
10 mm 0 x x 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
" "
Fig. 11: The Dl-experiment "Particles at Melting and Solidi-
(left) fication Fronts" was aimed at unidirectional melt-
ing and solidification of a copper sample contain-
ing 1 percent by volume of molybdenum particles
with 2 to 4 ~m in diameter. Five different melting
rates (from top to bottom) and solidification rates
(from bottom to top) where chosen within the range
of the critical velocity estimated from theory. In
order to avoid Marangoni convection, on the top of
the sample (at the hottest side) a magnesium sili-
cate cylinder was placed, into which 19 holes with
1 rom in diameter had been drilled. The melt could
penetrate into the holes during heating (expansion)
and was rejected from the non-wetting capillaries
during cooling (shrinking) . Although unidirectional
melting had to be cancelled for lack of time, the
flight sample revealed no hints on global convec-
tion in the melt.
REFERENCES
T. P. LYUBIMOVA
Summary
Thermal buoyancy convection under the influence of weak mass
forces is studied. Different models of non-linear viscous and
visco-plastic behavior and different orientations of the
temperature gradient with respect to the vector of mass force
acceleration are considered. Analytical methods of the theory,
variational methods and numerical finite-difference method
are used. The finite-amplitude character of the onset of
convection for pseudo-plastic and visco-plastic fluids in the
case of parallel vectors g
and 'V T has been found. The
conditions of the existence of convective motion of visco-
plastic fluid in the case of orthogonal and 'V Tare g
determined with the help of variational methods.
1. Introduction
The non-Newtonian behavior is displayed by many liquid media
participating in technological and biotechnological processes
in microgravi ty. These processes often occur under
non-isothermal conditions and may be accompanied by thermal
convection which significantly affects the properties of
obtained materials. This problem was poorly studied for the
non-linear viscous fluids and almost non-studied for the
visco-plastic media. We have investigated thermal buoyancy
convection under the influence of weak mass forces for
different models of non-linear viscous and visco-plastic
behavior and different mutual orientations of temperature
gradient and mass force accelerations.
H.J.Rath(EdllOr)
Mlcrogravlty FlUid Mechanics
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Spnnger-Verlag Berhn Heidelberg 1992
556
{ }
-1
a';; ...
Pr + (.;; 'V ) .;; = - 'V P + Div T - Ra T Y (1)
at
aT ...
+ (.;; 'V ) T = .t. T , div v = 0 (2)
at
(n-i.)/2 av. a Vk
= = -aX-
t
T
ik
I 2) e ik e ik + (3)
k ax.
t
---
'-...:---
Ra
----
'i)-E :I- y- 3-E "- Ra v - -
2.10 3 i4.;O~- - 2.'0 3 I
3 3 \
-1
T
= f
l a
T
0
+ jrj
+ fJ co 1;
)
(5)
T
o = min dx dy I (7)
lJI
f}
o
o
V~~
~~~
10
5
~
.4. Conclusions
The results of our investigations show that the difference
between Newtonian and non-Newtonian behavior is the most
relevant and must be taken into account at small and moderate
Rayleigh numbers Le. in the range of the parameters which are
typical for the real micro gravity conditions.
The analysis of the results which had been obtained for the
different orientations of the vector of mass force
accelerations with respect to the vector 9 T permits us to
conclude that the visco-plastic buoyancy convective flows are
in certain sense even more gravity-sensitive than the Newtonian
ones. At one and the same thermal conditions the convective
motion of visco-plastic fluid may exist at the Earth and be
impossible in the orbital conditions. In the case of Newtonian
fluid the similar behavior can occur only at strictly parallel
g and 9 T but as a rule it is not so in the actual conditions
of the spaceflight.
References
1. H.Ozoe and S.W.Churchill. Hydrodynamic stability and natural
convection in Ostwald-de Waele and Ellis fluids: the develop-
ment of a numerical solution. A.I.Ch.E. Journal 18 1196 (1972)
2. E.M.Parmentier, D.L.Turcotte and K.E.Torrance. Studies of
finite amplitude non-Newtonian thermal convection with
application to convection in the earth-s mantle. J. Geophys.
Res. 81 1839 (1976)
3. C.Tien, H.S.Tsuei and Z.S.Sun. Thermal instability of a
horizontal layer of non-Newtonian fluid heated from below. Int.
J. Heat and Mass Transfer 12 1173 (1969)
4. S.F.Liang and A.Acrivos. Experiments on buoyancy-driven
convection in non-Newtonian fluid. Rheol. acta, 9, 447 (1970)
5. H.-S.Tsuei, C.Tien. Free convection heat transfer in a hori-
zontal layer of non-Newtonian fluid. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 51 249
(1973)
Solidification of a Liquid Sphere
in Weightlessness
L.G.Badratinova, I.V.Belova, N.A.Leontiev
Lavrentyev Institute of Hydrodynamics
Novosibirsk 630090, USSR
Summary
As a sphere, initially fully mel ted and then cooled over the
whole surface, transforms into a solid state, stresses develop
there due to a spatial inhomogeneity of temperature field and
admixture concentration. Significant stresses may also develop
due to the change of material density upon crystallization. The
effects of thermoelastic, concentration and shrinkage stresses
on crystallization of semiconducting and metal specimens were
studied theoretically in /1-3/. A nonuniqueness of the solution
describing the process of liquid sphere solidification in a
spherically symmetrical cooling regime is the main result of
this paper.
H. J. Rath (Editor)
Microgravlty Fluid Mechanics
lUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
564
Fig .1.
( 1)
0, (2)
565
= o. (3 )
For a liquid phase 0 < r < S(~,t) the following relations are
valid
(4 )
(5 )
~[Ou~+
r O~
u],
r
E
~
= ~(u
r r
In the plastic region S(~,t) < r < C(~,t) the Tresca plasti-
city condition is fulfilled:
1
(J -
r
(J~)2 + a;~= 4K2 , (J= Z(Jr + (J~) ±K. (7 )
~
The heat expansion coefficient a,.
and the Lame coefficients ~,~
are almost independent of temperature and are taken to be cons-
tanto For simplicity it is assumed here that the yield limit K
is also independent of temperature. This is valid if a maximum
temperature drop in the plastic zone is not in excess of 20 o K.
T1 =T 2 =T 0,
(8 )
P2-Pl
(P2 A - ~ Gr ) D.nS=(~lV Tl-~2V T2 ) .ns , V=(~r'~ ~~].
On the outer boundary r=R(~,t), according to /1/, we have
(9 )
of =cf 1 (r t) =
4~(2~+3~) [ SO 2
3(L 8r dr +
r r' 3(2~+~)r3-1
r
(11)
R
2~(2~+3~) [ SO
2
----3""" 3Cl-r 8r dr +
3(2~+~)r
r
and the pressure is found from
~l= ~l±2K.
G&
Fig.2.
Bifurcation Conditions
o.ol-----==========--o:::::::....-----t--7I~~
Fig.3.
References
Abstract
The present paper is part of an investigation project which deals with the simulation
of large-scale thermohaline convections in oceans [1-2,5-7]. In microgravity the ocean
can be modeled properly as a thin layer of a dielectric fluid to which a central force
field is applied between two concentric rotating spheres heated differentially. It has been
found numerically that the interaction between the forced and thermal convection in the
spherical gap leads to new flow situations not reported in literature [4] as yet. Beyond a
threshold Rayleigh number, which depends on the Reynolds number, various flow patterns
in the meridional plane are obtained by numerical simulations. At high Reynolds number
a distortion of the convective cells into a direction parallel to the rotation axis and the
dissappearance of cells in the vicinity of the equatorial plane have been found. In this
paper first experimental results obtained aboard an aircraft (KC-135) are reported, also.
Similar results as predicted by the theory in the corresponding case have been found.
1. Introduction
The geophysical movements in the atmosphere and in oceans have been the subject of
interest for centuries. The research activities related to the latter topic concentrate on the
oceanic circulation currents, which can be classified into the wind driven ocean streams
and the thermohaline convection induced by the thermal and solutal concentration gra-
dients. The latter one is characterized by large-scale motions and those have been only
sparsely studied.
The flow in the gap between two concentric rotating spheres represents a powerful possi-
bility to simulate flow processes which take place in the planetary atmospheres and oceans
[3,4,8]. But due to the imposed uniform earth gravitation in the terrestrial laboratory the
experimental results cannot be transfered adequately to the situation in real oceans. Sim-
ilar to the central gravitation of the earth, a force field can be produced experimentally
by applying a high-voltage potential difference between the outer and inner sphere filled
with a dielectric fluid. However, because this simulated acceleration is relatively weak,
H J. Rath (Edllor)
Mlcrogravtty FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM Symposium Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berhn HeIdelberg 1992
574
2. Theoretical formulation
The viscous flow in the gap between two concentric spheres (dimensionless gap width
fJ = (Ro - ~) / R;) as shown schematically in figure 1(a) is considered. Both spheres
rotate with the angular velocities W; and Wo (rotation rate a = wo/w;), whereby the
inner sphere is homogeneously heated at a higher temperature T; and the outer sphere
is maintained at a lower temperature To. In the spherical coordinates used the velocity
components in the directions of radial r, meridional 0 and azimuthal ¢ are denoted by u,
v and w, respectively.
The fluid movement is described by the continuity, momentum and energy equations. For
convenience, the validity of the Boussinesq approximation is postulated. By assuming
the flow to be rotationally symmetric (i.e. %¢ = 0), the vorticity-stream function
formulation can be applied. The velocities are related to the stream function I]! and the
circumferential function n as follows:
1 ol]! -1 ol]! n
v= - - - - - w = rsinO.
u = r2 sin 0 80 ' rsin 0 or '
(1)
(3)
and
The non-dimensional numbers in the equations are the Reynolds number Re = R~ wi/v,
the Rayleigh number Ra = 9/d}(Ti - To)/(va) and the Prandtl number Pr = via, where
v denotes the kinematic viscosity, a the thermal diffusivity and 9 the central directed
acceleration.
Under the central force field considered here the flow mode is also symmetric with respect
to the equatorial plane. Therefore, the problem is treated in a quadrant of the spherical
gap. The fluid is initially at rest, so that all quantities (0, ~, \lI and T) have to be set to
zero. The non-slip boundary conditions on the spheres and the symmetries with respect
to the equatorial plane and the axis of rotation have to be considered. The boundary
values for ~ must be determined by the solution of the Poisson equation (3). The whole
set of the boundary conditions associated with equations (1)-(4) can be summarized as
follows:
i)2\l1
r = 1: 0= sin 2 0,
~ = ar2' \lI = 0, T= 1,
3. Experimental configuration
tral acceleration lies at about O.lgo (go : acceleration due to earth gravity) for a voltage
of 10 kV. A temperature gradient is maintained between the outer and inner sphere, so
that density-driven phenomena like thermohaline convections can be studied.
The inner sphere is made out of aluminium and the outer spherical shell of transparent
plexiglas. To make the outer sphere electrically conductable, a thin layer (10 /-1m) of
silver is coated to its inner surface. The flow structure in meridional plane is visualized
by tracer particles, illuminated by a parallel beam of white light from the top of the outer
sphere and observed in front of this cross-section. As tracer particles the liquid crystals
of unencapsulated type TM 107 (from BDH Chemicals Ltd.) are used, because the high
voltage potential difference shows no influence on them.
In [1,2J further experimental details are given. Furthermore, the question of flow similarity,
parametric values and boundary conditions is treated extensively there.
(a) (b)
Literature data concerning the problem in question are very sparse. Hart et al. [4] pre-
sented numerical results for a few parameters. In contrast to that, here, numerical cal-
culations have been carried out systematically to investigate the parametric effects of Re
and Ra on the flow patterns. Although, numerical calculations for the time-dependent
evolution of the flow have been made, the flow in steady state is discussed here only. For
convenience, the following discussion concentrates on the flow in the gap with (3 = 1/3
and Q' = 1. Hereby the Prandtl number is kept constant as Pr = 8.44 (for the fluid used
in experiment). Information about the flow and temperature field in the meridional plane
and the rotational component will be presented by means of streamlines, isotherms and
contours of constant angular velocity, respectively.
As for a = 1 both spheres rotate with the same angular velocity, no secondary flow
in steady state will be generated due to pure rotation. At low Ra the temperature
distribution is solely determined by the heat conduction and the isotherms are regular
con.:entric circle lines. When increasing the temperature gradients applied there is a
threshold value Rae of Rayleigh number that has to be exceeded before the buoyancy
effects cause a detectable change in the meridional flow mode as compared to that for
pure rotation case [7]. The threshold value depends on Re, as the centrifugal force of the
rigid flow due to the rotation restricts the thermal convection. For Re = 10 the threshold
value lies about Rae = 1800 and for Re = 600 it is approximately Rae = 8 . 103 . If
Ra ~ Rae the buoyancy effect becomes dominant and the thermal convection cells in
the meridional plane are generated. For small Re, as Ra just exceeds Rae the thermal
cells prefer the regular form with the aspect ratio of the cells in radial and meridional
direction being close to unity, which appears to be a compromise between the centrifugal
and buoyancy forces. Such a trend was also observed by Hart et al. [4], despite of the fact
that these authors considered the flow to be three-dimensional. As shown in figure 2(a)
a five-celled meridional circulation has been found for Ra = 2 .103 (the solid and dashed
curves indicate the clockwise and counterclockwise swirls, respectively). Increasing Ra
fu,:ther, the thermal convection cells expand in the meridional direction and the number of
cells reduces. There exist four thermal cells at Ra = 8.103 and three cells at Re = 1.6.104
as shown in figure 2(b,c).
The typical isotherms for Ra ~ Rae are depicted in figure 2(d) for Re = 10 and
Ra = 8.103 . As can be seen by comparing it with corresponding streamlines in 2(b),
the isotherms are deformed correspondingly in the direction of the meridional flow. A
578
Re = 10
(d) T (e) w
Ra=8·10 3 Ra=8·10 3
0.75 0.75
Figure 2: (a-c) Streamlines Ill, (d) isotherms T and (e) contours of angular velocity w for
Re = 10 and different Ra.
differential rotation of the fluid can be observed from the contours of the angular velocity
in figure 2( e). Comparing the angular velocity field with the corresponding streamlines
in figure 2(b) it is found that a circumferential prograde flow (depicted by solid curves)
develops where fluid in the meridional plane flows toward the axis of rotation, and a
retrograde flow (depicted by dashed curves) arises where fluid moves away from the ro-
tational axis. This effect is more pronounced in the region near the rotation axis. The
reason is due to the dominance of thermal convection in this region. The inflow leads to
a transport of fluid particles from the vicinity of the outer sphere with a relatively higher
circumferential velocity towards the inner sphere and causes a prograde rotation, and in
the opposite manner the outflow produces a retrograde rotation.
Increasing the Reynolds number at fixed Ra = 8 . 103 , as shown in figure 3, the thermal
convection becomes weaker as the rotation of both spheres inhibits the convection in the
meridional plane. On the other hand, also the flow patterns are influenced more and
more by rotation. For Re = 100 the five convection cells are similar to that in figure 2(a).
579
But for Re = 300 a seven-celled meridional circulation is generated which tend to take a
shape parallel to the axis of rotation. This tendency is more obvious at Re = 600 (c). In
addition, the thermal convection near the equatorial plane is strongly restricted. This is
due to the large centrifugal force which increases with the distance away from the axis of
rotation.
With the experimental set-up described in section 3 (Figure l(a)), first experiments under
microgravity conditions have been carried out by parabolic flights with the KC-135 aero-
plane. The aim of those experiments was to study the relationship between various Re
and Ra numbers, whereby only the inner sphere rotates. This case does not correspond
directly to the flow situation in the oceans, but provides an adequate possibility to test
the experimental method used and to verify some basic flow features. Extensive measure-
ments in the range Re = 0 -;- 2· 10 4 and Ra = 103 -;- 5 . 105 have been carried out. The
experimental time of each parabolic flight with the microgravity quality of about 10- 3 90
is approximately 25 seconds, therefore for some parameters only a quasi-steady state flow
can be obtained. The meridional flow indicated by tracer particles is recorded photo-
graphically. The camera exposure time was 4 - 16 seconds depending on rotation rates
and temperature gradients. As the reflective properties of the tracer particles used here
deteriorated with increasing experimental time because the liquid cristals slowly become
unstable in silicone oil, details of the flow in the photos are not very sharp.
References
1. EGBERS, C., DELGADO, A. AND RATH, H.J. - First experimental investigation of
density-driven large-scale ocean motions under microgravity. Proceedings of the forum
on microgravity flows, vol. 111, 41-46, first joint ASME-JSME fluids engineering
conference, Portland, Oregon, June 23th-27th, 1991
2. 8GBERS, C., Lw, M., DELGADO, A. AND RATH, H.J. - Simulation of large-scale
ocean motions under microgravity with the help of the rotating spherical gap flow of
a dielectric fluid. Submitted for publication in the Proceedings of DARA-Symposium:
Forschung unter Weltraumbedingungen, Aachen, Germany, March 4th-6th, 1991
3. l~KMAN, v.w. - On the influence of the earth's rotation on ocean-currents.
Ark. Mat. Astr. Fys. 2, 1-52, 1905
4. HART, J.E., GLATZMAIER, G.A. AND TOOMRE, J. - Space-laboratory and numer-
ical simulations of thermal convection in a rotating hemispherical shell with radial
~;ravity. J. Fluid Mech. 173, 519-544, 1986
The 2 1/2 hour panel discussion was recorded and resulted in a typed transcript of
some 50 pages. Also, detailed notes were taken by R. Collins. For purposes of
brevity, a synthesis of that lively panel discussion is presented below:
Riley, in his introductory remarks, noted the impressively high quality of both the
oral and poster presentations. The Scientific Committee of this IUTAM Conference
determined the overall shape of the Symposium by restricting it to invited speakers
only.
2. Thermosolutal instabilities
3. Combustion phenomena
Riley notes that the words "Thermo capillary" and "Marangoni" appear in the titles of
just over one-third of the sixty presentations given here.
H J Rath (EdItor)
Mlcrogravlty FlUId Mechamcs
IUTAM SymposIUm Bremen 1991
© Sprmger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992
584
Bauer addresses the question of the significance of research on liquid bridges, what
has been accomplished to date, and what should be done in the future. Particular
emphasis has been placed on analytical and numerical solutions for the natural
response to excitation of cylindrical liquid bridges. But inviscid and viscous liquids
have been considered for both linear and nonlinear analyses and contact lines both
slipping and fixed. From these results, one could construct a motion identification
chart to predict oscillations and damped decay for liquid bridges as a function of the
capillarity number. The investigations have or can be extended to Amphora-type
geometries, viscoelastic and non-Newtonian liquids and stabilization of liquid bridges
by magnetic and electrical fields. Spinning bridges can be examined, boundary
conditions intermediate between slipping and fixed contact edges, such as a tank-
tread motion, and other contact angle considerations.
In view of the extremely slow and tedious nature of progress in preparing ground
experiments for infrequent flights in space, it is difficult, without adequate financial
support, to attract people to such work. Lack of such support could lead to a
deterioration of the high quality of such experimentation, with the dying out of such
projects.
585
Our scientific attitude regarding justification of such research at the political level is
not to promise or guarantee specific applications while the field is yet in its infancy,
but rather to maintain the position that "it's good because it's new", and we will gain
much important fundamental knowledge in the process, from which worthy
applications will certainly follow.
There is great difficulty with the classical approach to contact angles, and whether
such angles can be considered constant or static. In reality, the contact angle varies
dynamically with motion of the interface, increasing with the speed of an advancing
interface, while decreasing with the speed of a retracted one. Furthermore, there
exists a range of static angles, giving rise to the rather misleading term of contact
angle hysteresis, necessary for the observation of a water drop on a vertical window
pane.
One of the advantages of micro gravity experimentation is to remove the contact line,
nonetheless, there still exist interfaces (such as the attachment of a liquid melt to a
solid) at which edge conditions must be known. The description of moving contact
lines has inherent difficulties which one can attempt to circumvent mathematically to
avoid singularities. Such alternatives include: fixing the contact line and varying the
contact angle, defining the contact line at a sharp edge with a whole range of possible
contact angles, and use of such techniques to describe small oscillations of liquid
bridges.
Spurious mathematical singularities may arise from contact lines moving in viscous
fluids, leading to large local stresses near the contact lines. These large stresses cause
large local curvatures and hence changes in contact angle near the moving contact
line. One can thus deduce dynamic variations by taking into account processes that
occur very near the moving contact line.
reached, whereupon it slips. Reversing the process, one returns down the same path;
therefore it's misleading to call this contact angle hysteresis. Often one observes that
the interface will stick for a bit, then slip, then stick, then slip. The hysteresis effect
may come from proceeding along one path, and then retreating down another.
However, there is no experimental evidence on the behaviour and measurements of
contact angles that would indicate such a process.
Concus continues the discussion on static versus dynamic contact angle, advocating
the necessity of more experiments, possibly with realistic levels of impurities, and re-
orientation in zero gravity of liquids from one configuration to another, wherein the
driving force is entirely at the three-phase interface line. More guidance from
experiments is needed to formulate reasonable boundary conditions for a moving
liquid. The time is ripe for good numerical simulations of time-dependent flows,
although this is a tough numerical problem.
Rath refers back to the invited lecture of Schwabe and concurs that more small-scale
I-g experiments are needed, and recalls that Langbein has been fighting for such a
mini-laboratory for two years. Such facilities are very important for the study of
liquid bridges.
We should keep in mind the applications of such scientific studies to the effects of
micro- and macro-inhomogeneities on thermo-solutal convection - this aspect has
already been studied for buoyancy convection - and to apply work on liquid bridges
to material processing, evaluating material defects induced by such convections. Not
enough is known about physico-chemical properties at the interfaces in this context.
Bauer poses an engineering question: What effect does the contact angle and the
slide-stick condition possibly have on the dynamics and stability of such a bridge? It
is suggested that one defines a "slide-stick" coefficient (or factor), which when
multiplied by the derivative of the contact line deflection, is set to zero at the contact
line. The stuck edge condition corresponds to a zero slide-stick coefficient, while the
pure sliding condition corresponds to an infinite value of that coefficient, on which
stability strongly depends. The corresponding instabilities are 2" and 1r, respectively.
Dryer notes that phase transformations appear absent from the list of main themes
concerning liquids, yet he believes these can be significantly coupled through
concentration gradient instabilities mentioned earlier. This process is complicated.
Furthermore, nucleation phenomena and particle growth processes may be worth
investigating in microgravity environments.
Kono comments on combustion research under microgravity, for which the flame is
spherical. Last year, Williams described here (J. Microgravity Res., vol. 3) his
forces. Under microgravity, the Froude number is large, giving rise to quite different
combustion phenomena than those in a buoyancy-dominated gravitational field on
earth, where the Froude number is small. It would appear there is no danger of
evaporation under high pressure and high temperature microgravity conditions.
Kono sees as very important under microgravity the processes inherent in the
combustion research described by Nomura on fuel droplet evaporation, by Dryer on
droplet combustion, by Nagata on hot surface ignition, by Andres on PIV diagnostic
measurements and by Crespo on fire modelling which is affected by buoyancy at
large scale.
The second area is the area of diffusion flame phenomena, these again are
compromised in terms of their scientific study in gravitational fields, because
characteristic length scales in terms of the flame thickness are such that buoyancy
very much dominates processes at the interface. These interfacial phenomena in
589
diffusion flames have often been thought to be able to be represented quite readily
by what has been called thin flame-sheet theory, that is chemical rate processes being
very fast relative to diffusion or mixing processes. In the entire field of combustion,
particularly turbulent combustion, it is now recognised that on the sub-scale of the
turbulence, micromixing and diffusional processes and finite rate chemistry are what
control some very important processes, for example the formation of combustion
emissions.
The third area is a broadened area which includes the area of droplet combustion,
which he titles two-phase systems. In addition to droplet combustion areas, both the
high pressure area where we see effects of critical state descriptions in the presence
of large temperature and concentration fields, are the fields of solid particle burning,
and interfacial chemically reacting systems. We saw only a brief glimpse of the latter
problem in the paper from Kono's group, on ignition of pre-mixed systems. He thinks
these are in particular areas where microgravity research can have great influence.
Dryer does not believe that at present we can model interfacially coupled chemical
systems well in very complicated dimensional conditions, particularly those in which
convection coupling from buoyancy exists. Among that same area are issues on drop-
drop interactions which he thinks deal with the contact issue that was discussed
previously in terms of drop-drop collisional studies, particularly when drop-drop
collisional studies involve not only the same medium, but two different media - the
dynamics of the interface during the collision are very interesting ways to study
contact angles that typically have not been utilised in gravitational fields, because of
the very fine photographic or dimensional diagnostic resolution that needs to be
applied. That application can actually be done in microgravity events.
Finally, the issue of porous media is one that he thinks is begging, in the combustion
field, for some very significant research. There are two sections to that field: one
called smouldering, in which the reaction chemistry is slow and dominated by the
diffusion of products and reactants within the media, and the other is open-pore
burning. Both of those issues have very practical ramifications with regard to the
combustion of real fuels, and to incineration problems.
Riley in the interest of time, now proposes to abandon any further technical
discussions in favour of an examination of the professionally and strategically
oriented questions posed at the beginning of the panel discussion. He expresses his
own view that, as a comunity of low-gravity scientists we are indeed pursuing a
science, identifying and developing it from different viewpoints and disciplines in
earth gravity, and not seeking simply to provide a "quick fix" in an engineering sense.
Schwabe expresses a dislike for the term "microgravity science" which is misleading in
that it appears to transform an additional parameter space, such as micro gravity, into
a new separate science.
Collins reinforces this view by proposing to apply the test: are you using microgravity
as a vehicle to amplify different earth-bound transport phenomena that you can then
measure more easily, or do you expect that what you learn from these transport
phenomena in microgravity will have a direct application to or bearing on a space
station activity, for example?
591
Srulijes proposes that we concentrate much more in doing basic science experiments,
and not look for (funded) application. Furthermore, it is important that there are
several centres of excellence in this field throughout the world, such as at ZARM, to
coordinate ideas on microgravity.
Delil is of the opinion that this field of research is gravity-related, since many such
microgravity projects are done for a better understanding of phenomena on earth,
even though these phenomena may be more easily isolated in space. He gives the
example of manipulating the value of Froude number, in connection with boiling
phenomena, by either altering the gravitational field (in space), the temperature (via
cryogens), or the gas (helium, oxygen, nitrogen). Therefore, it would seem that
gravity-related physics is a better name than microgravity physics.
On a second subject, Delil emphasizes the need, not specifically addressed in this
Symposium, of designing experimental test facilities for a space environment, which
require an engineering knowledge of pumping systems, condensation, pressure drops,
heat dissipation, power systems, two-phase porous structures with evaporation, etc.,
all of which current design techniques are based on terrestrial data and modelling,
which is completely different in space.
Dryer draws attention to the need to come to a conclusion on this question of naming
the research field because of its implications for funding. He suggests that higher
levels of funding will be more readily available for applied, as opposed to pure,
science. Microgravity may be treated as yet another means of understanding the
fundamentals of problems important for real applications. Both engineers and
scientists do have the same goal in mind of understanding a process at very
fundamental levels so that they may predict, rather than simply interpret, transport
behaviour.
Riley believes that it's not sufficient just to categorize microgravity research as a part
of science or a different parameter of space, since it is this new and characteristic
feature of the absence of earth gravity which sets apart this area of science and
engineering.
Dryer affirms that his motivation for doing droplet combustion in microgravity
environments is intended primarily to unravel the very fundamentals. That he needs
to understand for applications on earth.
There is also a class of problems, for example crystal growth, that can only be
performed under low gravity conditions. This may lead to some future understanding
of how to grow large crystals in gravitational fields. Consequently, Dryer sees
microgravity science as an extremely important tool and a very general field of
research. The distinction between engineering and science appears to be very
relative. However, whatever the point of view, we're all attempting to look for
fundamental explanations at a physical or chemical level that become predictive.
In a similar way, one is not a high-pressure scientist because one studies combustion
chemistry at high pressure (or low pressure or critical pressure).
Collins is asked by Riley to outline one other of the microgravity disciplines that
have not been touched upon in this Symposium. That subject involves understanding
593
The field of space life sciences is directly related to the microgravity environment, as
a space crews' health, performance and well-being must be assured and safeguarded
while residing and working in space for periods of months to years, performing
experiments and space station-related tasks. It is expected that the improved
understanding of human physiological processes in space will have direct applications
to clinical medicine on earth.
Under zero gravity conditions, the body progressively adapts to its new environment.
We will confine our description here to the adaptation of the circulation only, that is,
blood volume distributions in the body under prolonged exposures to microgravity, as
this aspect is of closest relevance to this IUTAM Symposium on Microgravity Fluid
Mechanics. When one is exposed to a microgravity environment, there results a
translocation of blood from the lower members, where it normally pools in the veins
of the legs at g = 1, towards the upper extremities g = o. This upward shift gives the
"bird's legs and puffy face" appearance characteristic of astronauts in space.
In fact, these headward fluid shifts appear to trigger the whole physiological process
of adaptation of the circulation to microgravity environments. Altered flow pressures,
blood volumes and concomitant tissue deformations are sensed by a network of
receptors which communicate information to the central nervous system and to the
autonomic nervous system. A complex compensatory response is then put into play in
an attempt (not always successful) to return these variables to their original pre-
stress values.
However, the sensors (receptors), located principally in the aortic arch, carotic
arteries, and heart chambers, may re-set themselves over time at new levels. For
example, if blood pressure is regulated by receptors responding to stretch of the
surrounding tissue (rather than to pressure itself), then a subsequent change over
time of the viscoelasticity of that tissue will in effect "re-calibrate" the baroreceptors
at the new setting. However, other pressure-independent mechanisms, such as
neurohumoral influences, may also re-set baroreceptor sensitivity in the face of acute
or chronic changes in the prevailing level of arterial pressure as further adaptation to
the new microgravity environment continues.
594
During the first few days in space, the receptors in the upper body respond to the
headward fluid shift and locally increased blood volume in the upper members by
sending nerve signais to the brain iu decrease that volume back to its original level.
The brain responds, via the autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) nervous
system by sending a signal to the kidneys to excrete fluid. Gradually, concomitant
adjustments in heart rate, cardiac output, stroke volume, venous return to the heart
and mean arterial pressure tend to shift the circulation and now diminished blood
volume to a new equilibrium state better adapted to the microgravitational
environment. The longer the exposure to microgravity, the farther the adaptation
process progresses.
Upon sudden return to earth, serious problems of orthostatic intolerance can occur if
little time is provided for the re-adaptation to a terrestrial I-g environment. As the
astronaut commences the return orbit to earth, and is suddenly subjected to a I-g
force field, the blood shifts caudalward, toward the feet, where it was originally
pooled. However, the total blood volume had been reduced during the first few days
in space. Consequently, as the blood re-pools in the legs upon return to a I-g
environment, their is a deficit of blood flow to the head (brain and eyes), with the
danger of diminished intellectual performance and possibly loss of consciousness;
even during the return orbit.
This condition is mitigated by having the astronauts drink one litre of water
(physiological saline) one hour before commencing the return orbit to earth,
provided their space mission was not longer than 4 to 5 days in duration. For longer
exposures in space, this countermeasure, designed to increase fluid volume and
assure cerebral irrigation during re-entry, is no longer effective. This would imply the
existence of further adaption processes to microgravity for longer space missions,
which cannot be so readily re-set by increasing fluid volume alone.
Riley invites participants in the Symposium to exchange experiences very quickly and
indicate successes or failures in their own countries for the funding of microgravity
research.
Rath believes that adequate funding for scientific research is very important, and that
especially now in Germany, some financial problems have arisen, as in other
countries. Rath has no clear idea on how to obtain increases in research funding,
particularly inasmuch as some 95 % of space station and space lab related research
in Germany is going to industry for the infrastructure, etc.
The study in Germany of gravitational effects is very important for both fundamental
and applied research, and more than 3 or 4 % of the total space research budget is
needed for this purpose.
Riley confirms the difficulty of the funding situation in the United Kingdom, where
it's almost a policy decision not to fund microgravity-related projects, following a
report some 2 to 3 years ago by the Science and Engineering Research Council that
still applies.
Collins believes a similar situation pertains in Canada to that of Germany, where the
Canadian Space Agency allots the major portion of its research and development
funds to industry with in fact no funding authorized for space life sciences
whatsoever. University researchers obtain only meager resources in general for basic
microgravity related research.
will support a handful of new contracts each year, preferably those with some
possibility of space flight experimentation at some point as opposed to purely
ground-based activities.
Schwabe believes that although the funding situation in Germany has been good over
the past decade it's now becoming a little bit critical in microgravity research. It is
possible that the politicians and funding agencies may not fully appreciate the very
long preparation time needed to produce good research proposals, to check their
feasibility and evaluate critically the merits of their own research ideas before
proceeding to space experiments. This process can extend much longer than months
or even years and for this reason of significant lead time, some continuity in funding
policy is needed, particularly in Germany.
Langbein notes that many countries are planning to build a space station, at least
amongst the Western nations, and that the Soviets already have one. The European
Space Agency is planning the space station Columbus, along with facilities for fluid
sciences.
In Germany, all funding for facilities is being allotted to the space firms, which
always have cost over-runs, thus draining funding from the basic research sector. The
latter must furnish appropriate experiments in ten years, if the present schedule is
maintained. The young researchers today, who will be the principal scientists of
Germany in ten years, are now discouraged.
Riley proposes moving on to the last of the four questions. Since IUTAM has
fostered this particular extremely successful Symposium, we should propose to
IUTAM that in their quadrennial meetings they include a mini-Symposium on
Microgravity Fluid Mechanics.
Polezhaev proposes continuing in future years both the present type of Symposium in
Bremen, but also special sessions of general IUTAM-sponsored Symposia
(quadrennial) in mechanics or microgravity mechanics. Similar initiatives have been
597
taken successfully with the International Crystal Growth Union, including the
organization of special sessions on crystal growth in microgravity.
Riley takes the view that it's our particular relationship with IUTAM to foster the
further development of microgravity fluid mechanics within this framework. We
propose to send a message to IUTAM that we would wish to see continuity of this
program, this Symposium, within the IUTAM framework, and that we ask IUTAM in
particular to include within their program every four years a mini-Symposium on
microgravity.
"Ladies and Gentlemen, at the end of our meeting I would like to make only a few
final remarks. I think this week has shown that it was the right time for such a
IUTAM Symposium on Microgravity Fluid Mechanics and I hope that this
conference will stimulate further experimental and theoretical investigations within
this interesting and exciting field of fluid mechanics. As you know, the proceedings,
the state! of the art of microgravity fluid mechanics will be published by the Springer
Verlag at, I think, the end of this year. Thanks again to the members of the Scientific
Committee, to the members of the Local Organizing Committee, to the Chairmen of
the Sessions, to the members of our Panel Discussion, of course; thanks to the
speakers, to the audience, to the participants of our Symposium, thank you very
much for the interesting discussions and last but not least I would like to thank also
Mr. Schuster, he was responsible for this lecture hall here, for the technique, for all
things, thank you very much. And Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to thank you
again for coming to this conference and I wish you a very nice trip back to your
country. Thank you very much."
Contributors
Alexander J.I.D. 167, 297
Center for Microgravity
and Materials Research
University of Alabama
Huntsville
USA
Amiroudine S. 297
Center for Microgravity
and Materials Research
University of Alabama
Huntsville
USA
Antanovskii L.K. 381
Lavrentyev Inst. of
Hydrodynamics
Novosibirsk
USSR
Azuma H. 205
National Aerospace Laboratory
Tokyo
Japan
Balasubramanian R. 307
NASA Lewis Research Center
Cleveland
USA
Barrero A. 271
Dpto. Ingenieria Energetica
y Mecanica de Fluidos
Universidad de Sevilla
Spain
Bauer H.F. 47
Institut fur Raumfahrttechnik
Univ. der Bundeswehr Munchen
Neubiberg
Germany
600
Cloot A. 71
Dept. of Applied Mathematics
Univ. of the Orange Free state
South Africa
Concus P. 19
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
and Department of Mathematics
University of California
USA
Crespo A. 405,459
Dpto. de Ingenieria Engergetica
y Fluidomecanica
E.T.S.I. Industriales
Universidad Politecnica
Madrid
Spain
Doi T. 205
Nat. Space Development Agency
of Japan
Tokyo
Japan
Dreyer M. 479
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
602
Duda U. 227
Fachbereich Mechanik
Universitat Essen
Germany
Egbers C. 573
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Eidel W. 47, 61
Institut fur Raumfahrttechnik
Univ. der Bundeswehr Munchen
Neubiberg
Germany
Finn R. 19
Dept. of Mathematics
Stanford University
USA
Gai'ian A. 271
Dpto. Ingenieria Energetica
y Mecanica de Fluidos
Universidad de Sevilla
Spain
Gerbeth G. 285
Central Institute
for Nuclear Research
Dresden
Germany
Goncharova O.N. 381
Altay State University
Barnaul
USSR
Gonzalez H. 271
Dpto. Electr6nica
y Electomagnetismo
Universidad de Sevilla
Spain
Greger R. 511
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Guo S. 453
Beijing Institute
of Control Engineering
Beijing
P.R. China
Hernandez J. 459
E.T.S. Ingenieros Industriales
Universidad de Murcia
Cartagena
spain
Iglseder H. 245
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Ishii K. 355
University of Tokyo
Japan
604
Jimenez-FernAndez J. 405
Dpto. de Ingenieria Energetica
y FluidomecAnica
E.T.S.I. Industriales
Universidad Politecnica
Madrid
Spain
Kamotani Y. 175
Dept. of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland
USA
Kozhoukharova Zh. 91
Inst. of Mechanics and Biomech.
Bulgarien Academy of Sciences
Sofia
Bulgaria
Langbein D. 413, 541
Battelle Europe e.V.
Frankfurt/Main
Germany
Lapin A.Yu. 137
Institute of Cont. Media Mech.
Urals Branch of USSR
Academy of Sciences
Perm
USSR
Li B. 453
Beijing Institute
of Control Engineering
Beijing
P.R. China
Liu M. 573
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Marek R. 99
Lehrstuhl A fUr Thermodynamik
TU MUnchen
Germany
Marks G. 245
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Meseguer J. 37
Lamf-~g
Laboratorio de Aerodinamica
E.T.S.I. Aeronauticos
Universidad Politecnica
Madrid
spain
Moeller U. 213
I. Physikalisches Institut
Universitat Giessen
Germany
Nagata H. 355
University of Tokyo
Japan
Naidenov v. 91
Institute for Water Research
Moscow
USSR
Nepomnyashchy A.A. 145
Institute of Cont. Media Mech.
Urals Branch of USSR
Academy of Sciences
Perm
USSR
Netter G. 155
MBB/ERNO
Bremen
Germany
Nitschke K. 285
Central Institute
for Nuclear Research
Dresden
Germany
Nomura H. 245
University of Tokyo
Japan
Ohnishi M. 205
National Aerospace Laboratory
Tokyo
Japan
607
Ostrach S. 175
Dept. of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland
USA
Ouazzani J. 297
Center for Microgravity
and Materials Research
University of Alabama
Huntsville
USA
Perales J.M. 37
Lamf-t.'g
Laboratorio de Aerodinamica
E.T.S.I. Aeronauticos
Universidad Politecnica
Madrid
spain
Petri B. 81
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
Raake D. 435
Lehrstuhl fUr Mechanik
Universitat-GH-Essen
Germany
Ramos A. 271
Dpto. Electr6nica
y Electromagnetismo
Universidad de Sevilla
spain
Scharmann A. 213
I. Physikalisches Institut
Universitat Giessen
Germany
Schneider J. 213
I. Physikalisches Institut
Universitat Giessen
Germany
Schneider S. 195
Lehrstuhl A fUr Thermodynamik
TU MUnchen
Germany
Schulkes R.M.S.M. 29
Department of Mathematics
Delft University of Technology
The Netherlands
Schwabe D. 201, 213
I. Physikalisches Institut
Universitat Giessen
Germany
609
Slavtchev S. 91
Inst. of Mechanics and Biomech.
Bulgarien Academy of Sciences
Sofia
Bulgaria
Strube D. 263
Institut fUr Raumfahrttechnik,
Univ. der Bundeswehr MUnchen
Neubiberg
Germany
Thess A. 285
Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon
Lyon
France
Tomioka S. 355
University of Tokyo
Japan
Treuner M. 227
Centre of Applied Space
Technology & Microgravity, ZARM
University of Bremen
Germany
weiB J. 155
Hochschule Bremen
Germany
wozniak G. 119
Lehrstuhl fUr Mechanik
Universitat-GH-Essen
Germany
wozniak K. 119
Lehrstuhl fUr Mechanik
Universitat-GH-Essen
Germany
Xu S. 315
Institute of Mechanics
Academia Sinica
Beijing
P.R. of China
611
Yee D. 373
Thermodynamics & Kinetics Lab.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
University of Toronto
Canada
Yoshihara S. 205
National Aerospace Laboratory
Tokyo
Japan
Zhang Y. 167
Center for Microgravity
and Materials Research
University of Alabama
Huntsville
USA
Zhang x. 489
Beijing Institute of Structure
and Environment Engineering
Beijing
P.R. of China