Maths

A level
Quick reference
JUST L6
Disclaimer: This document is new this year (2017) for the new maths specification 2017. As it is so new it
may contain errors and omissions and may require changes and supplementary information.

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2
OT: Overarching themes
(OT1.1, OT1.3, OT1.4,
OT2.6)
Key terms (OT1.1) Set notation 1 (OT1.3)
a Constant
Coefficient
e 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) is the same as 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] is the same as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
Expression 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏) is the same as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏
Equation 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏] is the same as 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
Function
Identity
Index Set notation 2 (OT1.3)
Term f A set of discrete values can be
represented using { } brackets.
Variable
{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } means the set with
Identity symbol (≡) elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 .
b 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨 ≡ 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑩
Expression 𝐴 always equals expression e.g. {1, 2, 3, 5} is the set containing
𝐵 for all values of the variable. elements 1, 2, 3 and 5 [only].

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 ≡ 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩 Set notation 3 (OT1.3)

Statement 𝐴 and statement 𝐵 mean g {𝑥: … } means ‘the set of all 𝑥 such
that…’
exactly the same thing. We say the
statements are congruent.
Set notation 4 (OT1.3)
Implies symbols h 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 means the intersection of A and
c  𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 ⟹ 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩
Statement A implies statement B.
B. It is the set of elements in both sets A
and B.
Or to put it another way: if
statement A is true then statement
B will also be true.

 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 ⟸ 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩
Statement B implies statement A.
Or to put it another way: if 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 means the union of A and B. It is
statement B is true then statement the set of elements in A or B or both.
A will also be true.

 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 ⟺ 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩
Statement B is true if and only if
statement A is true. Or to put it
another way: if statement A is true
then statement B will also be true
AND if statement B is true then 𝑛(𝐴) means the number of elements in
statement A will also be true set 𝐴.
𝜙 is the empty set (i.e. the set
More useful symbols containing no elements).
d ∴ means ‘therefore’
∵ means ‘because’
𝜀 is the universal set (i.e. the set
containing every element).

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 Sets of numbers (OT1.3 Sigma and Pi notation
i ℕ – set of natural numbers (counting
numbers) {1, 2, 3, ...}
k Sigma notation for sum
𝑛

ℤ – set of integers {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛

3, ...} 𝑖=1
ℤ+ – set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...}
𝑏
ℤ+0 – set of non-negative integers {0, 1,
2, 3, ...} ∑ 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 1)
𝑟=𝑎
ℝ – set of real numbers
+ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2) + ⋯
ℂ – set of complex numbers (further
+ 𝑓(𝑏)
maths only) Pi notation for product
ℚ – set of rational numbers (non-
rational numbers are called irrational 𝑛
𝑝 +
numbers) {𝑞 : 𝑝𝜖ℤ, 𝑞𝜖ℤ } ∏ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 × 𝑎2 × … × 𝑎𝑛
𝑖=1

 means 'belongs to…' 𝑏

 means 'does not belong to…'
∏ 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑓(𝑎) × 𝑓(𝑎 + 1) × …
⊆ means ‘is a subset of…’
𝑟=𝑎
⊂ means ‘is a proper subset of…’ × 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑝
Rational numbers can be expressed as 𝑞
j where 𝑝 and 𝑞  ℤ and 𝑞 ≠ 0 and 𝑝
and 𝑞 have no common factors. Problem solving cycle: (OT2.6)
l 1. Specify the problem
2. Collect information
3. Process and represent
information
4. Interpret results
5. Decide whether there is a need
to repeat.

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B: Algebra and functions:
Surds and indices (B1-2)
DEFINITION: What is a surd? (B2) Conjugate (B2)
a A surd is a root that cannot be expressed
as a rational number.
d A pair of numbers such as 5  2 and
5  2 is called a pair of conjugates.
The product of any pair of conjugates is
Surds identities (B2) always a rational number and can be
b a b  ab found quickly using the difference of two
a a squares formula.

b b
Rationalising the denominator (B2)
Simplifying surds
e Multiply the numerator and denominator
c To simplify a surd √𝑛 we need to find the
by the conjugate of the denominator and
simplify.
largest square factor of 𝑛 in order to
rewrite 𝑛 as the product of two factors Index laws (B1)
and then simplify using a surd identity. f 𝑎𝑏 × 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏+𝑐
Often several surds can be 𝑎𝑏
added/subtracted together by rewriting = 𝑎𝑏−𝑐
𝑎𝑐
each surd as a multiple of exactly the
1
same surd. This can be done using a surd 𝑎−𝑏 =
identity. 𝑎𝑏
𝑎0 = 1
𝑐
(𝑎𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝑐
𝑎 𝑐 = √𝑎𝑏 = ( √𝑎)
𝑎𝑏 × 𝑐 𝑏 = (𝑎𝑐)𝑏

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B: Algebra and functions:
Quadratics (B3)
What is a quadratic expression? (B3) How to complete the square (B3)
a A quadratic expression is of the form
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
f Halving and squaring method
The form
where 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are constants and 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥
𝑎≠0 can be rewritten as
2 2
 k k
What is a quadratic equation? (B3) x    
b A quadratic equation is one that can be
rearranged into the form
 2 2

Equating coefficients method:

2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 Let 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑝)2 + 𝑞
Expand the RHS to give:
where 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are constants and 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑝𝑥 + 𝑎𝑝2 + 𝑞
𝑎≠0 Equate coefficients:
𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑝
What is a quadratic function? (B3) 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑝2 + 𝑞
c A quadratic function has the form
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Solve these equations simultanueously to
find 𝑝 and 𝑞.
or
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 Solving a quadratic equation (B3)
g All quadratic equations have two
solutions. However, some solutions may
where 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are constants and
𝑎≠0 not be real and some solutions may be
repeated. The three possibilities are:
Note: In all cases, other letters may be  2 distinct real solutions
used.  1 distinct real solutions
(2 equal repeated solutions)
What does completing the square  0 real solutions
d mean? (B3)
Writing a quadratic expression,
(2 complex solutions)

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, in the form There are 3 methods to find solutions of

quadratic equations:
𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑝)2 + 𝑞  Factorisation
e.g. (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 has
is called completing the square. solutions 𝑥 = −32 and 𝑥 = 2

 Completing the square

e.g. (𝑥 − 2)2 − 3 = 0 has solutions
Vertex and line of symmetry of a
e quadratic function 𝑥 = √3 + 2 and 𝑥 = −√3 + 2

If  The quadratic formula

2
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑝) + 𝑞 (You must memorise this).
The solutions of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 =
then the vertex of the curve is 0 are given by
(−𝑝, 𝑞) −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
and the line of symmetry is
𝑥 = −𝑝

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 The discriminant (B3)
h The discriminant of
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
is
𝑏 2 – 4𝑎𝑐.
The discriminant tells you information
about the solutions of the quadratic
equation:
 ≥ 0 - Real roots
 > 0 - Two distinct real roots
 = 0 - Two equal roots (one
repeated real roots)
 < 0 - No real roots
Factorising
i You need to be able to factorise a
quadratic for both the case where 𝑎 = 1
and the case where 𝑎 ≠ 1.
The standard method is to list the factors
of 𝑎 and the factors of 𝑐 separately and
to find a combination that ‘works’. Hints:
1. See if there are any constants
that will factor out to begin with.
2. See if 𝑥 is a factor.
3. Look out for prime numbers as
they only have one set of factors.
4. look at the signs to help you
decide what signs need to go in
the factorisation.
In the case where 𝑎 ≠ 1 you may find
the following method, sometimes called
decomposition, useful:
1. Find 𝑎𝑐.
2. Find factors of 𝑎𝑐 that sum to
give 𝑏. Call these factors 𝑝 and 𝑞.
3. Write the quadratic in the form:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑐
4. Factorise 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 and factorise
𝑞𝑥 + 𝑐.
5. Rewrite this result in double
brackets form.
Note: You may also be able to use a
calculator method to factorise.
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Difference of two squares (B3)
j A difference of two squares can be
quickly factorised
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦)
Sketching quadratic functions: (B3)
k When sketching a quadratic function
consider:
 Which way up the graph is (using a)
 𝑥 intercepts (set 𝑦 = 0; then use
factorisation)
 𝑦 intercept (set 𝑥 = 0)
 The vertex (using completed square
form)
 Axis of symmetry (always through
the vertex)
 (the discriminant to see how many
times it crosses the 𝑥-axis)
Translations of quadratics (B3)
l When considering a translation of a
quadratic, it is helpful to realise that the
vertex will translate by the same vector
as the whole graph.
How to translate a quadratic by a
certain vector:
1. Find the coordinates of the vertex of
the starting quadratic function (by
completing the square).
2. Determine the coordinates of the
vertex after the translation and use
this to write the translated quadratic
function in completed square form.
Retain the 𝑎 value. (You can then
convert to a different form
afterwards, if required).
How to determine a translation given a
‘before’ and ‘after’ quadratic function:
1. Find the vertex of the ‘before’
function (by completing the square)
2. Find the vertex of the ‘after’ function
(by completing the square)
3. Calculate the vector that will
translate the ‘before’ vertex to the
‘after’ vertex.
Note: This method assumes only a
translation has taken place.
B: Algebra and functions:
Simultaneous equations
(B4)
Solving simultaneous equations:
a Substitution (B4)
Always number your equations and
explain what you are doing.
For two unknowns:
1. Rearrange one of the equations to
express one unknown in terms of the
other.
2. Substitute this in the other equation.
3. Solve the resulting equation to find
one unknown.
4. Substitute back into one of the
original equations and solve to find
the other unknown.
This method can be extended to solve for
more than two unknowns.
[This is usually the preferred method if
one equation is linear and one is
quadratic. Rearrange the linear and
substitute into the quadratic.]
Solving simultaneous equations:
b Elimination (B4)
Always number your equations and
explain what you are doing.
For two unknowns:
1. Choose the terms you want to
eliminate and multiply/divide the
equations so that the coefficients of
these terms match in both equations.
2. Add/Subtract the new equations to
eliminate the terms.
3. Solve the resulting equation to find
one unknown.
4. Substitute back into one of the
original equations and solve to find
the other unknown.
This method can be extended to solve for
more than two unknowns.
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Solving simultaneous equations: Hints
c (B4)
 Before solving simultaneous
equations, look at the coefficients:
o If there are fractional or decimal
coefficients in any equation,
multiply all terms in the equation
by a suitable number so that all
coefficients are whole numbers.
o If there is a common factor in all
the coefficients of an equation, it
will usually be easier to divide
through by that factor before
proceeding.
 Always check the answer works in all
the original equations
 Always check the answer is possible
for the context.
Points of intersection (B4, B7)
d Suppose we have two graphs described
by
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
and
𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
and we eliminate 𝑦 from these to form a
function of the form:
ℎ(𝑥) = 0
 Solutions of this equation will
provide the points of intersection.
 If there is a solution that is repeated
(once) then 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 and
𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 touch at this solution
point.
 If one of 𝑓 or 𝑔 is a straight line and
ℎ(𝑥) is quadratic and the
discriminant of ℎ(𝑥) is zero, then the
straight line is a tangent of the other
function.
B: Algebra and functions:
Inequalities (B5)
Summary of operations on inequalities
a (B5)
You can…
 add/ subtract a number to both sides
of the inequality.
 multiply/ divide both sides by a
positive number.
 multiply/ divide both sides by a
negative number provided you
change the direction of the
inequality.
Do not apply any other operation to both
sides (such as square root). Instead,
follow the method in section c.
Critical values (B5)
b Change the inequality into an equation
and solve. The solutions are called critical
values.
How to solve an inequality (B5)
c Before starting, rearrange the inequality
if this will make it easier to solve.
1. Find the critical values
2. Draw a graph
3. Look at the graph and the inequality
sign to decide on the interval of
values of 𝑥 required to make the
inequality true.
Solving a quadratic inequality (B5)
d This is a specific case of solving an
inequality so you can use the guidance in
section c. It is nearly always easiest to
rearrange the inequality so that zero is
on one side before you carry out the
method.
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Special cases (B5)
e If 𝑎 > 0, then…
 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑎2 ⟺ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 or 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
Expressing solutions to inequalities (B5)
f Think carefully about how solutions are
represented. It is often easiest to do this
through set notation or with the correct
use of ‘and’ or ‘or’.
Graphically representing solutions to
g inequalities in one variable (B5)
The solutions to inequalities in one
variable can be represented on a number
line and using filled in or hollow circles as
appropriate.
𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
𝑎≤𝑥<𝑏
𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏
Graphically representing solutions to
h inequalities in two variables (B5)
Inequalities in two dimensions can be
represented graphically:
1. Put the inequality into the form
with 𝑦 on the left hand side and a
function of 𝑥 on the right hand side.
(in general this may not be possible,
but it will be for the questions you
are required to do).
2. Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
3. Look at the inequality and shade in
the relevant area.
B: Algebra and functions:
Polynomials 1 (B6)
Polynomial (B6) Adding and subtracting fractions (B6)
a A polynomial (of order n) in 𝑥 has the
form
e 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ = + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
− = − =
+ 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
Where n is a positive integer and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
Multiplying and dividing fractions (B6)
Example: A polynomial of order 4 in 𝑥 has f 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
× =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
the form: 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
𝑎4 𝑥 4 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ÷ = × =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐
Where 𝑛 is a positive integer and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
Cancelling fractions (B6)
Note: ‘Order of the polynomial’ and
‘degree of the polynomial’ mean the
g The only rule you need to remember for
cancelling fractions is: You can divide (or
same thing. multiply) the numerator and the
denominator of the fraction by the same
Types of polynomials (B6) expression.
b Linear: A polynomial of order 1
Quadratic: A polynomial of order 2 e.g. 1
Cubic: A polynomial of order 3 15𝑎 1
can be simplified to by dividing
Quartic: A polynomial of order 4 30𝑎𝑏 6𝑏
the numerator and denominator by 5𝑎.
Adding, subtracting and multiplying
c polynomials
You are expected to be able to add,
e.g. 2
(2+𝑎)(1+𝑏)
can be simplified to
1+𝑏
by
𝑐(2+𝑎) 𝑐
subtract and multiply two (or more) dividing the numerator and denominator
polynomials. Division will be covered in by (2 + 𝑎).
Polynomials 2.

Some useful expansions and

d factorisations (B6) Common misconceptions (B6)
Make sure you can do these. The ones
with * next to are worth memorising.
h 1
𝑎+𝑏
1 1
cannot be simplified to 𝑎 + 𝑏 (i.e. the
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 1 cannot be divided by the 𝑎 and 𝑏
separately).
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 𝑥+1
cannot be simplified to
𝑥 2 +2 2
(i.e.
(*) 2
the 𝑥 terms do not cancel).
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (*)
If you are not sure if you can do
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 (*)
something, see if it works with some
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 (*) numerical fractions.
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 cannot be factorised (*)
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

10
B: Algebra and functions:
Polynomials 2 (B6)
Factors and roots (B6) Division terminology (B6)
a A polynomial of degree 𝑛 will have 𝑛
roots and hence 𝑛 linear factors.
c Firstly consider a simple division
calculation.
However, not all the roots will necessarily 36 1
36  5   7   7 remainder 1
be real and some may be repeated. 5 5
Therefore, if we are limited to real
numbers we may not be able to fully 36 is the dividend;
factorise the polynomial into 𝑛 linear 5 is the divisor;
factors. 7 is the quotient;
1 is the remainder.
Note: A linear factor is an expression of
the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 that divides exactly into This can be written as
the polynomial. 36 = 7 𝑥 5 + 1

Note: A root is a value that makes the

polynomial equal to zero. The same terminology holds when
dividing a polynomial by another
Dividing a polynomial by another
b polynomial
This can be done using long division
polynomial:
( x 2  x  3)  ( x  1) 
x2  x  3
x 1
1
method or a grid method.  x2  ( x  2) remainder - 1
x 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 is the dividend;
x 1 is the divisor;
x  2 is the quotient;
-1 is the remainder.

This can be written as

(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) − 1

The remainder theorem (not examined)

d  When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎) the
remainder is 𝑓(𝑎)
 When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏) the
remainder is 𝑓(𝑏/𝑎)

One use of the remainder theorem is to

quickly find the remainder without the
need to carry out the long division

The factor theorem (B6)

e  𝑓(𝑎) = 0  (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑓(𝑏/𝑎) = 0  (𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏) is a factor
of 𝑓(𝑥)
One use of the factor theorem is to find
factors of a polynomial.

11
 Factorising a polynomial (using the
f factor theorem) (B6)
1. Before applying the factor theorem,
g As a starting point, here’s some things
check for any ‘obvious’ factors such
as a constant, 𝑥 or a multiple of 𝑥. If
there is, record it and divide through
by that factor.
2. Put the polynomial expression equal
to 𝑓(𝑥) so that the function notation
can be used.
3. Find one linear factor using the factor
theorem through a systematic search.
4. When one factor is found, record it,
divide the expression by that factor.
5. Repeat the process (or use quicker
methods when down to a quadratic)
to find all the factors.
6. Finally write the polynomial as the
product of all the factors you have
found.
Note: If 𝑎𝑛 = 1, all factors will be of the
form (𝑥 − 𝑎) where 𝑎 must be a factor of
𝑎0 .
h from its graph
12
Sketching polynomials
you could consider. You may also need to
draw on other methods if these don’t
provide you with sufficient information.
 Let 𝑥 = 0 in the polynomial to find
where it crosses the 𝑦-axis.
 A polynomial of order 𝑛 will cross the
𝑥-axis up to 𝑛 times.
 Let 𝑦 = 0 in the polynomial to find
where it crosses the 𝑥-axis. It is likely
that the polynomial will factorise
making it easier to find these 𝑥-
intercepts but be careful as not
factorable does not mean no 𝑥-
intercepts.
Note: A factor this is repeated an
even number of times tells us that
the graph will touch the 𝑥-axis (not
cross it) at the point related to that
factor.
 Consider what happens when you put
a large positive value of 𝑥 into the
polynomial and what happens when
you put a large negative value of 𝑥 in.
 A polynomial of order 𝑛 will have up
to 𝑛 − 1 stationary points. If it has
less than 𝑛 − 1 stationary points, at
least one of the stationary points is a
point of inflection.
Finding the equation of a polynomial
As a starting point, here’s some things
you could consider. You may also need to
draw on other methods if these don’t
provide you with sufficient information.
 If the polynomial can be written in
factorised from, you may be able to
ascertain the factorised form of the
equation.
Note: if the graph touches the 𝑥-axis
it must have a factor (related to that
point) repeated an even number of
times.
 There may also be a constant factor
that can be found by considering any
point on the graph. It is often easiest
to use the 𝑦-intercept for this.
 If there are 𝑛 stationary points, the
polynomial will be of at least order
𝑛 + 1.
Standard graphs (B7)
You need to be able to draw all the
following graphs from memory and be
able to apply transformations to them
to sketch more complicated graphs. Trigonometry graphs
f  𝑦 = sin 𝑥
Linear graphs  𝑦 = cos 𝑥
a  𝑦=𝑥  𝑦 = tan 𝑥
 𝑦 = −𝑥 Remember the asymptotes for the tan
 𝑦=𝑘 graph.
 𝑥=𝑘
Where 𝑘 is a constant.

Polynomial graphs
b  𝑦 = 𝑥2
 𝑦 = 𝑥3
 𝑦 = 𝑥4
Modulus graphs
c
Square root graph
 𝑦 = √𝑥
i  𝑦 = |𝑥|

Reciprocal graph
d  𝑦=𝑥
1

1
 𝑦=
𝑥2

13
B: Algebra and functions:
Functions (B8)
Function (OT1.4)
a A function consists of 2 parts:
 The rule – this tells you how values
of the function are calculated. The
rule must be such that it produces
only one output for every given
input.
 The domain – this tells you the set
of values to which the rule is
applied (i.e the set of input values)
A function could be written in a variety
of forms. For example, we can write any
of the following: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
or 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2
(We can also write f (3)  9 or
f : 3  9 to mean the function f maps
3 onto 9).
Range (OT1.4)
b The range of a function is the complete
set of possible output values. It is
important to realise that the range does
not just depend on the rule; it also
depends on the domain. For example,
the range of y  x with domain
2
𝑥 ∈ ℝ is different to the range of
y  x 2 with domain x  2 .
[A graph is often useful for determining
the range.]
14
One-one and Many-one functions
c All functions are either one-to-one or
many-to-one. Other rule/domain pairs
are not functions.
A one-to-one function is such that every
element of the range of the function
corresponds to exactly one element of
the domain.
E.g. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
A many-to-one function is such that
there is at least one element of the range
that corresponds to more than one
element of the domain.
E.g. y = x2 and y = sin x.
Only one-to-one functions have inverses.
Composite functions (B8)
d We can combine two functions together
to form a composite function. From two
functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), there are two
composite functions that can be formed
𝑓𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔𝑓(𝑥). These will usually be
different.
𝑓𝑔(𝑥) means apply 𝑔 first and then 𝑓.
𝑔𝑓(𝑥) means apply 𝑓 first and then 𝑔.
Note: 𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥) not [𝑓(𝑥)]2
We can apply many functions one after
another. For example:
𝑔ℎ𝑓 2 𝑔3 (𝑥) means apply 𝑔 then 𝑔 then 𝑔
then 𝑓 then 𝑓 then ℎ then g (in that
order).
We always work inside-out (from the
input).
Domain and range of composite
e functions
Given two functions, you need to be able
to find the domain and range of a
composite of these two functions.
 Inverse function (B8)
f A function that reverses, or ‘undoes’, the
effect of 𝑓 is its inverse and is denote by
h To find an inverse function:
𝑓 −1 .
Therefore, f 1 f ( x)  x
Note: 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 as well.
An inverse function exists for any one-
one function. If a function is many-one,
i  If A is [directly] proportional to B
then an inverse function does not exist.
The domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the range of the
function 𝑓(𝑥).
The range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the domain of
𝑓(𝑥).
Drawing an inverse function (B8)
g Using the same scale on the 𝑥- and 𝑦-
axes, the graphs of a function and its
inverse have reflection symmetry in the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
15
How to find an inverse function (B8)
1. Change the 𝑓(𝑥) to a 𝑦.
2. Replace the 𝑥s with 𝑦s and the 𝑦s
with 𝑥s.
3. Rearrange to make 𝑦 the subject.
4. Replace the 𝑦 with 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
Direct and inverse proportion (B7)
then we write 𝐴 ∝ 𝐵 which can be
turned into an equation 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵
where 𝑘 is called the constant of
proportionality. We say A and B are
in direct proportion.
 If A is inversely proportional to B
1
then we write 𝐴 ∝ 𝐵 which can be
𝑘
turned into an equation 𝐴 = where
𝐵
k is called the constant of
proportionality. We say A and B are
in inverse proportion.
Note: 𝐴 and 𝐵 could be any functions.
B: Algebra and functions:
The modulus function
The Modulus function Sketching 𝒚 = |𝒇(𝒙)|
a The modulus function is
𝑦 = |𝑥|
b 1. Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
2. Reflect any parts of the graph
with negative 𝑦-coordinates in
The modulus of 𝑥 can be thought of as the 𝑥-axis.
the distance 𝑥 is from zero/origin. (Remove the 𝑦 < 0 parts).

Examples: Sketching 𝒚 = 𝒇(|𝒙|)

|−5| = 5
|101| = 101
c 1. Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 > 0
2. Reflect this in the 𝑦-axis to sketch
the 𝑥 < 0 part.
For real scalars, the modulus of 𝑥 is the (Retain the 𝑥 > 0 part).
same as the absolute value of 𝑥. The
absolute value of 𝑥 is the numerical value Sketching other functions containing the
of 𝑥 without regard to its sign. d modulus function
If a function does not fit into either of the
For real scalars we can define the special categories 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)| or 𝑦 =
modulus of 𝑥 as: 𝑓(|𝑥|) consider transformations from
−𝑥 𝑥 < 0 𝑦 = |𝑥|.
|𝑥| = {
𝑥 𝑥≥0

𝑦 = |𝑥| is a standard graph you are

expected to sketch from memory.

16
B: Algebra and functions:
Transformations (B9)
Standard graphs (B7) Replacements for transformations in the
a Make sure you can draw all the graphs on
the ‘standard graphs’ sheet from memory
𝒚-direction

Replacement Transformation
Transformations (basics) (B9)
b Translation: This should be described 𝑦 with (𝑦 – 𝑏) 0
Translation  
  3  
b
using a vector e.g. Translation  
 2 
𝑦 with 𝑘𝑏 Stretch parallel to
means a translation 3 units to the left and
2 units up. the 𝑦-axis, scale
factor 𝑘1
Reflection: A reflection is described by
𝑦 with – 𝑦 Reflection in the x-
stating the line of reflection (usually as an
equation). Common reflections are the axis
‘reflection in the 𝑥-axis’ and the
‘reflection in the 𝑦 −axis’. When the function is in the form 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥), or can easily be rearranged to that
Stretch: A stretch is described by the form, the replacement method is often
direction it is stretched in and the scale not used for transformations in the 𝑦-
factor. Common stretches are the ‘stretch direction. Instead you can think logically
parallel to the 𝑥-axis’ and the ‘stretch about what is happening to the 𝑦-
parallel to the 𝑦-axis’. You must always coordinates:
give the direction and scale factor. 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) on to… Transformation
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏 0
[There are other transformations (enlargement, rotation, Translation ( )
shear, …) but these are not examinable.] 𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) Stretch parallel to
the 𝑦 −axis,
Transformations (B9) stretch scale
c Replacements for transformations in the
𝒙-direction 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥)
factor 𝑘.
Reflection in the
Replacement Transformation 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑥 with (𝑥 − 𝑎) a
Translation  
0  
𝑥 with 𝑘𝑥 Stretch parallel to
the 𝑥-axis, scale
1
factor 𝑘

𝑥 with – 𝑥 Reflection in the 𝑦-

axis

17
 Multiple transformations
d Several transformations can be applied in
turn. The order will be important if two
e We can often sketch a complicated
(or more) transformations are applied in
the same direction.
If you are applying multiple
transformations to a function, apply each
of the above rules in the correct order.
f examined)
If you are trying to work out what
transformations have been applied to get
from one function to another, determine
the order in which the rules above have
been applied.
18
Using transformations to sketch graphs
function by first sketching the basic
function it is based on and then applying
suitable transformations one after the
other until we have sketched the
complicated function.
Odd and even functions definitions (not
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)  even
An even function has a line of symmetry
in the 𝑦-axis.
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)  odd
An odd function has rotational symmetry
about the origin of order 2.
C: Coordinate geometry:
Straight line (C1)
Pythagoras’ Theorem The general point method (C1)
a (You must memorise this)
A triangle with lengths 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is a right
g (You must memorise this)
The general point method gives rise to:
angle triangle with 𝑐 as the hypotenuse ⟺
𝑐2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 The equation of a line through (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) with
gradient m is:
Length of a line segment (distance between 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
b 2 points) (C1)
The length of the line segment joining
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is Forms of equations of straight lines (C1)

( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2 h 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 Gradient, 𝑚;
𝑦-intercept, c
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 +
[using Pythagoras] 𝑐 = 0
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = Gradient, 𝑚;
𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) through point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
Midpoint of a line segment (C1) 𝑦 = 𝑘 Line parallel to 𝑥-axis
c The midpoint of a line segment joining
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is 𝑦 = 0
through (0, 𝑘)
The 𝑥-axis
 x1  x2 y1  y2 
 ,  𝑥 = 𝑘 Line parallel to 𝑦-axis
 2 2  through (𝑘, 0)
𝑥 = 0 The 𝑦 −axis

Gradient of a line (C1)

d Finding the point of intersection of two lines
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
i (C1)
The intersection of two graphs is the point(s)
=
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 that are common to both graphs. These
point(s) can be found by solving the
equations of the graphs simultaneously.
Parallel lines (C1)
e The lines 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2
are parallel if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2

Perpendicular lines (C1)

f (You must memorise this)
The lines 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2
are perpendicular if 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1

19
C: Coordinate geometry:
Circles (C2)
Circumference and area of circle The expanded form (C2)
a (You must memorise these)
Circumference and Area of circle, radius 𝑟
e The expanded equation for a circle
generally takes the form
and diameter 𝑑: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0, where
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑 𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑒 are numerical values.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
The best way to prove that an equation is
Properties of a circle (C2)
b  the angle in a semicircle is always a right
that of a circle is to complete the square for
each variable (𝑥 and 𝑦). This will also give
angle you the centre and radius of the circle.
 A perpendicular line drawn from the
centre to a chord always bisects the Note:
chord; a line that bisects a chord always For an equation to be that of a circle:
passes through the centre of the circle  The 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 terms must have the
 If a radius of a circle meets the circle at same coefficient and sign.
𝑃, the tangent to the circle at 𝑃 will be  There are not terms such as 𝑥𝑦.
at right angles to the radius.  The 𝑥 and 𝑦 terms and the constant
term (e above) may be absent (i.e.
Equation of a circle (C2)
c A circle with radius r and centre (0, 0) has
the equation
𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑒 can be zero)

A circle through 3 points

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2. f Given any three points not on the same
straight line, one, and only one, circle can
A circle with radius r and centre (𝑎, 𝑏) has be drawn to pass through the three points.
the equation
(𝑥 – 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 – 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 Methods:
 Use the fact that ‘a line that bisects a
This is sometimes called the ‘Cartesian chord always passes through the centre
equation’ of a circle. The parametric of the circle’ – so 2 perpendicular
equation of a circle is covered under bisectors of the 2 chords intersect at the
‘Parametric equations’. centre. Then find the centre. Look for
shortcuts such as either chord being
Translation (C2)
d The equation (𝑥 – 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 – 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 is
obtained from
horizontal or vertical
OR
 Substitute the three points into the
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 by replacing 𝑥 by (𝑥 – 𝑎)
general equation of the line to get three
and 𝑦 by (𝑦 – 𝑏)
simultaneous equations to solve to find
Therefore, the circle
the three unknowns (the center
(𝑥 – 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 – 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 is obtained
𝑎 coordinates and the radius). Only use
from 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 by a translation [ ] this method if you are sure there is not
𝑏
a more efficient method.

20
 Tangents and normals to a circle (C2) Geometrical interpretations (C2)
g To find the equation of the normal to a
circle at the point 𝑃:
h Substituting the equation of a line into the
equation for a circle results in a quadratic
Note that the equation of the normal is the equation (the solutions of which will
same as the equation of the radius. provide points of intersection). The number
Therefore, find the equation of the line of solutions of this equation is related to the
through the centre of the circle and the geometrical situation as follows:
point 𝑃. Two Discriminant Line
distinct >0 intersects
To find the equation of the tangent to a real circle in 2
circle at the point 𝑃: solutions places
Use the fact that the tangent at a point on A Discriminant Line is a
the circumference of a circle is repeated =0 tangent to
perpendicular to the radius of the circle solution circle
through that point. No real Discriminant Line fails to
1. Find the gradient of the radius. i.e the solutions <0 meet circle
gradient of the line joining the centre of
the circle to the point 𝑃.
2. Find the gradient of the tangent (𝑚) by
finding the ‘negative reciprocal’.
3. Use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) with 𝑥1 and 𝑦1
being the coordinates of 𝑃 to write the
equation of the tangent

21
D: Binomial expansion
(D1)
What is a binomial expansion? (D1) Note:
a A binomial is an expression containing
just two terms such as: 𝑎 + 𝑏
c 𝑛
( ) is exactly the same as 𝑛𝐶𝑟 and these
𝑟
can be used interchangeably.
If we expand something that looks like
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 we are doing a binomial Some useful nCr values to remember:
expansion. d 𝑛𝐶0 = 1
𝑛𝐶1 = 𝑛
Binomial theorem (D1)
b A special case is… (D1)
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏
1
𝑛
e n n
(1  x) n  1    x    x 2  ...  x n
+ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ 1  2
2
𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
+ ( ) 𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛
𝑟 Another special case… (D1)
Where ∈ ℤ+ .
(In formula booklet) f  n n
(1  ax) n  1   ax   a 2 x 2  ...  a n x n
1  2
𝒃𝒓
The general term involving given by:

𝑛
( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟
(In formula booklet)

𝑛
The ( ) values are called binomial
𝑟
coefficients. These can be found using
any of the following methods:
 Pascal’s triangle. Use the value in the
nth row and rth column (remember to
count from zero).
 The 𝑛𝐶𝑟 function on a calculator.
𝑛!
 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! (In formula booklet)

Note: 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 1

22
D: Sequences and series
(D2-6)
𝒏𝒕𝒉 term (D2) Increasing, decreasing, periodic (D2)
a The nth term of a sequence is written as e Increasing
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛)
e.g. 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1 for 3, 5, 7, 9, … 𝑢𝑚 > 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑚 > 𝑛
(specifically 𝑢𝑛+1 > 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑛)

 An arithmetic sequence is increasing if

Recurrence relation (D2) 𝑑 > 0.
b The recurrence relation of a sequence is
written as 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑛 ) Decreasing
𝑢𝑚 < 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑚 > 𝑛
To fully describe a sequence the first term (specifically 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑛)
must also be given
e.g. 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + 2, 𝑢1 = 3  An arithmetic sequence is decreasing
gives 3, 5, 7, 9, … if 𝑑 < 0.

Arithmetic sequence (progression) (D4)

c There is a constant difference between
terms of an arithmetic sequence.
Periodic
A periodic sequence is a sequence for
which the same terms are repeated over
and over:
In general, the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term is given by: 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑝 , 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑝 , …
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 The number 𝑝 of repeated terms is called
Where d is the common difference and a the period.
is the first term. (You must memorise this) We have:
𝑢𝑛+𝑝 = 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑛.
The recurrence relation is given by:
𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑑; 𝑢1 = 𝑎
Convergent, divergent
Note: An arithmetic sequence will never
converge (unless 𝑑 = 0).
f Convergent
A sequence is convergent if there is a limit
of the sequence
i.e. as 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑢𝑛 → 𝐿 for some value 𝐿.

1
e.g. 𝑢𝑛 = 2 𝑛 converges to zero.

 An arithmetic sequence will never

converge.

Divergent
A sequence is divergent if as 𝑛 → ∞,
𝑢𝑛 → ∞ or −∞.

 An arithmetic sequence is always

divergent.

23
 Oscillating (not examined) Sum of integers formula (not examined)
g “sequence goes up and down”
Some oscillating sequences converge and
j
some diverge.
Some oscillating sequences are periodic.

Examples:
 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 oscillates. It is also
periodic with period 2. Arithmetic series (D4)
 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛(−1)𝑛 oscillates. It is also
divergent.
l For an arithmetic progression:
(in formula booklet)
(−1)𝑛
 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛 oscillates. It is also 𝑛
convergent. 1
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑙)
2
𝑘=1
1
Finding the limit of a sequence. = 𝑛[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
h Let the recurrence relation be defined as
𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑛 )
2
Where 𝑎 is the first term, 𝑙 is the last term
and 𝑑 is the common difference.
Assuming the sequence converges:
Let 𝑋 = the limit of the sequence. Then as
𝑛 → ∞, 𝑢𝑛 → 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛+1 → 𝑋
Therefore we can find the limit of the
sequence by solving 𝑋 = 𝑓(𝑋) You need to be able to use sequences and
Sigma notation (D3)
n series in modelling (D6)
i 𝑛

∑ 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛
𝑟=1

∑ 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑢𝑎 + 𝑢𝑎+1 + 𝑢𝑎+2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑏
𝑟=𝑎

24
E: Trigonometry: Mostly
shape and space (E1-3)
Triangle facts Special angles – 30°, 45°, 60° (E3)
a  The largest angle of a triangle is e By labelling up the sides of these two
triangles you can find exact values of
opposite the longest side. The smallest
angle is opposite the shortest side the sine, cosine and tangent of 30°,
 There can only be one obtuse angle in a 45° and 60°.
triangle. If there is one it will be
opposite the longest side.
 The sum of the lengths of any two sides
of a triangle must exceed the length of
the third side.

You need to also be able to do this

Degrees process in radians.
b Degrees are a unit for measuring angles/
One degree is the angle subtended [at the
Unit circle definition of sine and cosine (E1,
centre of the circle] by an arc equal to one
360th of the circumference of a circle. f E3)
1 full turn = 360°
The ° symbol is used to denote degrees. (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
Always use this symbol after a degrees
measure to be clear.
θ

Radians
c Radians are a unit for measuring angles.
One radian is equal to the angle subtended
[at the centre of a circle] by an arc equal in
length ot the radius.
1 full turn = 2𝜋 radians. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑥 – 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
1 radian ≈ 57.3° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑦 – 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑦−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
There are symbols available to denote 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
radians but are generally not used. If no
unit is indicated, it’s radians. If you want to
be clear in your mathematics, write radians The sine rule (E1)
after a radian measure. e (You must memorise this)
For any triangle ABC
a b c
For a right angled triangle: (E1, E3)  
d sin 𝜃 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝
ℎ𝑦𝑝
sin A sin B sin C

𝑎𝑑𝑗 Be aware that sometimes there will be two

cos 𝜃 = solutions between 0 and 180 when solving
ℎ𝑦𝑝
𝑜𝑝𝑝 for an angle. Using information about the
tan 𝜃 = triangle, you may be able to eliminate one
𝑎𝑑𝑗
of them. If both angles are possible for the
triangle, we have the ambiguous case.

25
 The cosine rule (E1) Volume of a prism
g (You must memorise this)
For any triangle ABC:
j (You must memorise this)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚
a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Area of a triangle (E1) Arc length and area of sector

h (You must memorise this) k (You must memorise these)
For a circle of radius 𝑟, where an angle at
For any triangle ABC:
1 the centre of 𝜃 radians subtends an arc of
area  ab sin C length 𝑠 and encloses associated sector of
2
area 𝑎:
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
Area of a trapezium 1
𝑎 = 𝑟2𝜃
i (You must memorise this)
1
2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the lengths of the
parallel sides and ℎ is their perpendicular
separation.

26
E: Trigonometry: Identities
and approximations
(E2, 4, 5, 6, 8)
Tan identity (E5) You need to be able to construct proofs
a sin 𝜃
d involving trigonometric functions and
identities. (E8)
tan 𝜃 = cos 𝜃

(Follows from the definition of sine, cosine

and tangent)

Pyrthagorean Trigonometric identities

c (E5)
(You must memorise these)
sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1

27
E: Trigonometry: Summary
of the trig functions (E4)
You need to be able to draw all the 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙
following functions. c Domain:
𝜋
𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋 + (𝑛 ∈ ℤ)
𝑠𝒊𝒏 𝒙 2
a Domain:
𝑥∈ℝ
Range:
tan 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Asymptotes:
Range: 𝜋
−1 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (𝑛 ∈ ℤ)
2
Lines of symmetry: Lines of symmetry:
𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (𝑛 ∈ ℤ) There are no lines of symmetry but it does
2 have rotational symmetry of order 2 about
Period:
the points (𝑛𝜋, 0) (𝑛 ∈ ℤ)
2𝜋

𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Period:
b Domain:
𝑥∈ℝ
𝜋

You also need to be able write the

Range:
domain and range for 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙, 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 and
−1 ≤ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ≤ 1
Lines of symmetry: 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 in set notation.
𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 (𝑛 ∈ ℤ)
Period:
2𝜋

28
E: Trigonometry: Solving
equations (E5,6,8)
Inverses (E4, E7) Solving a trig inequality
a 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = sin−1 𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = cos −1 𝑦
d In order to solve a trig inequality follow the
usual steps for solving any (remotely
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑦 complicated) inequality. i.e. find critical
values and draw a graph.
Principal value.
b There are an infinite number of solutions to
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐 (for example) where c is a You need to be able to solve trigonometric
constant. However, sin−1 𝑐 will only yield
one solution and it is up to you to find the
e equations in a given interval, including
quadratic equations in sin, cos and tan and
other solutions. This one value is called the equations involving multiples of the
principal value. This is the solution your unknown angle. (E7)
calculator will give. The principal values are
within the following intervals: Hints:
 Use trigonometric identities to get the
  equation in terms of just one
  sin 1 x 
2 2 trigonometric function.
0  cos 1
x 
 Use a substitution to make the algebra
 1 
  tan x easier. If you do make a substitution,
2 2
remember to change the interval over
which you’re solving. Also, remember
Solving a simple trig equation to change back to the original variable
c Such as sin 𝑥 =
1
3
0 < 𝑥 < 360° when giving your final answers.
1. Find the principal value by finding  Make sure you give all the solutions in
1 the required interval.
sin−1 .
3
2. Draw a graph showing 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
1
You also need to be able to solve equations
and 𝑦 = 3 on the same axes for the involving reciprocal trig functions. The hints
interval given. above apply for those as well.
3. Using the periodicity and symmetry
of the trig graph in combination You need to be able to use trigonometric
with the principal value to find the
other solutions in the required
f functions to solve problems in context,
including problems involving vectors,
interval. kinematics and forces. (E9)

29
G: Differentiation:
Fundamentals (G1)
Gradient (G1)
a The gradient of a function at a point is
defined as the gradient of the tangent
to the curve of the function at that
point.
The gradient function (G1)
b The ‘derived function’ or ‘the
derivative’ or ‘the gradient function’ is
a functions that describes the gradient
at each point on a curve.
𝑑𝑦
The notation is often used for this.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Therefore, we say that is the
𝑑𝑥
gradient function.
The process of finding the derived
function is called differentiation.
Drawing the gradient function (G1)
c Given a drawing of a function, you can
𝑑𝑦
sketch the gradient function 𝑑𝑥 without
needing to know the equation of the
function. To do this it can be helpful to
follow this method:
1. Look at where the stationary points
are - the gradient is zero.
2. Look at where the curve is
increasing - the gradient is positive.
3. Look at where the curve is
decreasing - the gradient is
negative.
Lagrange’s notation (G1)
d [Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813)
born in Paris]
dy
When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) instead of writing
dx
we can write 𝑦 ′ or 𝑓 ′ instead (much
shorter).
30
First and second derivatives (G1)
e Let y  f (x)
The first derivative (the gradient
function) is written as
𝑑𝑦
or 𝑦 ′ or 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
The second derivative (the gradient of
the gradient function or the ‘rate of
change of the gradient’) is written as:
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
or 𝑦 ′′ or 𝑓′′(𝑥)
Another derivative notation (primarily
f used in mechanics)
𝑥̇ means the derivative of 𝑥 with
respect to 𝑡 (usually time).
𝑥̈ means the second derivative of 𝑥
with respect to 𝑡 (usually time).
Gradient of tangent as a limit (G1)
g The gradient of the tangent to a curve
at 𝑃 is the limit of the gradient of a
chord joining 𝑃 and 𝑄 as 𝑄 tends
towards 𝑃.
Differentiation from first principles
h (G1)
To find a derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) from first
principles, use the following formula:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
You need to be able to apply this
where 𝑓(𝑥) is:
 𝑥 𝑛 (where 𝑛 is a small integer)
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
 Derivative as a rate of change (G1)
i 𝑑𝑎
can be understood to be the rate at
𝑑𝑏
which 𝑎 changes with respect to 𝑏.

𝑑𝑎
If we find 𝑑𝑏 when 𝑏 = 𝑏1 , we have the
rate at which 𝑎 is changing with 𝑏 at
𝑏 = 𝑏1 . The rate of change is likely to
be different for different values of 𝑏.

31
G: Differentiation:
Applications of
differentiation (G1, 3)
Increasing and decreasing points (G3)
a f
 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) > 0 ⟺ f is increasing at
𝑥 = 𝑎.
 𝑓′(𝑎) < 0 ⟺ f is decreasing at
𝑥 = 𝑎.
Increasing and decreasing sections (G3)
b  A function 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing for
𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 ⟺ the gradient is
positive i.e. 𝑓’(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑎 <
𝑥 < 𝑏
 A function 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing for
𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 ⟺ gradient is negative
i.e. 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 for 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
g If two lines have gradients 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 then:
Finding stationary points (G3)
c 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 ⟺ 𝑓(𝑥) is stationary at 𝑥 =
𝑎
d
Convex and concave (G1)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) > 0 ⟺ is convex at a
h In order to find the equation of the tangent
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) < 0 ⟺ is concave at a
Classifying stationary points (G1, 3)
e We have two methods for classifying a
stationary point:
Method A
 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a local maximum point ⇔
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) < 0
 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a local minimum point ⇔
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) > 0
 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a point of inflection ⇔
i In order to find the equation of the normal
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) changes sign
at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Method B
The nature of a stationary point could
alternatively be determined by
considering the value of 𝑓(𝑥) or the
value of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) on either side of the
stationary point.
32
Maximum and minimum problems
(G3)
To tackle a problem it is helpful to
consider these steps:
1. Draw a diagram.
2. Choose letters to represent
unknown quantities.
3. Express the quantity to be
maximised/minimised in terms of
just one variable.
4. Differentiate and solve equal to
zero to find the max/min value.
5. Check the values give possible
answers to the problem.
Tangents and normal (G3)
 m1m2  1  the lines are
perpendicular
 m1  m2  the lines are parallel
How to find the equation of a tangent (G3)
to a curve at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ):
1. Find the gradient function by
differentiating the equation of the
curve, then substitute 𝑥1 in for 𝑥 to find
the gradient of the curve and hence the
tangent, m, at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
2. Finally substitute 𝑚, 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 into:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
[Unless the question says otherwise you can
leave the equation in this form.]
How to find the equation of a normal (G3)
to a curve at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ):
1. Find the gradient function by
differentiating the equation of the
curve, then substitute 𝑥1 in for x to find
the gradient of the curve and hence the
tangent, m, at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ).
2. Now the gradient of the normal is 𝑀 =
−1/𝑚.
3. Finally substitute 𝑀, 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 into:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑀(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
H: Integration (H1-6)
Finding the ‘original curve’ Indefinite and definite integrals (H3)
a Suppose there exists a function 𝑓(𝑥) which
we don’t know but we do know the derivative
e An indefinite integral does not have limits
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
𝑓’(𝑥).
and we obtain a function (including a constant
When we find 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑓′(𝑥) we are of integration).
integrating.
A definite integral has limits, and results in a
There is not a single solution for 𝑓(𝑥). There is value being obtained. It is calculated as
an infinite number of possibilities. We get a follows
b
family of solutions called a general solution b
which will contain an arbitrary constant called a f ( x)dx  F ( x)a  F (b)  F (a)
the constant of integration.
Understand and use integration as the limit
If we are given more information, such as a
point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) we can find the
f of a sum (H4)
The definite integral
constant of integration in order to attain a 𝑏
particular solution.
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
The integration sign
b Integration was not originally discovered as
the reverse of differentiation. It was
is defined as
𝑥=𝑏

lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥)𝛿𝑥
discovered as a process of summation 𝛿𝑥→0
𝑥=𝑎
(adding) together ever smaller and smaller
parts of an area under the curve. For this The fundamental theorem of calculus (H1)
reason we use the elongated S notation for
integration.
g The fundamental theorem of calculus links
integrals and derivatives together.

If we wish to write that we are integrating 2𝑥 The first fundamental theorem of calculus
(with respect to the variable 𝑥), we write states that, if 𝑓 is continuous on the interval
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then
𝑏
The 2𝑥 is called the integrand. The resulting ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
solution is called the integral.
𝑎
𝑑
where (𝐹(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Integrating 𝒙𝒏 (H2) 𝑑𝑥
c (You must memorise this)
x n 1
 x dx  n  1  c where n  1
n

Basic rules (H2)

d (You must memorise this)
{ f ( x)  g ( x)}dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
 kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx

33
 Finding the area between a curve and the 𝒙-
h axis
To find the area bounded by the 𝑥-axis, 𝑥 =
𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) calculate
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Note: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is negative for any part

between 𝑎 and 𝑏, the negative parts of the
function will contribute negative amounts to
the integral. Therefore, we will not obtain the
area we may be looking for.

We sometimes say that

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
gives us the signed area. However, we usually
want a ‘true’ area.

If the curve goes below the 𝑥-axis:

1. Split into intervals in which the graph is
completely above or completely below
the 𝑥 −axis
2. Calculate each integral
3. Add together the absolute value of each
answer you got in step 2.

Finding the area between two curves

i To find the area between two curves 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) calculate
𝑏
∫ (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥
𝑎

34
I: Numerical methods (I1-
4)
Finding lower and upper bounds for areas
under curves by approximating with
rectangles.

The trapezium rule (I3)

e The trapezium rule is a numerical method
for finding the area between a curve and
the 𝑥-axis by splitting it into a number of
trapezia.

Approximate area =
ℎ
× (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 2 × 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠)
2

where:
ℎ = width of strip
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = first ordinate
𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = last ordinate
others = all other ordinates

A version of this is in the formula booklet.

Note: ordinate is another name for the 𝑦-

coordinate

Improving estimates
f An estimate using the trapezium rule (or
other similar methods such as mid-ordinate
rule or the Simpson’s rule) can be improved
by using a larger number of narrower strips.

You need to be able to use numerical

g methods to solve problems in context. (I4)

35
J: Vectors (J1-5)
You need to be able to apply all the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑶𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑩
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
a following concepts in both two and
three dimensions (where possible). (J1)
h
What is a vector?
b A vector is a quantity that has both a
magnitude (size) and direction.
There are many ways to represent a
vector. They can be represented
graphically with an arrow with length
proportional to the magnitude pointing
in the correct direction. Using the diagram, we see:

Note: A scalar is a quantity with just a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑶𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑶
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
magnitude and no direction (although it ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑶𝑩 − 𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
may be signed)
Parallel vectors

c
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is the vector that takes us from i Given a real scalar, 𝑘, vectors 𝒂 and 𝑘𝒂
are parallel.
point 𝐴 to point 𝐵.

Position vector (J4) If vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 are parallel, you can

d For every point 𝑃 there is associated a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ where 𝑂 is the origin.
write 𝒃 = 𝑘𝒂 for some scalar 𝑘.
unique vector 𝑂𝑃
Component form of a vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the position
The vector 𝑂𝑃
vector of point 𝑃 and is sometimes
j The most common way to represent
vectors is in component form.
written as 𝒑. 𝑎
The vector [ ] represents a vector
𝑏
Position vectors always start at the ‘moving’ 𝑎 units in the 𝑥 −direction and
origin. 𝑏 units in the 𝑦-direction.
This notation can be extended to three
(or more) dimensions.
Free vector
e A free vector is not fixed to an origin (or
any other specific point) and can be
Under the ‘unit vector’ section, you will
also see that an alternative way to write
represented anywhere by an arrow of vectors in component form is with the 𝒊,
the correct magnitude and direction. 𝒋, 𝒌 notation.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑩𝑨
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎1 𝑘𝑎
f k 𝑎1
𝑘 [𝑎 ] = [ 1 ]
2
𝑏1
𝑘𝑎 2
𝑎1 ± 𝑏1
[𝑎 ] ± [ ] = [ ]
2 𝑏2 𝑎2 ± 𝑏2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪
g Geometrical interpretation of
l multiplying a vector by a scalars (J3)
Multiplying a vector by a positive
constant, 𝑘, is equivalent to stretching
the vector by scale factor 𝑘 in the
direction of the vector.

36
 Magnitude of a vector (J2) Converting from component form to
m The magnitude of a vector can be
thought of as the length of the vector
p magnitude/direction form (J2)
Given component form of a 2D vector
and can therefore be found by applying we can find the magnitude/direction
Pythagoras. form:
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
In two dimensions: 𝑦
𝑎1 tan 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
The magnitude of the vector 𝒂 = [𝑎 ] 𝑥
2
is |𝒂| = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 Rather than remembering these
formulae, we can draw a suitable
diagram and go from there.
In three dimensions:
𝑎1 Converting from magnitude/direction
The magnitude of the vector 𝒂 = [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3
q form to component form (J2)
Given the magnitude and direction of a
2 2 2
is |𝒂| = √𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 [2D] vector we can find the components
by solving the following equations:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | can be thought of as the
Note: |𝐴𝐵 𝑥
cos = 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
distance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵. 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑦
sin = 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Direction of a vector (J2) 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
n 𝑥
The direction of a [2D] vector (𝑦) is
Rather than remembering these
defined as the angle measured formulae, we can draw a suitable
anticlockwise from the positive 𝑥-axis. diagram and go from there.
You can use:

𝑦 Unit vectors
tan 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑥 r A vector with magnitude 1 is called a
unit vector.
This will have multiple solutions and a
diagram of the vector should be drawn 𝒊 is a unit vector parallel to the 𝑥-axis
to ascertain the solution you need. 𝒋 is a unit vector parallel to the 𝑦-axis
𝒌 is a unit vector parallel to the 𝑧-axis
Magnitude/direction form of a vector
o (J3)
Any 2D vector can be represented in
Using 𝒊, 𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒌 we can write a vector
𝑎𝑥
magnitude/direction form. [𝑎𝑦 ] as 𝑎𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑎𝑧 𝒌
Write 𝑎𝑧
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 =
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = To convert any vector into a unit vector,
divide it by the magnitude of that
vector.

Position vector to the midpoint

s If two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 have position
vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃, then the position
vector of the midpoint of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
given by
1
𝒎 = 2 (𝒂 + 𝒃)

37
 Parallelogram and Rhombus Specific vectors used in mechanics (J5)
t 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a parallelogram if and only if
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐷𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or 𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
u 𝒓 means ‘position vector’
𝒔 means ‘displacement vector’
𝐴𝐵
𝒗 means ‘velocity vector’
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rhombus if and only if it is a 𝒂 means ‘acceleration vector’
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝐶
parallelogram and |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

38
M: Probability (M1-3)
Notation Independent events (M1)
a A' means ‘not A’ d Events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent if
A  B means ‘A and B’ knowing that one has happened
A  B means ‘A or B or both’ makes no difference to the probability
of the other happening.
Key results
P( A' )  1  P( A) The following statements will be true
if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent:
P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)  P(𝐴|𝐵) = P(𝐴)
 P(𝐵|𝐴) = P(𝐵)
(This is in the formula book)
 P( A  B)  P( A) P( B)

Only one of the statements needs to

Sum of probabilities
be demonstrated to prove 𝐴 and 𝐵
If 𝑋 is any discrete random variable, are independent.
then
 P( X  x)  1

Random variables
b
Conditional probability (M2)
(This is in the formula book) e In probability and statistics, a random
variable is a variable whose value is
𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) is the probability of 𝐴
happening given that 𝐵 has happened. subject to variations due to chance.

𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) A discrete random variable (DRV) is a

𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = random variable that can take one of
𝑃(𝐵)
a set of a finite number of values.
Tree diagrams, Venn diagrams and
A continuous random variable (CRV)
two-way tables can be useful for
is one whose value is unknown and
representing probability (particularly
can take any value within a
conditional probability).
continuous interval.
Mutually exclusive events (M1)
c Two events are mutually exclusive if
You need to be able to model with
they cannot both occur at the same
time. f probability (See section N for the
models you need to be able to use),
including critiquing assumptions made
The following statements will be true
and the likely effect of more realistic
if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive:
assumptions. (M3)
 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0
 P ( A  B )  P ( A)  P ( B )

Only one of the statements needs to

be demonstrated to prove 𝐴 and 𝐵
are mutually exclusive.

39
N: Statistical
distributions (N1,3):
Discrete
What is a random variable?
a A random variable is a variable
whose possible values are numerical
outcomes of a random ‘experiment’.
What is a discrete random variable
(DRV)?
A discrete random variable may take
one of only a countable number
(finite or infinite) of distinct values,
with gaps essentially within the data,
e.g. number of pets owned by a
family chosen at random, or the
number of attempts taken to hit the
bulls-eye with a dart.
What is a continuous random
variable (CRV)?
A continuous random variable may
take one of an infinite number of
possible values, with no gaps within
the data. I.e. all values are possible
within a certain range. E.g. height of
a person chosen at random, the
number of minutes late a train
arrives at the station.
40
Distribution definition
b A probability distribution describes
the probabilities with which each
possible value occurs.
If we are working with a DRV, a
probability distribution can be
written in the form of a
table/equation/stick diagram
indicating the probabilities
associated with each possible value.
If we are working with a CRV, a
probability distribution can be
written in the form of the
equation/graph of the probability
density function.
For a discrete random variable, the
c sum of the probabilities of all
possible outcomes of an event is 1.
For a continuous random variable,
the area under the probability
density function is 1.
The Binomial distribution
d [This distribution only applies to
DRVs]
In the binomial probability model:
 A fixed number, 𝑛, of
independent trials are
carried out.
 Each trial has two possible
outcomes: success or failure.
 The probability p of a success
is the same for each trial
 𝑩(𝒏, 𝒑) notation The mean and variance of a
e If a random variable 𝑋 can be
modelled by a binomial distribution
i binomial distribution
(This is in the formula book)
with 𝑛 independent trials with a For a random variable with 𝐵(𝑛, 𝑝):
probability of success 𝑝, we write:  The mean,
  np
 The variance,
𝑋~B(𝑛, 𝑝)  2  npq  np(1  p)

We say, “𝑋 follows a binomial

Note: The standard deviation,
distribution with parameters 𝑛 and   npq  np(1  p)
𝑝”.
𝑃(𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 1 ′𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ′ )
𝑛 and 𝑝 are known as the
parameters of the model
j = 1 − 𝑃(𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 ′𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 ′ )

Probabilities in a binomial
f distribution
(This is in the formula book)
If 𝑋 denotes the number of
successes in 𝑛 trials, then the
probability distribution (i.e. the
probabilities of all the possible
outcomes, often written in a table)
of 𝑋 is given by
n
P( X  x)    p x q n  x
 x
These values can be calculated on a
calculator.

Note:
g (𝑝 + 𝑞)𝑛 = 1 since 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 1
A binomial expansion of (𝑝 + 𝑞)𝑛 =
1 gives a sum of the probabilities of
each of the possible outcomes of a
binomial problem.

A cumulative probability is the

h probability that a random variable is
less than or equal to a specified
value.

41
P: Quantities and units
in mechanics (and
modelling)
Fundamental quantities and units in Know the difference between
a the S.I. system: (P1) d distance and displacement:

length metres (m)  Distance refers to how much

ground an object has covered. It is
time seconds (s) a scalar quantity. It can only be
positive and will continually
mass Kilograms (kg) increase as the object moves.
 Displacement refers to how far
away from a reference point the
Derived quantities and units: (P1) object is (by a straight line
b measurement). Displacement is a
vector quantity.
velocity 𝑚𝑠 −1

acceleration 𝑚𝑠 −2
Know the difference between speed
force 𝑁 e and velocity:

weight 𝑁  Speed refers to how fast an object

moment 𝑁𝑚
Vector and scalar quantities
c  A vector quantity has both
magnitude and direction.
Examples: force, displacement,
velocity, acceleration, weight [and
momentum].
 A scalar quantity has magnitude.
Examples: length, distance, time,
mass, weight, speed, magnitude
of moment, [work and power].
f
is going with no reference to the
direction the object is travelling. It
is a scalar quantity.
 Velocity is a quantity referring to
both how fast an object is
travelling and the direction of
travel. It is a vector quantity. The
magnitude of the velocity is
speed.
Uniform
The term uniform is applied to a
quantity that can be assumed to not
change over the period of time we’re
interested in. (consider: uniform
speed, uniform velocity and uniform
acceleration).

The term uniform is also applied to a

quantity that can be assumed to not
change across an object.
(e.g. uniform mass)

42
 Modelling
g
Assumptions are made to create
models of real-life situations.

We often assume, for example, that

there is no air resistance, no wind and
the force due to gravity remains
consant.

Here are some words that are often

used to refer to assumptions made
about objects in mechanics models.

 Light – no mass
 Smooth – no friction
(rough means friction must be
considred)
 Inextensible – no stretch
 Uniform – properties remain the
same throughout
 Particle – regarded as a single
point (therefore no spin either)
 Rod – regarded as a one-
dimensional object, with length
only
 Rigid – no bending or streching
 Lamina – no depth (treated as 2
dimensional)
 Thin – no width (treated as 1
dimensional)

Usual specific modelling assumptions

h (R4)

Usually

 Strings will be modelled as light

and inextensible
 Pulleys will be modelled as light
and smooth
 Pegs will be modelled as smooth.

43
Q: Kinematics
Kinematics is the branch of
a mechanics concerned with the
motion of objects without reference
to the forces which cause the
motion.
Speed and direction of motion
d from a velocity vector.
Speed of motion
= magnitude of the velocity vector

Direction of motion relative to the

Key terms in kinematics (Q1)
b  Position
𝑥-direction can be calculated
from:
 Displacement
𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
 Distance travelled = tan−1 (
𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
)
 Velocity
 Speed
Note: Be careful when the 𝑦-
 Acceleration.
component is negative. Draw a
average speed, average velocity diagram. Read carefully where the
c direction is measured from in the
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 question (as it may not be relative
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 to the 𝑥-direction).

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Graphs for motion in a straight line.
e (Q2)
Note: average speed is a scalar
quantity and average velocity is a Displacement against time
vector quantity. The gradient is the velocity.
Note: The magnitude of the average
velocity is not the same as average Velocity against time
speed The gradient is the acceleration.
The area is the displacement.

suvat notation (Q3):

f
𝑠 = displacement
𝑢 = initial velocity
𝑣 = final velocity
𝑎 = acceleration (assumed constant)
𝑡 = time

44
 Formulae for motion in a straight Using calculus in kinematics for
g line with constant acceleration
(suvat) (Q3)
i motion in a straight line (Q4)
𝑑𝑟
𝑣=
(These are in the formula booklet) 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑟
1 𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
2 𝑟 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 where 𝑟 is the position of the
particle.
Note: You need to be able to derive
these formulae. Remember the constant of
integration when integrating. This
Note: You can use the first four suvat can often be found using some
equations in 2D by writing 𝑠, 𝑢, 𝑣 conditions given in the question.
and 𝑎 as vectors (see below).
Note: These equations extend to 2D
When using the suvat equations it by writing 𝑠, 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑎 as vectors.
can be easiest to write down a list as
follows, filling in all the information Gravity (Q5)
you know and indicating the
information you need to find. This
j The acceleration due to gravity is
denoted by the letter 𝑔.
will help you choose the correct
formula. 𝑔 is usually taken to be 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 (on
𝑠= earth). However, the value you
𝑢= should use for 𝑔 will be given in the
𝑣= question.
𝑎=
𝑡= When an object is falling freely under
gravity it has downwards
The suvat equations in linear form
h and vector form
acceleration of 𝑔 𝑚𝑠 −2

45
 Projectiles (Q5) Motion under gravity in a plane (2D
k Projectile questions are all about
using the suvat equations.
m Projectiles) (Q5)

For motion in a plane, consider the

Choose a direction to be positive and
choose where the origin (reference
point) will be. Be careful when
choosing your signs for the values in
suvat. Consider the direction of
motion and direction of acceleration
carefully.
Note: The only force acting is the
weight of the particle.
Assume the body is a point mass (i.e.
a particle) so we can ignore the
actual size of the object and spin; we
can also ignore air resistance and
assume that the acceleration of the
body to gravity is constant so that
the suvat equations apply to all
freefall problems.
problem in the horizontal and
vertical directions separately. You
can set up suvat equations in the
horizontal and vertical directions
separately and solve them
independently.
Projectile motion under our
modelling assumptions takes place in
a vertical plane in the shape of a
parabola.
𝑔 (the only acceleration acting on
the particle) only acts downwards so
it will only affect the vertical
component of the particle’s velocity.
(Acceleration in the horizontal
direction is zero so the horizontal
component of velocity is constant.)

Draw a diagram, choose a positive

direction, indicating any known
information such as initial velocity
and direction of acceleration due to
gravity.

Sample diagram for motion under

l gravity in a vertical line (1D
projectiles) (Q5)

g +ve

Note: The maximum height of the

particle will be when the vertical
component of the velocity (𝑣) is zero.

46
 Sample diagrams for motion in a
n plane (2D projectiles)
Projectile launched from ground
level with initial velocity 𝒖.
g +ve
u returns to the ground when the
Note: maximum height is when the
vertical component of velocity is zero
(it doesn’t matter what the
horizontal component is).
Projectile launched horizontally
with initial velocity 𝒖.
g +ve
47
Some key projectile facts
o  The horizontal and vertical
motion happen independently of
each other, but are linked by a
common 𝑡.
 At the highest point on the path,
the vertical component of the
velocity is zero.
 Assuming the projectile is
launched from level ground, it
vertical component of the
displacement is zero. This gives
time of flight and hence the
range.
 The speed of the projectile is
calculated from the horizontal
and vertical components of the
velocity, as is the direction of
motion, at any point on the path.
R: Forces and Newton’s
laws (dynamics)
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics
a concerned with the motion of bodies
under the action of forces.

(In many questions we will combine

consideration of forces with
kinematics)

Force (R1)
b A force is a push or pull upon an
object resulting from the object's
interaction with another object.

Force is a vector quantity. A force can

be represented by an arrow in the
direction of the force whose length
shows the magnitude of the force.

The SI unit of force is the Newton

(𝑁). 1 Newton is the force required
to accelerate a one kg mass at one
metre per second per second.

48
 Types of force Force diagrams
e  Tension: When a pull force is f ALWAYS DRAW A FORCE DIAGRAM
applied to a string or rod the Some common ones are shown
string/rod exerts a force in the below (but bear in mind that each
opposite direction. If the problem will have its own intricacies).
string/rod is inextensible, the
tension force will be equal in
magnitude to the pull force Sometimes, it is important to
applied. consider whether a force diagram is
required for individual particles or for
 Thrust (or compression): When a the whole system (or for both).
push force is applied to a rod, the
rod exerts a force in the opposite
Sample diagram for object on a
direction. If the rod is
inextensible, the thrust will be g horizontal surface being pulled
equal in magnitude to the push
force applied. +ve R
P
 Weight: Weight (𝑊) is the force
acting on an object due to g F 𝜃
gravity. Weight always acts
directly downwards. The
acceleration due to gravity is
represented by g. Therefore, by W
Newton’s second law, the weight
acting on a mass of m kg is 𝑚𝑔.
Sample diagram for object on a
i.e. 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 h slope

e.g. The force acting on a 10 kg +ve R P

mass due to gravity is 10g N (or
approximately 98 N).
𝜃
 Normal reaction: The force g
F
exerted by a surface on an object
in contact with it which prevents 𝛼
the object from passing through
the surface; the force is W
perpendicular to the surface.

 Friction: The force that resists

sliding (or rolling) of one solid
object over another. Friction
always acts opposite to the
direction of motion or potential
motion. Friction will always be
parallel to the surface.

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 Sample diagram for object held by Sample diagrams for person in a lift
i two strings j
Force diagram for the whole system:
+ve

T
g
𝑇1 𝑇2
+ve
W
g a

𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

Force diagram for the person:

𝑅𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

g a +ve

𝑊𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

Force diagram for the lift :

+ve

𝑅𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛
g a

𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡

50
 Sample diagrams for car pulling a Sample diagram for peg/pulley over
k trailer m a corner
a
Force diagram for the whole system: 𝑅𝐴
T
Total reaction g
Total 𝑊𝐴
resistance

Driving
force T
a
Total
weight 𝑊𝐵
Force diagram for the car:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑟
Driving
force Resultant forces (R5)
T
n A resultant force on an object is a
single force that has exactly the same
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑐𝑎𝑟 effect as all the forces acting on the
object combined.

Equilibrium (R5)
Force diagram for the trailer:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟
o An object is in equilibrium if the
resultant force on the object is zero.

Newton’s first law (R1)

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟
T
p Newton's First Law states that an
object will remain at rest or in
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external
force.

Sample diagram for peg/pulley

l

g
T
a
T +ve
+ve a 𝑊𝐵
𝑊𝐴

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 Newton’s second law [for motion in
q a straight line] (R2)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
When an object undergoes
acceleration, the force needed to
produce it is in the direction of the
acceleration, and is proportional both
to the acceleration and to the mass
of the object.
Connected particles (R4)
s If particles are connected by a light,
inextensible, taut connection and the
particles are moving in the same
straight line, they can be considered
as moving as one particle with the
same acceleration.
Connected particles can also
(regardless of how they are
connected) be modelled individually.

Pegs and pulleys (R4)

It is important to realise that 𝐹 is the
resultant force acting on the body.
t “Particles connected by a string
which passes over a peg or pulley will
move with the same magnitude of
Newton’s second law can be written acceleration as each other (as long as
as the string is inextensible). However,
𝑑𝑣 the two connected particles cannot
𝐹=𝑚 be treated as one because they will
𝑑𝑡
be moving in different directions.
which can be solved [to find v].
If the peg is smooth, then the
Newton’s second law and constant magnitude of the tension in the
string connecting the particles will be
velocity
the same either side of the peg or
If an object is moving with constant pulley.”
velocity, then its acceleration is zero.
So the resultant force on the object is
zero.

Newton’s second law and gravity

From 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 we have the familiar
result that 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 where 𝑚 is the
mass of the object in kg, 𝑔 is the
acceleration due to gravity in 𝑚𝑠 −2
and 𝑊 is the weight of the object.

Newton’s third law (R4)

r When one body exerts a force on a
second body, the second body
simultaneously exerts a force equal
in magnitude and opposite in
direction on the first body.

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