EE1151-CIRCUITS THEORY

UNIT I : CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Fundamentals

Ohm's Law states the voltage across a resistor, R (or impedance, Z) is directly
proportional to the current passing through it (the resistance/impedance is the
proportionality constant)

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop of
N elements is zero (like pressure drops through a closed pipe loop)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is
zero, i.e., sum of currents entering equals sum of currents leaving (like mass flow at a
junction in a pipe)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that the algebraic sum of the currents in all the branches which converge in a common node is
equal to zero

I in = Iout

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages between successive nodes in a closed
path in the network is equal to zero.

E = IR
Solution using Kirchhoff’s Voltage and current laws

Steps to solve circuit by Kirchhoff’s Laws.

1. Construct circuit with circuit magic schematics editor.

 Circuit sample from circuit magic.

2. Construct loops. (See “creating loop” section in user guide) Number of loops (and number of Kirhhoff’s
Voltage laws equations) can be determined using following formula. Loop can not include branches with
current sources. Due current sources resistance equal infinity.

Loop Number = Branch Number –(Nodes Number –1) – Current sources Number

3. Select Analyze->Solve by Kirhhoff’s laws menu item

4. In dialog box press OK button. if no warning shown.

5. Read solution.

Writing Kirchhoff current law for 3-1 nodes

(Note number of Kirchhoff current laws equations equal Nodes Number –1)

(Node 1)J1+I3+I4+I7=0

(Node 2)-J1+I2-I4=0

Wrining Kirchoff voltage law for 5-1-(3-1) loops

(Loop1) I3·R3-I7·R5=-E2
(Loop2) I2·R2-I7·R5+I4·R4=E1-E2

Linear equations

I3+I4+I7=-2

I2-I4=2

10I3-10I7=-10

11I2+10I4-10I7=-7

Equations solution

I1=2

I2=0,692

I3=-0,846

I4=-1,308

I7=0,154

Ohm’s law
Ohm's law is the main basic electrical law and defines the resistance of a device to the
flow of electrons.

There are three different notations of Ohm’s law

1. Unknown current

2. Unknown voltage

3. Unknown resistance

Resistors in Series & Resistors in Parallel:

A series circuit is one with all the loads in a row. Like links in a chain. There is only one
path for the electricity to flow.
A parallel circuit is one that has two or more paths for the electricity to flow. In other words, the loads are
parallel to each other.
Star-Delta Transformation:

Delta - Star Transformation:

Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis is generally best in the case of several voltage sources. In nodal analysis,
the variables (unknowns) are the "node voltages."

Nodal Analysis Procedure:

1. Label the N node voltages. The node voltages are defined positive with respect to
a common point (i.e., the reference node) in the circuit generally designated as the
ground (V = 0).
2. Apply KCL at each node in terms of node voltages.
a. Use KCL to write a current balance at N-1 of the N nodes of the circuit
using assumed current directions, as necessary. This will create N-1
linearly independent equations.
b. Take advantage of supernodes, which create constraint equations. For
circuits containing independent voltage sources, a supernode is generally
used when two nodes of interest are separated by a voltage source instead
of a resistor or current source. Since the current (i) is unknown through the
voltage source, this extra constraint equation is needed.
c. Compute the currents based on voltage differences between nodes. Each
resistive element in the circuit is connected between two nodes; the
current in this branch is obtained via Ohms law where Vm is the positive
side and current flows from node m to n (that is, I is m --> n).

3. Determine the unknown node voltages; that is, solve the N-1 simultaneous
equations for the unknowns, for example using Gaussian elimination or matrix
solution methods.

Nodal Analysis Example

1. Label the nodal voltages.
2. Apply KCL.
a. KCL at top node gives IS = IL +
IC
b. Supernode constraint eq. of VL
= VS

c.

3. Solve for VT for instance.

Loop or Mesh Analysis

Mesh (loop) analysis is generally best in the case of several current sources. In loop
analysis, the unknowns are the loop currents. Mesh analysis means that we choose loops
that have no loops inside them.

Loop Analysis Procedure:

1. Label each of the loop/mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to loops/meshes to form equations with current variables.
a. For N independent loops, we may write N total equations using KVL
around each loop. Loop currents are those currents flowing in a loop; they
are used to define branch currents.
b. Current sources provide constraint equations.
3. Solve the equations to determine the user defined loop currents.

Mesh Analysis Example:

1. Label mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL.
a. Left loop KVL: VS =
R1I1 + R2(I1-I2)
b. Constraint equation I2
= -IS.

3. Solve for I1 and I2. Note:

Branch current from mesh
currents: IM = I1 - I2

Superposition
In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current or voltage at
any point in the network may be calculated as the algebraic sum of the individual
contributions of each source acting alone.

Procedure:

1. For each independent voltage and current source (repeat the following):
a. Replace the other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (i.e., v
= 0).
b. Replace the other independent current sources with an open circuit (i.e., i
= 0).

Note: Dependent sources are not changed!

c. Calculate the contribution of this particular voltage or current source to the

desired output parameter.
 2. Algebraically sum the individual contributions (current and/or voltage) from each
independent source.

Source Transformation
An ac voltage source V in series with an impedance Z can be replaced with an ac current
source of value I=V/Z in parallel with the impedance Z.
An ac current source I in parallel with an impedance Z can be replaced with an ac voltage
source of value V=IZ in series with the impedance Z.

Likewise, a dc voltage source V in series with a resistor R can be replaced with a dc

current source of value i = v/R in parallel with the resistor R; and vice versa.

Thévenin's and Norton's Theorems

Thévenin's Theorem states that we can replace entire network, exclusive of the load, by
an equivalent circuit that contains only an independent voltage source in series with an
impedance (resistance) such that the current-voltage relationship at the load is unchanged.

Norton's Thereom is identical to Thévenin's Theorem except that the equivalent circuit is
an independent current source in parallel with an impedance (resistor). Hence, the Norton
equivalent circuit is a source transformation of the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit Norton Equivalent Circuit

Procedure:
 1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot split a dependent source and its
control variable).
2. Thevenin: Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.
Norton: Compute the short circuit current, ISC.
3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh (or impedance, ZTh).
a. If there are only independent sources, then short circuit all the voltage
sources and open circuit the current sources (just like superposition).
b. If there are only dependent sources, then must use a test voltage or current
source in order to calculate RTh= vTest/iTest (or ZTh=VTest/ITest).
c. If there are both independent and dependent sources, then compute RTh (or
ZTh) from RTh= vOC/iSC (or ZTh=VOC/ISC).
4. Replace circuit with Thevenin/Norton equivalent.
Thevenin: VOC in series with RTh (or ZTh).
Norton: ISC in parallel with RTh (or ZTh).

Note: for 3(b) the equivalent network is merely RTh (or ZTh), that is, no current or
voltage sources.
MORE EXAMPLES:

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law Part 2:Kirchhoff's Voltage

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law states:
Law (Cont...)

The sum of the voltages around a closed

circuit path must be zero.

Notice that a closed circuit path insists that

if one circuit element is chosen as a
starting point, then one must be able to
traverse the circuit elements in that loop
and return to the element in the beginning.

Mathematically, The Kirchhoff's Voltage Figure 5.1: v4 + v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

Law is given by
We observe five voltages in Figure 5.1:
∑v n =0 v4 across a voltage source, and the four
voltages v1, v2, v3 and v5 across the resistors
n
R1, R2, R3 and R5, respectively.
The voltage source and resistors R1, R2 and
For reference, this law is sometimes called R3 comprise a closed circuit path, thus the
Kirchhoff's Second Law, Kirchhoff's sum of the voltages v4, v1, v2 and v3 must
Loop Rule, and Kirchhoff's Second Rule. be zero:
 ∑v n = v4 + v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
n

The resistor R5 is outside the closed path in

question, and thus plays no role in the
calculation of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law for
this path. (Note that alternate closed paths
can be defined which include the resistor
R5. In these cases, the voltage v5 across R5
must be considered in calculating
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law.)

Part 3 Part 4 : Example

Now, if we take the point d in the image as
our reference point and arbitrarily set its
voltage to zero, we can observe how the
voltage changes as we traverse the circuit
clockwise.

Going from point d to point a across the

Figure 5.2: Example 1
voltage source, we experience a voltage
increase of v4 volts (as the symbol for the
voltage source in the image indicates that Consider Figure 5.2 with the following
point a is at a positive voltage with respect Parameters:
to point d).
V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V
R1 = 20Ω
On traveling from point a to point b, we R2 = 5Ω
cross a resistor. We see clearly from the R3 = 10Ω
diagram that, since there is only a single
voltage source, current must flow from it's Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's
positive terminal to its negative terminal-- Voltage Law.
clockwise around the circuit path. Thus
from Ohm's Law, we observe that the
voltage drops from point a to point b
across resistor R1. Solution:
Likewise, the voltage drops across resistors
R2 and R3. Having crossed R2 and R3, we
arrive back at point d, where our voltage is
zero (just as we defined). So we
experienced one increase in voltage and
three decreases in voltages as we traversed
the circuit. Figure 5.3: Example 1 loops

We can see that there are two closed paths

The implication from Kirchhoff's Voltage
Law is that, in a simple circuit with only
one voltage source and any number of
resistors, the voltage drop across the
resistors is equal to the voltage applied by
the voltage source:
v4 = v1 + v2 + v3
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can easily be
extended to circuitry that contains
capacitors.
(loops) where we can apply KVL in, Loop
1 and 2 as shown in figure 5.3
From Loop 1 we get:
V1 − VR3 − VR1 = 0
From Loop 2 we get:
V2 − VR3 − VR2 = 0
A bit confused? well look at the
explanation in Part 3 of this lesson and
Review Passive sign convention.

Part 5 : Example Part 6 : Example

(Continued) (Continued)
The above results can further be simplified It is clear that: from (3)
as follows:

V1 − (I1 − I2) * R3 − I1 * R1 = 0

..... (1)
.
and
Substitute the Above Result into (2)
V2 + (I1 − I2) * R3 − I2 * R2 = 0
 ..... (2)

By equating above (1) and (2) we can

eliminate I2 and hence get the following:

....
. (3)
We end up with the above three equations
and now substitute the Values given in the
above equations and solve the variables.
.
The Positive sign for I2 only tells us that
Current I2 flows in the same direction to
our initial assumed direction. Thus now we
can calculate Current through R3 as
follows:

If you feel lost up to this point do go back

to the beginning of the example. Think of
this as just another mathematical problem
requiring solving by use of simultaneous
equations with two unknowns! .

Notice that we work with Variables only The Negative sign for IR3 only tells us that
and try to solve the equation to its simplest Current IR3 flows in the same direction to I2
form. Only after we have arrived at a direction.
simplified equation then that we can
substitute in values of Resistors, Voltages
and current. This can save you a lot of
trouble because, if you go wrong you can
easily trace your work to the problem.

Figure 5.4: Exercise 5

Consider Figure 5.4 with the following


Part 1: Kirchhoff's
Current Law
Kirchhoff's Current Law states:
The sum of the currents entering a
particular point must be zero.
We can now define the electrical point
physically connecting two or more electric
circuit components, as a NODE. Note that
a positive current leaving a point is
considered to be a negative current
entering that point.
Mathematically, Kirchhoff's Current Law
is given by
∑i n =0
n
For reference, this law is sometimes called
Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point
rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule, and
Kirchhoff's first rule.
Parameters:
V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V
R1 = 20Ω
R2 = 5Ω
R3 = 10Ω
Find current through R3
using Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law.
Part 2:Kirchhoff's
Current Law (Cont...)
Figure 6.1: i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 = 0
We observe four currents "entering" the
junction depicted as the bold black dot in
Figure 6.1. Of course, two currents are
actually exiting the junction , but for the
purposes of circuit analysis it is generally
less restrictive to consider what are in
actuality positive currents flowing out of a
junction to be negative currents flowing
into that junction (mathematically the same
thing). Doing so allows us to write
Kirchhoff's law for this example as:
 ∑i n = i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 = 0
n

Part 3 Part 4 : Example

It may not be clear at this point why we
insist on thinking of negative currents
flowing into a junction instead of positive
currents flowing out. But note that Figure
6.1 provides us with more information that
we generally can expect to get when
analysing circuits, namely the helpful
arrows indicating the direction of current
flow. If we don't have such assistance, we
Figure 6.2: Example 1
generally should not pass judgment on the
direction of current flow (i.e., placing a
negative sign before our current variable) Consider Figure 6.2 with the following
until we calculate it, lest we confuse Parameters:
ourselves and make mistakes.
V1 = 15V
Nevertheless in this case we have the extra V2 = 7V
information of directional arrows in Figure R1 = 20Ω
6.1, so we should take advantage of it. We R2 = 5Ω
know that currents i2 and i3 flow into the R3 = 10Ω
junction and the currents i1 and i4 flow out.
Thus we can write Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's
Current Law.
i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

Kirchhoff's Current Law as written is only

applicable to steady-state current flow (i.e.,
no alternating current, no signal
transmission). It can be extended to include Solution:
time-dependent current flow, but that is
beyond the scope of this section.

Kirchhoff's Current Law is used in a

method of circuit analysis referred to as
nodal analysis to be discussed in lecture 8.
A node is a section of a circuit where there
is no change in voltage (where there are no
components, wire is often assumed to be
perfectly conductive). Figure 6.3: Voltages at nodes
 This is the same example we solved in
Each node is used to form an equation, and Exercise 5.
the equations are then solved
simultaneously, giving the voltages at each Figure 6.3 shows Voltages at Nodes a, b, c
node. and d.

We use node a as common node ( ground if

you like ). thus Va = 0V.

Part 5 : Example
(Continued) Part 6 : Example (Continued)
From Node b we get:
Substitute values into previous equations you
Vb = − V1 = − 15V get:

From Node d we get:

Vd = V2 = 7V

It is clear that we must solve V_c, in

order to complete Voltage definitions Vc(0.35) = 0.65 thus Vc = 1.857V
at all nodes. V_c will be found by
applying KCL at Node c and solving Thus now we can calculate Current through R3
resulting equations Follows: as follows:

i1 = i2 + i3

.
and

Just as we expected! Note that current here is

We can group like terms to get the
following equation:
simplified because of following Voltage
definitions and current paths in Figure 6.3.
This method becomes tedious as the
complexity of circuits is increased.
Part 7:
Further Reading Links:

• Kirchhoff's circuit laws

Refferences:

• Nilsson, James W. and Riedel, Susan A. Electric Circuits (5th ed.). Addison-
Wesley. (1996).ISBN 020155707X

Exercise 6

Figure 6.4: Exercise 6

Consider Figure 6.4 with the following Parameters:

V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V
R1 = 20Ω
R2 = 5Ω
R3 = 10Ω

Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's Current Law.

Part 1 Part 2
Resistors in Series Equation 3.1
Series of resistors means resistors connected
end to end in a line.
This means that the resistance for the circuit is
different than any one resistor. Take two
resistors in series in a circuit with a voltage
supply.
To find the overall resistance of the circuit, add
the resistances of the resistors.
Part 3
Voltage Divider
There comes a time when the boss or the
project demands that you know what the
voltage is between these millions of
resistors in series. No need to panic though
because it isn't too much harder.
Lets take the two resistor problem
first. There is a voltage source
with two resistors in series. We
know that the overall voltage
drop ac The Circuit
So what if there were 10 resistors in
series? Just add up all of the
resistances and you have the
equivalent over all resistance. In
general this can be expressed:
Equation 3.2
Where R equivalent is the sum of all
N of the resistors in series. So it really
doesn't matter how many resistors
there are. If they are in series they can
be added up into an equivalent
resistance.
Part 4
Equation 3.4
This is the drop over the second resistor.
But if it is dropping to zero, ground, or the
negative side of the source then adding it to
zero would give us the same answer as
above.
For more than two resistors in series it is
just a matter of keeping track of which
resistor is on which side and summing

When we apply an ac voltage to a series
RL circuit as shown to the right, the circuit
behaves in some ways the same as the
series RC circuit, and in some ways as a
sort of mirror image. For example, current
is still the same everywhere in this series
circuit. VR is still in phase with I, and VL is
still 90° out of phase with I. However, this
time VL leads I — it is at +90° instead of
-90°.
For this circuit, we will assign
experimental values as follows: R = 560Ω,
L = 100 mH, and VAC = 10 Vrms. We build
the circuit, and measure 7.464 V across L,
and 6.656 V across R. As we might have
expected, this exceeds the source voltage
by a substantial amount, and the phase
shift is the reason for it.
The Vectors in an LC Series Circuit
The vectors for this example circuit are
shown to the right. This time the composite
phase angle is positive instead of negative,
appropriately.
Equation 3.5
Where VN is the voltage drop over N
resistors out of a total of M resistors.
Remember that the resistors where the
voltage drop is being calculated should be
continuous. If they aren't all that can be
said about the answer derived from the
equation is that it is part of the whole
voltage drop and somewhat worthless
otherwise.
If the resistors are in the middle of the
series then it will be necessary to calculate
the voltage drop on one of the sides to be
able to calculate the voltage.
because VL leads IL. But to determine just
what that phase angle is, we must start by
determining XL and then calculating the
rest of the circuit parameters.

XL = 2πfL

= 6.28 × 1000 × 0.1

= 628

Z = 560 + j628 Ω

= (560² + 628²)½

= (313600 + 394384)½

= (707984)½

= 841.4 Ω

I = E/Z

= 10/841.4

= 0.0119 A

= 11.9 mA

VR = I × R

= 0.0119 × 560

= 6.656 V

VL = I × XL

= 0.0119 × 628

= 7.464 V
 θ = arctan(XL/R)

= arctan(628/560)

= arctan(1.121)

= 48.28°

This really completes the description of the

series RL circuit with a fixed AC signal
applied to it. Starting with the component
values and the frequency of the applied AC
voltage, we have described every aspect of
this circuit's behavior at that frequency

ross the two resistors is the same as the

voltage the source is supplying in our
example world. So the voltage drop across
one resistor would be a portion of the
overall drop. What proportion would we
use to figure out the answer? One resistor
over the two added together times the over
all voltage drop:

Equation 3.3

Remember, this is the voltage drop across

the first resistor. If you want the actual
voltage there you still need to do some
adding or subtracting to get it. Say that you
have a 12V source and a drop over the first
resistor of 3V. Then you actually need to
subtract 3V from 12V to get the actual
voltage between the resistors.
At this point it seems that everything isn't
quite as simple as it started. With our
example and equation for two resistors in
series something else can happen. What if
the second resistor was set in the first
resistor's place in the equation? Well,
simply we would get the other side of the
proportion:

Part 5 Part 6

It becomes clear then that, two equal

resistors will divide the source voltage into
two equal voltages (half of the source's
voltage is dropped across each resistor). If
the ratio of the resistance values is 3 to 1,
there will be 3/4 of the source voltage
dropped across the higher resistance, and
of the source voltage dropped across the
lower resistance.
Three equal resistances in a series circuit
with a single voltage source would drop
1/3 of the source voltage across each
resistor. If the three had 1-2-3
proportionality (100,200,300 ohms for
instance) they would drop , and of
the source voltage each. That is:
× VTotal, × single equivalent resistor. So current isn't
VTotal,and × VTotal.
Current
Where does current come into any of this?
Current, in this case, plays a similar role to
that of the current in the Simple Resistive
Circuits. Once the equivalent resistance of
all the resistors in a series is found,
effectively making a simple circuit again,
then the current can be found with:
Equation 3.6
Just as a reminder. But the interesting thing
is that the current through all resistors in
series is the same. If the resistor is 30Ω it
has the same current flow as the resistor
with 500Ω, so long as it is in series.
Thinking about everything above we are
adding up all of the resistors to make a
different from 30Ω to 500Ω because
together the resistance is 530Ω. That
resistance is used then to calculate the
current.

Part 7
More Examples

Figure 3.1: Series resistors

Figure 3.1 shows a Series resistive circuit with the following parameters. Vs=100Volts ;
R1=15; R2=30; Find V1 and V2.

Solution: from Equation 2.3 we see that.

Similarily:
 .

Thus it can be said that The Supply Voltage has been divided between R1 and R2 by and

respectively.

Part 2
Resistors in Parallel Voltage Rule
Introduction
If two or more branches are parallel then
the voltage across them is equal. So based
The best way to understand Parallel
on this we can conclude that
circuits is to start with the definition. A
VR1=VR2=5volts. However unlike series
circuit is parallel to another circuit or
resistors, the current across the branches is
several circuits if and only if it share
not necessarily equal.
common terminals. That is if both of the
branches touch each other endpoints they
are in parallel. Here is an example:
Equivalent resistance

For series resistors to find the total

resistance we simply add them together.
For parallel resistors its a little more
complicated. Instead we use the following
 equation:

Figure 4.1: A Parallel circuit

R1, R2, and the voltage source are all in However for the case of only two resistors
parallel. To prove this fact consider the top and only two resistors we can use this
and bottom parts of the circuit. simplified form

Equation 4.2: Total Parallel Resistance

It is well to note at this point that The

total Resistance of parallel connected
Resistors will always be Less than the
smallest of the individual Resistors.
Figure 4.2: Components in parallel share a common
nodes
Current Rule

In Series Connection we deduced that

The areas in yellow all are connected
Voltage is divide amongst resistors. For
together, as well as the areas in blue. So all
Parallel connected Resistors, Current is
the branches have the same terminals,
divided. So here is a mathematical formula
which means that R1, R2, and the source
as we did with voltage division principle.
are all in parallel.
Equation 4.3: Current Divider Formula
If we take this discussion of the water flow
analogy. Electric current can be seen as
water and the conductors as water pipes.
Something interesting happens as the
current reaches the common node of Using this formula you can workout the
Resistors that are connected in parallel, currents flowing through individual
The total current is divided into the parallel Resistors.
branches.
Part 3
Application

We have spent three lectures

hacking on about What &
Why Resistors & resistive
circuits in two connection
schemes are used, ( i.e Series
and parallel connections ).
The question now is, where
& how in Real life do these Part 4
connections happen?

One simple application of

these connection schemes is
the Shunt application. In
Electric Measurement
industry, most often enough,
we wish to measure Currents
and Voltages of Very High
Magnitudes ( e.g some ranges
of 500kV and upwards or
1000kA and upwards ). The
problem is that metering Figure 4.3: Application of Parallel Resistive circuits. Shunt
devices have delicate connection
electronic components and
usually have small Voltage If we know what the ampere rating of a device and what
and Ampere operating the total current is then we can work out the shunt
ratings. current and thus the Shunt Resistor.

Solution to the above is to

have a metering device
connected in parallel to a
resistor, this resistor is thus
called a "shunt" resistor since
it is there to protect the
metering device as shown in
the next figure in part 4.
Part 5: Examples Part 6: Examples

Figure 4.4: Example 3.1 Figure 4.5: Example 3.1

Figure 3.4 shows a Parallel resistive Figure 4.5 shows a Parallel resistive circuit
circuit with the following parameters. with the following parameters.
Vs = 10Volts ; R1 = 3Ω;R2 = 7Ω; Find Req; Is = 5Amps ; R1 = 2Ω; R2 = 3Ω; Find: I1;I2
I1andI2. and Vs.

Solution: from Equation 4.2 we see that. Solution: from Equation 3.2 we see that.

Here are the solutions to the above

problem:

Here are the solutions to the above First Find:

problem: Req:

. .
 Then;

. .
. .

Thus it can be said that The Supply

Current has been divided between R1 and
R2 .

We know that when solving these

problems, we look at the Data given and
thus we can see how we need to
manipulate our equations in order to
achieve our objective.The Following
Example Highlights this point, see that
you can follow the Method used and the
reasoning behind.

Part 7
Do you Remember?

Let's take some time to Reflect on Material covered thus far. We have learned a great deal
about simple resistive circuits and the possible connections they afford us. Here I think
you'll want to remember:

• Voltage: (V or v - Volts)The electrical potential between two points in a circuit.

• Current: (I or i - Amperes)The amount of charge flowing through a part of a
circuit.
• Power: (W - Watts)Simply P = IV. It is the current times the voltage.
• Source: A voltage or current source is the supplier for the circuit.
 • Resistor: (R measured in Ω - Ohms)A circuit element that "constricts" current flow.

• Total Series Resistance: ( )

• Voltage Divider :

• Current through Resistors connected in Series is the same for all resistors.

• Two resistors connected in Parallel:

• Current Divider Principle:

Part 8: Exercise 4

Here are some questions to test yourself with.

1. Given 2 Resistors: R1 = R2 = 5Ω in parallel find The Req.

2. Given 3 Resistors: R1 = 2Ω; R2 = 3Ω and R3 = 7Ω in parallel and Supply Current is
15Amps. Find: Req ; I1; I2 & I3 and Supply Voltage across these Resistors.
3. Given 4 Resistors: R1 = 2Ω is connected in series to a parallel branch consisting of
R2 = 3Ω ; R3 = 7Ω and R4 = 4Ω Find: Total Resistance as seen by the Voltage
source.

4. Is it possible to connect Voltage sources in Parallel, If so what conditions must be

met?

UNIT II : TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUIT

SERIES RC CIRCUIT:

When we applied a dc voltage to a resistor and capacitor in series, the

capacitor charged to the applied voltage along an exponential curve, and then just sat
there. This is not the case when an ac voltage is applied to this combination as shown in
the schematic diagram to the right. Here, the input voltage is constantly changing, so the
capacitor will constantly charge and discharge as it continually tries to oppose the
changes.

Essentially, R and C in this circuit now form a voltage divider for ac. We can expect that
part of the applied voltage will appear across R, and part will appear across C. But how
much voltage will appear across each component?

As a practical example of such a circuit, assume VAC = 10 vrms at a frequency of 1 kHz.

C = 0.01 µf and R = 15K. If we were to build this circuit with an accurate audio
frequency generator, we would measure a voltage of 6.855 vrms across the resistor, and
7.275 vrms across the capacitor. This of course adds up to considerably more than the 10
vrms supplied by the generator. How is this possible?

The question is compounded by the fact that C will cause a phase shift between voltage
and current. Since this is a series circuit, the current must necessarily be the same
everywhere in the circuit. Therefore the voltage across the capacitor will lag that current
by 90°, while at the same time the voltage across the resistor will be in phase with the
current. How can we deal with such a mess?

Mapping Voltages with Vectors:

The real problem here is that 90° phase shift between vC and vR. Since they are not in
phase and some voltage is dropped across each component, the phase relationship
between generator voltage and generator current must be somewhere between the two
extremes. We need to be able to determine that relationship, as well as to determine the
combined effect of R and XC in this circuit.

One solution is to map the component voltages graphically, as shown to the right. Using
X-Y coordinate axes, the positive X axis is defined as the zero-degree reference, and
counter-clockwise rotation is defined as the direction of increasing positive angles.

Since the circuit current is necessarily the same throughout the circuit, it is used as the
reference phase angle. Resistive voltage, vR, is in phase with the current as shown in red.
Capacitive voltage, vC, is at -90° as shown in blue. In this way, we can represent the
voltages across R and C as vectors, having direction as well as magnitude. Now it is clear
that the composite voltage comprising both vR and vC must be the vector sum of the two,
as shown in violet.

To find the composite voltage, we must apply the formula for the diagonal of a rectangle,
and find the square root of the sum of the squares:

vG = (vR² + vC²)½
 = (6.855² + 7.273²)½

= (47 + 53)½

= 100½

= 10

Since our generator produces an output of 10 vrms, this confirms our measurements.

Impedance:

Another point to consider here is that this circuit contains both resistance (R) and
reactance (XC). This is neither a pure resistance or a pure reactance. We need a name for
this combined characteristic, and a means of calculating it.

The name is easy enough; the combined characteristic is named impedance, and is
represented by the letter Z. To calculate Z, we must first note that, in accordance with
Ohm's Law, R = vR/I and XC = vC/I. But we already know that the voltages are 90° out of
phase. Since the circuit current, i, is the same everywhere, then R and XC must be 90° out
of phase as well. Thus, we must apply the same method for finding Z as we did for
finding the composite voltage. The full set of calculations for this circuit, then, using the
circuit values given above, is:

XC = 1/2πfC

= 1/6.28 × 1000 × 0.00000001

= 1/6.28 × 10-5

= 15.92K

Z = (R² + XC²)½

= (15² + 15.92²)½

= (225 + 253.45)½

= 478.45½

= 21.87K

I = VG/Z
 = 10V/21.87K

= 0.457 mA

VR = I × R

= 0.457 mA × 15K

= 6.855 V

VC = I × XC

= 0.457 mA × 15.92K

= 7.275 V
BASIC RLC CIRCUIT:

When we add a resistance to a series LC circuit, as shown in the schematic

diagram to the right, the behavior of the circuit is similar to the behavior of the LC circuit
with no resistance, but there are some variations. To see how the added resistance affects
the operation of the circuit, we'll use the same parameters as with the Series LC Circuit,
plus the resistor:

• f = 1 MHz
• e = 10 vrms
• L = 150 µh
• C = 220 pf
• R = 100 Ω

This time, our measured voltages come out as follows:

• vL = 39.1v
• vC = 30.0v
• vR = 4.15v

Does this make sense? We now know we must deal with the difference between vL and
vC, which is just over 9 volts. But then we have a vR of over 4 volts. Did we somehow
convert that 10 vrms input voltage to a 13 volt drop? Or have we overlooked something
else?
The Vectors:

As before, we must take into account the different phase angles between
voltage and current for each of the three components in the circuit. The vector diagram to
the right, while not to scale, illustrates this concept.

Since this is a series circuit, the current is the same through all components and is
therefore our reference at a phase angle of 0°. This is shown in red in the diagram. The
resistor's voltage, vR, is in phase with the current and is shown in green. The blue vector
shows vL at +90°, while the gold vector represents vC, at -90°. Since they oppose each
other diametrically, the total reactive voltage is vL - vC. It is this difference vector that is
combined with vR to find vT (shown in cyan in the diagram). We already know that
vT = 10 vrms. Now we can see that vT is also the vector sum of (vL - vC) and vR. In
addition, because of the presence of R, the phase angle between vT and i will be
arctan((vL-vC)/vR), and can vary from -90° to +90°.

Basic RL Circuit

When we apply an ac voltage to a series RL circuit as shown to the right, the circuit
behaves in some ways the same as the series RC circuit, and in some ways as a sort of
mirror image. For example, current is still the same everywhere in this series circuit. VR
is still in phase with I, and VL is still 90° out of phase with I. However, this time VL leads
I — it is at +90° instead of -90°.

For this circuit, we will assign experimental values as follows: R = 560Ω, L = 100 mH,
and VAC = 10 Vrms. We build the circuit, and measure 7.464 V across L, and 6.656 V
across R. As we might have expected, this exceeds the source voltage by a substantial
amount, and the phase shift is the reason for it.

The Vectors in an LC Series Circuit

The vectors for this example circuit are shown to the right. This time the composite phase
angle is positive instead of negative, because VL leads IL. But to determine just what that
phase angle is, we must start by determining XL and then calculating the rest of the circuit
parameters.

XL = 2πfL

= 6.28 × 1000 × 0.1

= 628

Z = 560 + j628 Ω

= (560² + 628²)½

= (313600 + 394384)½

= (707984)½

= 841.4 Ω

I = E/Z

= 10/841.4

= 0.0119 A

= 11.9 mA

VR = I × R

= 0.0119 × 560
 = 6.656 V

VL = I × XL

= 0.0119 × 628

= 7.464 V

θ = arctan(XL/R)

= arctan(628/560)

= arctan(1.121)

= 48.28°

This really completes the description of the series RL circuit with a fixed AC signal
applied to it. Starting with the component values and the frequency of the applied AC
voltage, we have described every aspect of this circuit's behavior at that frequency.

Resonance effect:
The resonance effect occurs when inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. [Notice
that the LC circuit does not, by itself, resonate. The word resonance refers to a class of
phenomena in which a small driving perturbation gives rise to a large effect in the
system. The LC circuit must be driven, for example by an AC power supply, for
resonance to occur (below).] The frequency at which this equality holds for the particular
circuit is called the resonant frequency.

Series resonance

Here R, L, and C are in series in an ac circuit. Inductive reactance () increases as

frequency increases while capacitive reactance () decreases with increase in frequency.
At a particular frequency these two reactances are equal in magnitude but opposite in
phase. The frequency at which this happens is the resonant frequency () for the given
circuit.

Hence, at :

Converting angular frequency into hertz we get

Here f is the resonant frequency. Then rearranging,

In a series ac circuit, XC leads by 90 degrees while XL lags by 90. Therefore, they cancel
each other out. The only opposition to a current is coil resistance. Hence in series
resonance the current is maximum at resonant frequency.

• At , current is maximum. Circuit impedance is minimum. In this state a circuit is

called an acceptor circuit.
• Below , . Hence cct is capacitive.
• Above , . Hence cct is inductive.

Parallel resonance

Here a coil (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in parallel with an ac power supply. Let R
be the internal resistance of the coil. When XL equals XC, the reactive branch currents are
equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out each other to give minimum current in the
main line. Since total current is minimum, in this state the total impedance is maximum.

Resonant frequency given by: .

Note that any reactive branch current is not minimum at resonance, but each is given
separately by dividing source voltage (V) by reactance (Z). Hence I=V/Z, as per Ohm's
law.

• At fr,line current is minimum. Total impedance is maximum. In this state cct is

called rejector circuit.
• Below fr, cct is inductive.
• Above fr,cct is capacitive.

Applications of resonance effect

1. Most common application is tuning. For example, when we tune a radio to a

particular station, the LC circuits are set at resonance for that particular carrier
frequency.
2. A series resonant circuit provides voltage magnification.
3. A parallel resonant circuit provides current magnification.
4. A parallel resonant circuit can be used as load impedance in output circuits of RF
amplifiers. Due to high impedance, the gain of amplifier is maximum at resonant
frequency.
5. A parallel resonant circuit can be used in induction heating.

SERIES RESONANCE:

A similar effect happens in series inductive/capacitive circuits. (Figure below)

When a state of resonance is reached (capacitive and inductive reactances equal), the two
impedances cancel each other out and the total impedance drops to zero!
Simple series resonant circuit.

With the total series impedance equal to 0 Ω at the resonant frequency of 159.155 Hz, the
result is a short circuit across the AC power source at resonance. In the circuit drawn
above, this would not be good. I'll add a small resistor (Figure below) in series along with
the capacitor and the inductor to keep the maximum circuit current somewhat limited,
and perform another SPICE analysis over the same range of frequencies: (Figure below)

Series resonant circuit suitable for SPICE.

series lc circuit
v1 1 0 ac 1 sin
r1 1 2 1
c1 2 3 10u
l1 3 0 100m
.ac lin 20 100 200
.plot ac i(v1)
.end

Series resonant circuit plot of current I(v1).

As before, circuit current amplitude increases from bottom to top, while frequency
increases from left to right. (Figure above) The peak is still seen to be at the plotted
frequency point of 157.9 Hz, the closest analyzed point to our predicted resonance point
of 159.155 Hz. This would suggest that our resonant frequency formula holds as true for
simple series LC circuits as it does for simple parallel LC circuits, which is the case:

A word of caution is in order with series LC resonant circuits: because of the high
currents which may be present in a series LC circuit at resonance, it is possible to
produce dangerously high voltage drops across the capacitor and the inductor, as each
component possesses significant impedance. We can edit the SPICE netlist in the above
example to include a plot of voltage across the capacitor and inductor to demonstrate
what happens: (Figure below)

series lc circuit
v1 1 0 ac 1 sin
r1 1 2 1
c1 2 3 10u
l1 3 0 100m
.ac lin 20 100 200
.plot ac i(v1) v(2,3) v(3)
.end

Plot of Vc=V(2,3) 70 V peak, VL=v(3) 70 V peak, I=I(V1#branch) 0.532 A peak

According to SPICE, voltage across the capacitor and inductor reach a peak somewhere
around 70 volts! This is quite impressive for a power supply that only generates 1 volt.
Needless to say, caution is in order when experimenting with circuits such as this. This
SPICE voltage is lower than the expected value due to the small (20) number of steps in
the AC analysis statement (.ac lin 20 100 200). What is the expected value?

Given: fr = 159.155 Hz, L = 100mH, R = 1

XL = 2πfL = 2π(159.155)(100mH)=j100Ω
XC = 1/(2πfC) = 1/(2π(159.155)(10µF)) = -j100Ω
Z = 1 +j100 -j100 = 1 Ω
I = V/Z = (1 V)/(1 Ω) = 1 A
VL = IZ = (1 A)(j100) = j100 V
VC = IZ = (1 A)(-j100) = -j100 V
VR = IR = (1 A)(1)= 1 V
Vtotal = VL + VC + VR
Vtotal = j100 -j100 +1 = 1 V
The expected values for capacitor and inductor voltage are 100 V. This voltage will stress
these components to that level and they must be rated accordingly. However, these
voltages are out of phase and cancel yielding a total voltage across all three components
of only 1 V, the applied voltage. The ratio of the capacitor (or inductor) voltage to the
applied voltage is the “Q” factor.

Q = VL/VR = VC/VR
Parallel Resonance:
The resonance of a parallel RLC circuit is a bit more involved than the series resonance.
The resonant frequency can be defined in three different ways, which converge on the
same expression as the series resonant frequency if the resistance of the circuit is small.

Q factor
In physics and engineering the quality factor or Q factor is a dimensionless
parameter that compares the time constant for decay of an oscillating physical system's
amplitude to its oscillation period. Equivalently, it compares the frequency at which a
system oscillates to the rate at which it dissipates its energy. A higher Q indicates a lower
rate of energy dissipation relative to the oscillation frequency, so the oscillations die out
more slowly. For example, a pendulum suspended from a high-quality bearing,
oscillating in air, would have a high Q, while a pendulum immersed in oil would have a
low one. The concept originated in electronic engineering, as a measure of the 'quality'
desired in a good tuned circuit or other resonator.

Usefulness of Q
The Q factor is particularly useful in determining the qualitative behavior of a system.
For example, a system with Q less than 1/2 cannot be described as oscillating at all,
instead the system is said to be overdamped (Q < 1/2), gradually drifting towards its
steady-state position. However, if Q > 1/2, the system's amplitude oscillates, while
simultaneously decaying exponentially. This regime is referred to as underdamped.

Special values of Q

• critically damped, : the boundary between exponential and oscillatory response.

The simplest equal-C, equal-R Sallen–Key filter is critically damped.[citation needed]
• The second-order filter with the flattest passband frequency response
(Butterworth filter) has .[citation needed]
 • The second-order filter with the flattest group delay (Bessel filter) has .[citation needed]

Physical interpretation of Q

The bandwidth, Δf, of a damped oscillator is shown on a graph of energy versus

frequency. The Q factor of the damped oscillator, or filter, is f0 / Δf

Physically speaking, Q is 2π times the ratio of the total energy stored divided by the
energy lost in a single cycle or equivalently the ratio of the stored energy to the energy
dissipated per one radian of the oscillation.

Equivalently (for large values of Q), the Q factor is approximately the number of
oscillations required for a freely oscillating system's energy to fall off to 1 / e2π, or about
1/535, of its original energy.

When the system is driven by a sinusoidal drive, its resonant behavior depends strongly
on Q. Resonant systems respond to frequencies close to their natural frequency much
more strongly than they respond to other frequencies. A system with a high Q resonates
with a greater amplitude (at the resonant frequency) than one with a low Q factor, and its
response falls off more rapidly as the frequency moves away from resonance. Thus, a
high Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more difficult to tune with the necessary
precision, but would have more selectivity; it would do a better job of filtering out signals
from other stations that lay nearby on the spectrum.

TUNED CIRCUITS:

Scope

This article aims to give the reader an overall idea of the use of tuned LC circuits, and the
theory behind them. The article is especially written for people who collect and restore
vintage radios.

Self-induction

To understand tuned circuits, we first have to understand the phenomenon of self-

induction. And to understand this, we need to know about induction.The first discovery
about the interaction between electric current and magnetism was the realization that an
electric current created a magnetic field around the conductor. It was then discovered that
this effect could be enhanced greatly by winding the conductor into a coil. The effect
proved to be two-way: If a conductor, maybe in the form of a coil was placed in a
changing magnetic field, a current could be made to flow in it; this is called induction.

So imagine a coil, and imagine that we apply a voltage to it. As current starts to flow, a
magnetic field is created. But this means that our coil is in a changing magnetic field, and
this induces a current in the coil. The induced current runs contrary to the applied current,
effectively diminishing it. We have discovered self-induction. What happens is that the
self-induction delays the build-up of current in the coil, but eventually the current will
reach its maximum and stabilize at a value only determined by the ohmic resistance in the
coil and the voltage applied. We now have a steady current and a steady magnetic field.
During the buildup of the field, energy was supplied to the coil, where did that energy
go? It went into the magnetic field, and as long as the magnetic field exists, it will be
stored there.

Now imagine that we remove the current source. Without a steady current to uphold it,
the magnetic field starts to disappear, but this means our coil is again in a variable field
which induces a current into it. This time the current is in the direction of the applied
current, delaying the decay of the current and the magnetic field till the stored energy is
spent. This can give a funny effect: Since the coil must get rid of the stored energy, the
voltage over it rises indefinitely until a current can run somewhere! This means you can
get a surprising amount of sparks and arching when coils are involved. If the coil is large
enough, you can actually get an electric shock from a low-voltage source like an
ohmmeter.

Self-inductance is measured in henry (H or Hy). A henry is almost as enourmous value as

a Farad, and coils are often measured in milli, micro and even nanohenry.

Now to tuned circuits

So, a coil is a component that effectivily stores current. A capacitor is a component that
stores voltage. If we connect those two together, we get interesting results. Imagine a coil
(L) and a capacitor (C) connected in parallel:

Let us assume we charged the capacitor with a voltage before connecting it to the coil, so
now we apply that voltage to the coil. This means a current starts to flow, and a magnetic
field is created. As the magnetic field builds up and reaches maximum, an increasing
amount of current flows in the circuit. Eventually, the capacitor becomes discharged; the
voltage across it is zero, but now a magnetic field has been built in the coil and a current
is flowing in the circuit, the charge has been transferred and transformed: From a voltage
charge in the capacitor to a current charge in the coil.

As the voltage is now gone, the current starts to decay, but the self-induction keeps it
running till the magnetic field has been spent. This current charges the capacitor, now
with the opposite polarity as before; the charge is transferred back to the capacitor:

When the current stops, the voltage starts a new current in the opposite direction, etc. etc.
The charge swings like a pendulum back and forth between the coil and the capacitor,
changing polarity twice in each cycle. If there were no losses, this would go on forever.
In real life, some energy is lost in each cycle, and unless the lost energy is somehow
replaced, the tuned circuit will ring out, much like a bell:

Like a pendulum, the tuned circuit swings at a certain frequency, here determined by the
values of the components. The formula is simple:
Types of tuned circuits

Many variations and complex couplings exist, but there are just two basic couplings,
series and parallel:

The parallel circuit has its highest impedance at the resonance frequency. Placed across a
signal, it allows only the resonance frequency to pass.
The series circuit has its lowest impedance at the resonance frequency. Placed across a
signal, it shorts out the resonance frequency, allowing all other frequencies to pass.

Bandwidth

Of course nothing is as simple as it seems. The tuned circuit has a bandwidth, that is,
frequencies near the actual resonance frequency will also more or less achieve resonance.
The bandwidth curve of a single resonant circuit looks like this:

The width of this curve depends on the Q parameter of the circuit. The Q is basically a
figure for the effectivity of the tuned circuit. A circuit with a high loss will have a low Q
and a high bandwidth. A circuit with low losses will have a high Q and a narrow
bandwidth. Losses come mostly from two things:

• The components themselves. Most notoriously, ohmic resistance in coils, but

especially at high frequencies, there are many materials used in components and
wiring that can introduce losses.
 • Loading. A tuned circuit is not very interesting unless it is incorporated in some
kind of circuitry. Signal is fed to it and signal is tapped from it. This leads to
loading of the resonant circuit.

Coupled resonance

In complex circuits like radios, the simple resonant curve of one tuned circuit is not
always enough. To transmit the frequency range needed for audio, a bandwidth of at least
twice the audio range is needed, but outside that a steep rolloff is needed. For this
purpose several sets of tuned circuits coupled together in a so-called critical coupling is
used, like in IF transformers. Two critically coupled tuned circuits have a resonance
curve that looks like this:

Various couplings can be encountered, forming low-pass, high-pass, band-pass or band-

suppression filters, but these specialized circuits are beyond the scope of this article.

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