BIOL 1362 ASSIGNMENT #2

DATE: 2/4/19

1) a) Sucrose is the disaccharide that is used as the starting substrate for the creation of
sucralose (Kratz 2009).
b) The starting disaccharide, sucrose undergoes chlorination where three (–OH)
hydroxyl groups on the sucrose are replaced with chlorine atoms (Kratz 2009). The
molecular formula therefore changes to C12H19Cl3O8.
c) Six side effects of sucralose include:
 Diarrhea
 Nausea
 Increased risk of Type 2 Diabetes
 Weight gain
 Decrease of good bacteria in the gut
 Headaches (Migraines)
(Mercola and Pearsall 2006)

d) Table 1 showing the comparison between sucralose and aspartame

Traits Sucralose Aspartame

Chemical nature and formula
Number of residues
Molecular weight
Sweetness compared to sugar
Use
C12H19Cl3O8 it is white
odourless crystalline powder
Fructose+glucose
626g/mol
600× sweeter
Commonly present in candy,
gelatine and processed juices.
C14H18N2O5. Under strongly
acidic or alkaline
conditions, aspartame first
generates methanol by
hydrolysis
Aspartic acid + phenylalanine-
l-methyl ester
307g/mol
220× sweeter
Commonly used in diet sodas
Caloric value Calorie free 4kcal/gm3
Metabolism Not metabolized for energy Negligible energy
Amide linkage Absent Present
Ether linkage Present Absent
(Flipse 2015)

2) Tay-Sachs disease is an inheritable disorder in which the nerve cells are progressively
destroyed. This is caused by mutations to the HEXA gene which instructs the synthesis of an
enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A. This enzyme is located in lysosomes and plays an
integral part in the brain and spinal cord. It also breaks down a substance called ganglioside
(GM2). Symptoms of this disease include: seizures, loss of coordination, the loss to swallow,
blindness, mental impairment and paralysis (McPartland 2016).

Niemann-Pick disease is an inheritable disease which affects lipid metabolism, as well as the
storage and removal of lipids, fats and cholesterol from the body. This disease causes abnormal
lipid metabolism leading to harmful amounts of lipids present in various organs. There are
different types, type A,B,C and E. Symptoms of type A include : swollen lymph nodes, swelling
of the abdomen due to liver and spleen enlargement, cherry red spot inside eyes, difficult
performing basic motor skills etc. Symptoms of type B mental retardation, poor coordination,
low blood platelets, high lipids in the blood etc. Symptoms of type C include: jaundice, seizures,
dementia, brain damage, difficulty moving limbs etc. Symptoms of type E include swelling of
the spleen or brain alongside swelling in the nervous system. Neurological problems may also be
apparent (Gabbey 2016).

3) Table comparing glycosidic and peptide linkages.

Traits Glycosidic linkage
Formula -C-O-C-
Formation Glycosidic linkages forms
after a condensation reaction
occurs between the –OH
group attached to the first
carbon and the –OH group
Peptide linkage
-CONH-
A condensation reaction
occurs between two amino
acids to form peptide
linkages. The carboxylic acid
of one amino acid reacts with
 attached to the fourth or sixth the amine group of another
carbon according to the amino acid, releasing a water
linkage type. Releasing a molecule.
water molecule.
Commonly found Present in carbohydrates and Present in proteins
sugars
Product of hydrolysis Hydrolysis of glycosidic Hydrolysis of peptide bond
bonds gives two forms two amino acids.
monosaccharides
Type of bond Covalent bonds exist between Covalent bonds exist
two monosaccharides between two amino acids
(Madhusha 2018)

4) When bacteria normally growing at 20oC are gradually warmed to 30oC, they would
synthesis long chain saturated fatty acids, as unsaturated fatty acids cannot form stable linear
structures. This therefore allows for liquid fluidity of the membrane to be maintained. The
kinks present in their chain are usually a result of double bonds present, which decrease their
melting point.
5) Avery, McCarthy and McCleod in 1944 proved that DNA is the genetic material when
working with pneumonia on the Transforming Principle. They set out to determine the cause
of the transformation of a nonvirulent type R pneumococci and a heat killed strain of type S
that still killed the organism, as outline in experiments done by F. Griffith (1877-1941). A
series of experiments were conducted using three sets of heat killed bacteria (III S), each
treated with one of the enzymes listed: Proteinase, Ribonulease and Deoyribonuclease. It was
found that live II R was the only test which involved Deoxyribonuclease and did not result in
live III S cells. Hence, DNA is the genetic material responsible for this transformation
(Elibox 2019, Slide 10. The Genetic Material).

6) Table comparing DNA and RNA

TRAITS DNA RNA
 Nitrogenous bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) Cytosine (C), Uracil (U)
Function Stores genetic information This is involved in protein
that control protein synthesis. synthesis. The mRNA
Controls and directs cell delivers messages from the
activities. DNA to rRNA, tRNA which
carries anticoding for amino
acids for rRNA for protein
synthesis.
Basic structure Two long twisting strands. Single strand of nucleotides.
Double helix.
Nucleotide sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
(Helmenstine 2018)
7) a) i) Aliphatic side chain- C
ii) Basic side chain- D
iii) Secondary amino group- A
iv) Designated by the symbol K- A
v) In the same class as phenylalanine- B
vi) Most hydrophobic of the four- B

b) Four amino acids include: 1) Lysine

2) Proline

3) Leucine

4) Glycine

c) The other amino acids in the same class as the amino acid ‘D’ include: Histidine and
Arginine.

8) Table comparing the alpha-helix with the beta-strand for protein secondary structures.
Feature α-helix
Structure Right-handed coiled rod-like
structure
Bonding Hydrogen bonding between
CO and NH groups of amino
acids. Hydrogen bonds form
within the polypeptide chain
Residue 3.6 residues per turn. 1.5A°
rise from one alpha carbon to
the second.
-R groups -R groups of the amino acids
are oriented outside of the
helix
Orientation Clockwise or anti-clockwise
β-helix
Sheet like structure with
pleated arrangement.
Hydrogen bonding connected
by the backbone bonds
between C=O and N-H of two
separate chains
Range from 2 -15 strands in
length. 35A° rise between
residues.
-R groups are directed to both
inside and outside of the sheet
Parallel or anti-parallel

b) The beta-pleated sheets and the triple helix are two other secondary protein structures. The
beta- pleated sheet comprises of adjacent polypeptide chains that run anti-parallel to each other
with two or three hydrogen backbones. The triple helix on the other hand is widely associated
with supramolecular structures in parallel, anti-parallel or staggered arrangements; as a result
they are able to bind to a variety of molecules.

9) a) SNARE proteins are short NSF (N-ethylmaleimde- sensitive factor) attachment proteins
that are bound to the surface of the vesicle and are responsible for regulating the docking of
granules and vesicles to target membranes (Goodsell 2013).

b)This was done when the SNARE proteins come together to form tight bundles of alpha helices
that pull the membrane into close proximity to the vesicle, as they boost fusion between vesicles
an membranes. One must note both the vesicle and the membrane have SNARE proteins on their
surface either covalently attached to a lipid chain or attached to a segment that crosses the
membrane (Goodsell 2013).

10) Gln-Ala-Phe-Val-Lys-Gly-Tyr
 [Asn-Arg-Leu-Glu]

11) Table comparing Marasmus, Kwashiorkor and Cachexia (Roland 2016).

Traits Marasmus Kwashiorkor Cachexia

Cause This is caused by a This is caused by a This is caused by
deficiency of proteins deficiency of proteins in abnormal levels of
and calories in the the body. certain substances in
body. the body.
Morality low High low
Adaptation to Normal Abnormal Normal
starvation
Presence of Absent Present Depends
Oedema
Appetite Voracious feeder Poor Poor
Susceptible Common in infants Common in children May occur in anyone
persons under 1 year of age between 6 months and 3 with an unbalanced
years of age. diet and lack of
exercise.
Symptoms Ribs are very Lack of energy, skin Excessive weight loss,
prominent, loss of ulcers, shedding of skin, weakness, muscle
body fat, respiratory enlarged fatty liver, wasting, fatigue,
infections, sunken lethargic, protuberant inflammation etc.
eyes, irritable belly etc.
behaviour, loose skin,
frequent dehydration,
diarrhea etc.
Treatment Initial treatment often Increased calorie intake There is no single
includes skim milk such as eating more medicine or treatment
powder mixed with protein, carbohydrates, plan for effectively
boiled water. Then a sugars and fats. Long treating cachexia
mixture of vegetable term vitamin and
 oil such as sesame, mineral supplements.
casein and sugar.

12) The addition of 8M of urea and 1Mm of mercaptoethanol to the protein structure leads to the
proteins being denatured by the urea as well as the mercaptoethanol. The urea denatures the
proteins by reducing the hydrophobic effect, therefore altering the conformation or shape of the
protein. The mercaptoethanol on the other hand is also able to denature the proteins, but by
cleaving the disulphide bonds that may arise between thiol groups and affect the secondary,
tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins. This therefore inhibits the folding of the protein to
give a specific conformation needed to carry out its function.

13) i) Endrocrine- This are chemicals that may interfere with the body’s endocrine system and
can cause adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological and immune effects in the
organism. They are secreted into the blood and transferred by the blood and tissue fluids. An
example of this is adrenaline.

ii) Paracrine- These describe the hormone action by which hormones are released from cells and
bind to their respective receptor on nearby cells and disrupt their function. An example of this
includes: Prostaglandins.

iii) Autocrine- This is hormone action to which hormones bind to receptors on to the cell and
affects the cell that produces it. An example of this includes: Endorphins.

(Van der pool 2014)

References
 Kratz, Rene Fester. Molecular & Cell Biology for Dummies. Hoboken, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons, 2009.
 McPartland, Randall. Tay-Sachs Disease. New York: Cavendish Square, 2016.
 Mercola, Joseph, and Kendra Degen. Pearsall. Sweet Deception: Why Splenda®,
Nutrasweet®, and the FDA May Be Hazardous to Your Health. Nashville, TN: Nelson
Books, 2006.
 "Tay-Sachs Disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH." U.S. National Library of
Medicine. Accessed April 01, 2019. https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/tay-sachs-
disease#genes.
 Gabbey, Amber Erickson. "Niemann-Pick Disease: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis."
Healthline. February 24, 2016. Accessed April 01, 2019.
https://www.healthline.com/health/niemann-pick-disease.
 Madhusha. "Difference Between Glycosidic Bond and Peptide Bond | Definition,
Formation, Properties." Pediaa.Com. August 18, 2017. Accessed April 01, 2019.
http://pediaa.com/difference-between-glycosidic-bond-and-peptide-bond/.
 Elibox, Winston. The Genentic Material. Powerpoint presented at Genetics 1. The University of
the West Indies: Trinidad and Tobago, 2019.
 Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "The Differences Between DNA and RNA."
ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/dna-versus-rna-608191 (accessed April 1,
2019).
 Flipse, Robyn. "Comparison of Popular Sugar Substitutes: Sucralose or Aspartame or
Stevia." SPLENDA LIVING™ Blog. July 17, 2015. Accessed April 01, 2019.
https://blog.splenda.com/comparison-popular-sugar-substitutes-sucralose-or-aspartame-
or-stevia#sthash.igYW4KAT.dpbs.
 "Endocrine Disruptors." National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Accessed
April 02, 2019. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm.
 Pool, Siobhan Van Der. "What Is the Difference between Autocrine, Paracrine, Endocri."
Prezi.com. October 22, 2014. Accessed April 02, 2019. https://prezi.com/w_5-
9dldcoju/what-is-the-difference-between-autocrine-paracrine-endocri/.