NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING(NDT)

Non Destructive Testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing
damage. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly
valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and
research. NDT methods rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound and other signal
conversions to examine a wide variety of articles (metallic and non-metallic, food-product, artifacts
and antiquities, infrastructure) for integrity, composition, or condition with no alteration of the article
undergoing examination. Visual inspection (VT), the most commonly applied NDT method, is quite
often enhanced by the use of magnification, borescopes, cameras, or other optical arrangements
for direct or remote viewing. The internal structure of a sample can be examined for a volumetric
inspection with penetrating radiation (RT), such as X-rays, neutrons or gamma radiation. Sound
waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing (UT), another volumetric NDT method – the
mechanical signal (sound) being reflected by conditions in the test article and evaluated for
amplitude and distance from the search unit (transducer). Another commonly used NDT method
used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles (either suspended in liquid
or dry powder – fluorescent or colored) that are applied to a part while it is magnetized, either
continually or residually. The particles will be attracted to leakage fields of magnetism on or in the
test object, and form indications (particle collection) on the object's surface, which are evaluated
visually. Contrast and probability of detection for a visual examination by the unaided eye is often
enhanced by using liquids to penetrate the test article surface, allowing for visualization of flaws or
other surface conditions. This method (liquid penetrant testing) (PT) involves using
dyes, fluorescent or colored (typically red), suspended in fluids and is used for non-magnetic
materials, usually metals.NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial
activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. Nondestructive
testing methods are routinely applied in industries where a failure of a component would cause
significant hazard or economic loss, such as in transportation, pressure vessels, building
structures, piping, and hoisting equipment.
 TYPES OF NDT
NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular
scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The
various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves
especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications.
Therefore, choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance
of NDT

 LIQUID PENETRATION TESTING

 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
 ULTRASONIC TESTING
 RADIOGRPHY TESTING

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplest NDT methods
where its earliest versions (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to
the 19th century. This method is used to reveal surface discontinuities by
bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is
based on the ability
of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface
discontinuity by capillary action. After a period
of time called the "dwell time", excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer applied.
This acts as a blotter that draws the penetrant
from the discontinuity to reveal its presence.
The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers
over an unaided visual inspection is that it makes defects
easier to see for the inspector where that is done in two
ways:
 It produces a flaw indication that is much larger and
easier for the eye to detect than the flaw itself.
Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are
undetectable by the unaided eye (a person with a
perfect vision can not resolve features smaller than
0.08 mm).
 It improves the detectability of a flaw due to the high
level of contrast between the indication and the
background which helps to make the indication more
easily seen (such as a red indication on a white
background for visable penetrant or a penetrant that
glows under ultraviolate light for flourecent
penetrant).

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its
popularity can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and
its flexibility. It can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly
inspected using this method include; metals, glass, many ceramic materials,
rubber and plastics.
However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that
break the surface of the sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps,
seams, lack of fusion, etc.).

Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing

The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to case
depending on several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the
size and material of the component being inspected, the type of
discontinuities being expected in the component and the condition and
environment under which the inspection is performed. However, the
general steps can be summarized as follows:
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid
penetrant testing is the surface preparation. The surface must be free
of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if
mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting
have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can
smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from
entering.

2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned

and dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or
immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient

time to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn or to see

into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually
recommended by the penetrant producers or required by the
specification being
followed. The times vary
depending on the
application, penetrant
materials used, the material,
the form of the material
being inspected, and the
type of discontinuity being
inspected for. Minimum
dwell times typically range
from 5 to 60 minutes.
Generally, there
is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the
penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often
determined by experimentation and may be very specific to a
particular application.

4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate step of the

 inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed
from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects.
Depending on the
penetrant system used, this
step may involve cleaning
with a solvent, direct
rinsing with water, or first
treating the part with an
emulsifier and then rinsing
with water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the

sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where
it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be
applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6. Indication Development:
The developer is allowed
to stand on the part
surface for a period of
time sufficient to permit
the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of
any surface flaws. This
development time is
usually a minimum of 10
minutes. Significantly
longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.

7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting

to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the
part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found
to be acceptable.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT
methods are:
Advantages

 High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).

 Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be
inspected).
 Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
 Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and
constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
 Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
 Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

Disadvantages

 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting
must be removed.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for
detecting surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a
magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed
through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect
magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but
a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be either alternating
current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows
the magnetic flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit
volume as metals.
To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to
a part. These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an
indication, which is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if
any.
There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle inspection.
For a proper current to be selected one needs to consider the part geometry,
material, the type of discontinuity one is seeking, and how far the magnetic field
needs to penetrate into the part.

 Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities.

Using AC to detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known as
the skin effect, where the current runs along the surface of the part. Because the
current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60 cycles per second it does not penetrate
much past the surface of the test object. This means the magnetic domains will
only be aligned equal to the distance AC current penetration into the part. The
frequency of the alternating current determines how deep the penetration.
 Full wave DC (FWDC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities where AC can
not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth needed. The
amount of magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current through the
part.[1] DC is also limited on very large cross-sectional parts in terms of how
effectively it will magnetize the part.
 Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but allows for
detection of surface breaking indications and has more magnetic penetration into
the part than FWDC. HWDC is advantageous for inspection process as it actually
helps move the magnetic particles during the bathing of the test object. The aid in
particle mobility is caused by the half-wave pulsating current waveform. In a
typical mag pulse of 0.5 seconds there are 15 pulses of current using HWDC.
This gives the particle more of an opportunity to come in contact with areas of
magnetic flux leakage.
An AC electromagnet is the preferred method for find surface breaking indication.
The use of an electromagnet to find subsurface indications is difficult. An AC
electromagnet is a better means to detect a surface indication than HWDC, DC, or
permanent magnet, while some form of DC is better for subsurface defects.

Equipment

 A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production

inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is
placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail stock is typically an induction
coil, which is used to change the orientation of the magnetic field by 90° from the
head stock. Most of the equipment is built for a specific application.
 Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire
wrapping applications.
 Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field between two
poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld
inspection. The drawback of magnetic yokes is that they only induce a magnetic
field between the poles, so large-scale inspections using the device can be time-
consuming. For proper inspection the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for
every inspection area to detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities. Subsurface
detection using a yoke is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders,
wet powders, or aerosols.

An automatic wet horizontal MPI machine with an external power supply, conveyor,
and demagnetizing system

After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This requires
special equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The
magnetization is normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a peak current
very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving the part magnetized. To
demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed has to be equal to or
greater than the current or magnetic field used to magnetize the part. The current or
magnetic field is then slowly reduced to zero, leaving the part demagnetized.

 AC demagnetizing
o Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right are AC
powered devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly
pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through
and away from the coil's magnetic field slows drops the magnetic field in the
part. Note that many AC demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several
seconds so the part must be passed through the coil and be several feet
 (meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have
residual magnetization.
o AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase MPI
equipment. During the process the part is subjected to an equal or greater AC
current, after which the current is reduced over a fixed period of time (typically
18 seconds) until zero output current is reached. As AC is alternating from a
positive to a negative polarity this will leave the magnetic domains of the part
randomized.
o AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag a part
depending on the geometry and the alloys used.

A pull through AC demagnetizing unit

o
 Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing: this is a demagnetizing method that must
be built into the machine during manufacturing. It is similar to AC decaying
except the DC current is stopped at intervals of half a second, during which the
current is reduced by a quantity and its direction is reversed. Then current is
passed through the part again. The process of stopping, reducing and reversing
the current will leave the magnetic domains randomized. This process is
continued until zero current is passed through the part. The normal reversing DC
demag cycle on modern equipment should be 18 seconds or longer. This method
of demag was developed to overcome the limitations presented by the AC
demag method where part geometry and certain alloys prevented the AC demag
method from working.
 Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC): this process is identical to full-wave DC
demagnetization, except the waveform is half-wave. This method of
demagnetization is new to the industry and only available from a single
manufacturer. It was developed to be a cost-effective method to demagnetize
without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply. This method is only
found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies. HWDC demagnetization is just
as effective as full-wave DC, without the extra cost and added complexity. Of
course, other limitations apply due to inductive losses when using HWDC
waveform on large-diameter parts. Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past 410
mm (16 in) diameter using a 12-volt power supply.

Magnetic particle inspection

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct

examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be
used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material
characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle,
a typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will be
used.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such
as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver
is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses.
Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic
energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the
materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a
Zflaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet
below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from
signal generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can
be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the
signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and
other features can sometimes be gained

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some

of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo
technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
  Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to
flaw detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations,
which include:

 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of
sound energy into the test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration
and the characterization of flaws.

The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT

method of ultrasonic testing. However, to effectively perform an
inspection using ultrasonics, much more about the method needs to be
known. The following pages present information on the science involved
in ultrasonic inspection, the equipment that is commonly used, some of
the measurement techniques used, as well as other information.
Radiographic Testing (RT) is a nondestructive examination (NDE) technique
that involves the use of either x-rays or gamma rays to view the internal structure
of a component. In the petrochemical industry, RT is often used to inspect
machinery, such as pressure vessels and valves, to detect for flaws. RT is also
used to inspect weld repairs.
Compared to other NDE techniques, radiography has several advantages. It is
highly reproducible, can be used on a variety of materials, and the data gathered
can be stored for later analysis. Radiography is an effective tool that requires
very little surface preparation. Moreover, many radiographic systems are
portable, which allows for use in the field and at elevated positions.

Types of Radiography
There are numerous types of RT techniques including conventional radiography
and multiple forms digital radiographic testing. Each works slightly differently and
has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.

Conventional Radiography
Conventional radiography uses a sensitive film which reacts to the emitted
radiation to capture an image of the part being tested. This image can then be
examined for evidence of damage or flaws. The biggest limitation to this
technique is that films can only be used once and they take a long time to
process and interpret.
Digital Radiography
Unlike conventional radiography, digital radiography doesn’t require film. Instead,
it uses a digital detector to display radiographic images on a computer screen
almost instantaneously. It allows for a much shorter exposure time so that the
images can be interpreted more quickly. Furthermore, the digital images are
much higher quality when compared to conventional radiographic images. With
the ability to capture highly quality images, the technology can be utilized to
identify flaws in a material, foreign objects in a system, examine weld repairs, and
inspect for corrosion under insulation.

The four most commonly utilized digital radiography techniques in the oil & gas
and chemical processing industries are computed radiography, direct
radiography, real-time radiography, and computed tomography.

1) Computed Radiography

Computed radiography (CR) uses a phosphor imaging plate that replaces film in
conventional radiography techniques. This technique is much quicker than film
radiography but slower than direct radiography. CR requires several extra steps
compared to direct radiography. First, it indirectly captures the image of a
component on a phosphor plate, then converts the image into a digital signal that
can be visualized on a computer monitor. Image quality is fair but can be
enhanced using appropriate tools and techniques (i.e, adjusting contrast,
brightness, etc. without compromising integrity). It’s important to know how tools,
such as adjusting contrast, effect the image. Care should also be taken to make
sure minor defects are not hidden after enhancements are made.

2) Direct Radiography
Direct Radiography (DR) is also a form of digital radiography and very similar to
computed radiography. The key difference lies in how the image is captured. In
DR, a flat panel detector is used to directly capture an image and display that
image on a computer screen. Although this technique is fast and produce higher
quality images, it is more costly than computed radiography.

3) Real-Time Radiography

Real-time radiography (RTR), like it’s name suggests, is a form of digital

radiography that occurs in real time. RTR works by emitting radiation through an
object. These rays then interact with either a special phosphor screen or flat
panel detector containing micro-electronic sensors. The interaction between the
panel and the radiation creates a digital image that can be viewed and analyzed
in real time.

The brighter areas on the image are a result of higher levels of radiation that
contact the screen. This corresponds to the thinner or less dense section of the
component. Conversely, darker areas are a result of less radiation interacting
with the screen and indicate where the component is thicker.

Aside from being able to make the images available more quickly and analyze
them in real time, RTR has several other advantages. One being that digital
images don’t require physical storage space and thus are easier to store,
transfer, and archive than film.

On the other hand, this method has several disadvantages as well. Compared to
conventional radiography, RTR has a lower contrast sensitivity and limited image
resolution. Images created via RTR often suffer from uneven illumination, limited
resolution, a lack of sharpness, and noise. These factors have a major impact on
image quality.

4) Computed Tomography

Computed tomography (CT) is a technique that takes hundreds to thousands

(depending on the size of the component) of 2D radiography scans and
superimposes them to create a 3D radiographic image.

In an industrial setting, CT can be achieved in two ways. In one method, the

component to be inspected remains stationary while the radiation source and x-
ray detector rotate around the component. This technique is more likely to be
utilized for large components. The second method consists of the radiation
source and x-ray detector remaining stationary while the component is rotated
360 degrees. This second technique is more useful when the component is small
or has complex geometry.

Although this technology is timely, expensive, and requires a large amount of

data storage, CT provides highly accurate images, is repeatable and
reproducible, and minimizes human error.

WELDING DEFECTS

Any irregularity (discontinuity or flaw) in the weld metal, which exceeds the
applicable code limit, is termed as a WELD DEFECT (or Welding Defect). Please
note that a discontinuity can be termed as a defect only when, if it exceeds the
specified code limit, hence we can say that every defect present in a weld metal is
a discontinuity but every discontinuity present in the weld metal may not necessarily
be a defect. A defect can be macroscopic or microscopic.
Defects may occur due to the following reasons;
1. Incorrect welding parameters
2. Inappropriate welding procedures
3. Poor process condition
4. Inappropriate selection of filler metal and parent metal
5. Unskilled welder or welding operator
6. Incorrect job preparations

Classification of Defects:
Defects can be classified as external defect (also known as visual defect or surface
defect) and internal defect (also known as hidden defect or subsurface defect).
External defects are those which are found on the surface itself. Internal defects are
those which exist in the material at some depth. We can say that defects which are
not present on the surface are internal defects. Please see the following table;
1. CRACKS: It is the most dangerous of all defects. Cracks may be of any size or
shape; it can be either microscopic or macroscopic. Cracks may appear anywhere
i.e. on the surface, subsurface, at any depth or at the root. Crack occurs when the
localized stress exceeds the ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) of the material. It
may propagate within the material.
Cracks are of two types;
 Hot Crack
 Cold Crack

HOT CRACK: Hot cracks occurs during welding or soon after completion of welding,
It is most likely to occur during the solidification of the molten weld pool. Hot cracks
mostly occur in the weld metal but it may occur at the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
region too.
When hot crack occurs on the weld metal then it is termed as Solidification
Crackand if it occurs in the HAZ then called as Liquation crack.

Causes of Hot Crack:

1. High concentration of residual stress
2. Rapid cooling of weld pool
3. High thickness of base material
4. Poor ductility of welded material
5. High welding current
6. Inadequate heat treatment

Prevention:
1. Preheating and post heating to avoid rapid cooling
2. Using right filler metal

COLD CRACK: Cold cracks occur after the solidification of weld metal; it can even
develop several days after completion of welding. Most of the time it develops in the
HAZ but may occur on the weld metal too. It is often associated with non-metallic
inclusion.

Causes of Cold Crack:

1. Diffusion of Hydrogen atoms: Hydrogen atoms cause cold cracking. These
hydrogen atoms may be induced in the weld metal from the surrounding, electrode,
base metal or any contamination present on the root face.

2. Lack of Preheating: Due to inadequate preheating, microstructural changes may

take place. Microstructural crystals may re-structure itself to form martensite.
Matensite is very prone to cracks. Preheating also helps in reducing diffusion of
hydrogen atoms and ensures no moisture on the joint before welding.

Prevention:
1. Preheating and post welding the weld metal
2. Using low Hydrogen electrode
STAR CRACK (CRATER CRACK): Star crack is a type of hot crack and it develops
at the crater on the weld metal. A crater is a depression formed on the weld bead
where arc gets broken or when electrode is changed.
It develops when center of the weld pool solidifies before its surrounding and due to
this the center pulls the outer weld and thus star cracks are formed.
2. POROSITY/BLOW HOLES: Porosity is a small pore or void whereas blowholes
are comparatively larger hole or cavity. It may be present on the surface or inside the
weld metal. Porosity can occur individually or it may occur in groups also (mostly),
group of porosity is known as cluster porosity.

Causes of Porosity:
Porosity occurs due to the entrapment of gases in the molten weld pool, these
entrapped gases doesn’t get a chance to release and hence causes porosity or
blowhole. Gases which are entrapped are mostly Hydrogen, Carbon mono oxide,
Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen and Oxygen. Source of these gases are fluxes present on
the welding electrode, Moisture, Oil, Grease other foreign contaminants present on
the joint etc.

Prevention:

1. Use low Hydrogen electrode

2. Baking of electrodes before welding as per the recommended procedure
3. Through cleaning of joint surface and adjacent area before welding
4. Preheat the joint before welding
5. Ensure sufficient flow of shielding gases if using TIG or MIG welding

3. UNDERCUT: Undercut appears as a narrow groove on the base metal adjacent to

the weld metal along the edge. Undercut always runs parallel to the weld metal. It
acts as a stress raiser during fatigue loading.

Causes of Undercut:
1. High welding current and arc voltage
2. Large electrode diameter
3. Incorrect electrode angle
4. Longer arc length

4. UNDERFILL: When the weld metal surface remains below the adjacent surface of
the base metal then it is called as an underfill. Underfill is an undersized welding.
5. LACK OF PENETRATION: When the weld metal doesn’t completely penetrate
the joint, then it is called as Lack of Penetration of Incomplete Penetration. It is one
of the most dangerous defects, since it acts as a stress raiser and hence crack may
originate or propagate from here.
Causes of Lack of Penetration:
1. Root gap too small
2. Fast travel speed
3. Low heat input
4. Too large an electrode diameter

Prevention:
1. Proper joint preparation i.e. providing a suitable root gap.
2. Proper heat input
3. Correct travel speed
4. Using electrode of suitable size

6. LACK OF FUSION: It is the lack of proper melting (or proper fusion) either
between the weld metal with the base metal or one layer of the weld with the other
layer. Lack of fusion is also called as Cold lapping or cold shuts. One of the most
prominent reasons for the cause of lack of fusion is poor welding technique. Lack of
fusion is an internal defect, but it can occur on the external surface too, if the
sidewall of parent metal doesn’t get properly fused with the base metal, as shown in
the below figure and for this case lack of fusion can also be called as ‘lack of
sidewall fusion’.
Causes of Lack of Fusion:
1. Low welding current
2. Travel speed to high or too low
3. Unfavorable heat input

7. SPATTERS: Spatters are small globular metal droplets (of weld metal) splashed
out on the base metal during welding. Spatters stick on the base metal hence can be
removed by wire brush or buffing.
Causes of Spatters:
1. Excessive arc current
2. Excessive long arc
3. Improper shielding gases
4. Electrode with improper flux
5. Damp electrodes

8. OVERLAP: Overlap occurs due to the overflow of weld metal on the surface of
base metal. During welding, molten metal overflows on the base metal without fusing
with the base metal.
Causes of Overlap:
1. Current too low
2. Large deposition in a single run
3. Longer arc
4. Slow arc travel speed

9. EXCESSIVE PENETRATION: When the penetration of weld metal is too high

through the joints then it is called as excessive penetration. It acts as notch where
stress concentration takes place. In addition to this it results in economical wastage.

Causes of Excessive Penetration:

1. Too wide a root gap
2. High welding current
3. Slow travel Speed

10. INCLUSION: Entrapment of any foreign material (either metallic or non metallic)
in the weld metal is called as inclusion. If slag doesn’t get a chance to float over the
surface of molten weld pool, then it gets entrapped within the weld metal such
inclusion is called as slag inclusion. Similarly, sometimes droplets of tungsten get
entrapped within the weld metal resulting in tungsten inclusion (in TIG welding).
Sulphides, oxides and silicates also get entrapped resulting in inclusion. Inclusion
acts as a stress raiser hence should be avoided.

11. WAGON TRACKS: Linear slag inclusion along the axis of the weld is called as
wagon tracks. During root pass a groove is formed at the toe, due to wrong welding
techniques, and that groove is filled by slag (especially Hydrogen which has been
trapped by the solidified slag) and thus wagon tracks are formed. It is also known
as worm tracking.

12. ARC STRIKE: When the electrode or the electrode holder, unintentionally or
accidentally strikes with the work piece, an unwanted arc is generated causing arc
strike. Arc strikes may initiate failure in bending and cyclic loading. In addition to this
is affects the aesthetics of the work piece.
13. SHRINKAGE CAVITY: During solidification of the molten weld pool, metal
shrinkage occurs. Due to the shrinkage of weld metal a cavity is formed known as
shrinkage cavity.