Narrative Devices

Stylistic Devices – Points of View

first or third person narration
First-person narrator
The narrator tells the story from his / her point of view (I). It is a limited point of view as the
reader will only know what the narrator knows. The advantage of the first person narration is
that the narrator shares his / her personal experiences and secrets with the reader so that the
reader feels part of the story.
Example:
 Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre
Third-person narrator
The narrator is not part of the plot and tells the story in the third person (he, she). Usually the
narrator is all-knowing (omniscient narrator): he / she can switch from one scene to another,
but also focus on a single character from time to time.
Example:
 Charles Dickens: Oliver Twist
The third-person narrator can also be a personal narrator (point of view of one character) who
tells the story in the third person (he, she), but only from the central character’s point of view.
This point of view is rarely used.
Example:
 James Joyce: Ulysses
Stylistic Devices – Onomatopoeia
word imitating a sound
The pronounciation of the word imitates a sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it’s often
difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting by the use
of onomatopoeia.
Examples:
 The lion roared.
 The steaks sizzled in the pan.
 The bomb went off with a bang.
Stylistic Devices – Parenthesis
additional information
The normal progression of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations
enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase
or even a sentence.
Examples:
 We (myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat ‘Lynn’, a
Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays’ Chirk boatyard. (4)

 The boats have remarkably few controls and we were given a thorough briefing about ‘driving’
ours–along with advice on mooring, lock operation and safety considerations–by Pauline, who
even set off with us for a few minutes to ensure we were confident. (4)

Note:
Depending on the importance attached to it, additional information can be enclosed in brackets,
commas or dashes.
 Brackets – not important
Connor (Amy’s boyfriend) bought the tickets.
Commas – neutral
Connor, Amy’s boyfriend, bought the tickets.
Dashes – emphasized
Connor–Amy’s boyfriend–bought the tickets.
Stylistic Devices – Personification
attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions
Animals, inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics
(behaviour, feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and
lively.
Examples:
 Why these two countries would remain at each other’s throat for so long. (3)

 I closed the door, and my stubborn car refused to open it again.

 The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us.
 The frogs began their concert.
Stylistic Devices – Repetition
repeating words or phrases
Words or phrases are repeated throughout the text to emphasise certain facts or ideas.
Examples:
 Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to an end! »I wonder how many miles I’ve fallen
by this time?« she said aloud. […]
Down, down, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. […] (5)

 America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility. A civil
society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair dealing and forgiveness. […]
America, at its best, is also courageous. Our national courage […]
America, at its best, is compassionate. In the quiet of American conscience, we know that
deep, persistent poverty is unworthy of our nation’s promise. […] (2)

Stylistic Devices – Rhetorical Question

question without a direct answer
The author / speaker raises a question, but doesn’t answer it directly as he/she sees the answer
(usually Yes or No) as obvious.
Rhetorical questions are used to provoke, emphasise or argue.
Examples:
 When public money brings windfalls to a few, why should the state not take a share? (6)

 But was the best way to win them over to threaten to ignore them altogether? Like so many
things this week, the adminitstration’s diplomacy needs a smoother touch. (6)
(Note that the
sentence following the question is not an answer to it.)
Stylistic Devices – Simile
direct comparison
Two things are compared directly by using ‘like’ (A is like B.).
Other possibilities are for example:
 A is (not) like B
 A is more/less than B
 A is as … as B
 A is similar to B
 A is …, so is B
 A does …, so does B
Examples:
 conrete box-style buildings are spreading like inkblots (3)

 The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel (5)

 Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower. (Charles Schwab)

 My friend is as good as gold.
Stylistic Devices – Synecdoche
using a part instead of the whole or vice versa
Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or specification that uses a part, a member or a
characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common:
Part used instead of the whole
Example:
 Turning our long boat round […] on the last morning required all hands on deck … (hands =
people) (4)
Whole used instead of a part
Example:
 Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers) (3)

Specific term used instead of a general one:

Example:
 Kashmir is their Maui, Aspen, and Palm Springs all rolled into one. (siehe Anmerkung)
(3)

Stylistic Devices – Understatement

weaken or soften a statement
A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to sound more polite.
Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language (especially British
English) used in everyday-life situations.
Examples:
 I know a little about running a company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.)
 I think we have slightly different opinions on this topic. (instead of: I don’t agree with you at
all.)
The 31 Literary Devices You Must Know

Posted by Hannah Muniz | Jun 21, 2018 12:00:00 PM

GENERAL EDUCATION
Need to analyze The Scarlet Letter or To Kill a Mockingbird for English class, but fumbling for the right
vocabulary and concepts for literary devices? You’ve come to the right place. To successfully interpret and
analyze literary texts, you’ll first need to have a solid foundation in literary terms and their definitions.
In this article, we'll help you get familiar with most commonly used literary devices in prose and poetry. We'll
give you a clear definition of each of the terms we discuss along with examples of literary elements and the
context in which they most often appear (comedic writing, drama, or other).
Before we get to the list of literary devices, however, we have a quick refresher on what literary devices are
and how understanding them will help you analyze works of literature.

What Are Literary Devices and Why Should You Know Them?
Literary devices are techniques that writers use to create a special and pointed effect in their writing, to
convey information, or to help readers understand their writing on a deeper level.
Often, literary devices are used in writing for emphasis or clarity. Authors will also use literary devices to get
readers to connect more strongly with either a story as a whole or specific characters or themes.
So why is it important to know different literary devices and terms? Aside from helping you get good grades on
your literary analysis homework, there are several benefits to knowing the techniques authors commonly use.
Being able to identify when different literary techniques are being used helps you understand the
motivation behind the author's choices. For example, being able to identify symbols in a story can help you
figure out why the author might have chosen to insert these focal points and what these might suggest in
regard to her attitude toward certain characters, plot points, and events.
In addition, being able to identify literary devices can make a written work's overall meaning or purpose
clearer to you. For instance, let's say you're planning to read (or re-read) The Lion, the Witch, and the
Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis. By knowing that this particular book is a religious allegory with references to Christ
(represented by the character Aslan) and Judas (represented by Edmund), it will be clearer to you why Lewis
uses certain language to describe certain characters and why certain events happen the way they do.
Finally, literary techniques are important to know because they make texts more interesting and more fun
to read. If you were to read a novel without knowing any literary devices, chances are you wouldn't be able to
detect many of the layers of meaning interwoven into the story via different techniques.
Now that we've gone over why you should spend some time learning literary devices, let's take a look at some
of the most important literary elements to know.

List of Literary Devices: 31 Literary Terms You Should Know

Below is a list of literary devices, most of which you’ll often come across in both prose and poetry. We explain
what each literary term is and give you an example of how it's used. This literary elements list is arranged in
alphabetical order.

Allegory
An allegory is a story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life (historical) issues and/or
events. It is typically an entire book, novel, play, etc.
Example: George Orwell’s dystopian book Animal Farm is an allegory for the events preceding the Russian
Revolution and the Stalinist era in early 20th century Russia. In the story, animals on a farm practice
animalism, which is essentially communism. Many characters correspond to actual historical figures: Old
Major represents both the founder of communism Karl Marx and the Russian communist leader Vladimir
Lenin; the farmer, Mr. Jones, is the Russian Czar; the boar Napoleon stands for Joseph Stalin; and the pig
Snowball represents Leon Trotsky.

Alliteration
Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same sound. These sounds are
typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You’ll often come across alliteration in poetry,
titles of books and poems (Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example—just look at Pride and
Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility), and tongue twisters.
Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." In this tongue twister, the "p" sound is repeated
at the beginning of all major words.

Allusion
Allusion is when an author makes an indirect reference to a figure, place, event, or idea originating
from outside the text. Many allusions make reference to previous works of literature or art.
Example: "Stop acting so smart—it’s not like you’re Einstein or something." This is an allusion to the
famous real-life theoretical physicist Albert Einstein.

Anachronism
An anachronism occurs when there is an (intentional) error in the chronology or timeline of a text. This could be
a character who appears in a different time period than when he actually lived, or a technology that appears
before it was invented. Anachronisms are often used for comedic effect.
Example: A Renaissance king who says, "That’s dope, dude!" would be an anachronism, since this type of
language is very modern and not actually from the Renaissance period.

Anaphora
Anaphora is when a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of multiple sentences throughout a piece of
writing. It's used to emphasize the repeated phrase and evoke strong feelings in the audience.
Example: A famous example of anaphora is Winston Churchill's "We Shall Fight on the Beaches" speech.
Throughout this speech, he repeats the phrase "we shall fight" while listing numerous places where the
British army will continue battling during WWII. He did this to rally both troops and the British people and to
give them confidence that they would still win the war.

Anthropomorphism
An anthropomorphism occurs when something nonhuman, such as an animal, place, or inanimate object,
behaves in a human-like way.
Example: Children's cartoons have many examples of anthropomorphism. For example, Mickey and Minnie
Mouse can speak, wear clothes, sing, dance, drive cars, etc. Real mice can't do any of these things, but the
two mouse characters behave much more like humans than mice.

Asyndeton
Asyndeton is when the writer leaves out conjunctions (such as "and," "or," "but," and "for") in a group of words
or phrases so that the meaning of the phrase or sentence is emphasized. It is often used for speeches since
sentences containing asyndeton can have a powerful, memorable rhythm.
Example: Abraham Lincoln ends the Gettysburg Address with the phrase "...and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth." By leaving out certain conjunctions,
he ends the speech on a more powerful, melodic note.

Colloquialism
Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a sense of realism
to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and contractions that aren't
real words (such as "gonna" and "ain’t").
Example: "Hey, what’s up, man?" This piece of dialogue is an example of a colloquialism, since it uses
common everyday words and phrases, namely "what’s up" and "man."

Epigraph
An epigraph is when an author inserts a famous quotation, poem, song, or other short passage or text at the
beginning of a larger text (e.g., a book, chapter, etc.). An epigraph is typically written by a different writer
(with credit given) and used as a way to introduce overarching themes or messages in the work. Some
pieces of literature, such as Herman Melville’s 1851 novel Moby-Dick, incorporate multiple epigraphs
throughout.
Example: At the beginning of Ernest Hemingway’s book The Sun Also Rises is an epigraph that consists of
a quotation from poet Gertrude Stein, which reads, "You are all a lost generation," and a passage from the
Bible.

Epistrophe
Epistrophe is similar to anaphora, but in this case, the repeated word or phrase appears at the end of
successive statements. Like anaphora, it is used to evoke an emotional response from the audience.
Example: In Lyndon B. Johnson's speech, "The American Promise," he repeats the word "problem" in a
use of epistrophe: "There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern
problem. There is only an American problem."

Hemingway, deep in thought about what quotation to choose for his epigraph.

Euphemism
A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another word or phrase
that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant.
Example: "I’m so sorry, but he didn’t make it." The phrase "didn’t make it" is a more polite and less blunt
way of saying that someone has died.

Flashback
A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either before the
present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often used to give the reader
more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and so on.
 Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of view of the
housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named Lockwood. In this story,
Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the pair's budding romance, and their
tragic demise.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is when an author indirectly hints at—through things such as dialogue, description, or
characters’ actions—what’s to come later on in the story. This device is often used to introduce tension to a
narrative.
Example: Say you’re reading a fictionalized account of Amelia Earhart. Before she embarks on her (what
we know to be unfortunate) plane ride, a friend says to her, "Be safe. Wouldn’t want you getting lost—or
worse." This line would be an example of foreshadowing because it implies that something bad ("or worse")
will happen to Earhart.

Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that's not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is often used
for comedic effect and/or emphasis.
Example: "I’m so hungry I could eat a horse." The speaker will not literally eat an entire horse (and most
likely couldn’t), but this hyperbole emphasizes how starved the speaker feels.

Imagery
Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell,
sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualize parts of the story by
creating a strong mental picture.
Example: Here’s an example of imagery taken from William Wordsworth’s famous poem "I Wandered Lonely
as a Cloud":
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden Daffodils;
Beside the Lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Irony
Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed by it. There
are three types of irony in literature:
 Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm).
 Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended to
happen.
 Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters
are not. As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they
do for the characters involved.
Examples:
 Verbal irony: One example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe’s "The Cask of
Amontillado." In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man
named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, "And I, Fortunato—I drink to your long life." This
statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans to kill
Fortunato.
 Situational irony: A girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she
arrives, though, she realizes that it’s Saturday and there is no school.
 Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide in order to be
with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not actually dead—just
asleep.

Poe was a fan of irony—and ravens.

Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is the comparing and contrasting of two or more different (usually opposite) ideas, characters,
objects, etc. This literary device is often used to help create a clearer picture of the characteristics of one
object or idea by comparing it with those of another.
Example: One of the most famous literary examples of juxtaposition is the opening passage from Charles
Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities:
"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it
was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of
Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair …"

Malapropism
Malapropism happens when an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar sound. This misuse
of the word typically results in a statement that is both nonsensical and humorous; as a result, this device is
commonly used in comedic writing.
Example: "I just can't wait to dance the flamingo!" Here, a character has accidentally called the flamenco (a
type of dance) the flamingo (an animal).

Metaphor/Simile
Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short, it’s when an author
compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share something in common but are
unalike in all other respects.
A simile is a type of metaphor in which an object, idea, character, action, etc., is compared to another thing
using the words "as" or "like."
Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis.
Examples:
"What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from Romeo and
Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn’t use the words "as" or "like," it
is not a simile—just a metaphor.
"She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison between "she" and
"a lion," it is a simile.

Metonym
A metonym is when a related word or phrase is substituted for the actual thing to which it's referring. This
device is usually used for poetic or rhetorical effect.
Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword." This statement, which was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton
in 1839, contains two examples of metonymy: "the pen" refers to "the written word," and "the sword" refers
to "military force/violence."

Mood
Mood is the general feeling the writer wants the audience to have. The writer can achieve this through
description, setting, dialogue, and word choice.
Example: Here's a passage from J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit: "It had a perfectly round door like a porthole,
painted green, with a shiny yellow brass knob in the exact middle. The door opened on to a tube-shaped
hall like a tunnel: a very comfortable tunnel without smoke, with panelled walls, and floors tiled and
carpeted, provided with polished chairs, and lots and lots of pegs for hats and coats -- the hobbit was fond
of visitors." In this passage, Tolkien uses detailed description to set create a cozy, comforting mood. From
the writing, you can see that the hobbit's home is well-cared for and designed to provide comfort.

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and actually resembles or imitates the
sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect.
Examples: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc.

Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This device is
often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for more
information on paradoxes).
Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc.

The Penrose stairs = a classic example of a paradox. Are they going up or down?!

Paradox
A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might actually be
true or plausible.
Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire phrase or sentence,whereas an
oxymoron is a combination of just two words.
Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is true, then it
isn’t actually false (as it suggests). But if it’s false, then the statement is true! Thus, this statement is a
paradox because it is both true and false at the same time.

Personification
Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is described as having human-
like qualities or characteristics. (Unlike anthropomorphism where non-human figures becomehuman-like
characters, with personification, the object/figure is simply described as being human-like.) Personification is
used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or object being described.
Example: "The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside." In this example, the wind—a nonhuman
element—is being described as if it is human (it "moans" and "beckons").

Repetition
Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for the purpose of emphasis. It is often
used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well).
Example: When Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the score for the hit musical Hamilton, gave his speech at the
2016 Tony’s, he recited a poem he’d written that included the following line:
And love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside.

Satire
Satire is genre of writing that criticizes something, such as a person, behavior, belief, government, or society.
Satire often employs irony, humor, and hyperbole to make its point.
Example: The Onion is a satirical newspaper and digital media company. It uses satire to parody common
news features such as opinion columns, editorial cartoons, and click bait headlines.

Soliloquy
A type of monologue that's often used in dramas, a soliloquy is when a character speaks aloud to himself (and
to the audience), thereby revealing his inner thoughts and feelings.
Example: In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet’s speech on the balcony that begins with, "O Romeo, Romeo!
Wherefore art thou Romeo?" is a soliloquy, as she is speaking aloud to herself(remember that she
doesn't realize Romeo's there listening!).

Symbolism
Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work to represent
something else—typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its literal meaning.
The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they’ll often appear multiple times throughout a text,
sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses.
Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, the green light that sits across from
Gatsby’s mansion symbolizes Gatsby’s hopes and dreams.

Synecdoche
A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. It's
similar to a metonym (see above); however, a metonym doesn't have to represent the whole—just
something associated with the word used.
Example: "Help me out, I need some hands!" In this case, "hands" is being used to refer to people (the
whole human, essentially).

Tone
While mood is what the audience is supposed to feel, tone is the writer or narrator's attitude towards a
subject. A good writer will always want the audience to feel the mood they're trying to evoke, but the audience
may not always agree with the narrator's tone, especially if the narrator is an unsympathetic character or has
viewpoints that differ from those of the reader.
 Example: In an essay disdaining Americans and some of the sites they visit as tourists, Rudyard Kipling
begins with the line, "Today I am in the Yellowstone Park, and I wish I were dead." If you enjoy Yellowstone
and/or national parks, you may not agree with the author's tone in this piece.

Time to become your own Sherlock Holmes!

How to Identify and Analyze Literary Devices: 4 Tips

In order to fully interpret pieces of literature, you have to understand a lot about literary devices in the texts you
read. Here are our top tips for identifying and analyzing different literary techniques:

Tip 1: Read Closely and Carefully

First off, you’ll need to make sure that you’re reading very carefully. Resist the temptation to skim or skip
any sections of the text. If you do this, you might miss some literary devices being used and, as a result, will
be unable to accurately interpret the text.
If there are any passages in the work that make you feel especially emotional, curious, intrigued, or just plain
interested, check that area again for any literary devices at play.
It’s also a good idea to reread any parts you thought were confusing or that you didn't totally understand
on a first read-through. Doing this ensures that you have a solid grasp of the passage (and text as a whole)
and will be able to analyze it appropriately.

Tip 2: Memorize Common Literary Terms

You won’t be able to identify literary elements in texts if you don’t know what they are or how they’re used,
so spend some time memorizing the literary elements list above. Knowing these (and how they look in
writing) will allow you to more easily pinpoint these techniques in various types of written works.

Tip 3: Know the Author’s Intended Audience

Knowing what kind of audience an author intended her work to have can help you figure out what types of
literary devices might be at play.
For example, if you were trying to analyze a children’s book, you'd want to be on the lookout for child-
appropriate devices, such as repetition and alliteration.

Tip 4: Take Notes and Bookmark Key Passages and Pages

This is one of the most important tips to know, especially if you're reading and analyzing works for English
class. As you read, take notes on the work in a notebook or on a computer. Write down any passages,
paragraphs, conversations, descriptions, etc., that jump out at you or that contain a literary device you were
able to identify.
You can also take notes directly in the book, if possible (but don’t do this if you’re borrowing a book from
the library!). I recommend circling keywords and important phrases, as well as starring interesting or
particularly effective passages and paragraphs.
Lastly, use sticky notes or post-its to bookmark pages that are interesting to you or that have some kind of
notable literary device. This will help you go back to them later should you need to revisit some of what you’ve
found for a paper you plan to write.

List of narrative techniques

A narrative technique, also known, more narrowly for literary fictional narratives, as a literary technique, literary
device, or fictional device, is any of several specific methods the creator of a narrative uses to convey what they
want[1]—in other words, a strategy used in the making of a narrative to relay information to the audience and,
particularly, to "develop" the narrative, usually in order to make it more complete, complicated, or interesting.
Literary techniques are distinguished from literary elements, which exist inherently in works of writing.
Setting
Name Definition Example
Backstory Story that precedes events in the story Though The Lord of the Rings trilogy takes place towards the end of the
being told—past events or background Third Age, the narration in the beginning of the movie trilogy gives
that add meaning to current glimpses of the mythological/historical events which took place in the First
circumstances. and Second Age.
Plots
 Name Definition
Backstory Story that precedes events in the story being
told—past events or background that add
meaning to current circumstances
Cliffhanger The narrative ends unresolved, to draw the
audience back to a future episode for the
resolution.
Deus ex machina (a Resolving the primary conflict by a means
machination, or act of unrelated to the story (e.g., a god appears and
god; lit. “god out of the solves everything). This device dates back
machine”) to ancient Greek theater, but can be a clumsy
method that frustrates the audience.
Eucatastrophe Coined by J. R. R. Tolkien, a climactic event
through which the protagonist appears to be
facing a catastrophic change. However, this
change does not materialize and the
protagonist finds himself as the benefactor of
such a climactic event;
contrast peripety/peripateia.
Flashback (or analeptic General term for altering time sequences,
reference) taking characters back to the beginning of the
tale, for instance
Flashforward Also called prolepsis, a scene that temporarily Occurs in A Christmas Carol when Mr. Scrooge visits
jumps the narrative forward in time.
Flashforwards often represent events expected, seasons of the television series Lost.
projected, or imagined to occur in the future.
They may also reveal significant parts of the
story that have not yet occurred, but soon will
in greater detail.
Foreshadowing Implicit yet intentional efforts of an author to
suggest events which have yet to take place in
the process of narration. See also repetitive
designation and Chekhov's gun
Frame story, or a story A main story that organizes a series of shorter
within a story stories.
Framing device A single action, scene, event, setting, or any
element of significance at the beginning and
end of a work. The use of framing devices
allows frame stories to exist.
Example
Though The Lord of the Rings trilogy takes place
towards the end of the Third Age, the narration gives
glimpses of the mythological/historical events which
took place in the First and Second Age.
Almost every episode of the TV shows
like Dexter and Breaking Bad ends with one of the
characters in a predicament (about to be caught by
thugs, about to be exposed by the authority, or a
family member or a friend finds out the main
character's dirty secret).
The phrase originates from Medea, an ancient Greek
drama. An example occurs in Mighty Aphrodite and the
Tamil movie Inga Enna Solluthu.
At the end of The Lord of the Rings, Gollum forcibly
takes away the Ring from Frodo, suggesting
that Sauron would eventually take over Middle Earth.
However, Gollum celebrates too eagerly and clumsily
and falls into the lava, whereby the ring is destroyed
and with it Sauron's power. In a way, Gollum does what
Frodo and the Fellowship of the Ring intended to do
through the whole plot of the trilogy, which was to
throw the ring into the lake of fire in the heart of
Mount Doom.
The story of "The Three Apples" in Arabian Nights tale
begins with the discovery of a young woman's dead
body. After the murderer later reveals himself, he
narrates his reasons for the murder as a flashback of
events leading up to the discovery of her dead body at
the beginning of the story.
the ghost of the future. It is also frequent in the later
A narration might begin with a male character who has
to break up a schoolyard fight among some boys who
are vying for the attention of a girl, which was
introduced to foreshadow the events leading to a
dinner time squabble between the character and his
twin brother over a woman, whom both are courting at
the same time.
Early examples include Panchatantra, Arabian Nights,
and The Decameron. A more modern example is Brian
Jacques' The Legend of Luke.
In Arabian Nights, Scheherazade, the newly wed wife
to the King, is the framing device. As a character, she is
telling the "1,001 stories" to the King, in order to delay
her execution night by night. However, as a framing
device her purpose for existing is to tell the same 1,001

MacGuffin A plot device in the form of some goal, desired
object, or other motivator that
the protagonistpursues, often with little or no
narrative explanation as to why it is considered
so important.
In medias res Beginning the story in the middle of a sequence
of events. A specific form of narrative hook.
Narrative hook Story opening that "hooks" readers' attention
so they will keep reading
Ochi A sudden interruption of the wordplay flow
indicating the end of a rakugo or a kobanashi.
Plot twist Unexpected change ("twist") in the direction or
expected outcome of the plot. See also twist
ending.
Poetic justice Virtue ultimately rewarded, or vice punished,
by an ironic twist of fate related to the
character's own conduct
Predestination paradox Time travel paradox where a time traveler is
caught in a loop of events that "predestines"
them to travel back in time
Quibble Plot device based on an argument that an
agreement's intended meaning holds no legal
value, and that only the exact, literal words
agreed on apply.
Red herring Diverting attention away from an item of
significance.
Self-fulfilling prophecy Prediction that, by being made, makes itself
come true.
Story within a A story told within another story. See
stories to the reader.
The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer are prime
examples. The latter work begins with the return of
Odysseus to his home of Ithaka and then in flashbacks
tells of his ten years of wandering following the Trojan
War.
Any non-fiction book is often introduced with an
interesting factoid.
An early example is the Arabian Nights tale "The Three
Apples". A locked chest found by a fisherman contains
a dead body, and two different men claim to be the
murderer, which turns out to be the investigator's own
slave.
Wile E. Coyote coming up with a contraption to catch
the Road Runner, only to be foiled and caught by his
own devices. Each sin's punishment
in Dante's Inferno is a symbolic instance of poetic
justice.
In Doctor Who, the main character repeatedly finds
himself under the obligation of having to travel back in
time because of something his future character has
done.
For example, William Shakespeare used a quibble
in The Merchant of Venice: Portia saves Antonio in a
court of law by pointing out that the agreement called
for a pound of flesh, but no blood, so Shylock can
collect only if he sheds no blood.
For example, in mystery fiction, an innocent party may
be purposefully cast as highly suspicious through
emphasis or descriptive techniques to divert attention
from the true guilty party.
Early examples include the legend of Oedipus, and the
story of Krishna in the Mahabharata. There is also an
example of this in Harry Potter when Lord Voldemort
heard a prophecy (made by Sybill Trelawney to
Dumbledore) that a boy born at the end of July, whose
parents had defied Voldemort thrice and survived,
would be made marked as his equal. Because of this
prophecy, Lord Voldemort sought out Harry Potter
(believing him to be the boy spoken of) and tried to kill
him. His parents died protecting him, and when
Voldemort tried to cast a killing curse on Harry, it
rebounded and took away most of his strength, and
gave Harry Potter a unique ability and connection with
the Dark Lord thus marking him as his equal.
In Stephen King's The Wind Through the Keyhole, of the
story(Hypodiegesis) also frame story.
Ticking clock scenario Threat of impending disaster—often used in
thrillers where salvation and escape are
essential elements
Chekhov's gun A dramatic principle that requires every
element in a narrative to be irreplaceable, with
anything else removed.
Unreliable narrator The narrator of the story is not sincere, or
introduces a bias in his narration and possibly
misleads the reader, hiding or minimizing
events, characters, or motivations.
Perspective
Name Definition
Audience A character who expresses the questions and
surrogate confusion of the audience, with whom the audience played by Seth Green, son of Dr. Evil on the Austin
can identify. Frequently used in detective fiction and Powers movies.
science fiction, where the character asks a central
character how he or she accomplished certain deeds,
for the purpose of inciting that character to explain
(for the curious audience) his or her methods, or a
character asking a relatively educated person to
explain what amounts to the backstory.
Author surrogate Characters which are based on authors, usually to
support their personal views. Sometimes an
intentionally or unintentionally idealized version of
them. A variation is the Mary Sue or Gary Stu, which
primarily serves as an idealized self-insertion.
Breaking An author or character addresses the audience
the fourth wall directly (also known as direct address). This may
acknowledge to the reader or audience that what is
being presented is fiction, or may seek to extend the
world of the story to provide the illusion that they
are included in it.
Defamiliarization Writing about something describing character awe
and wonder[2]
First-person A text presented from the point of view of a
Narration character, especially the protagonist, as if the
character is telling the story themselves. (Breaking
the fourth wall is an option, but not a necessity, of
this format.)
Magical realism Describing events in a real-world setting but with
magical trappings, often incorporating local customs
and invented beliefs. Different from urban fantasy in
that the magic itself is not the focus of the story.
Multiperspectivity A narrative that is told from the viewpoints of
multiple characters that incorporate various
perspectives, emotions, and views from witnesses or
Dark Tower series, the protagonist tells a story from his
past to his companions, and in this story he tells
another relatively unrelated story.
In the TV show "24", the main character, Jack Bauer
often finds himself interrogating a terrorist who is
caught in order to disarm a bomb.
"Remove everything that has no relevance to the story.
If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle
hanging on the wall, in the second or third chapter it
absolutely must go off. If it's not going to be fired, it
shouldn't be hanging there." —  Anton Chekhov
An example is The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.
Example
Dr Watson in the Sherlock Holmes stories. Scott Evil,
Socrates in the writings of Plato.
The characters in Sesame Street often break the fourth
wall when they address their viewers as part of the
ongoing storyline, which is possible because of the
high level of suspension of belief afforded by its
audience—children. The American political drama
show House of Cards also uses this technique
frequently to let the viewers know what the main
character Frank Underwood is thinking and planning.
A character travels to an exotic land. He writes letters
to someone home.
Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn uses the
title character as the narrator, while Sherlock Holmes is
primarily told from Watson's perspective.
Particularly popular with Latin American authors
like Gabriel García Márquez. Elsewhere, Salman
Rushdie's work provides good examples.
The films of Robert Altman.
 actors to varying particular events or circumstances
that might not be felt by other characters in the
story.
Second-person A text written in the style of a direct address, in the Rape: A Love Story.
Narration second-person.
Stream of The author uses narrative and stylistic devices to An example is "Ulysses".
consciousness create the sense of an unedited interior monologue,
characterized by leaps in syntax and punctuation
that trace a character's fragmentary thoughts and
sensory feelings. The outcome is a highly lucid
perspective with a plot. Not to be confused with free
writing.
Third-person A text written as if by an impersonal narrator who is A Song of Ice and Fire is written in multiple limited
Narration not affected by the events in the story. Can be third-person narrators that change with each
omniscient or limited, the latter usually being tied to chapter. The Master and Margarita uses an omniscient
a specific character, a group of characters, or a narrator.
location.
Unreliable The narrator of the story is not sincere, or introduces An example is The Murder of Roger Ackroyd
narrator a bias in his narration and possibly misleads the
reader, hiding or minimizing events, characters, or
motivations.
Style
See also: Figure of speech
Name Definition Example
Allegory A symbolic fiction story. The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan is a narrative that
serves completely as an allegory, with the main character
Christian representing a follower of Christianity on his
journey through life, encountering daily struggles as he
aims towards the Celestial City (Heaven).
Alliteration Repeating the same letter or consonant In the film V for Vendetta the main character performs a
sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely couple of soliloquies with a heavy use of alliteration. e.g..
connected words. "Voilà! In view, a humble vaudevillian veteran, cast
vicariously as both victim and villain by the vicissitudes of
Fate. This visage, no mere veneer of vanity, is a vestige of
the vox populi, now vacant, vanished, as the once vital
voice of the verisimilitude now venerates what they once
vilified. However, this valorous visitation of a bygone
vexation stands vivified, and has vowed to vanquish these
venal and virulent vermin vanguarding vice and
vouchsafing the violently vicious and voracious violation of
volition. The only verdict is vengeance; a vendetta held as a
votive, not in vain, for the value and veracity of such shall
one day vindicate the vigilant and the virtuous. Verily, this
vichyssoise of verbiage veers most verbose vis-à-vis an
introduction, and so it is my very good honor to meet you
and you may call me V."
Amplification Amplification refers to a literary practice e.g. Original sentence- The thesis paper was difficult. After
(rhetoric) wherein the writer embellishes the sentence amplification- The thesis paper was difficult: it required
by adding more information to it in order to extensive research, data collection, sample surveys,
increase its worth and understanding. interviews and a lot of fieldwork.
Anagram Rearranging the letters of a word or a phrase e.g. An anagram for "debit card" is "bad credit". As you can
to form a new phrase or word. see, both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the
letters a bit of humor is created.
Asyndeton When sentences do not use conjunctions An example is when John F. Kennedy said on January the
(e.g.: and, or, nor) to separate clauses, but 20th 1961 "...that we shall pay any price, bear any burden,
run clauses into one another, usually marking meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to
the separation of clauses with punctuation. assure the survival and the success of liberty."
Bathos An abrupt transition in style from the exalted :The ballerina rose gracefully en pointe and extended one
to the commonplace, producing a ludicrous slender leg behind her, like a dog at a fire hydrant.
effect. While often unintended, bathos may (Jennifer Hart, Arlington)[5]
be used deliberately to produce a humorous
effect.[3][4]
Caesura A break, especially a sense pause, usually e.g. in "Know then thyself. ‖ Presume not God to scan."
near the middle of a verse, and marked
in scansion by a double vertical line. This
technique frequently occurs within a
poetic line grammatically connected to
the end of the previous line
by enjambment.
Distancing Effect Deliberately preventing the audience Popularized by 20th century playwright Bertolt Brecht.
from identifying with characters in order
to let them be coolly scrutinized.[6]
Dramatic Representing an object or character with This technique appears at least as far back as
visualization abundant descriptive detail, or the Arabian Nights.[7]
mimetically rendering gestures and
dialogue to make a scene more visual or
imaginatively present to an audience.
Euphuism An artificial, highly elaborate way of "Is it not far better to abhor sins by the remembrance
writing or speaking. Named of others' faults, than by repentance of thine own
from Euphues (1579) the prose romance follies?" (Euphues, 1, lecture by the wise Neapolitan)
by John Lyly.
Hyperbole Exaggeration used to evoke strong Sally could no longer hide her secret. Her pregnant
feelings or create an impression which is belly was bigger than the planet on which she stood.
not meant to be taken literally.
Imagery Forming mental images of a scene using When the boots came off his feet with a leathery
descriptive words, especially making use squeak, a smell of ferment and fish market
of the human senses. The same immediately filled the small tent. The skin of his toes
as sensory detail. were red and raw and sensitive. The malodorous air
was so toxic he thought he could almost taste his toes.
Leitwortstil Purposefully repeating words that usually This dates back at least to the Arabian Nights.[8]
express a motif or themeimportant to
the story.
Metonymy Word or phrase in a figure of speech in Metonomy: The boxer threw in the towel. Synecdoche:
which a noun is referenced by something She gave her hand in marriage.
closely associated with it, rather than
explicitly by the noun itself. This is not to
be confused with synecdoche, in which a
part of the whole stands for the thing
itself.
Overstatement Exaggerating something, often for Sally's pregnant belly most likely weighed as much as
emphasis (also known as hyperbole) the scooter she used to ride before she got pregnant.
Onomatopoeia Word that sounds the same as, or similar "Boom goes the dynamite."
to what the word means.
Oxymoron A term made of two words that "terrible beauty"
deliberately or coincidentally imply each
other's opposite.
 Paradox A phrase that describes an idea
composed of concepts that conflict.
Parody Ridicule by overstated imitation, usually
humorous.
Pastiche Using forms and styles from another
author, generally as an affectionate
tribute.
Pathos Emotional appeal, one of the
three modes of persuasion in rhetoric
that the author uses to inspire pity or
sorrow towards a character—typically
does not counterbalance the target
character's suffering with a positive
outcome, as in Tragedy.
Polyptoton Words derived from the same root in a
sentence.
Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is the use of several
conjunctions in close succession, this
provides a sense of exaggeration
designed to wear down the audience.
Satire The use of humor, irony or exaggeration
to criticize.
Sensory detail sight, sound, taste, touch, smell. The
same as imagery
Understatement A diminishing or softening of a theme or
effect.
"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." (A
Tale of Two Cities)
MAD Magazine
Such as the many stories featuring Sherlock
Holmes not written by Arthur Conan Doyle, or much of
the Cthulhu Mythos.
In Romeo and Juliet, the two main characters each
commit suicide at the sight of the supposedly dead
lover, however the audience knows these actions to be
rash and unnecessary. Therefore, Shakespeare makes
for the emotional appeal for the unnecessary tragedy
behind the young characters' rash interpretations
about love and life.
"Not as a call to battle, though embattled we
are." John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20,
1961.
An example of this is in the first chapter of Great
Expectations by Charles Dickens: "A man who had
been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and
lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung by
nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and shivered,
and glared and growled; and whose teeth chattered in
his head as he seized me by the chin"
An example is Network. One of the earliest examples is
Gullivers Travels, written by Jonathan Swift. The
television program South Park is another.
The boot was tough and sinewy between his hard-
biting teeth. There was no flavor to speak of except for
the blandness of all the dirt that the boot had soaked
up over the years. The only thing the boot reminded
him of was the smell of a wet-dog.
The broken ends of the long bone were sticking
through the bleeding skin, but it wasn't something that
always killed a man.

Theme
Name Definition Example
Irony This discrepancy between expectation and reality occurs in three forms: situational A person hears a prophecy
irony, where a situation features a discrepancy between what is expected and what is about himself. His endeavor
actualized; dramatic irony, where a character is unaware of pivotal information to stop the prophecy from
already revealed to the audience (the discrepancy here lies in the two levels of coming true, makes it come
awareness between the character and the audience); and verbal irony, where one true.
states one thing while meaning another. The difference between verbal irony and
sarcasm is exquisitely subtle and often contested. The concept of irony is too often
misunderstood in popular usage. Unfortunate circumstances and coincidences do not
constitute irony (nor do they qualify as being tragic). See the Usage
controversysection under irony, and the term tragedy.
Metaphor Evoking imagination by means of using figurative language. Her tears were a river
flowing down her cheeks.
Thematic Distributing recurrent thematic concepts and moralistic motifsamong various Each of the chapters of
patterning incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may Ulysses by James Joyce.
emphasize the unifying argument or salient idea disparate events and disparate
 frames have in common.
Character
Name Type Notes
Anthropomorphism Form of personification that applies human-like The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi or
characteristics to animals and objects Chesire's cat of Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland by Lewis Carroll
Hamartia The character flaw of an initially rich and powerful hero Oedipus kills his own father because he doesn't
that leads to his tragic downfall. This is also referred to as understand his true parentage.
the tragic flaw.
Pathetic fallacy Reflecting a character's (usually the protagonist) mood in For example, the storm in William
the atmosphere or inanimate objects. Related to Shakespeare's King Lear, which mirrors Lear's
anthropomorphism and projection mental deterioration.
Personification Using comparative metaphors and similes to give living Taken from Act I, Scene II of Romeo and Juliet:
characteristics to abstract concepts and non-human “When well-appareled April on the heel / Of
entities limping winter treads.”[9]