Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

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Imaging the crustal structure beneath the eastern Tibetan Plateau and
implications for the uplift of the Longmen Shan range
Xiaoyu Guo a,b , Rui Gao a,∗ , G. Randy Keller b , Xiao Xu b , Haiyan Wang a , Wenhui Li a
a
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, 100037, China
b
School of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Competing models have been proposed to account for the unusual uplift of the Longmen Shan fault zone
Received 25 March 2013 in the eastern Tibetan Plateau and resulting hazards. However, due to the terrain and thick sedimentary
Received in revised form 31 July 2013 cover, the crustal structure of the eastern Tibetan Plateau remains uncertain. Therefore, testing these
Accepted 1 August 2013
models has been difficult. In 2011, a 310 km long, SE-trending SinoProbe-02 deep seismic reflection
Available online 28 August 2013
Editor: P. Shearer
profile was recorded in easternmost Tibet in order to study its regional crustal structure. The resulting
image revealed the detailed crustal structure of eastern Tibet, which when combined with geological, GPS
Keywords: (Global Positioning System), and geochemical evidence, strongly suggests that Yangtze sub-continent crust
eastern Tibetan Plateau extends beneath the region. The seismic profile also images the tremendously thick Triassic sedimentary
Longmen Shan block cover in the Songpan-Ganzi terrane (SGT). These Triassic sediments vary considerably in thickness across
deep seismic reflection profile several crustal blocks. In addition, both the Longriba fault zone of the northeastern SGT and the Longmen
crustal structure Shan fault zone show strong intracrustal reflections that terminate at a depth coinciding largely with the
uplift of the Longmen Shan range
crust–mantle boundary (Moho). Accordingly, we propose a new tectonic model based on an integrated
analysis of this seismic reflection profile and previous GPS measurements. In this model, crustal-scale
deformation is suggested to have participated in the oblique extrusion and uplift of the easternmost
edge of the Tibetan Plateau along the Longmen Shan. In a broader context, the lithospheric configuration
imaged by the seismic reflection profile will advance our understanding of the tectonic response of the
eastern Tibetan Plateau to the ongoing India–Eurasia collision and has new implications for the estimating
seismic risk in the region.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
On 12 May 2008, the devastating Mw 7.9 Wenchuan Earth-
quake struck the Longmen Shan (LMS) thrust belt along the eastern
margin of the Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 1a). This was the largest de-
structive earthquake in China in recent years. It caused ∼80,000
fatalities and physical damages of ∼$100 billion US. Although
some researchers have recognized the long-term regional hazards
(Densmore et al., 2007), the underestimated seismic risk and poor
preparation for a large earthquake were attributed due to the rel-
ative quiescence of seismic events on the LMS fault zone (Figs. 1a
and 1b). The LMS fault zone consists of a series of northwest dip-
ping thrust faults, including the Wenchuan-Maowen fault in the
northwest, the Beichuan fault in the middle and the Pengguan
fault to the southeast. The Pengguan fault merges with the Be-
ichuan fault and the Beichuan fault roots into a deep detachment
at 15–17 km depth (Li et al., 2010). How far the Wenchuan-
Maowen fault extends downward, so far, remains uncertain.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ruigao126@126.com (R. Gao).
Even today, the cause of the LMS thrust-Nappe belt uplift and
resulting large earthquakes remains uncertain. There are at least
six end-member models proposed regarding the unusual uplift of
the LMS fault zone (see review by Yin, 2010); (1) channel flow in
the mid and lower crust (Royden et al., 1997, 2008; Zhao et al.,
2012) (Fig. 2a), (2) upper-crustal deformation associating with a
series of detachments (Hubbard and Shaw, 2009; Hubbard et al.,
2010) (Fig. 2b), (3) pure-shear deformation of the whole Tibetan
lithosphere (Robert et al., 2010; Yin, 2010) (Fig. 2c), (4) simple-
shear shortening of the whole Tibetan lithosphere (Yin, 2010)
(Fig. 2d), (5) uplift of the eastern Tibet is associated with westward
underthrusting of the Yangtze crust beneath (Clark et al., 2005;
Jiang and Jin, 2005) (Fig. 2e), (6) crocodile-type accommodated
by indentation of rigid Yangtze crust into the weak SGT (Cai et
al., 1996; Zhang et al., 2004) (Fig. 2f). Different models were pro-
posed partly due to the uncertain crustal structure of the eastern
Tibetan Plateau that is in general covered by the thick Triassic fly-
sch cover (5–15 km) (Nie et al., 1994; Zhou and Graham, 1996).
Testing these models has therefore been difficult. Although many
primarily geological and geochemical studies have indicated the
possible existence of the Yangtze sub-continental block (YB) be-
neath eastern Tibet (Burchfiel et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2006;

0012-821X/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.08.005
 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80 73

Fig. 1. (a) Topographic map of the eastern Tibetan Plateau and Sichuan basin, showing the location of SinoProbe-02 deep seismic reflection profile as a purple line. GPS velocity
vectors (Shen et al., 2005, 2009; Zhu and Zhang, 2010) are plotted relative to the Yangtze block. (b) Generalized geological map of the research area based on the 1:2.5 million
scale geological map of China. (c) Topographic relief along the seismic reflection line; SGT: Songpan-Ganzi Terrane; WMF: Wenchuan-Maowen Fault; BCF: Beichuan Fault;
QCF: Qingchuan Fault; PGF: Pengguan Fault; LRBFZ: Longriba Fault Zone; LRQF: Longriqu Fault; MEF: Mao’ergai Fault; MJF: Minjiang Fault; LMSFZ: Longmen Shan Fault Zone;
SB: Sichuan Basin.

Fig. 2. Previously proposed tectonic mechanism to account for the unusual uplift of the Longmen Shan fault zone; (a) the lower crustal flow model; (b) the upper-crustal
deformation model; LMS: Longmen Shan; (c) Pure-shear model; (d) Simple-shear model; (e) Underthrusting of the Yangtze crust beneath the Songpan-Ganzi terrane; (f) In-
dentation of the Yangtze crust beneath the Songpan-Ganzi terrane.

Roger et al., 2010), the westward extent of the Yangtze crust and
crustal structure of eastern Tibet have never been fully imaged.
Thus, an important constraint on the uplift mechanism of the LMS
thrust belt and subsequent natural hazards is lacking. The pur-
pose of this study is to provide needed information on crustal
structure beneath eastern Tibet, which is essential to advance our
understanding on the tectonic responses to the ongoing Himalayan
orogeny and to assess natural hazards.
2. Tectonic setting
During the early Mesozoic, prior to the Indosinian orogeny (Late
Permian – Early Jurassic), the Songpan-Ganzi terrane (SGT) was
originally a remnant ocean that was filled with thick Triassic fly-
sch derived from adjacent orogenic belts (e.g., Yin and Nie, 1993).
This remnant ocean was juxtaposed against the passive margin
of the YB to the east with onlapping deposition of Triassic fly-
sch onto the margin of the YB (Harrowfield and Wilson, 2005).
During the onset of the Indosinian orogeny, the Songpan remnant
ocean and its sedimentary fill experienced intense deformation be-
cause it was trapped between coeval subduction zones in the north
and southwest (e.g. Reid et al., 2005, 2007; Roger et al., 2011).
Triassic lithospheric delamination occurred (Zhang et al., 2007) af-
ter the crust of the NE Tibetan Plateau thickened to 45 ± 5 km
(Lease et al., 2012). As a result, Triassic syn-tectonic adakitic-
type granitoids are widely distributed in the eastern SGT (Fig. 1b),
which are likely sourced from the partial melting of an underlying
Proterozoic basement that is part of the YB (Roger et al., 2010;
Zhang et al., 2006). In addition, as a convergent zone between
the SGT and YB, the LMS thrust-Nappe belt was initiated in the
Late Triassic as a sinistral transpressive fault zone (Burchfiel et al.,
1995) (Figs. 1a and 1b) due to the compression of the SGT and con-
temporaneous southeast-directed crustal shortening and thrusting
towards the western passive margin of the YB (Roger et al., 2004,
74 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80

2010). The eastern SGT experienced low cooling between the Late Table 1
Jurassic to early Cenozoic, indicating the lack of major tectonic Seismic reflection data processing flow.
events after the amalgamation of the SGT and YB (Roger et al., Processing modules Parameter Parameter values
2011). Filter Bandpass 6–8–100–200 Hz
Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements indicate that Ti- Post-stack (shallow) 8–12–45–55 Hz
betan Plateau is currently undergoing eastward block motion due Post-stack (medium to deep) 6–8–40–50 Hz
to the ongoing collision between the Indian plate and Eurasian Static corrections Reference altitude 3500 m
plate. In addition, GPS measurements detect a dramatic decrease Replacement velocity 4000 m/s
in the eastward extrusion velocity across the Longriba fault zone
Amplitude recovery Decibels 0.5
in eastern Tibet (Shen et al., 2005, 2009; Gan et al., 2007) (Fig. 1a). Time window 18 000 ms
The Longriba fault zone consists of two branches. One is the Lon-
Velocity spectrum CDP interval 50 m
griqu fault (LRQF) in the west and the Mao’ergai fault in the
CDP number of traces 11
east (Xu et al., 2008) (Fig. 1). Further eastward at the LMS range
front, no significant eastward convergence is observed relative to Automatic residual Maximum static 36 ms
the western Sichuan basin (Shen et al., 2005, 2009; Gan et al., statics correction allowed

2007). Even though, the LMS mountain belt rises >3 km above Mute Top mute Standard approach
the Sichuan basin over a distance less than 100 km and marks a Stretching distortion Manually picked
pronounced boundary between the Sichuan basin and eastern Ti- Stack technique DMO
bet (Fig. 1c). In addition, slip rates on the eastern boundary are
much lower than those on the northern and southwestern bound- Migration 2D wave equation migration by 45◦ maximum dip
finite difference with absorbing
aries of the SGT (e.g. Chen et al., 2000; Densmore et al., 2007; boundary conditions
Kirby et al., 2010). No seismic events of magnitude 7.0 were his-
torically recorded on the LMS fault zone before 2008 (Nalbant and
McCloskey, 2011). These observations underscore the importance
of better information on detailed crustal structure across this re-
gion as a key to understanding the mechanism behind the unusual
uplift of the LMS range and related natural hazards.

3. Seismic data acquisition and processing

In this paper, we provide an image of crustal structure be-

neath easternmost Tibet based on new controlled-source seismic
data and employ these data to provide new insights on the mech-
anism of the intense LMS uplift. These seismic data were collected
as part of China’s SinoProbe Project, a leading Chinese research
effort to investigate the deep structure across China (Dong et al.,
2011). In the autumn of 2011, the SinoProbe-02 working group,
a consortium from the Institute of Geology at Chinese Academy of
Geological Sciences and the University of Oklahoma, USA collected
a 310 km long deep seismic reflection profile roughly extending
NW-SE from the SGT to the Sichuan basin (Figs. 1a and 1b).
Seismic data were acquired by using French SERCEL 428XL
recording system and 24-bit digital geophones. In order to obtain
high-resolution seismic images of the entire lithosphere, we em-
ployed three types of explosive sources with charge sizes of 24 kg,
96 kg and 500 kg, respectively. The 24-kg shots were placed in sin-
gle shot holes whose depths were 25 m and were closely spaced
at 250 m intervals. The 96-kg shots were placed in a cluster of two
shot holes at a depth of 25 m, and these clusters were placed at
1000 m intervals. Finally, the 500-kg shots were placed in clusters
of 5 shot holes at intervals of 50 km. In the recording, 600 receiv-
ing traces were employed with geophone group spacing of 50 m.
They were deployed on both sides of the shots with 300 on each
side. Thus, the minimum and maximum shot-receiver offsets were
25 m and 14.975 km, respectively. The recording time was 30 s
for 24 kg and 96 kg sources and 60 s for the 500 kg sources. This
recording geometry for the 24 kg and 96 kg shot sources provided
60 fold common mid-point (CMP) coverage for the processing.
Data processing was performed with a combination of commer-
cial software but the Omega system was primarily employed. We
ultimately improved the image quality by testing numerous pro-
cedures and parameters. The main processing steps include multi-
ple static correction methods, surface consistent amplitude recov-
ery, multi-domain pre-stack noise attenuation, dip-moveout (DMO)
correction, CDP stack, and post-stack gain balance, as well as time-
domain migration applied to the stacked data. These processing
Fig. 3. Deep seismic reflection profile extending from the Songpan-Ganzi terrane
across the Longmen Shan block to the Sichuan Basin (see Fig. 1 for location and see
supplementary material for the higher resolution image) (no vertical exaggeration
and 6 km/s average seismic velocity is assumed). LRQF: Longriqu Fault; MJF: Min-
jiang Fault; WMF: Wenchuan-Maowen Fault; BCF: Beichuan Fault; PGF: Pengguan
Fault; YB: Yangtze Block; SGT: Songpan-Ganzi Terrane.
steps were designed to preserve the relative true amplitudes. The
main steps that were followed during seismic data processing are
summarized in Table 1. Thus, these high-density and near-vertical
reflection data are the basis of our integrated study of the seismic
structure of the crust in the area of investigation.
4. Description of the SinoProbe-02 seismic reflection profile
4.1. Overview
The near-vertical reflection section (Fig. 3) (please see supple-
mentary material for a high-resolution image) extends to about
20 s of two-way time (t.w.t.), which corresponds to a depth of
∼50 km from the LMS eastward. The Sichuan basin crust is slower
on average and is thus thinner (e.g. Zhang et al., 2009). This
seismic image reveals the geometry of the thick Mesozoic sedi-
mentary cover as suggested by previous studies (Nie et al., 1994;
Zhou and Graham, 1996) (Fig. 3) and a thick crust. It predomi-
nantly reveals two reflection boundaries that are clear but discon-
tinuous. The upper reflector is the top of the basement (crystalline
upper crust) that is as deep as 8 s under the Ruo’ergai basin,
and the lower one is the Moho (∼16 s). The top of the base-
ment varies considerably along the profile (8 s to 2 s). The Moho is
characterized by prominent northwest and southeast dipping high-
amplitude reflectors between 14 and 18 s (t.w.t.). This result is
extremely valuable for providing constraints on models of tectonic
 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80
deformation and orogenic processes in the eastern Tibetan Plateau
and along the Longmen Shan Range.
The seismic reflection profile can be divided naturally into three
domains based on geologic correlations with lateral variations and
offsets of events identified in the seismic reflection data (Fig. 3).
The subdomains we have identified are the Ruo’ergai basin (north-
west of the Longriba fault zone), the LMS block (the zone between
the Longriba fault zone and the LMS fault zone), and the Sichuan
basin (southeast of the Pengguan fault zone). The topographic sur-
face in the Ruo’ergai basin has an unusually low relief, but high re-
lief appears after crossing the Longriba fault zone to the southeast
(Figs. 1c and 3). Here, we define the LMS block as a convergent
zone between the eastern SGT and the YB (Figs. 1a and 1b).
As shown in Fig. 3, the Ruo’ergai basin is characterized by sev-
eral packages of southeast dipping reflectors that extend down to
8–10 s (t.w.t.) or ∼20 km (based on an average crustal velocity of
5.5 km/s due to the thick sediments). These dipping reflectors ter-
minate approximately at the surface location of the Longriba fault
zone. East of this fault, the sedimentary rocks gradually thin east-
ward across the LMS block. Under the Ruo’ergai basin, the Moho
reflection is discontinuous and each segment dips to the south-
east.
The LMS block contains two reflection boundaries, which ex-
hibit significant lateral variability in reflection continuity and char-
acter. The top interface of the basement (crystalline crust) beneath
the LMS block is strongly reflective and rises to the south. Just
southeast of the Longriba fault zone, the basement is identified
by subhorizontal events that lie at ∼8 s (t.w.t.) below the sur-
face. Further to the southeast, the basement appears to be cut
by high-angle faults, and the segments between these faults dip
to the northwest. The Moho is delineated by a series of short
strongly reflective segments with variable length and continuity
at 17 s (t.w.t.) that are offset with a uniform northwest dip. Us-
ing an average crustal velocity of 6 km/s, this t.w.t. indicates a
crustal thickness of 50 km, which is consistent with the nearby re-
ceiver function study of Zhang et al. (2009). The seismic reflection
data do not show strong crustal thinning under the Sichuan basin
that Zhang et al. (2009) have shown, but a low (∼5 km/s) average
crustal velocity due to the thick sedimentary fill would indicate a
crustal thickness of ∼37 km, which is in agreement with the result
of Zhang et al. (2009).
Continuously across the LMS block to the Sichuan basin, there
is a decrease in reflectivity of the top interface of the basement. In
the Sichuan basin area, the laterally horizontal reflectors are con-
sistent suggesting that the crust of this area is relatively rigid. The
Moho beneath the Sichuan basin is relatively flat but is disrupted
near the LMS fault zone.
4.2. Seismic sections in areas of structural complexity
Four zoomed-in seismic sections were constructed to highlight
the structural complexity in the domains of interest (Figs. 4A
and 4B). They show reflective events of the Ruo’ergai basin, the
Longriba fault zone, the middle section of the seismic reflection
profile, and the LMS fault zone, respectively.
Panel I is focused on the area beneath the Ruo’ergai basin
(Fig. 4A). This panel includes the southeastern portion of the
record section from the recent Ruo’ergai basin seismic reflection
experiment (Wang et al., 2011). We included these published
results because they provide a higher-resolution seismic image.
This seismic panel reveals a wide range of intracrustal reflec-
tors and variations in crustal reflectivity. Dipping reflectors are
high-amplitude, linear events that in several areas extend through
the entire crust and are either southeastward dipping or convex-
downward in shape. In a few instances, these events exhibit a rel-
atively subhorizontal attitude with shallow dips in the lower crust
75
that gradually steepen in the middle and upper crust. Comparable
to other portions of this seismic reflection profile, the entire upper
crust beneath the Ruo’ergai basin is so highly reflective that a dis-
crete boundary making the bottom of the basin cannot be clearly
recognized in the reflection data.
In panel II of Fig. 4A, two groups of variability in reflectivity of
the upper crust exist. The southeastern segment contains horizon-
tal reflectors in the mid-crust but the northwestern segment con-
tains on southeast dipping reflections in the middle crust. Between
them, a band of northwestward dipping events is observed, which
extends from the Moho well up into the upper crust and possi-
bly to the surface. The dip gradually decreases with depth as it is
traced from the upper crust to near the Moho. There is evidence
that these reflections flatten out near the crust–mantle boundary.
These reflectivity events suggest a fault interface coinciding with
the Longriba fault zone. Thus, we interpret the Longriba fault zone
to be a boundary, separating two distinct crustal domains.
Panel III (Fig. 4B) illustrates the middle section of the seismic
reflection profile. The LMS block in this image has a distinct struc-
ture, containing both subhorizontal reflectors in the mid to upper
crust and more steeply dipping reflectors in the lower crust. Two
packages of high-amplitude, discrete subhorizontal reflectors at 4 s
(t.w.t.) and 8 s (t.w.t.) are associated with two distinct linear or
convex-downward-dipping reflectors. Both are related to the reflec-
tivity of the top surface of the basement due to complex shorten-
ing of the LMS block. In the eastern portion of this image, weakly
reflective events appear to cut through the mid-crust and extend
into the lower crust, and, in a few cases, appear to cut through
the Moho. We interpret the main feature in this complex to be the
Minjiang fault. The Moho is associated with a banded sequence of
reflectors that dip toward the northwest with several offsets. Some
of the dipping events that offset the Moho appear to fade out in
the acoustically transparent mid-crust.
Panel IV crosses the LMS fault zone into the Sichuan basin
(Fig. 4B). The base of the sediments beneath the western Sichuan
basin is evident on the seismic section as a strong horizontal re-
flector lying at 6 s (t.w.t.). This horizon is associated with a major
detachment connecting both the Beichuan fault and the Pengguan
fault (Hubbard and Shaw, 2009; Li et al., 2010; Lu et al., 2012) and
merges to the west with a group of northwest dipping reflectors.
This group of steeply northwest dipping reflections is interpreted
as a complex of thrust faults in the upper crust and may extend as
ductile shear zones downward to the Moho. We interpret the main
feature in this complex to be the Wenchuan-Maowen fault. In ad-
dition, bidirectional-verging faults (southeast and northwest) in the
upper crust characterize a pop-up structure. Complex Moho offsets
are evident at 14 s (t.w.t.) (∼42 km) beneath the Sichuan basin;
northwest dipping Moho offsets are observed between 16–18 s
(t.w.t.) (∼48–54 km) beneath the LMS block. These offsets are ev-
idence that the LMS block is highly shortened and that the rigid
western Sichuan basin (YB) is resistant to the crustal shortening
of the LMS block. We interpret this deformation as a manifesta-
tion of the SGT and YB interaction in the Mesozoic, in which the
early Mesozoic thrusting offset both the Moho and structures in
the upper crust of the western margin of the YB. However to some
degree, these features have been reactivated since the Late Quater-
nary.
4.3. Interpreted seismic profile
Fig. 5 is an interpretation of the regional crustal structures.
Within the LMS block, estimates of Moho depths are based on
reflection times and the velocity results of the corresponding seis-
mic refraction profile. The overall seismic reflection image displays
a partly bivergent crustal architecture in the LMS block that lies
between the Sichuan and Ruo’ergai basins. Reflection geometries
76 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80

(A)

(B)

Fig. 4. (A) two close-up panels were selected to illustrate the seismic velocity structure beneath the Ruo’ergai basin and the Longriba fault zone; (B) two close-up panels
were selected to present the crustal structure in the middle and southeastern portions of the seismic line (no vertical exaggeration and 6 km/s average seismic velocity is
assumed); LRQF: Longriqu Fault; MJF: Minjiang Fault; WMF: Wenchuan-Maowen Fault; BCF: Beichuan Fault; PGF: Pengguan Fault.

in both the upper crust and at Moho indicate that the Yangtze
crystalline crust does extend beneath the easternmost Tibetan
Plateau to the LRQF, which is consistent with geochemical and
geological studies (e.g. Burchfiel et al., 1995; Jiang and Jin, 2005;
Roger et al., 2010). This continuous reflectivity across the Ruo’er-
gai basin to the LRQF clearly shows that the sedimentary cover
was continuous while the crystalline basement was not. Thus, the
thick Triassic sediments were deposited on a heterogeneous base-
ment. The northwestern part of the LMS block contains distin-
guishable southeast-dipping reflectors, indicating backthrust defor-
mation that separates variable-sized tilted crustal blocks. To the
southeast, deep-seated, bidirectional-verging faults (southeast and
northwest) indicate a pop-up structure is present that is a reason-
able expectation gives the models of the LMS range front faulting
of Hubbard et al. (2010).
As two significant boundaries, both the LRQF of the Longriba
fault zone and the WMF (Wenchuan-Maowen) of the LMS fault
zone show strong crustal reflections that terminate at a depth co-
 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80 77

Fig. 5. The structural interpretation of the seismic profile (no vertical exaggeration and 6 km/s average seismic velocity is assumed); SGT: Songpan-Ganzi Terrane; LRQF:
Longriqu Fault; MJF: Minjiang Fault; PGF: Pengguan Fault; WMF: Wenchuan-Maowen Fault; BCF: Beichuan Fault; PGF: Pengguan Fault.

inciding largely with the crust–mantle boundary (Moho). If lower

crustal flow is an essential factor in the LMS block, horizontal
reflectors would appear in the middle and lower crust, cutting
through the Longriba and LMS fault zones, but they are not ap-
parent. Most importantly, there is no observation that suggests
lower crustal flow under the Ruo’ergai basin. Similarly, there is
no evidence of a band of strong horizontal reflectors associat-
ing with the detachment fault in the upper crust to support the
upper-crustal deformation model (Hubbard and Shaw, 2009). The
mid-crust in other portions of the seismic reflection profile are
acoustically transparent, and an explanation for this observation
is not obvious. It is not a matter of signal strength since strong
Moho reflections are observed. Currently, we attribute this scenario
to the still active, and therefore, hot mid-crust of the LMS block,
which is evident in the magnetotelluric studies of this area (Zhao
et al., 2012). Regarding the structure of the mantle lithosphere, it
is beyond the scope of our seismic reflection image so we don’t
have specific information about it. However, we do believe short-
ening also occurred in the mantle lithosphere due to the complex
tectonic setting of the research area.

5. Discussion

We suggest that the GPS velocity gradient across the Longriba

fault zone (Fig. 1a) is due to the existence of the highly short-
ened Yangtze crust beneath the LMS block (Fig. 5) that partly re-
sisted the eastward movement of the Tibetan Plateau. This block is
also associated with high topographic relief (Figs. 1c and 5) and
the complex shortening structures east of the LMS range front
(Hubbard and Shaw, 2009; Hubbard et al., 2010). Therefore, we
propose that the highly shortened and thrusted LMS block is trans-
ferring stress from the Tibetan Plateau convergence to the LMS
range front where it meets the rigid Sichuan basin (Fig. 5).
In general, when the stress from eastward block motion of the
Tibetan Plateau moved to the rear of the LMS block, elastic short-
ening began and caused the onset of stress transfer and diffusion
(e.g., Bott and Dean, 1973) into the LMS block. A ‘stress front’
(Nemčok et al., 2005) accordingly advanced into the relatively un-
stressed region to the east. Given the relatively rigid nature of the
intervening LMS block between the Longriba and the LMS fault
zones, some stress is absorbed and generates intracrustal earth-
quakes with hypocenters deeper than 40 km (Fig. 6). This indicates
the lower crust of the LMS block is capable of brittle failure as in-
dicated in the seismic image. Meanwhile, some stress is transferred
to the area beneath the LMS range and elastic shortening accumu-
lates at depth. The major detachment imaged in the seismic data
that connects the Wenchuan-Maowen, Beichuan, and Pengguan
faults (panel IV in Fig. 4B) could be regarded as the principal chan-
nel transferring the stress to the range front. This interpretation is
consistent with previous studies that ductile thickening within the
deeper crust contributed to the LMS uplift (Royden et al., 1997;
Fig. 6. Seismicity in the Longmen Shan (LMS) fault zone area from 1959 to March
25, 2013 with magnitude 3.0. Dataset is derived from IRIS (URL: http://www.iris.
edu/SeismiQuery/sq-events.htm). Colored dots represent seismic events with differ-
ent hypocentral depths. Note that the earthquakes with hypocentral depths over
40 km are mainly distributed in the area between the Longmen Shan fault zone
and the Longriba fault. Fault information is from Xu et al. (2008) and Nalbant and
McCloskey (2011). LMS: Longmen Shan; MJ: Minjiang Fault.
Burchfiel et al., 2008). Release of the accumulated elastic shorten-
ing beneath the LMS range generates crustal-scale oblique extru-
sion and results in the uplift and right-lateral slip along the LMS.
The extent of the LMS block beyond our seismic line can be
estimated by the extent of the region of reduced GPS velocities
(Fig. 1a) and the fault zones (Longriba and LMS) documented in the
seismic image. Accordingly, we constructed a 2-D tectonic model
that explains most of the diverse observations in the region. This
model of the process of the eastward extrusion along the eastern
edge of Tibet is illustrated in Fig. 7. In this cartoon, t1 refers to the
time when a push is applied to the rear of the LMS block by the
Tibetan Plateau; t2 is the time when the ‘stress front’ has moved
to area beneath the LMS range and elastic shortening is accumulat-
ing; t3 refers to the time when the elastic shortening accumulation
is released on the LMS fault zone during a large earthquake se-
quence and the next cycle of moment accumulation that could
generate another serious earthquake begins. It is noteworthy that
the recurrence interval of moment release illustrated in Fig. 7 is
probably only one of several major earthquake sequences along
the LMS fault zone. The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake is just the
78 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80

Table 2
Deformation features of each tectonic unit between Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

Timing Tectonic units

SGT Western YB LMS range
Early Mesozoic Remnant Ocean(1) Passive margin(2) Not yet initiated(3)
Late Triassic Compression and Inverted to active margin accompanied by Initiated as a sinistral thrust-Nappe belt during
southeastward-directed thrust(4) offsets of Moho(5) southeastward-directed thrusting toward the
rigid SB(3)
Late Mesozoic Quiescence(6) Quiescence(6) Quiescence(6)
Timing after Late Quaternary(7) Eastward extrusion in Moho offsets are reactivated due to eastward Uplift of the plateau margin occurred from
association with the block extrusion of the Tibetan Plateau materials, and 10–15 Ma to present(10) as a release of scalar
motion of the Tibetan Plateau(8) brittle failure in the lower crust occurred in a moment that accumulated from eastward
way of deep earthquake below 40 km depth(9) extrusion of Tibetan Plateau materials(9) ;
sinistral slip movement was reversed(3)

SGT: Songpan-Ganzi Terrane; YB: Yangtze Block; SB: Sichuan Basin; LMS: Longmen Shan. References: (1) Yin and Nie (1993). (2) Harrowfield and Wilson (2005). (3) Burchfiel
et al. (1995); Wang and Meng (2009). (4) Reid et al. (2005; 2007); Roger et al. (2011). (5) Roger et al. (2004; 2010). (6) Roger et al. (2011). (7) Xu et al. (2008). (8) Shen et
al. (2005; 2009). (9) Study of this paper. (10) Wang et al. (2012).

only historically recorded one, so we use “e.g. the 2008 Wenchuan

earthquake”. Thus our interpreted sequence of events is as follows.

(a) As the oblique extrusion approached the western margin of

the YB during the late Quaternary, dextral transpressive shear-
ing of the Longriba fault zone was initiated as a result of resis-
tance from the shortened crystalline crust to the east (Fig. 7t1 ).
Stress from the block motion of Tibet is transferred within the
highly shortened and thrusted crust of the LMS block up to
the range front where it meets the relatively stable western
Sichuan basin (part of the Yangtze hinterland) (Fig. 7t1 ).
(b) As block motion continued, the ‘stress front’ advances within
the fractured LMS block and elastic shortening gradually accu-
mulates in the range front of the block (Fig. 7t2 ). During the
moment accumulation, the LMS fault zone would have been
relatively quiescent.
(c) When the elastic shortening accumulated to a critical level, it
would then be released suddenly during a large earthquake
sequence (Zhu and Zhang, 2010), accommodating crustal-scale
shortening and ductile thickening within the deeper crust.
Release of the moment thus propagated upward along the
Wenchuan-Maowen fault because of the resistance from the
rigid Sichuan basement. Then it propagated along the major
detachment fault to the Beichuan and Pengguan faults to the
range front (Lu et al., 2012), resulting in the uplift of the LMS
fault zone (Fig. 7t3 ).
(d) With the release of the accumulated elastic shortening, the
next cycle of moment accumulation would begin. The focus
of the tragic Wenchuan earthquake and aftershocks are man-
ifestations of this crustal-scale movement. This process also
indicates that such destructive earthquakes will continue to
occur in the LMS area as long as the oblique extrusion from
the ongoing continent–continent collision continues.

6. Summary

In summary, Table 2 is included to clarify the relationships

Fig. 7. Interpreted tectonic evolution based on our interpretation of the deep seismic
reflection profile and results of previous GPS studies (Chen and Wilson, 1996; Lv et
al., 2003; Shen et al., 2005, 2009). Moho depth is obtained from the reflection times
and the results of previous studies (Gao et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2009; Wang et al.,
2010). Shaded area of the Yangtze lower and middle crust at time t2 indicates the
strain accumulation. A sequence of oblique ductile rectangular blocks represents the
Yangtze crystalline crust that extends from the Sichuan basin to the Longriba fault
area. SGT: Songpan-Ganzi Terrane; LMS: Longmen Shan; LRBFZ: Longriba Fault Zone;
WMF: Wenchuan-Maowen Fault; BCF: Beichuan Fault; PGF: Pengguan Fault.
between Mesozoic and Cenozoic deformation. More importantly,
our 310 km-long, crustal-scale seismic reflection profile reveals
detailed crustal-scale features in eastern Tibet for the first time
and has provided strong evidence for the existence of Yangtze
sub-continent crust beneath the easternmost edge of the Tibetan
Plateau. Additionally, resulting models illustrate that the uplift of
the LMS range is correlated with the release of deep-seated strain
energy focused against the rigid Sichuan basin crust, which is con-
sistent with the earthquakes occurring in the middle and lower
crust (Fig. 6). Although other interpretations of some of the fea-
tures we have discussed are certainly possible, the lack of sub-
horizontal zones of reflectivity within the crystalline do not sup-
 X. Guo et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 379 (2013) 72–80
port the channel flow (Royden et al. 1997, 2008) and upper-crustal
deformation models (Hubbard and Shaw, 2009) in the LMS block
area. We believe that our new observations and tectonic model
advance our understanding of the tectonic responses of eastern Ti-
bet to the ongoing India–Eurasia collision and the resulting natural
hazards.
Acknowledgements
We thank all our colleagues from both China and USA who have
worked in the field to collect the seismic data used in this study,
and the No. 6 Geophysical Prospecting Team, Sinopec Huadong
Petroleum Bureau, Nanjing, China, for their excellent and enthusi-
astic work under difficult terrain and logistic conditions. We would
like to acknowledge B.C. Burchfiel, Guowei Zhang, An Yin, Mian
Liu, Qiyuan Liu and Sheng Yu for their valuable comments on
earlier versions of this manuscript and Chaoyang Kuang for nu-
merous discussions on the processing flow of the seismic reflec-
tion data. This work was supported by the SinoProbe-02 Project,
a National Natural Science Foundation of China grant (40830316)
and a U.S. National Science Foundation, Partnerships for Interna-
tional Research and Education grant (0730154). Thanks to the two
anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and sugges-
tions.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary material related to this article can be found on-
line at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.08.005.
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