3.

Circulatory and Transport

System
NUR ATIRAH HASMI
FSG/2018
3. Circulatory and Transport System

3.1 Open and closed circulatory system

3.2 Characteristics of blood vessels
3.3 Single and double circulatory system
3.4 Carbon dioxide and oxygen transport
• Circulatory System is responsible for transporting
materials throughout the entire body.
• It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to your
billions of body cells and carries away wastes such as
carbon dioxide that body cells produce.

• Parts of the Circulatory System

The circulatory System is divided into three major parts:
1. The Heart
2. The Blood
3. The Blood Vessels
 Functionally connect the organs of exchange with the
body cells

• Most complex animals have internal transport systems

• that circulate fluid
• provide a lifeline between the aqueous environment of
living cells and the exchange organs
 Carrying wastes (e.g.
Transporting oxygen 4 urea and other toxins)
from the lungs to from the liver
1
the cells. to the kidneys.

Transporting carbon Circulating hormones

dioxide from the cells around the body from
to the lungs 2 5 the glands
where they are made
to their target organs.

Transporting food from

the gut to the cells Distributing heat around the
3 6
body (thermoregulation).

Circulatory System
Functionally connect the organs of exchange with the body cells.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

❖ Simple animals, such as flatworm
and cnidarians (Hydra, jellyfish, coral, polyp)
– Have a body wall only two cells thick that
encloses a gastrovascular cavity.
– Do not need a specialized internal
transport system.
– Diffusion alone is sufficient to allow adequate
exchange of water, nutrients, and waste, as well as
dissolved gases.

❖ The gastrovascular cavity

– Functions in both digestion and
distribution of substances throughout
the body.
 Gastrovascular Cavities
Some cnidarians, such as jellyfishes, have elaborate
gastrovascular cavities that has branches radiating
to and from the circular canal.
Circular
canal

Radial canal
Mouth
5 cm

Ciliated cells lining the canals circulate fluid within

the cavity as indicated by the arrows.
 3.1 Open and closed circulatory system
• More complex animals
• Have one of two types of circulatory systems: open or
closed system

• Both of these types of systems have 3 basic components

• A circulatory fluid (blood)
• A set of tubes (blood vessels)
• A muscular pump (the heart)
• In insects, other arthropods, and most
molluscs
• Blood bathes the organs directly
in an open circulatory system

• Hemolymph → body fluid that acts as

both blood and interstitial fluid - The
mixture between blood and interstitial
fluid.

• Chemical exchange between the

hemolymph and cells occurs in the
lacunae and sinuses (spaces
surrounding the organs).
Gas exchange occurs in the tracheal system.
– Hemolymph plays no part in the process, There is not even an oxygen-
carrying pigment in insect hemolymph.
 Heart contracts → pumps hemolymph through the vessels out into
sinuses

 Heart relaxes → draws the hemolymph into the heart through pores
called ostia (have valves that close when heart contracts)

 Body movements that squeeze the sinuses help circulate the

hemolymph through the circulatory system
Heart

Hemolymph in sinuses
surrounding ograns

Anterior Lateral Ostia

vessel vessels

Tubular heart
(a) An open circulatory system
• ADVANTAGES :
• Lower hydrostatic pressures, make them less costly
(in terms of energy expenditure) than closed
circulatory system

• Also function as hydrostatic skeleton (support

system) in some invertebrates
• In a closed circulatory system
• Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the
interstitial fluid

• Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the blood and

the interstitial fluid bathing the cells
• Commonly found in annelids (earthworms), some molluscs
(squid,octopus) and all vertebrates

• One or more hearts (hagfish, squid, octopus, oyster..) pump

blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones coursing
through organs Heart

Interstitial Small branch vessels

fluid in each organ

Dorsal vessel
(main heart)

Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels

(b) A closed circulatory system
• Advantage of Closed systems
• with their higher blood pressure are more efficient at transporting
circulatory fluids to tissues and cells

BUT,
• Disadvantage of this system is the system needs
more energy to build and maintain
CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM
• Humans and other vertebrates
have a closed circulatory
system
• Often called the
cardiovascular system

• Blood flows in a closed

cardiovascular system
• Consisting of blood, blood
vessels and a two- to-four-
chambered heart
 3.2 Characteristics of Blood Vessels

All blood vessels:

Are built of similar
tissues.
Have three similar
layers.

Structural differences
in arteries, veins, and
capillaries, correlate with
their different
functions.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

• Arteries carry blood away from
the heart to organs

• Arteries have thicker walls

• To accommodate the high
pressure of blood pumped from
the heart

• Elastic recoil helps maintain blood

pressure when the heart relaxes
between contractions

Within organs, arteries branch into

arteriole
• Arteriole : small vessels that
convey blood to the capillaries
• Capillaries : microscopic Artery Vein

vessels with very thin,

porous walls
Basement
 The sites of chemical and membrane
100 µm
Endothelium
gases exchange between
Valve
the blood and interstitial Endothelium Endothelium

fluid Smooth Smooth

muscle muscle
Capillary
Connective
 Capillaries connect Connective
tissue
tissue

arteries to veins. Artery Vein

• Lack the two outer layers

and their very thin walls
consist only endothelium Venule
Arteriole
and its basement membrane
→ enhancing exchange
 Capillary Function

Capillaries in major
organs (example: brain,
heart, kidney and liver)
usually carry a full load
of blood
but in many other sites,
the blood supplies
varies.

Two mechanisms
regulate the distribution of
blood in capillary beds.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Capillary Function

Controlled by:

Nerve signal (example:

Thermoregulation)

Hormones (example:
Angiotensin II hormone in
Renin-Angiotensin-
Aldosterone System to
regulate blood pressure)

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Capillary Function
1st mechanism involves the
contraction and relaxation
of the smooth muscle layer
in the wall of an arteriole.

Contraction of the smooth

muscle layer in the wall of an
arteriole constricts the vessel
and decreases blood flow to
the adjoining capillary beds.

Relaxation of muscle layer

dilates the arteriole and
increase the blood flow into
the capillary bed.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Capillary Function

2nd mechanism:

Precapillary sphincters
(rings of smooth muscle
located at the
entrance to capillary
beds) control the flow of
blood between
arterioles and venules.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM
• At their ‘downstream’ end
capillaries converge into
venules and venules converge
into veins
• Veins =
• Return blood from
capillaries back to the heart
• In the thinner-walled veins
• Blood flows back to the heart
mainly as a result of muscle
action
Direction of blood flow
in vein (toward heart) Valve (open)

Skeletal muscle

Valve (closed)
 Critical Exchange of Substances

The critical exchange of substances between the

blood and interstitial fluid:
→ Takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the
capillaries.

The difference between blood pressure and

osmotic pressure:
→ Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and
into
capillaries at the venule end.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM
CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM
CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM
 Blood Flow Velocity
❖ The velocity of blood flow
varies in the circulatory
system.

❖ Slowest in the capillary beds

as a result of the high
resistance and large total
cross-sectional area.

❖ Slower flow will allows time

for exchange to occur.

❖ After passing through the

capillaries blood speeds up
as it enters the venules.
 5,000
The interrelationship of blood

Velocity (cm/sec) Area (cm2)

4,000
3,000
flow velocity, cross-sectional 2,000
area of blood vessels and 1,000
0
blood pressure.
50
40
30
20
10
0

Pressure (mm Hg) 120

100 Systolic
80 pressure
60
Diastolic
40
pressure
20

Capillaries

Venae cavae
Arteries

Venules
Arterioles
Aorta

Veins
0
• Blood pressure
• Is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall
of a vessel

• Systolic pressure
• During systole, heart muscles contract and the chambers pump
blood
• Is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole
• Is the highest pressure in the arteries

• Diastolic pressure
• During diastole, the heart muscle relaxes and the chambers fill
with blood
• Is the pressure in the arteries during diastole
• Is lower than systolic pressure
• Blood pressure can be easily measured in humans

• Blood pressure is regulated by coordinating:

➢ Cardiac output
➢ Diameter of the arterioles (arteriole vasoconstriction or
vasodilation).
 1 A typical blood pressure reading for a 20-year-old
4 The cuff is loosened further until the blood flows freely
is 120/70. The units for these numbers are mm of
through the artery and the sounds below the cuff
mercury (Hg); a blood pressure of 120 is a force that
disappear. The pressure at this point is the diastolic
can support a column of mercury 120 mm high.
pressure remaining in the artery when the heart is relaxed.

Blood pressure
reading: 120/70

Pressure Pressure Pressure

in cuff in cuff in cuff
above 120 below 120 below 70
Rubber cuff
inflated 120 120
with air
70

Sounds
stop
Sounds
audible in
stethoscope
Artery
Artery
closed

2 A sphygmomanometer, an inflatable cuff attached to a 3

pressure gauge, measures blood pressure in an artery.
The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated
until the pressure closes the artery, so that no blood
flows past the cuff. When this occurs, the pressure
exerted by the cuff exceeds the pressure in the artery.
A stethoscope is used to listen for sounds of blood flow
below the cuff. If the artery is closed, there is no pulse
below the cuff. The cuff is gradually deflated until blood
begins to flow into the forearm, and sounds from blood
pulsing into the artery below the cuff can be heard with
the stethoscope. This occurs when the blood pressure
is greater than the pressure exerted by the cuff. The
pressure at this point is the systolic pressure.
BLOOD COMPOSITION
AND
FUNCTION

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

Source:
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10972003/
• Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the
vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and
waste materials away from all body tissues.

• Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has

been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to
the lymphatic system.

• Blood plasma is about 90% water

• Among its many solutes are
• Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes referred to as
electrolytes
 Composition of Whole Blood
Erythrocytes Cellular
elements
5-6 million per mm3 of blood
45%

Leukocytes
Water
7,000-9,000
~90% per mm3 of blood

Plasma
Proteins 55%
And Platelets
Other ~250,000
solutes per mm3
~8% of blood
Plasma Constituent
Plasma 55%

Major functions

Blood plasma is Water Solvent for

carrying other
about 90% substances

Ions (blood electrolytes)

water. Sodium Osmotic balance
Potassium pH buffering, and
Calcium regulation of Separated
membrane blood
Among its many Magnesium
Chloride permeability elements
Bicarbonate
solutes are
Plasma proteins
inorganic salts Albumin Osmotic balance,
pH buffering
in the form of Fibrinogen Clotting

dissolved ions, Immunoglobulins

(antibodies)
Defense

sometimes Substances transported by blood

Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids,
referred to as vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism
electrolytes. Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Hormones
 Cellular elements 45%
Cellular
Cell type

Erythrocytes
Number
per mm3 of blood
Functions

Transport
Elements
❑ Suspended in blood
(red blood cells) 5–6 million oxygen
and help
transport
Separated carbon plasma are two classes of
blood dioxide.
elements cells:
Leukocytes Defense and
(white blood cells) 5,000–10,000 immunity ➢ Red blood cells, which
transport oxygen.
➢ White blood cells,
Lymphocyte
Basophil which function in
Eosinophil defense.
Neutrophil
Monocyte ❑ A third cellular element,
Platelets 250,000-
400,000
Blood clotting platelets (fragments of
cells that are involved in
clotting).
 Erythrocytes
~RED BLOOD CELLS~

The most numerous blood cells.

Transport oxygen
throughout the body.
Structure: small disks
that are biconcave
(increase surface area,
enhancing rate of oxygen
diffusion).

Lack of nuclei– leave more

space for hemoglobin.
 Leukocytes
~WHITE BLOOD CELLS~

• The blood contains five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes

Function in
defense by
phagocytizing
bacteria and
debris or by
producing
Source: Blausen 0909 WhiteBloodCells.png antibodies.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Platelets
Pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of
specialized bone marrow cells and
have no nuclei.

Platelets function in blood clotting.

Source:
https://www.wfh.org/en/page.aspx?pid=635
Transport System
• Functionally connect the organs of
exchange with the body cells
3.3 Single and double circulatory system

• Single circulation
• The blood passes through the
heart once in each complete
circuit

• Consists of two chamber

• An atrium
• A ventricle
• In bony fishes, rays and shark
• A fish heart has two main chambers
• One ventricle and one atrium

• Blood pumped from the ventricle

• Travels to the gills (gill
circulation), where it picks up
O2 and disposes of CO2

• The gill capillaries converge into a

vessel that carries oxygenated
blood to capillary beds in the other
organ (systemic circulation) and
back via veins to the atrium of the
heart
• Circulatory system that have
2 distinct circuit

• Blood passes TWICE

through the heart to supply
once to the body.
• The pumps for the two
circuits serve different
tissues but are combined into
single organ (heart)
• E.g: in mammals, reptiles
and amphibians
• Frogs and other amphibians
• Have a three-chambered heart,
with two atria and one
ventricle

• The ventricle pumps blood into a

forked artery
• That splits the ventricle’s output
into the pulmocutaneous
circuit (to the lung & skin) and
the systemic circuit (to all other
organs)
• Pulmocutaneous circulation
leads to capillaries in the gas-
exchange organ, where the
blood pick up O2 and release
CO2

• Most of the returning oxygen-

rich blood is pumped into the
systemic circulation, which
supplies all body organs
• Reptiles have double circulation, with a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a
systemic circuit

• Reptiles have two arteries leading from heart to the systemic circuit, arterial
valves allow them to divert most of their blood from pulmonary

• Turtles, snakes, and lizards

• Have a three-chambered heart with a septum partially dividing the single
ventricle → which results in even less mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-
poor blood than in amphibians circuit to systemic circuit
• In all mammals and birds
• The ventricle is completely
divided into separate right and left
chambers

• The left side of the heart pumps and

receives only oxygen-rich blood

• While the right side receives and

pumps only oxygen-poor blood
• Double circulation restores pressure to the systemic
circuit after blood has passed through the lung
capillaries and prevents mixing of O2-rich and O2-
poor blood

• A powerful four-chambered heart

• was an essential adaptation of the endothermic way of life
characteristic of mammals and birds
 FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Gill capillaries Lung and skin capillaries Lung capillaries Lung capillaries

Artery Pulmocutaneous
Right Pulmonary
Gill Pulmonary
circuit systemic circuit circuit
circulation
aorta
Heart:
ventricle (V) Left
A A A A A
A Systemic
Atrium (A) V V aorta
V V V
Right Left Right Left Right Left
Systemic Systemic Systemic
Vein circulation circuit circuit

Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries

 Source: Anatomy of Human Organs - Lifeinharmony

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Source: Human heart anatomy Stock Vector

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

3.4 Carbon dioxide and oxygen transport
Respiratory Pigments & Transport Gases
• The metabolic demands of many organisms
• Require that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
• Are proteins that transport oxygen
• Greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry
• Most animals transport most of the oxygen bound to respiratory
pigments instead dissolved in solution
• Respiratory pigments also pick up carbon dioxide from tissues and
bring it to respiratory surface, where it is exhaled out from body.
Respiratory Pigments
Proteins that transport oxygen.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Oxygen Transport
in the Blood

Oxygen is carried in blood.

✓ Bound to hemoglobin
(98.5% of all oxygen in the blood).

✓ Dissolved in the plasma (1.5%)

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 ➢ The respiratory pigment of almost all
vertebrates:
o Is the protein hemoglobin, contained in
the erythrocytes.
o Hemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide
chains (2 alpha chains and 2
beta chains), each with cofactor
called heme group that has an
iron atom at its center.

➢ In arthropods and many molluscs:

o Hemocyanin as the respiratory pigment.
o Has copper as its O2-binding component,
coloring the blood bluish.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Respiratory Pigments

Like all respiratory pigments,

hemoglobin must reversibly bind O2, loading O2
in the lungs and unloading it in other parts of the
body.
 Loading and Unloading of
Oxygen
Depend on cooperation between the subunits of the
hemoglobin molecule.
The binding of O2 to one subunit induces the other
subunits to bind O2 with more affinity.
When one releases O2, the other 3 quickly follow as
conformational change lowers their affinity.
Cooperative O2 binding and release is evident in
the dissociation curve for hemoglobin.
A drop in pH lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for O2.
 Hemoglobin Saturation
Extent to which the hemoglobin in blood is
combined with O2.
Depends on PO2 of the blood.

The relationship between oxygen levels

and hemoglobin saturation is indicated by
the oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation (saturation) curve.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Carbon dioxide
Transport in the Blood
Transported from the body cells back to the lungs as:

✓ Bicarbonate (HCO3) - 60%

o Formed when CO2 (released by cells making ATP) combines
with H2O (due to the enzyme in red blood cells called
carbonic anhydrase).

✓ Carbaminohemoglobin - 30%
o Formed when CO2 combines with hemoglobin
(hemoglobin molecules that have given up their oxygen).

✓ Dissolved in the plasma - 10%

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

At high partial pressures of O2 (above

about 40 mm Hg), hemoglobin saturation
remains rather high
(typically about 75-80%).

➢ This rather flat section of the oxygen-hemoglobin

dissociation curve is called the
‘plateau’.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Under resting conditions, only about 20-25% of
hemoglobin molecules give up
oxygen in the systemic capillaries.

➢ This is significant (in other words, the 'plateau' is

significant) because it means that you have a
substantial reserve of oxygen.

➢ In other words, if you become more active, and your

cells need more oxygen, the blood (hemoglobin
molecules) has lots of oxygen to provide.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve
When become more active, partial
pressures of oxygen in active cells
may drop well below 40 mm Hg; as oxygen
levels decline, hemoglobin saturation
also declines.

➢ This means that the blood (hemoglobin)

'unloads' lots of oxygen to active cells - cells
that, of course, need more oxygen.

CIRCULATORY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM ANIMAL AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ENMM

 Carbon dioxide Transport
Tissue cell
1 Carbon dioxide produced by CO2 produced
CO2 transport
from tissues
7 Most of the HCO3– diffuse
body tissues diffuses into the into the plasma where it is
interstitial fluid and the plasma. Interstitial CO
2
carried in the bloodstream to
fluid
the lungs.
1
2 Over 90% of the CO2 diffuses Blood plasma CO
2 Capillary
into red blood cells, leaving only 7% within capillary
wall 8 In the lungs, HCO3– diffuse
in the plasma as dissolved CO2. 2
from the plasma red blood cells,
CO2
3
H2O
4 combining with H+ released from
3 Some CO2 is picked up and Red H2CO3
Hemoglobin hemoglobin and forming H2CO3.
transported by hemoglobin. blood Carbonic acid Hb picks up
cell CO2 and H+

5 6
HCO3– + H+ 9 Carbonic acid is converted back
Bicarbonate
4 However, most CO2 reacts with water into CO2 and water.
HCO3– 7
in red blood cells, forming carbonic To lungs

acid (H2CO3), a reaction catalyzed by 10 CO2 formed from H2CO3 is unloaded

carbonic anhydrase contained. Within HCO3 –
CO2 transport
to lungs from hemoglobin and diffuses into the
red blood cells. 8
interstitial fluid.
HCO3– + H+
11 CO2 diffuses into the alveolar
5 Carbonic acid dissociates into a Hemoglobin space, from which it is expelled
biocarbonate ion (HCO3–) and a H2CO3 Hb releases during exhalation. The reduction
CO2 and H+
hydrogen ion (H+). 9 of CO2 concentration in the plasma
H 2O
CO2 drives the breakdown of H2CO3
Into CO2 and water in the red blood
6 Hemoglobin binds most of the cells (see step 9), a reversal of the
CO2
H+ from H2CO3 preventing the H+ reaction that occurs in the tissues
from acidifying the blood and thus (see step 4).
CO2 10
preventing the Bohr shift.
CO2 11
Alveolar space in lung
LYMPHATIC VS CARDIOVASCULAR
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system

• Returns lost fluid and proteins to the body from the capillary beds
• Aids in body defense

• Fluid reenters the circulation

• Directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly
through the lymphatic system
Lymphatic System

• Lymphatic system consist of :

• Lymph vessel : like veins and has valves that prevent the backflow
of fluid toward the capillaries
• Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls helps draw
fluid into lymphatic capillaries

Lymph : colorless fluid within the lymphatic vessels,

with a composition similar to the interstitial fluid
 Lymph node : a mass of lymph tissue
surrounded by a connective tissue
capsule with spaces filled with white
blood cells
 The lymph nodes filter the lymph and
attack viruses & bacteria
 When body fighting an infection, the lymph
nodes become swollen (the cells multiply)

 Also transports fats from digestive tract

to the circulatory system
• The lymphatic system
– Plays an active role in defending the body from
pathogens 1 Interstitial fluid bathing the
tissues, along with the white
blood cells in it, continually
enters lymphatic capillaries.Interstitial Lymphatic
fluid capillary 2 Fluid inside the
Adenoid
lymphatic capillaries,
called lymph, flows
4 Tonsil
through lymphatic
Lymphatic vessels vessels throughout
return lymph to the the body.
blood via two large
ducts that drain into Lymph
veins near the Blood
nodes
capillary
shoulders.
Spleen
Lymphatic
Tissue
Peyer’s patches vessel
3 Within lymph nodes,
cells
(small intestine)
microbes and foreign
particles present in
Appendix
the circulating lymph
encounter macro-
phages, dendritic cells,
and lymphocytes,
which carry out
various defensive
Lymphatic Masses of
vessels Lymph lymphocytes and
actions.
node macrophages
 INFO!!!
• If tissues do not receive enough oxygen:
• Kidneys synthesize & secrete a hormone : ERYTHROPOIETIN
(EPO) → stimulate erythrocytes production

• If blood delivering more oxygen than tissues can use:

• Level of EPO decreased → erythrocyte production slows