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Behaviour of Soft Soil Improved with Vertical Drain
Accelerated Preloading Incorporating Visco-Plastic

Deformation
A thesis in fulfilment of the requirement

for the award of the degree
Doctor of Philosophy
from
University of Technology, Sydney

by
Babak Azari, BSc Eng, MSc Eng
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
May 2015
CERTIFICATION
I, Babak Azari, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, is wholly my own work unless
otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for
qualification at any other academic institution.
Babak Azari
May 2015
I
I would like to dedicate my
thesis to my beloved parents
II
ABSTRACT
Creep also known as time dependant viscous behaviour of soil is a

significant part of the soft soil settlement, which may cause substantial deformation
in the long-term. Post-construction settlement of soft soils can be significant
throughout the life time of the structure. Consequently, to minimise the post-
construction deformation and improve the bearing capacity and the shear strength of
the soft soil deposits, preloading combined with vertical drains is frequently used as
a ground improvement technique.
Soil disturbance induced by the installation of vertical drains results in
reducing the horizontal soil permeability and the shear strength in the disturbed zone.
Thus, the soil disturbance contributes to the reduced hydraulic conductivity and
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of the soil in the vicinity of drains, influencing soil
deformation. Based on the available literature, there is a lack of understanding with
respect to the combined effects of the overconsolidation ratio and the hydraulic
conductivity profiles in disturbed zone and the nonlinear visco-plastic behaviour of
soft soils. These combined effects influence the creep parameters and the settlement
rate and accordingly deformation of soft soils improved using vertical drains assisted
preloading.
In this research, the elastic visco-plastic model has been incorporated in the
consolidation equation to investigate the effects of soil disturbance induced by the
installation of vertical drains on the long term performance of soft soil deposits. The
elastic visco-plastic model consists of a nonlinear creep function with a creep strain
limit. The applied elastic visco-plastic model is based on the framework of the
modified Cam-Clay model, capturing the soil creep during the excess pore water
pressure dissipation. Finite difference formulations for fully coupled one dimensional
axisymmetric consolidation have been adopted to model the time dependent
behaviour of the soft soil, combining both vertical and radial drainage. Crank-
Nicholson scheme is applied in formulating the finite difference procedure, since this
scheme uses two steps in partial differentials of pore water pressure over distance,
stabilising the process quicker.
III
An array of laboratory tests were carried out using Oedometer and small and
large Rowe cells apparatus to verify the developed numerical code for the
axisymmetric solution. The Oedometer tests were conducted to choose the soil
mixtures for disturbed and intact zones. Two sets of small Rowe cell tests were
carried out on selected soil mixes to obtain the elastic visco-plastic model
parameters. A large Rowe cell was used to carry out the vertical drain assisted
consolidation tests by installing a vertical drain in the centre of the cell. To simulate
the disturbed zone for the area surrounding the vertical drain, a different mix with
reduced permeability was used. A compacted sand column covered with flexible
porous geotextile was installed in the centre to simulate the vertical drain. The cell is
fully instrumented and consists of a vertical displacement gauge at the surface level
and nine pore water pressure transducers on the sides and at the base of the cell.
Comparison of laboratory measurements and numerical predictions shows that the
proposed finite difference procedure incorporating the elastic visco-plastic soil
behaviour is appropriate for the consolidation analysis of preloading with vertical
drains.
Two case studies of vertical drains assisted preloading were numerically
simulated to investigate the effects of soil disturbance caused by the installation of
vertical drains. Different variations of the overconsolidation ratio and hydraulic
conductivity in the disturbed zone in combination with time dependant behaviour of
soft soils were considered. Different OCR and initial hydraulic conductivity profiles
in the disturbed and transition zones result in various visco-plastic strain rates and
creep strain limits. Consequently, the induced changes in visco-plastic strain rate and
creep strain limit influence the settlement rate at any given time. Therefore, the
selection of OCR and initial hydraulic conductivity profile in the disturbed zone has
a significant effect on selecting unloading time and therefore the post construction
settlement. It was observed that the creep coefficient and the creep strain limit vary
during loading and unloading and also during excess pore water pressure dissipation.
The creep coefficient and the creep strain limit are functions of the vertical effective
stress and time. The proposed solution can readily be used by practicing engineers
considering layered soil deposits, time dependent loading and unloading, while
incorporating combined effects of soil disturbance and visco-plastic behaviour.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the joys of completion is to look over the journey past and remember all the
friends and family who have helped and supported me along this long but fulfilling
road.
First of all, I pay homage to my principal supervisor, Dr. Behzad Fatahi, for all the
support and encouragement he gave me throughout my research. Under his guidance,
I successfully overcame many difficulties and learned a lot.
I would like to say thank you to my co-supervisor, A/Prof. Hadi Khabbaz, for his
valuable suggestions and concise comments on my research. He was abundantly
helpful and offered invaluable assistance, support and guidance.
I gratefully acknowledge the funding received towards my PhD from Australian

Research Council and Menard-Bachy Pty Ltd which made my research possible.
Special thanks to Ali Parsa-Pajouh (former PhD candidate at UTS) for his
collaboration and kind assistance during the experimental phase of the project. Ali
and I conducted the experimental part of this research together to be used in our
theses.
My appreciation is likewise extended to UTS laboratory and workshop staff in

particular Antonio Reyno as well as the former PhD student Thu Minh Le for their
invaluable assistance and contribution in carrying out the laboratory tests.
My gratitude also goes to my friends and fellow students at the University of

Technology, Sydney, particularly, Masoud Ameri, Ali Parsa-pajouh, Pascal
Linossier, Lucia Moretti, Amir Zad, Hamed Rezapour, Reza Afshar Mazandaran and
Hamed Mahdavi for keeping the student life more enjoyable and pleasant.
I would not have contemplated this road if not for my parents who helped me at
every stage of my personal and academic life, and longed to see this achievement
come true. A big thank you to my parents. My Sisters have also been the best of
friends along this journey.
V
PUBLICATIONS
Azari, B., Fatahi, B., and Khabbaz, H. (2015). “Numerical analysis of vertical drains
accelerated consolidation considering combined soil disturbance and visco-plastic
behaviour.” Geomechanics and Engineering, An International Journal 8(2), pp. 187-
220.
Azari, B., Fatahi, B., and Khabbaz, H. (2014). “Assessment of the Elastic-
Viscoplastic Behavior of Soft Soils Improved with Vertical Drains Capturing
Reduced Shear Strength of a Disturbed Zone.” International Journal of
Geomechanics, in-press (DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000448).
Azari, B., Fatahi, B., Khabbaz, H., and Vincent, P. (2014). Elastic Visco-Plastic
Behaviour of Soft Soils Improved with Preloading and Vertical Drains. GeoHubei
International Conference 2014, Hubei, China, 20-22 July, pp. 17-24 (DOI:
10.1061/9780784478547.003).
Azari, B., Fatahi, B., and Khabbaz, H. (2013). Long-term Viscoplastic Behaviour of
Embankments Built on Improved Soft Soil Using Vertical Drains. In Geo-Congress
2013-Stability and Performance of Slopes and Embankments III, ASCE, San Diego,
California, 3-6 March 2013, pp. 2117-2125.
Azari, B., Fatahi, B., and Khabbaz, H. (2011). Application of Creep Ratio Concept or
Estimating Post-Construction Settlement of Deep Soft Clay Deposits. International
Conference on Advances in Geotechnical Engineering, Perth, Australia, 7-9
November 2011, pp. 127 – 134.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................V
PUBLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................... VI
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................X
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... XVI
LIST OF SYMBOLS......................................................................................................................XVII
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 CLAY COMPRESSION............................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Preloading and vertical drains ......................................................................... 3

1.3 HYPOTHESES TO ESTIMATE SOIL CREEP .................................................................. 5
1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY ................................................... 6

1.5 ORGANISATION OF DISSERTATION .......................................................................... 7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 9
2.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 9

2.2 MECHANISMS OF CREEP DEFORMATION ............................................................... 11
2.2.1 The breakdown of interparticle bonds ........................................................... 11
2.2.2 Jumping bonds ............................................................................................... 12
2.2.3 Sliding between particles ............................................................................... 12
2.2.4 Double porosity ............................................................................................. 12
2.2.5 Structural viscosity ........................................................................................ 13
2.3 HYPOTHESIS A..................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Creep ratio concept ........................................................................................ 14
2.3.1.1 Primary consolidation ......................................................................................... 14
2.3.1.2 Secondary compression ...................................................................................... 16
2.3.1.3 Deformation prediction of clays .......................................................................... 17
2.3.1.4 Reduction of secondary compression using surcharge ....................................... 25
2.4 HYPOTHESIS B ..................................................................................................... 34
2.4.1 Empirical models ........................................................................................... 35
2.4.1.1 Taylor and Merchant’s model ............................................................................. 35
2.4.1.2 Suklje’s model ..................................................................................................... 38
VII
2.4.1.3 Bjerrum’s model .................................................................................................. 39
2.4.1.4 Garlanger’s model ............................................................................................... 42
2.4.1.5 Kabbaj’s model .................................................................................................... 45
2.4.1.6 Yin’s model .......................................................................................................... 47
2.4.2 Rheological models ....................................................................................... 48
2.4.2.1 Gibson and Lo’s model ........................................................................................ 49
2.4.2.2 Wahls’ model....................................................................................................... 50
2.4.2.3 Barden’s model ................................................................................................... 51
2.4.2.4 Aboshi’s model .................................................................................................... 53
2.4.2.5 Rajot’s model....................................................................................................... 54
2.4.3 General stress-strain-time models ................................................................. 56
2.4.3.1 Overstress theory ................................................................................................ 56
2.4.3.2 Non-stationary flow surface theory .................................................................... 58
2.5 PRELOADING WITH VERTICAL DRAINS ................................................................. 61
2.5.1 Vertical drains assisted preloading ................................................................ 61
2.5.2 Vacuum preloading with membrane .............................................................. 64
2.5.3 Membraneless vacuum preloading ................................................................ 65
2.6 SOIL DISTURBANCE INDUCED WHILE INSTALLING VERTICAL DRAINS ................... 66
2.7 ANALYTICAL FORMULATION FOR VERTICAL DRAIN ASSISTED PRELOADING ........ 68
2.8 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF VERTICAL DRAIN ASSISTED PRELOADING ............... 79
2.9 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 83
3 FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR 2D AXISYMMETRIC CONSOLIDATION

EQUATION CONSIDERING NONLINEAR ELASTIC VISCO-PLASTIC MODEL ...... 86
3.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 86

3.2 NONLINEAR ELASTIC VISCO-PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS ................................. 87
3.3 FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR AXISYMMETRIC CONSOLIDATION EQUATION . 92
3.3.1 Solution to general parabolic differential equations ...................................... 92
3.3.2 Axisymmetric consolidation equations.......................................................... 97
3.4 DEVELOPING A CODE INCORPORATING CREEP MODEL .......................... 102
3.5 CAPABILITIES OF THE DEVELOPED FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION ..................... 104
3.6 SUMMERY .......................................................................................................... 105
4 LABORATORY EXPERIMANTS AND VERIFICATION OF THE NUMERICAL

SOLUTION .............................................................................................................................. 106
4.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................... 106

4.2 TESTING APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ................................... 107
4.2.1 Large Rowe Cell Apparatus ........................................................................ 107
4.2.2 Material Properties ...................................................................................... 112
4.2.2.1 Soil samples ....................................................................................................... 112
4.2.2.2 Consolidation tests on reconstituted samples .................................................. 114
VIII
4.2.2.1 Small Rowe cell tests on reconstituted samples ............................................... 119
4.2.3 Preparation of large Rowe cell and initial sample ....................................... 137
4.3 PRE-CONSOLIDATION PROCESS AND PREPARATION OF THE FINAL SAMPLE W ..... 139
4.3.1 Initial drainage and de-airing of the Rowe cell system................................ 142
4.3.2 Vertical drain assisted consolidation test procedure .................................... 144
4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 145
4.5 SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 164
5 EFFECTS OF SOIL DISTURBANCE DUE TO PVD INSTALLATION ON LONG TERM

GROUND BEHAVIOUR ........................................................................................................ 166
5.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................... 166

5.2 VÄSBY TEST FILL CASE STUDY ................................................................ 167
5.2.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................. 174
5.3 SKÅ-EDEBY TEST FILL CASE STUDY ....................................................... 184
5.3.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................. 194
5.4 SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 204
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS ................................................................. 207
6.1 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 207

6.2 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................... 208
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................... 212
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 214
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................... 229
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2. Typical cross section of vertical drain assisted preloading .................................................. 4
Figure 2.1. Effect of sample thickness on the amount of primary consolidation for normally
consolidated clay (after Jamiolkowski et al. 1985) ............................................................. 10
Figure 2.2. Definition of , and Ԣ (after Mesri et al. 1994) ........................................................ 15
Figure 2.3. Consolidation stages due to one load increment ................................................................ 16
Figure 2.4. Pore water pressure versus time ......................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.5. Dynamic viscosity of water at 1atm as a function of temperature ..................................... 19
Figure 2.6. Coefficient of secondary compression versus consolidation pressure at different
temperatures for remoulded organic Paulding (after Mesri 1973) ...................................... 20
Figure 2.7. Variation of the secondary compression index with the consolidation pressure for
undisturbed Mexico City clay (after Mesri et al. 1975)....................................................... 21
Figure 2.8. Compression index versus consolidation pressure for undisturbed Mexico City clay (after
Mesri et al. 1975) ................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2.9. (a) Void ratio versus time; (b) void ratio versus effective vertical stress (after Mesri and
Castro 1987) ........................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 2.10. Total and effective surcharge ratios definition (after Feng 1991) .................................... 26
Figure 2.11. Ԣ values in terms of and , for Ԣ ൏ Ԣ (after Feng 1991) ....................... 27
Figure 2.12. Elapsed times definition used to estimate post-surcharge secondary compression (after
Feng 1991) .......................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2.13. Post-surcharge secondary compression index in terms of ȽԢԢȽ (after Mesri et al. 1994)
............................................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 2.14. Ideal model of surcharging to reduce secondary compression (after Mesri et al. 1994) .. 32
Figure 2.15. Relationship between void ratio and vertical effective stress throughout the consolidation
process (after Taylor and Merchant 1940) .......................................................................... 38
Figure 2.16. Effect of sustained loading on results of oedometer tests (aging effect) (after Bjerrum
1967) ................................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 2.17. Definition of instant and delayed compression compared with primary consolidation and
secondary compression (after Bjerrum 1967) ..................................................................... 42
Figure 2.18. Creep oedometer tests in Batiscan Clay (after Leroueil et al. 1985) ................................ 48
Figure 2.19. Rheological models proposed by Barden: (a) Barden’s proposed non-linear model, and
(b) model solved by Barden (after Barden 1965) (Note: N and L stand for non-linear and
linear, respectively) ............................................................................................................. 52
Figure 2.20. Effect of drainage path on experimental compression curves (after Aboshi 1973) ......... 54
Figure 2.21. Rajot’s Rheological mechanical model (after Perrone 1998) .......................................... 56
Figure 2.22. Perzyna’s (1963) viscoplastic theory (after Perrone 1998) .............................................. 58
Figure 2.23. Olszak and Perzyna (1966) viscoplastic theory (after Perrone 1998) .............................. 59
Figure 2.24. Schematic diagram of embankment ................................................................................. 62
X
Figure 2.25. Vertical drain installation patterns; (a) square pattern, (b) triangular pattern .................. 64
Figure 2.26. Cross section of the disturbed zone surrounding a vertical drain, (a) two zones
hypothesis, (b) three zones hypothesis ................................................................................ 68
Figure 3.1. Schematic fitting curves for instant, reference, equivalent and limit time lines ................ 88
Figure 3.2. One dimensional rod of length L ....................................................................................... 92
Figure 3.3. Region and the mesh points (after Kharab and Guenther 2012) ..................................... 93
Figure 3.4. Schematic form of the Forward-difference method (after Kharab and Guenther 2012) .... 94
Figure 3.5. Schematic form of the Crank-Nicolson method (after Kharab and Guenther 2012) .......... 96
Figure 3.6. Schematic 3D-axisymetric consolidation ........................................................................... 97
Figure 3.7. (a) Location of finite difference nodes at any given time; (b) time steps ......................... 101
Figure 3.8. Boundary conditions for (a) soil layer surrounded by two permeable layers (drains) at the
top and bottom; (b) soil layer surrounded by impervious layer at the bottom and highly
permeable layer (drainage blanket) at the top ................................................................... 101
Figure 3.9. Flowchart of the developed MATLAB code ................................................................... 103
Figure 4.1. Large scale Rowe cell apparatus (a) schematic diagram of the cell and (b) locations of the
pore pressure transducers at the base of the cell ................................................................ 108
Figure 4.2. A photographic view of the GDS pressure/volume controller device .............................. 109
Figure 4.3. Infinite volume controller instrument .............................................................................. 109
Figure 4.4. Schematic diagram of Rowe cell set-up ........................................................................... 110
Figure 4.5. Established setup in the laboratory (large Rowe cell) ...................................................... 111
Figure 4.6. Grain size distribution curve for vertical drain sand ........................................................ 113
Figure 4.7. Pre-consolidation process prior to the oedometer test; (a) cylinder contacting reconstituted
sample and (b) samples under pre-consolidation pressure ................................................ 115
Figure 4.8. Preparing the samples for the oedometer test, (a) placing the oedometer ring, (b) cutting
the extra top part, (c) cutting the extra bottom part, and (d) the final sample ................... 116
Figure 4.9. Consolidation test, (a) placing the prepared sample and (b) oedometer apparatus connected
to the data logger ............................................................................................................... 116
Figure 4.10. Variation of permeability against void ratio (sample S1) .............................................. 117
Figure 4.13. Schematic diagram of the small Rowe cell apparatus .................................................... 119
Figure 4.14. Testing procedure, (a) filling the Rowe cell with soil sample and levelling the surface of
sample, (b) placing the porous plate on top of the sample, (c) fixing the top cap, and (d)
Applying a pressure to ensure full saturation .................................................................... 120
Figure 4.15. Established setup in the laboratory (small Rowe cell) ................................................... 121
Figure 4.16. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (loading) .................................... 122
Figure 4.17. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S1 (loading) ........... 123
Figure 4.18. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (unloading) ................................ 123
Figure 4.19. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S1 (unloading) ....... 124
Figure 4.20. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (reloading) ................................. 124
XI
Figure 4.21. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S1 (reloading) ........ 125
Figure 4.22. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (loading) .................................... 125
Figure 4.23. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S3 (loading) ........... 126
Figure 4.24. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (unloading) ................................ 126
Figure 4.25. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S3 (unloading) ....... 127
Figure 4.26. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (reloading) ................................. 127
Figure 4.27. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S3 (reloading) ........ 128
Figure 4.28. Variation of void ratio versus effective vertical stress (Sample S1) .............................. 129
Figure 4.29. Variation of void ratio versus effective vertical stress (Sample S3) .............................. 129
Figure 4.30. Comparison between predicted numerical creep strain and laboratory measurements at
800 kPa (sample S1) .......................................................................................................... 131
Figure 4.31. Comparison between predicted numerical creep strain and laboratory measurements at
800 kPa (sample S3) .......................................................................................................... 132
Figure 4.32. Changes of ɗͲ versus vertical effective stress for reconstituted sample S1 ................ 132
Figure 4.33. Changes of ɗͲ versus vertical effective stress for reconstituted sample S3 ................ 133
Figure 4.34. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for reconstituted sample S1 ............ 133
Figure 4.35. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for reconstituted sample S3 ............ 134
Figure 4.38. Comparison between predicted numerical settlements and laboratory measurements for
small Rowe cell (sample S1) ............................................................................................. 136
Figure 4.39. Comparison between predicted numerical settlements and laboratory measurements for
small Rowe cell (sample S3) ............................................................................................. 136
Figure 4.40. Placing of PVC and brass pipes as the reduced permeability zone boundary and the
vertical drain border, (a) top view, (b) side view and (c) a typical cross section of the Rowe
cell ..................................................................................................................................... 138
Figure 4.41. Sample placement, (a) filling the intact area (intact zone) with the prepared soil and (b)
the setup after placing PVC and Brass pipes as the reduced permeability zone boundary and
vertical drain border .......................................................................................................... 139
Figure 4.42. Rig set up, (a) geotextile filters, (b) pre-consolidation loading rings, (c) the first two
loading rings with drainage grooves and holes, (d) placing of the first loading ring and (e)
full loading condition ........................................................................................................ 140
Figure 4.43. Testing procedures, (a) Pouring the vertical drain material and (b) Pulling out the outer
pipe .................................................................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.44. Testing procedures, (a) pulling out the inner pipe and (b) cutting the extra part of the
filter paper ......................................................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.45. Testing procedures, (a) levelling the top surface and (b) placing the geotextile on top
surface ............................................................................................................................... 142
Figure 4.46. Testing procedures, (a) filling the cell with water and (b) placing the cell top .............. 142
XII
Figure 4.47. Schematic diagram of the de-airing process .................................................................. 143
Figure 4.48. Schematic diagram of the instrumentation plan, (a) the cross section of bottom of the
Rowe cell and (b) plan view of the body of Rowe cell ..................................................... 146
Figure 4.49. Comparison of the excess pore water pressure predictions and laboratory measurement
versus time throughout loading at PWPT B2 .................................................................... 147
versus time throughout unloading and reloading at PWPT B2 ......................................... 150
versus time throughout loading at PWPT A1 .................................................................... 152
versus time at PWPT A1 ................................................................................................... 155
Figure 4.64. Measured excess pore water pressure at transducers located on the bottom of the cell
(loading) ............................................................................................................................ 156
Figure 4.65. Measured excess pore water pressure at transducers located on the bottom of the cell
(unloading and reloading) ................................................................................................. 157
Figure 4.66. Measured excess pore water pressures from transducers located on the sides of the cell
(loading) ............................................................................................................................ 157
XIII
Figure 4.67. Measured excess pore water pressures from transducers located on the sides of the cell
Figure 4.68. Variations of excess pore water pressures with the vertical distance from the bottom of
the impermeable boundary ................................................................................................ 159
Figure 4.69. Variations of excess pore water pressures with the radial distance from the centre of the
drain .................................................................................................................................. 160
Figure 4.70. Predicted creep coefficient (ɗ) values versus time ...................................................... 161
Figure 4.71. Creep strain limit values predictions versus time........................................................... 161
Figure 4.72. Comparison between predicted numerical settlements and laboratory measurements
(loading) ............................................................................................................................ 163
Figure 4.73. Comparison between predicted numerical settlements and laboratory measurements
Figure 5.1. Väsby test field (after Chang 1981) ................................................................................. 168
Figure 5.2. Soil profile beneath the Väsby test fill ............................................................................. 169
Figure 5.3. Consolidation tests results on Väsby post glacial clay samples for vertical stresses between
5 kPa and 160 kPa ............................................................................................................. 169
Figure 5.4. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for Väsby post glacial clay ............... 170
Figure 5.5. Changes of ɗͲ versus vertical effective stress............................................................... 170
Figure 5.6. Permeability changes versus void ratio ............................................................................ 171
Figure 5.7. Cross section of the disturbed zone surrounding a vertical drain, (a) two zones hypothesis,
(b) three zones hypothesis ................................................................................................. 172
Figure 5.8. Variations of initial permeability profile for Cases A to F............................................... 174
Figure 5.9. Excess pore water pressure values predicted by developed code versus time for Cases A to
F ........................................................................................................................................ 175
Figure 5.10. Variations of excess pore water pressure with time for Case A ..................................... 177
Figure 5.11. Variations of the excess pore water pressure values just before unloading ( ൌ ͳͺʹ)
for Cases A to F ................................................................................................................. 177
Figure 5.12. Predicted creep coefficient (ɗ) values versus time for Cases A to F ........................... 178
Figure 5.13. Creep strain limit values predicted by the developed code versus time for Cases A to F
........................................................................................................................................... 179
Figure 5.14. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to F and the field measurements at
the ground surface ............................................................................................................. 180
Figure 5.15. Comparison between the settlement predictions for Cases A to F and the field
measurements at 3.8 m depth ............................................................................................ 180
Figure 5.16. Comparison between post construction settlement prediction for Cases A to F and the
field measurement at the ground surface ........................................................................... 181
Figure 5.17. The required time to achieve 500 mm of settlement for Cases A to F at the ground surface
........................................................................................................................................... 182
Figure 5.18. Variations of permeability profile versus time for Case A ............................................ 182
XIV
Figure 5.19. Variations of permeability ratio with time in disturbed zone for Case A ...................... 183
Figure 5.20. Skå-Edeby test field (After Hansbo 1960) ..................................................................... 185
Figure 5.21. Soil profile beneath the Skå-Edeby test fill .................................................................... 185
Figure 5.22. Initial void ratio profile versus depth ............................................................................. 186
Figure 5.23. Preconsolidation pressure profile versus depth .............................................................. 186
Figure 5.24. Consolidation tests results on Skå-Edeby glacial clay samples for vertical stresses
between 21.6 kPa and 338.3 kPa ....................................................................................... 187
Figure 5.25. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for Skå-Edeby glacial clay .............. 189
Figure 5.26. Changes of ɗͲ versus vertical effective stress............................................................. 189
Figure 5.27. Permeability changes versus void ratio .......................................................................... 190
Figure 5.28. Cross section of the disturbed and transition zones surrounding a vertical drain .......... 191
Figure 5.29. Permeability profile in the disturbed and transition zones for all cases ......................... 193
Figure 5.30. Variations of overconsolidation ratio profile for Cases A to E at depth of 2.5m ........... 193
Figure 5.31. Comparison of the developed code excess pore water pressure predictions for cases A to
E and the field measurements at depth of 2.5m ................................................................. 195
E and the field measurements at depth of 5m .................................................................... 195
E and the field measurements at depth of 9m.................................................................... 196
Figure 5.34. Variations of excess pore water pressure with time for Case B ..................................... 197
Figure 5.35. Variations of the excess pore water pressure values at the end of loading ( ൌ ͸ʹ)
for Cases A to E ................................................................................................................ 198
Figure 5.36. Predicted creep strain limit (ɂ) values versus radial distance at the end of loading
( ൌ ͸ʹ) for Cases A to E ......................................................................................... 199
Figure 5.37. Predicted visco-plastic strain rate () values versus radial distance at the end of loading
( ൌ ͸ʹ) for Cases A to E ......................................................................................... 200
Figure 5.38. Predicted visco-plastic strain rate () values versus radial distance at 200 days for Cases
A to E ................................................................................................................................ 201
Figure 5.39. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the field measurements at
the ground surface ............................................................................................................. 201
Figure 5.40. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the field measurements at
2.5m depth ......................................................................................................................... 203
Figure 5.41. Comparison between the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the field
measurements at 5m depth ................................................................................................ 204
XV
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Values of Ƚ for natural soil deposits (modified after Mesri & Godlewski, 1977) ........ 22
Table 2.2. A summary of the Hypothesis B models presented ............................................................. 60
Table 2.3. Conversion relationships suggested for a rectangular drain ................................................ 63
Table 2.4. Proposed analytical solutions for vertical drain assisted preloading ................................... 78
Table 2.5. Summary of numerical studies conducted to simulate PVD assisted .................................. 81
Table 4.1. Properties of the adopted soil samples in this study .......................................................... 112
Table 4.2. Important sizes for vertical drain sand .............................................................................. 113
Table 4.3. Mix design for the reconstituted samples .......................................................................... 114
Table 4.4. Properties of the reconstituted samples ............................................................................. 114
Table 4.5. Permeability of mixtures (Surcharge = 20 kPa) ................................................................ 118
Table 4.6. Properties of the intact zone, the reduced permeability zone, and drain ........................... 118
Table 4.7. Details of loading stages using small Rowe cell (Sample S1)........................................... 121
Table 4.8. Details of loading stages using small Rowe cell (Sample S3)........................................... 122
Table 4.9. The calculated values of ɗͲ and ɂ at different vertical effective stress for intact
zone (Sample S1) .............................................................................................................. 130
Table 4.10. The calculated values of ɗͲ and ɂ at different vertical effective stress for intact
zone (Sample S3) .............................................................................................................. 131
Table 4.11. Elastic visco-plastic model parameters for soil samples S1 and S3 ................................ 134
Table 4.12. Details of consolidation loading stages ........................................................................... 144
Table 5.1. Adopted soil properties for Väsby post glacial clay .......................................................... 171
Table 5.2. Various available permeability variation equations .......................................................... 173
Table 5.3. Fitting parameters for disturbed zone permeability profile for Cases A-F ........................ 173
Table 5.4. Adopted soil properties for Skå-Edeby glacial clay .......................................................... 188
Table 5.6. Fitting parameters for disturbed zone overconsolidation ratio profile for Cases A to E ... 194
XVI
LIST OF SYMBOLS
experimental constant
ܽ the compressibility of the linear spring
ܽ௩ constant over load increment for small void ratio changes
‫ܤ‬ experimental constant
the compressibility of the spring
‫ܥ‬ experimental constant
‫ܥ‬ఈ secondary compression index
‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ post-surcharge secondary compression index
‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ post-surcharge secant secondary compression index
‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ the rate of secondary compression
‫ܥ‬௖ conventional compression index
‫ܥ‬௥ conventional recompression index (unloading and reloading data)
ܿ௞ permeability change index
ܿ௩ coefficient of consolidation
‫ܦ‬ experimental constant
݁଴ initial void ratio
ଵ the initial value of void ratio
݁௥௘௙ void ratio at effective stress equal to ɐԢ୸ on reference time line
݁௭ void ratio for a particular applied effective stress ɐԢ୸
݁ாை௉ void ratio when the excess pore water pressure has fully dissipated
݃ visco-plastic settlement rate
‫ܪ‬ layer depth
hydraulic head (static pressure head)
i horizontal node coordinator
j vertical node coordinator
݇଴ initial permeability
݇ଵ vacuum pressure reduction factor by depth
݇ଶ vacuum pressure reduction factor by radius
஺
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case A
஻
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case B
஼
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case C
஽
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case D
ா
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case E
ி
݇௔௩௘ average disturbed zone permeability for Case F
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ coefficients of permeability for horizontal direction for disturbed zone
݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ coefficients of permeability for vertical direction for disturbed zone
XVII
݇ௗ the effect of both work hardening and strain rate hardening
݇௥ coefficients of permeability for horizontal direction for intact zone
݇௦௜ the horizontal coefficient of permeability of remoulded soil
݇௭ coefficients of permeability for vertical direction for intact zone
݈ total depth
݉௩ coefficient of volume compressibility
݊ model parameter
ܱ‫ ܴܥ‬
‫݌‬଴ the applied vacuum pressure
ܳ The flow in the slice at a distance
‫ݍ‬଴ the constant loading
ܴ disturbed zone radius
ܴԢ௦ effective surcharge ratio
‫ݎ‬ radial coordinate
‫ݎ‬ௗ disturbed zone radius
ୣ the equivalent influence radius
‫ݎ‬௣ partial disturbed zone radius
‫ݎ‬௦ smear zone radius
‫ݎ‬௪ vertical drain zone radius
୮ drain spacing
ܵ௧ average total settlement
ܵ௨ shear strength for disturbed and transition zones
ሺܵ௨ ሻே஼ normally consolidated shear strength of soil
ܶ௛ horizontal time factor
‫ݐ‬଴ curve-fitting parameter related to the choice of reference time line
‫ݐ‬௘ equivalent time
the time that post-surcharge secondary compression reappears after the removal of the
‫ݐ‬௟
surcharge
‫ݐ‬௣ the time required for completion of the primary consolidation
‫ݐ‬௣௥ the time required for completion of the post-surcharge primary consolidation
ᇱ୮ୱ time to EOP compression under surcharge
ᇱୱ the surcharging time
‫ݐ‬௧௢௧௔௟ maximum calculation time
The degree of consolidation
ഥ୦
he average degree of consolidation for axisymmetric flow
‫ݑ‬ excess pore water pressure
ത୧ the average pore water pressure
୬୧ pore water pressure at any point in the natural soil zone
XVIII
ୱ୧ pore water pressure at any point in the smear zone
୴ୟୡ vacuum pressure at any point
୵୧ the excess pore water pressure within vertical drain
‫ݖ‬ vertical coordinate
Greek symbols
ߙ permeability ratio parameter
Ƚ୮ the instant deformation per unit thickness and unit load
Ƚୱ secondary compression rate per unit thickness and unit load
ߚଵ permeability ratio parameter
ߚଶ permeability ratio parameter
ߛ௦௔௧ saturated unit weight of soil
ߛ௪ unit weight of water
ሺο݁ሻ௣ the change in the void ratio during the primary consolidation
߂‫ݎ‬ radial distance increment
߂‫ݐ‬ time step
߂‫ݖ‬ vertical distance increment
οɐ୴ୱ he total surcharge pressure
ୣ
ɂሶ elastic compression
ɂሶ ୮ time dependant compression
ߝ௭ soil vertical strain
ߝ௭௘ vertical strain at stress level ɐԢ୸
௘
ߝ௭଴ vertical strain at ɐԢ୸ ൌ ɐԢ୳
௘௣
ߝ௭ reference time line strain
௘௣
ߝ௭଴ vertical strain at ɐԢ୸ ൌ ɐԢ୸଴
௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥ creep strain limit
ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ strain limit
௩௣
ߝሶ௜௝ the visco-plastic strain rate
௩௣
ߝ௭ creep compression strain
ߠ the temperature
߉ time-dependent multiplier
఑
௩
material parameter describing the elastic stiffness of the soil
ఒ
material property describing the elastic-plastic stiffness of the soil
௩
‫ݒ‬ specific volume (ͳ ൅ ݁)

ɐᇱ
ഥ average effective stress
ߪ′௨ unit stress
ߪԢ௭଴ material property
ᇱ
ߪ௩௙ the final effective vertical stress after the removal of surcharge
XIX
ɐᇱ୴ୱ the maximum vertical effective stress reached immediately before removal of the surcharge
ɑ the viscosity of the dashpot
߬ the non-linear viscous resistance of the dashpot
ߓ fluidity parameter
Ԅ viscous nucleus
టబ
initial creep coefficient
௩
XX
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
As a result of increasing and continuous social and infrastructural growth,

appropriate ground for living and development becomes progressively scanty.
Consequently, the waterfront areas alongside lakes, rivers, and marine coasts are
being considered for an alternative land source for developers. The prevalent soils in
these areas are considered as soft soils. Soft soils generally consist of remarkable
amount of water and as a result, the foundations overlying these soils have
significantly low shear strength, high compressibility, and low hydraulic
conductivity. Accordingly, while dealing with soft soils in engineering design and
construction, long term deformation of soft soils is one of the main challenges.
The time dependent behaviour of soft soils, particularly the ground
settlements, is considered as an important issue, which has been studied for many
decades. Nonetheless, predicting the long-term behaviour of soft soils (e.g.
settlement and lateral deformations) under highway or railway embankments is a
challenging task for geotechnical engineers. Creep (i.e. time dependant viscous
behaviour of soil) is an important part of the soft soil settlement, which may result in
significant deformation in the long-term. Creep deformation may be considered as
destruction or adjustment of the soil structure under a constant effective stress.
Although a number of soil improvement techniques are available, the
application of preloading in combination with vertical drains is often used in practice
when enough construction time is available or when the ground improvement budget
is limited. The installation of vertical drains reduces the water drainage path and
speeds up the dissipation of excess pore pressure generated during preloading. The
fact that the flow is predominately in the horizontal direction (except near the top
surface or close to a highly permeable silt/sand seam) further helps the process
1
because, owing to depositional anisotropy, the hydraulic conductivity is generally
greater in horizontal direction than in vertical direction. Vertical drains installation in
the field results in considerable remoulding of the subsoil, particularly in the
immediate vicinity of the mandrel. The disturbed zone will have reduced shear
strength and permeability, adversely affecting the soil consolidation.
This chapter describes how preloading in combination with vertical drains
can speed up the consolidation process. Furthermore, the proposed conceptual
approaches for simulating long term behaviour of soft soils are briefly explained. The
chapter concludes with an outline of aims and content of this thesis.
1.2 CLAY COMPRESSION
Soil comprises of solid particles and voids. The voids in the soil structure
can be filled with air, water or a combination of both. The reduction of void ratio
under vertical loads may take place in three stages (Figure 1.1): (i) immediate
settlement, (ii) primary consolidation and (iii) secondary compression. Immediate
settlement happens instantly after the application of vertical loads with zero volume
change (i.e. the shape change only). In saturated soils (i.e. no air) the increase in the
vertical pressure immediately transferred to water, which is incompressible. Then
water may seep out of the soil, which results in dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure and transformation of the pressure to the soil skeleton (primary
consolidation).
Secondary compression might be determined as the continuation of the
mechanism of volume change following primary consolidation. This mechanism
consists of deformation of the individual particles, and also the relative movements
of particles due to the normal stresses or shear displacements at particle contacts
induced by shear stresses exceeding the bond shear resistance of the contacts (Mesri
1973). Moreover, the settlement under a constant effective stress is generally called
creep or secondary compression (Taylor and Merchant 1940; Bjerrum 1967; Le et al.
2012). However, it should be mentioned that creep deformation should be
differentiated from the settlement under the constant effective stress since creep may
also occur while the excess pore water pressure is dissipating.
2
As stated by Bjerrum (1967) and Taylor (1942), creep compression
increases the resistance of the soil structure against further compression. The creep
compression results in not only excessive settlement of soft soil under an applied
stress, but also influences other soil properties such as the preconsolidation pressure.
In contrast, the time–dependent compression is observed to be primarily influenced
by time, strain rate and stress rate. Consequently, creep compression is an important
contributor to the time-dependant characteristics of soft soils. Moreover, creep
compression changes the pattern of hydraulic conductivity and shear strength of
vertical drain improved ground in short and long term.
Time
0
Initial compression
Settlement
Primary consolidation
Secondary
compression
Figure 1.1. Typical oedometer test results
1.2.1 Preloading and vertical drains
Preloading is applied prior to building of structures to improve areas with

unsuitable ground conditions. Preloading consists of applying a load, equal to or
greater than the entire load of a planned structure, over the site earlier than
constructing the structure. Preloading, which is normally an earth fill, applies
compression to the underlying soil, which is being partially or fully removed while
the required settlement has taken place. Then, the structure is built, which applies a
load equivalent to or smaller than the preload. Preloading is selected in a way that
3
construction restrictions on preloading time and post-construction settlements are
both taken into consideration. Preloading with vertical drains can be used to decrease
the soil settlement time.
Vertical drain assisted preloading improves the shear strength of clay and
reduces the post construction settlements to tolerable levels. There are two classes of
vertical drains: displacement and non-displacement. The non-displacement drains
involve removal of the in situ soil and backfilling with more a permeable material,
usually sand. Holes may be formed by driving, jetting, or auguring with typical
diameters of 200 to 450 mm (Hausmann 1990). Displacement type drains are
prefabricated and are forced into the soil with a hollow mandrel. The mandrel is then
removed leaving the drain in place. Prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) consist of a
core surrounded by a filter sleeve. Figure 1.2 shows a typical cross section of a site
improved with vertical drain assisted preloading.
Embankment Vertical drains
Clay layer
Sand layer
Figure 1.2. Typical cross section of vertical drain assisted preloading
There are occasions where the use of surcharge loading with vertical drains
is too slow or inappropriate for the site, e.g. when specified construction time may be
very short or there is no access to suitable fill material. In such cases, it is necessary
to use more refined techniques instead of, or in combination with surcharge loading.
One of the ways to hasten water flow in soil is applying a vacuum to the soil surface
and along the vertical drains. During vacuum preloading an external negative load is
4
applied to the soil surface in the form of vacuum (Choa, 1989). Thus, a higher
effective stress is achieved by rapidly decreasing the pore water pressure, while the
total stress remains unchanged.
When vertical drains are installed in the soft ground, the soil surrounding
the drain is disturbed as mandrels or augers/drills are inserted and withdrawn. The
effects associated with this installation disturbance are detrimental to radial
consolidation. Compared to the undisturbed soil, permeability and shear strength in
the smear zone are reduced and compressibility is increased. The extent of
disturbance depends on the mandrel size and the soil type (Eriksson et al., 2000; Lo,
1998).
1.3 HYPOTHESES TO ESTIMATE SOIL CREEP
Numerous approaches have been presented to simulate the time dependant

behaviour of soft soils. Generally, two broad concepts are suggested by researchers,
namely, Hypotheses A and B. Hypothesis A states that void ratio at the end of
primary consolidation is unique for thin and thick samples although creep occurs
during primary consolidation (Ladd et al. 1977; Mesri and Choi 1985). However,
Hypothesis B states that the primary consolidation consists of creep and the end of
primary consolidation void ratio cannot be unique. In Hypothesis A, soil settlement
is divided into two parts, the primary consolidation followed by the secondary
compression. Nonetheless, in Hypothesis B, soil settlement is estimated using a
constitutive model simulating soil creep and consolidation settlement simultaneously.
In literature, models based on Hypothesis B are classified in three categories namely
empirical models, rheological models and general stress-strain-time models
(Liingaard et al. 2004; Karim and Gnanendran 2014).
Empirical models are presented by closed form solutions or differential
equations (Karim and Gnanendran 2014). Empirical models are generally based on
fitting experimental results from creep, stress relaxation, and constant rate of strain
tests. Rheological mechanical models contain different arrangements of springs,
dashpots and sliders to represent soil behaviour (i.e. elastic, viscous, or plastic
behaviour). Non-linear behaviour of the elements represents the structural or fabric
variations that happen at the particle level. General constitutive laws define not only
5
viscous effects but also the rate dependant behaviour of soil under any possible
loading conditions.
1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY
The main objective of this study is to develop a numerical code for the
analysis of long term behaviour of soft soils involving vertical drains and preloading
considering smear zone and creep effects. Various methods are presented in literature
to study the effects of time dependant behaviour of soft soils or capturing the
reduction of hydraulic permeability caused by vertical drains installation. However,
there is a lack of consideration with respect to the combined effects of the hydraulic
conductivity or the shear strength profile in the disturbed zone and the visco-plastic
behaviour (creep) of soil on the settlement rate and consequently the deformation of
the soft soil improved using preloading and vertical drains.
To achieve the research objectives, the following stages are included in this
research: (i) a numerical solution adopting an elastic visco-plastic model with
nonlinear creep function in combination with the 2D axisymmetric consolidation
equations was developed, (ii) laboratory testing using oedometer and small and large
Rowe cells apparatus to verify the developed numerical code by comparing measured
and predicted settlement and excess pore water pressure values at different height
and radiuses from the vertical drain was conducted, and (iii) two field case studies to
investigate the long term behaviour of soft soils considering the disturbance caused
by installation of vertical drains (i.e. permeability and shear strength reduction in the
vicinity of vertical drains) were simulated.
It should be mentioned that the proposed solution can readily be applied to
layered soil deposits incorporating time dependent loading and unloading, while
considering combined effects of soil disturbance effects and visco-plastic behaviour.
Furthermore, well resistance and discharge capacity and shear creep are not
considered in this research which can be easily implemented into the developed
numerical solution in future studies.
6
1.5 ORGANISATION OF DISSERTATION
In Chapter 1, a brief introduction is presented where the aim and scope of

the present research are highlighted. Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive survey of
the literature associated with the present work. A review of the mechanisms of creep
is presented followed by detailed explanation of the constitutive models proposed to
simulate the behaviour of soft soils. Hypotheses A and B as two broad concepts,
proposed by researchers to estimate the time dependant deformation of soft soils, are
presented (Ladd et al. 1977). The creep ratio concept, one of the main settlement
calculation approaches supported by Hypothesis A, is discussed. Furthermore, the
constitutive models based on Hypothesis B presented in literature are divided into
three categories namely empirical models, rheological models, and general stress-
strain-time models and explained. Moreover, application of preloading and vertical
drain and also the disturbance associated with the installation of vertical drains are
described in details. Finally, the analytical and numerical methods presented in
literature to investigate the time dependant settlement of soil dealing with
disturbance due to vertical drains installation are explained.
Chapter 3 presents the finite difference solution for 2D axisymmetric
consolidation equation considering nonlinear elastic visco-plastic model. The applied
elastic visco-plastic model is based on the framework of modified Cam-Clay which
comprises the nonlinear variations of the creep coefficient with the effective stress
and time and creep strain limit. Finite difference formulations for fully coupled one
dimensional axisymmetric consolidation are adopted. In formulating the finite
difference procedure, the Crank-Nicholson scheme has been used. In this method,
two steps have been used in partial differentials of pore water pressure over distance
to stabilise the process quicker. The finite difference solution of elastic visco-plastic
model is coded in MATLAB to model the time dependent behaviour of the soft soils.
In Chapter 4, the procedure for a laboratory consolidation test is described
and the numerical code developed in Chapter 3 is verified using the experimental
results. A large Rowe cell with a diameter of 250 mm and a height of 200 mm was
used to carry out the PVD assisted consolidation tests. The cell was fully
instrumented and comprised of a vertical displacement gauge at the surface level and
nine pore water pressure transducers on the sides and at the base of the cell. The time
7
dependent vertical displacements of the sample were captured using GDSLab
software, with an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer). A series of
pressure lines connected to the enterprise level pressure/volume controllers, that are
filled with de-aired water, are used to apply pressure to the cell (cell pressure) and to
the jacket (back pressure). To solve the problem of manually filling or emptying the
controllers, two parallel pressure/volume controllers (primary and secondary)
connected to an infinite volume controller (IVC) device were used for each pressure
line. A sand vertical drain has been installed in the centre of the sample and a zone
with reduced permeability adjacent to the vertical drain has been considered. Two
reconstituted clay samples were prepared by mixing Q38 kaolinite, ActiveBond23
bentonite, and fine sand for the reduced permeability zone soil and the intact zone
soil. To carry out the test, five loading (25 kPa to 400 kPa), one unloading (50 kPa),
and three reloading (100 kPa, 200 kPa, and 400 kPa) stages were applied to conduct
the PVD assisted consolidation tests.
In Chapter 5, two case studies are numerically simulated to investigate the
effect of time dependant settlement in combination with the disturbance due to
installation of vertical drains (i.e. permeability and shear strength reduction). Skå-
edeby test fill case study is used to study long term behaviour of soil considering
different shear strength profiles in the disturbed zone. Furthermore, to study the
effect of permeability profile in the disturbed zone in combination with creep, Väsby
test fill case study is adopted. It should be mentioned that in the simulations of case
studies, the variations of initial vertical effective stress and void ratio with depth and
the variations of permeability and overconsolidation ratio with depth and time are
considered.
Chapter 6 presents the conclusions that can be drawn from the current
research and provides recommendations for future work, followed by the list of
references.
8
CHAPTER TWO
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Following Terzaghi’s (1923) outstanding one dimensional consolidation

theory concerning the rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation, laboratory
results and field measurements showed that settlement continues even after the
excess pore water pressure has completely dissipated. To distinguish between the
two components of settlement, the term “primary consolidation” is used to denote the
time dependant process resulting from the change in volume due to the expulsion of
water from the voids, and shifting loads from the pore water to the soil particles,
while settlement under a constant effective stress is generally called creep or
secondary compression (Taylor and Merchant 1940, Bjerrum 1967, Le et al. 2012).
Creep deformation should be differentiated from settlement under constant effective
stress because creep may also occur while the excess pore water pressure is
dissipating. Although research on the long-term deformation of soils has become
significant and has been developed for many decades, there is still no unified method
of defining the mechanism of creep deformation, with the resulting that various
schools of thought and different methods of estimating soil deformation have arisen.
Furthermore, different ways of estimating the time dependant deformation
of soft soils have also been proposed, although researchers generally suggest two
broad concepts: (i) although creep occurs during dissipation of excess pore water
pressure (the primary consolidation process), the void ratio when the excess pore
water pressure had fully dissipated at the end of primary consolidation (݁ாை௉ ) was
unique for thin and thick samples, so all the subsequent calculations were based on
this assumption (Hypothesis A) (e.g. Ladd 1973, Ladd et al. 1977, Mesri 2001; Mesri
and Rokhsar 1974; Mesri and Feng 1991; Mesri et al. 1994), and (ii) because primary
consolidation consists of creep deformation, which increases over time, the value of
݁ாை௉ for thin and thick soil samples cannot be unique and the equations should
9
embrace the results of this assumption (Hypothesis B) (e.g. Suklje 1957, Barden
1965, 1969, Bjerrum 1967, Yin and Graham 1989, 1990, and 1996). In Hypothesis
A, soil settlement is divided into primary consolidation (during the dissipation of
excess pore water pressure) followed by secondary compression (where the
remaining excess pore water pressure is insignificant). However, in Hypothesis B the
soil settlement was estimated using a constitutive model to simulate creep
deformation and excess pore water pressure dissipation simultaneously and
continuously; as a result, the longer the duration of primary consolidation (Thicker
sample), the more significant the difference between Hypothesis A and B
(Figure 2.1).
Log time (t)
Thick sample
Thin sample
Axial strain
Hypothesis A
Hypothesis B
Hypotheses A & B
Figure 2.1. General effect of sample thickness on the amount of primary

consolidation for normally consolidated clay (after Jamiolkowski et al. 1985)
Because the post-construction settlement of soils such as clays, silts, and

peats during the life time of the structure may be significant, preloading combined
with vertical drains is commonly used to minimise settlement and improve the
bearing capacity and shear strength of soil deposits. Preloading, which is commonly
an earth fill, involves applying a load that is equal to or greater than the entire load of
a planned structure over the site before construction begins, and which partially or
fully removed while the required settlement takes place.
10
In this chapter the mechanisms of creep deformation and a summary of
previous studies on long term settlement of soils based on Hypotheses A and B have
been reviewed. The references consist of field measurements and laboratory tests
associated with secondary compression and theoretical studies for modelling the time
dependant behaviour of soil. A critical review of the preloading assisted
consolidation method was carried out, and the analytical and numerical methods
proposed in literature to simulate the behaviour of soft soils are discussed in detail.
2.2 MECHANISMS OF CREEP DEFORMATION
Unlike other materials such as metal or glass, soil is considered to be a

complex structure due to its heterogeneous composition. From a macroscopic
perspective, it is assumed that an element of a clayey soil contains particles of clay,
coarse grains, and water where free water can flow as a result of the hydraulic
gradient. As Taylor and Merchant (1940) and Terzaghi (1941) explained, the
compression process containing primary consolidation and secondary compression
(or creep) is defined according to the transfer of stress and the adjustment of soil
structure. Free water flows out of the soil under the effect of applied stress which in
turn rearranges the soil structure, and may lead to an increase in the solid-to-solid
contacts in the soil. This section attempts to explain the mechanism of creep for
clayey soils according to numerous relevant studies.
2.2.1 The breakdown of interparticle bonds

The flow of free water takes time because it is a function of soil
permeability; consequently, primary consolidation is a time dependent process.
Primary consolidation increases contact between soil particles and also decreases the
voids between them. The effective stresses increase throughout primary
consolidation as the total stress shifts from pore water to inter-particle bonds, but this
increase in effective stress can break or destroy the contacts between particles. This
breakdown in the bonds between soil particles may lead to further rearrangement and
therefore additional settlement or compression, which is called creep. There are
numerous sources for the breakdown of interparticle bonds; it can be the relative
11
movements of particles with respect to each other caused by shear displacement or
variations in the particle spacing due to a change in the net inter-particle forces
(Mesri, 1973).
2.2.2 Jumping bonds

Murayama and Shibata (1961), Christensen and Wu (1964) and Mitchell
(1964) explained creep mechanism based on the theory of rate process where creep
deformation stems from the movement of atoms and molecules under constant
effective stress to a new equilibrium position. Since virtual energy barriers resist the
movement of atoms and molecules (named flow unit), enough energy is needed to
conquer the barriers. As Kuhn and Mitchell (1993) explained, soil creep is the
displacement of oxygen atoms, which are seen as flow units, within the contact
surface between clay mineral particles, where the flow units do not remain static,
they vibrate with a certain frequency. As Mitchell et al. (1968) mentioned, since
creep is defined as a rate process, the activation energy depends on the deviatoric
stress and the elapsed time of creep.
2.2.3 Sliding between particles

Kuhn and Mitchell (1993) proposed that creep deformation is the result of a
sliding movement between the particles. This proposed concept can be compared to
the deformation of interparticle bonds mentioned earlier. By means of viscous
friction, the sliding movement is due to the tangential component of the contact
forces between soil particles, and the deformation is defined as the relationship
between the sliding velocity, the sliding force, and the friction ratio between the
tangential force and normal force.
2.2.4 Double porosity

The theory of double porosity is defined as an assumption of the double
structure levels of soils comprising micro-pore and macro-pore. Creep is the transfer
of pore water from the microstructure to macrostructure. This creep theory was
12
originally proposed by De Jong and Verruijt (1965) and has been pursued by many
researchers, including Berry and Poskitt (1972), Zeevaart (1986), Navarro and
Alonso (2001), Mitchell and Soga (2005), and Wang and Xu (2006). It may be
assumed that under the applied stresses, the water inside the micropores of the clay
clusters will be expelled to the larger pores (or macropores). This flow of water may
cause deformation inside the clay clusters such as a reduction in spacing between the
clay minerals or a relative movement between the particles inside the clusters.
2.2.5 Structural viscosity

There is a school of thought that believes that structural viscosity has a
significant impact on soil creep. This theory is supported by Terzaghi (1941), Barden
(1969), Bjerrum (1967), Garlanger (1972), Christie and Tonks (1985), Graham and
Yin (2001) and others. Viscosity is generally defined as the resistance of a fluid to
flow or deformation under an applied stress. Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993) defined
viscosity as the frictional drag of one plate of fluid sliding over another platelet, for
example, clayey soils show viscosity in their structure at the contacts between the
soil particles, where the viscosity imposed by the absorbed water layer surrounding
the particles and may induce a plastic resistance against any relative movement
between them.
2.3 HYPOTHESIS A
In Hypothesis A, even though creep occurs during primary consolidation

(i.e. throughout the dissipation of excess pore pressures), the void ratio at the end of
primary consolidation, regardless of the thickness of the sample, is considered to be
constant. Figure 2.1 shows that Hypothesis A predicts that the thickness of the
sample, and consequently its drainage height (‫ܪ‬ௗ ) and the time required for pore
pressure dissipation, has no effect on the location of the end of primary (EOP)
compression curve (݁ െ ݈‫݌݃݋‬ᇱ ).
One of the main approaches to calculating settlement supported by
Hypothesis A is the concept of creep ratio which is discussed in this section. In the
creep ratio concept, soil settlement is divided into primary consolidation (during the
13
dissipation of excess pore water pressure) followed by secondary compression (while
the remaining excess pore water pressure left is insignificant and soil settles under
almost constant vertical effective stress).
2.3.1 Creep ratio concept
2.3.1.1 Primary consolidation

As soon as the vertical effective stress begins to increase, the volume of the
soil structure begins to change. According to Mesri and Rokhsar (1974), primary
consolidation is the change in volume related to the hydrodynamic transfer of pore
pressure to the effective stress. Mesri and Feng (1991) indicated that primary
consolidation ends when the excess pore water pressure approaches a minor value,
e.g. 1kPa. According to Mesri and Godlewski (1977), the duration of primary
consolidation is related to drainage boundary conditions.
As presented by Mesri and Choi (1985), the principle equation for
estimating one-dimensional primary consolidation is as follows:
௧ డ௘ ௗఙᇱೡ డ௘
ሺο݁ሻ௣ ൌ ‫׬‬଴ ೛ ൤ቀ ቁ ൅ ቀడ௧ ቁ ൨ ݀‫ݐ‬ (2.1)
డఙᇱ ೡ ௧ ௗ௧ ఙᇱೡ
where ሺο݁ሻ௣ is the change in the void ratio during primary consolidation, ݁
is the void ratio, ‫ ݐ‬is the elapsed time, ߪ௩ᇱ is the vertical effective stress, ‫ݐ‬௣ stands for
డ௘
the time required for primary consolidation to end, ቀడఙᇱ ቁ is the compressibility of
ೡ ௧
the soil at time ‫ݐ‬, as a result of an increase in the effective vertical stress, and
డ௘
ቀ ቁ is the compressibility of the soil structure at a vertical effective stress equal to
డ௧ ఙᇱೡ
ߪ௩ᇱ , due to the passage of time.

According to many researchers, although primary consolidation takes much
longer in the field than in laboratory tests and primary consolidation also consists of
creep, analyses of laboratory and field observations support the independency of the
end-of-primary consolidation void ratio (݁ாை௉ ሻ from the duration of primary
consolidation (‫ݐ‬௣ ሻ (Hanrahan 1954, Lee and Brawner 1963, Adams 1965, Berre
1969, Barden 1969, Berre and Iversen 1972, Aboshi 1973, Mesri 1973, Mesri and
Choi 1985, Mesri and Feng 1991, Mesri 2001). Mesri and Feng (1991) stated that it
14
డ௘
is possible to have a correlation between ቀడఙᇱ ቁ and ‫ݐ‬௣ and an interrelationship
ೡ ௧
డ௘ డ௘
between ቀడఙᇱ ቁ and ቀడ௧ ቁ that makes ሺο݁ሻ௣ independent of ‫ݐ‬௣ . According to
ೡ ௧ ఙᇱೡ
Mesri (1973), the most important factor which contributes to the difference between
the coefficients of secondary compression in the field and laboratory, is the departure
from the K0-condition in the field.
V vc, 0
V cp
e0
P
Slope Cr
Slope Ccc
Void ratio (e)
V vc
Slope Cc
Vertical effective stress (logσ'v)

Figure 2.2. Definition of ୰ , ୡ and Ԣୡ (after Mesri et al. 1994)
Mesri et al. (1994) presented the secant compression index (‫ܥ‬Ԣ௖ ) shown in
Figure 2.2 for the primary consolidation settlement calculation. A recompression
line from Point (݁଴ , ߪԢ௩଴ ) with slope ‫ܥ‬௥ delineates Point P at the preconsolidation
pressure (ߪԢ௣ ). The secant compression index (‫ܥ‬Ԣ௖ ) is defined as the slope of the lines
connecting Point P to various points on the compression curve. The value of the
secant compression index (‫ܥ‬Ԣ௖ ), related to ߪԢ௩௙ ΤߪԢ௣ , can replace ‫ܥ‬௖ for the primary
consolidation settlement prediction (see Equation (2.4)).
15
2.3.1.2 Secondary compression
Mesri (1973) noted that secondary compression can be determined as a
continuation of the mechanism of volume change following primary consolidation.
This mechanism consists of deformation of the individual particles and the relative
movements of particles due to normal stresses or shear displacements at contacts
induced by the shear stresses that exceed the bond shear resistance.
‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ Time (t)

݁଴
Void ratio (e)
ሺο݁ሻ
‫ݐ‬௣
Primary consolidation stage Secondary compression stage

݀ߪԢ ݀ߪԢ
്Ͳ ൌͲ
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
Figure 2.3. Consolidation stages due to one load increment
For a given time, the duration and the magnitude of secondary compression
settlement depends on the time needed to complete primary consolidation. As a result
Mesri and Choi (1985) proposed Equation (2.2) to estimate the secondary
compression.
௧ డ௘
ሺο݁ሻ௦ ൌ ‫׬‬௧ ቀ ቁ ᇲ ݀‫ݐ‬ (2.2)
డ௧ ೛ ఙೡ
where ሺο݁ሻ௦ is the change in the void ratio due to the secondary
compression, ݁ is the void ratio, ‫ ݐ‬is the elapsed time, ߪ௩ᇱ is the effective stress, and
‫ݐ‬௣ stands for the time required for the completion of primary consolidation.
Figure 2.3 shows the consolidation and compression stages due to one load
increment. As mentioned earlier, and as depicted in Figure 2.4, primary consolidation
16
ends when the excess pore water pressure is insignificant (i.e. 1kPa according to
Mesri 2001), whereas secondary compression commences there.
2.3.1.3 Deformation prediction of clays

2.3.1.3.1 Compression formulation
Mesri and Rokhsar (1974) proposed the following equation by combining
Equations (2.1) and (2.2) to obtain the total soil compression.
௧ ௧ డ௘ ௗఙೡᇲ డ௘ ௧ డ௘
ο݁ ൌ ‫׬‬଴ ݀݁ ൌ ‫׬‬଴ ೛ ൤ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൅ ቀడ௧ ቁ ᇲ ൨ ݀‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫׬‬௧ ቀడ௧ ቁ ᇲ ݀‫ݐ‬ (2.3)
ೡ ௧ ௗ௧ ఙೡ ೛ ఙೡ
௧೛ డ௘ ௗఙೡᇲ డ௘
As stated before, ‫׬‬଴ ൤ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൅ ቀడ௧ ቁ ᇲ ൨ ݀‫ݐ‬ calculates primary
ೡ ௧ ௗ௧ ఙೡ
௧ డ௘
consolidation and ‫׬‬௧ ቀ డ௧ ቁ ᇲ ݀‫ ݐ‬calculates secondary compression, which is endless.
೛ ఙೡ
In Equation (2.3), ‫ݐ‬௣ represents the phase of consolidation through which effective
vertical stress increases and ‫ݐ‬௣ is a function of the permeability of the soil and
drainage boundary conditions. Beyond ‫ݐ‬௣ the effective stress is constant and thus
there is no contribution from primary consolidation in this part. It should be
డ௘ డ௘
mentioned that ቀడఙᇲ ቁ and ቀడ௧ ቁ are not constant soil properties. As Mesri (2001)
ೡ ௧ ఙೡᇲ
డ௘ డ௘
stated, ቀడఙᇲ ቁ and ቀ డ௧ ቁ ᇲ change during the primary consolidation and secondary
ೡ ௧ ఙೡ
డ௘
compression stages, and values of ቀడ௧ ቁ ᇲ throughout primary consolidation and
ఙೡ
secondary compression are not quite the same. As Mesri (2001) stated, creep (time
dependant settlement) acts during the primary consolidation period, though, not as a
డ௘ డ௘
separate phenomenon because ቀడఙᇲ ቁ and ቀ డ௧ ቁ are interconnected and both depend
ೡ ௧ ఙೡᇲ
ௗఙೡᇲ డ௘ డ௘
on and ‫ݐ‬௣ . Since evaluating ቀడఙᇲ ቁ and ቀడ௧ ቁ are not readily possible during the
ௗ௧ ೡ ௧ ఙೡᇲ
primary consolidation stage, Equation (2.3) is hardly ever used to calculate total
compression.
According to Mesri’s (2001) experiments, the secondary compression
behaviour of any soil can be calculated by considering the creep ratio, where ‫ܥ‬ఈ
represents the slope of ݁ െ ݈‫ ݐ݃݋‬and ‫ܥ‬௖ stands for the slope of ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ curves as
follows:
17
஼ᇲ ఙᇱ ஼ ஼ ௧
ሾ߳௩ ሿ௧ ൌ ೎ ݈‫ ݃݋‬೔ ൅ ೎ ቂ ഀቃ ݈‫݃݋‬ (2.4)
ଵା௘ ఙᇱ ଵା௘ ஼ ௧ బ ೑ బ ೎ ೛
where ሾ߳௩ ሿ௧ is the total vertical strain during compression, ݁଴ represents the
void ratio at the beginning of loading, ‫ ݐ‬is time that the secondary compression
should be calculated for, ‫ݐ‬௣ represents the period in which vertical effective stress
changes, which is the time required for the completion of primary consolidation.
‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ ‫ݐ‬௣ T
Time (t)
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ͳ݇ܲܽ
Pore water pressure (u)
‫ݑ‬଴
Figure 2.4. Pore water pressure versus time
It is generally accepted that preconsolidation (overconsolidation) can reduce

secondary compression, and the degree of decrease will be a function of the degree
of overconsolidation. However, as Mesri (1973) pointed out, when stresses are less
than the preconsolidation pressure, the secondary compression coefficient increases
with increasing recompression stress and reaches its maximum at a stress level
higher than the preconsolidation pressure. Mesri et al. (1997) also indicated that as
soon as a soil is subjected to secondary compression, it builds up a preconsolidation
pressure (ɐᇱୡ ), and after reloading, soil shows a recompression response instead of
compression. Mesri (1973) also mentioned that the rate of secondary compression is
influenced by the duration to which soils were subjected to previous loads.
18
1.60E-03
Dynamic Viscosity (Pa.s)

1.20E-03
8.00E-04
4.00E-04
0.00E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (˚C)
Figure 2.5. Dynamic viscosity of water at 1atm as a function of temperature
The other factor that can influence secondary compression is temperature.

Mesri (1973) explained that the effect of temperature on the rate of secondary
compression has been given more importance than it merits because that the
temperature increases the speed of primary consolidation by decreasing the viscosity
of free water, as shown in Figure 2.5. Mesri (1973) carried out consolidation tests on
normally consolidated organic Paulding clay at four different temperatures where
four identical tests were carried out at each temperature. The differences between the
average values at different temperatures were much smaller than the amount of
scatter in ‫ܥ‬ఈ from the average value at each temperature. Figure 2.6 shows the results
of these four tests. In one test, the temperature was increased from 25˚C to 50˚C
during secondary compression and was held at 50˚ C for a number of days. There
was an instant compression, but after a couple of days the coefficient of secondary
compression at 50˚ C was equal to the coefficient at 25˚ C.
19
3.5
3.0
2.5
Cα, percent
2.0
1.5
25˚ C
1.0 35˚ C
45˚ C
0.5
50˚ C
0.0
10 100 1000 10000
Consolidation pressure (kPa)
Figure 2.6. Coefficient of secondary compression versus consolidation pressure at

different temperatures for remoulded organic Paulding (after Mesri 1973)
2.3.1.3.2 ࡯ࢻ and ࡯ࢉ caculations and dependency

The secondary compression index (஑ ) is the slope of the secant line which
connects the end of primary (‫ݐ‬௣ ) to each point of time on the ݁ െ ݈‫ ݐ݃݋‬curve
(Figure 2.9). Mesri and Godlewski (1977) mentioned that according to the existing
evidence, the measured values of ‫ܥ‬ఈ for a particular target final effective stress (ߪ௙ᇱ )
are not a function of the load increment ratio, although experimental and
interpretational issues do arise when very small load increment ratios are applied.
When the effective stress is constant, the volume changes and excess pore water
pressures related to the tendency of the soil structure to change is more significant
compared to where effective stress increases. This makes it difficult to differentiate
between the primary and secondary stages and define the secondary compression
index (஑ ) (Mesri and Godlewski 1977). When different values of ߪԢ௙ are obtained
from different values of load increment, then the corresponding values of ஑ would
also be different so a comparison of the ஑ െ ߪԢ௙ relations obtained using different
load increment ratios is required. Although such data are rare, ‫ܥ‬ఈ obviously depends
on the final effective stress.
Mesri et al. (1975) denoted that the secondary compression index (஑ )
increases as the consolidation pressure increases and at a certain level of stress it
reaches a maximum, and then it decreases as the consolidation pressure increases.
20
Figure 2.7 shows the relationship between the secondary compression index (஑ ) and
the consolidation pressure for undisturbed clay at Mexico City.
Mesri and Godlewski (1977, 1979) stated that the effective stresses are
stated in terms of the critical pressure taken from the ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ curve obtained from
the results taken at the end of primary consolidation, and the term critical pressure
refers to the vertical compressive pressure at which considerable structural changes
occur in a natural soil when it is loaded. In the ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ curve, the critical pressure
is associated to the point with the sharpest slope. The source of critical pressure, as
well as preconsolidation, could be the sustained secondary compression and
thixotropic hardening, as well as the chemical changes. Mitchell (1960) described
the thixotropic hardening mechanism as time dependent changes in the
arrangement of particles, adsorbed water structure, and allocation of ions.
Experimental evidence shows that for compressive pressures less than the critical
pressure, the secondary compression index (‫ܥ‬ఈ ) increases with time, while ‫ܥ‬ఈ
decreases with time for pressure values larger than the critical pressure (see
Figure 2.7).
0.35
Secondary compression index (Cα)
Critical pressure
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
10 100 1000 10000
Figure 2.7. Variation of the secondary compression index with the consolidation
pressure for undisturbed Mexico City clay (after Mesri et al. 1975)
21
େಉ
Table 2.1. Values of େౙ
for natural soil deposits (modified after Mesri & Godlewski,
1977)
Type of soil ‫ܥ‬ఈ Τ‫ܥ‬௖ Reference

Whangamarino clay 0.03-0.04 Newland and Allely (1960)
Norfolk organic silt 0.05 Barber (1961)
Calcareous organic silt 0.035-0.06 Wahls (1962)
Amorphous and fibrous peat 0.035-0.083 Lea and Brawner (1963)
Canadian muskeg 0.09-0.10 Adams (1965)
Leda clay 0.03-0.055 Walker and Raymond (1968)
Leda clay 0.04-0.06 Walker and Raymond (1969)
Peat 0.075-0.085 Weber (1969)
Post-glacial organic clay 0.05-0.07 Chang (1969)
Soft blue clay 0.026 Crawford and Sutherland (1971)
Organic clays 0.04-0.06 Ladd (1971)
Sensitive clay, Portland 0.025-0.055 Ladd (1971)
Peat 0.05-0.08 Samson and La Rochelle (1972)
San Francisco Bay mud 0.04-0.06 Su and Prysock (1972)
New Liskeardvarved clay 0.03-0.06 Quigley and Ogunbadejo (1972)
Silty clay C 0.032 Samson and Garneau (1973)
Nearshore clays and silts 0.055-0.075 Brown and Rashid (1975)
Fibrous peat 0.06-0.085 Berry and Vickers (1975)
Mexico City clay 0.03-0.035 Mesri, et al. (1975)
Hudson River silt 0.03-0.06 Mesri, Personal files
Leda clay 0.025-0.04 Mesri and Godlewski (1977)
New Haven organic clay silt 0.04-0.075 Mesri and Godlewski (1977)
Organic Silt 0.043 Iyer (1989)
Batiscan clay 0.03 Mesri et al. (1999)
Singapore Marine clay 0.032 Mesri et al. (1999)
St. Espirit clay 0.038 Mesri et al. (1999)
La Grande clay 0.052 Mesri et al. (1999)
22
Mesri and Godlewski (1979) stated that the definition and calculation of
critical pressure has three aspects: (I) using incremental loading or a continuous
loading test to attain an ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ relationship; (II) the ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ curve is related to
a specific time (incremental loading test) or strain rate (constant rate of strain test)
used, and (III) for a specified ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ curve, the practical construction method is
used to define the critical pressure.
Mesri (2001) concluded that the relationship between ‫ܥ‬ఈ and time (‫ )ݐ‬is
directly correlated to ‫ܥ‬௖ which is changing with the consolidation pressures (ߪ௩ᇱ ). ‫ܥ‬ఈ
generally decreases, remains constant, or increases with time, in the range of
consolidation pressure where ‫ܥ‬௖ decreases, remains constant, or increases withߪ௩ᇱ ,
respectively. Furthermore, as Ladd (1973) pointed out, in normally consolidated
soils, ‫ܥ‬ఈ remains almost constant or decreases slightly in soils with a constantୡ .
12
Critical pressure
10
Compression index (Cc)
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 2.8. Compression index versus consolidation pressure for undisturbed Mexico
City clay (after Mesri et al. 1975)
As stated earlier, ‫ܥ‬௖ is the slope of ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ curve passing through each
stress point. The compression index (‫ܥ‬௖ ) increases as the consolidation pressure
increases, and at a certain level of stress it reaches its maximum and then decreases
as the consolidation pressure increases. Figure 2.8 shows the variation of ‫ܥ‬௖ with
23
consolidation pressure for undisturbed clay from Mexico City, as reported by Mesri
et al. (1975).
g ( ) ( )
EOP (e log V vc )
e e
Slope Cc
t p ,1
V vc,1
V vc, 2
t p,2
Slope CD
V vc,3 t p ,3
Cc ,1
CD ,1 Cc , 2
CD , 2
Cc , 3
CD ,3
log t V vc,1 V vc, 2 V vc,3 log V vc

(a) (b)
Figure 2.9. (a) Void ratio versus time; (b) void ratio versus effective vertical stress
(after Mesri and Castro 1987)
Mesri and Castro (1987) explained that three or four pairs of ‫ܥ‬ఈ and ‫ܥ‬௖
஼ഀ
values are usually enough to estimate the for one type of soil. The secondary
஼೎
compression index (‫ܥ‬ఈ ) at each compression pressure ɐᇱ୴ is taken from the slope of
the secant line connecting the point representing the end of primary consolidation to
a given point on the ݁ െ ݈‫݃݋‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ curve. The value of ‫ܥ‬௖ at the same consolidation
pressure is obtained from the slope of the െ ɐᇱ୴ curves (Mesri and Castro, 1987).
As a result, only one log time cycle of secondary compression is enough to calculate
஼ഀ
the ‫ܥ‬ఈ that corresponds to the ‫ܥ‬௖ from the ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ curves. Some values of for
஼೎
natural soil deposits are shown in Table 2.1. In all the discussions associated with the
஼
concept of creep ratio ሺ ഀሻ, ‫ܥ‬௖ stands for the slope of the ݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ curve in both the
஼೎
஼ೝ
recompression and compression ranges, while the ஼೎
term makes a distinction
24
between the recompression index ‫ܥ‬௥ , and the compression index ‫ܥ‬௖ (Mesri and
஼ഀ
Castro, 1987). As Table 2.1 shows, the values of change between 0.025 and 0.1
஼೎
for different types of soils.

Figure 2.9(a) depicts the void ratio changes versus time (݁ െ ݈‫ )ݐ݃݋‬curves,
where the curves show changes of ஑ in relation to time. Figure 2.9(b) depicts the
changes in the void ratio versus effective vertical stress (݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ ) curves. The
݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ curves were drawn for different specified times normalised against the
time corresponding to the end of primary consolidation (‫ݐ‬௣ ). The compression index
(‫ܥ‬௖ ) can be readily obtained by measuring the slope of the void ratio versus vertical
effective stress (݁ െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬௩ᇱ ) curve corresponding to the final vertical effective stress
(ߪ௙ᇱ ) that settlement should be calculated for. Furthermore, ‫ܥ‬ఈ can be calculated by
measuring the slope of the void ratio versus time (݁ െ ݈‫ )ݐ݃݋‬curve corresponding to
the time the settlement should be calculated. As a graphical demonstration, three sets
of ‫ܥ‬ఈ and ‫ܥ‬௖ are depicted in Figure 2.9.
‫ܥ‬ఈǡଵ ൐ ‫ܥ‬ఈǡଶ ൐ ‫ܥ‬ఈǡଷ (2.5)
and ‫ܥ‬௖ǡଵ ൐ ‫ܥ‬௖ǡଶ ൐ ‫ܥ‬௖ǡଷ (2.6)
஼ഀǡభ ஼ഀǡమ ஼ഀǡయ ஼ഀ
such that ൌ ൌ ൌ (2.7)
஼೎ǡభ ஼೎ǡమ ஼೎ǡయ ஼೎
஼ഀ
Although the ratio varies with the type of soil, it was assumed constant
஼೎
for each soil and can be estimated by carrying out three or four consolidation tests,
where ‫ݐ‬௣ is measured during the test using a pore water pressure transducer. By
measuring these parameters the secondary compression can be calculated. The
benefit of using this method is that long secondary compression tests are not required
to be conducted in the laboratory.
2.3.1.4 Reduction of secondary compression using surcharge

As explained earlier, preloading indicates the load application that is equal
to or greater than the total proposed load over the site prior to constructing the
structure. Preload is used to compress the underlying soil and can be partially or fully
removed after the desired settlement has occurred. Surcharging is a type of
preloading where the applied load is greater than the structural load to reduce the
25
preloading time or to minimise post-construction compression. Surcharging is
generally carried out to reduce post-construction settlement, to improve shear
strength, and to reduce the rate of secondary compression in the field. For example, a
surcharge can be used where secondary compression turns out to be significant
during the useful life of a structure and vertical drains are used to accelerate primary
consolidation.
‫݃݊݅݀݊݋݌ݏ݁ݎݎ݋ܥ‬ሺ݁଴ ሻ
ߪԢ௣
ߪԢ௩଴ ൫‫ ݁݃݊݅݀݊݋݌ݏ݁ݎݎ݋ܥ‬െ ݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ௩ ଴ ൯

ாை௉
Compression, Rebound
ܵ௣௦ ‫ݏ‬ ܵ௣௙
οߪ௩௦
ߪԢ௩௦
‫ܥ‬ఈ
ߪ௩௦
‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ
Vertical effective stress (logσ'v)
Figure 2.10. Total and effective surcharge ratios definition (after Feng 1991)
Generally, the higher the surcharge load, the less surcharging time is needed
to achieve a desired settlement, but the bearing capacity of the soil places an
important restriction on the maximum surcharge load that can be applied. The
surcharging time is the duration that surcharge fill will be in place before being
removed. As Mesri and Feng (1991) pointed out, the surcharge effort is stated in
௧ೞᇲ
terms of total surcharge ratio ( ୱ ) and surcharging time ratio ( ᇲ ).
௧೛ೞ
ఙ
ܴ௦ ൌ ൬ఙೡೞ
ᇲ ൰െͳ (2.8)
ೡ೑
ᇱ ᇱ
where ߪ௩௦ ൌ ߪ௩௙ ൅ οߪ௩௦ , ߪ௩௙ is the final effective vertical stress after
removing the surcharge, οߪ௩௦ is the total surcharge pressure, ‫ݐ‬௦ᇱ is the surcharging
ᇱ
time, and ‫ݐ‬௣௦ is time to end of primary (EOP) compression under surcharge.
26
Mesri and Feng (1991), on the other hand, stated that the surcharging effort
can be expressed using the effective surcharge ratio ܴ௦ᇱ , as shown in Equation (2.9).
ఙᇲ
ܴ௦ᇱ ൌ ൬ఙೡೞ
ᇲ ൰െͳ (2.9)
ೡ೑
ᇱ
where ߪ௩௦ is the maximum vertical effective stress reached immediately
before removing the surcharge.
1.0
ߪԢ௩௦ ൐ ߪԢ௩௙
0.8 ߪԢ௩௦ ൏ ߪԢ௩௙
For surcharging efforts ܵ௣௙
തതത ൌ ͲǤ͵
Ԣ 0.6 located below this line, ܵ௣௦
ͲǤͶ
ܴ௦ ‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ ൌ ‫ܥ‬ఈ for ‫ݐ‬Ԣ௦ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬൒ ‫ݐ‬Ԣ௣௦ ͲǤͷ
ͲǤͺ
ͲǤ͸
Ǥ͸
͸ ͲǤ͹
͹
0.4
‫ܤ‬
0.2
‫ܣ‬
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ܵ
ܵ௣௦
ഥ ௦ values in terms of ௌ೛೑ and

Figure 2.11. ܴԢ
ௌ
, for ‫ݐ‬Ԣ௦ ൏ ‫ݐ‬Ԣ௣௦ (after Feng 1991)
ௌ೛ೞ ௌ೛ೞ
According to Equations (2.8) and (2.9), while the surcharging time ratio is
equal to 1, then ܴ௦ᇱ ൌ ܴ௦ , but the effective surcharge ratio (ܴ௦ᇱ ) is greater than the
௧ᇲ
total surcharging ratio (ܴ௦ ) when the surcharging time ratio (௧ ᇲೞ ) is greater than one
೛ೞ
and vice versa. Mesri and Feng (1991) mentioned that unless very large values of
total surcharging ratio are utilized, surcharging may be ineffective at any time and
ᇱ ᇱ
depth in soil where ߪ௩௦ ൏ ߪ௩௙ and where ܴ௦ᇱ ൏ Ͳ. Moreover, surcharging may not be
economical when ‫ݐ‬௦ᇱ ൐ ‫ݐ‬௣௦
ᇱ
corresponds to ܴ௦ᇱ ൐ ܴ௦ because the most practical values
௧ೞᇲ ᇱ ᇱ ᇱ ௧ೞᇲ
of ᇲ can be selected in a way that ߪ௩௙ ൑ ߪ௩௦ ൑ ߪ௩௙ ൅ οߪ௩௦ . When ᇲ ൏ ͳ, the
௧೛ೞ ௧೛ೞ
effective surcharge ratio is not a constant within the soil profile and an average
effective surcharge ratio (ܴത௦ᇱ ) is used in post-surcharge secondary compression
analysis. Moreover, Feng (1991) stated that for soil elements where the vertical
27
effective stress was smaller than the final effective stress when the surcharge was
removed, the soil elements will continue to compress as a result of primary
consolidation and secondary compression. In this case, surcharging has no effect on
the secondary compression characteristics of soil. The definitions of total and
effective surcharge ratios are shown in Figure 2.10.
ഥ ௦ for a layer of soil, Terzaghi’s
Feng (1991) proposed that to calculate ܴԢ
theory of consolidation for a single layer can be used to develop a relationship
തതത
ோᇱೞ ௌ೛೑ ௌ
between , and (Figure 2.11). For given loading conditions (i.e. ߪԢ௩௙ and
ோೞ ௌ೛ೞ ௌ೛ೞ
ఙᇱೡ೑ ௌ೛೑ ൫ఙᇱೡ೑ ିఙᇱೡబ ൯ ௌ

ߪ௩௦ ), by definition ܴ௦ ൌ െ ͳ, ൌ ሺఙᇱೡೞ ିఙᇱೡబ ሻ
and ௌ ൌ ܷ. In Figure 2.11, curve
ఙೡೞ ௌ೛ೞ ೛ೞ
AB signifies that less surcharging effort was needed to reduce secondary

compression. For surcharge cases below curve AB, not only will some primary
consolidation remain after the surcharge has been removed, secondary compression
will occur in its full rate (i.e. ‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ ൌ ‫ܥ‬ఈ ) under final effective stress. Moreover, by
analysing the excess pore water pressure isochrones to ensure zero post-surcharge
ௌ೛೑ തതത
ோᇱೞ
primary consolidation for any given value of ௌ೛ೞ
, the minimum value of ோೞ
must be
തതത
ோᇱೞ
0.33. As a result, the area between the ൌ ͲǤ͵͵ line and the curve AB in
ோೞ
Figure 2.11 is a transition zone for surcharging resulting in some post-surcharge

primary consolidation as well as reduced post-surcharge secondary compression.
തതത
ோᇱೞ
While ൒ ͲǤ͵͵, not only no post-surcharge primary consolidation remain, there
ோೞ
will also be a significant reduction in the secondary compression.

Mesri and Feng (1991) stated that removing the surcharge leads to a
rebound consisting of the primary rebound up to ୮୰ , a secondary rebound which
levels off at ‫ݐ‬௟ , followed by a post-surcharge secondary compression. ‫ݐ‬௣௥ and ‫ݐ‬௟ were
measured from the time the surcharge load (‫ݐ‬௦ᇱ ) was removed. Mesri et al. (1994)
pointed out that the time needed for a primary rebound depends on the rebound
characteristics of the soil and the permeability and drainage boundary conditions of
the soil. Consequently, the duration of primary rebound was computed from a time-
rate of rebound analysis, while the the secondary rebound duration was calculated
௧
from the empirical correlation between ௧ ೗ and ܴ௦ᇱ .
೛ೝ
28
Feng (1991) stated that when soil is over consolidated due to mechanical
unloading, primary consolidation is substituted by primary rebound followed by
secondary rebound. However, secondary compression still exists but its magnitude
has probably decreased due to the decreasing vertical effective stress. Consequently,
while the effective surcharge ratio is small, primary and secondary rebounds are
small while secondary compression is predominant, and post-surcharge secondary
compression reappears shortly after the surcharge is removed. By increasing the
effective surcharge ratio, not only does secondary rebound increase, secondary
compression decreases further, whereas increasing the effective surcharge ratio
means that the reappearance time of post-surcharge secondary compression is
௧೗
prolonged. As a result of the above, a large increase in will appear with an
௧೛ೝ
increase in ܴԢ௦ . This means that increasing the effective surcharge ratio will postpone
the reappearance of secondary compression or increase the secondary rebound time.
Feng (1991) indicated that the time to end primary rebound (‫ݐ‬௣௥ ) is
proportional to the magnitude of the effective surcharge ratio (ܴԢ௦ ). It should be
noted that by definition ܴԢ௦ ൌ ܱ‫ ܴܥ‬൅ ͳ, where OCR is the overconsolidation ratio.
Consequently, it is expected that the reduced time to reach the end of primary
rebound (‫ݐ‬௣௥ ) increases with an increase in the magnitude of the effective surcharge
ratio. However, it is expected that the rate of increase at the end of primary rebound
(‫ݐ‬௣௥ ) will be insignificant for ܴԢ௦ values between 0.2 and 1.0, whereas the rebound
index (ୱ ) and permeability of the soil will change slightly. However, the
reappearance time for the post-surcharge secondary compression (‫ݐ‬௟ ) depends mostly
on the magnitude of ܴԢ௦ .
As Choi (1982) stated, where the surcharge load is removed at the end of
primary consolidation (ܷ௦ ؆ ͳͲͲΨ), ‫ݐ‬௣௥ may be approximately estimated using
Terzaghi’s theory of one dimensional consolidation by an appropriate selection of the
coefficient of swelling (ܿ௩௦ ). On the other hand, where ܷ௦ ൏ ͳͲͲΨ compression
reappears very quickly after the surcharge is removed, and the rebound is small, in
fact, part of the soil near the drainage boundaries is rebounding while the remainder
is compressing. The rebound rate and compression rate are estimated by ܿ௩௦ and ܿ௩ ,
respectively, and the magnitude of each mode of deformation is estimated by the
coefficients of compressibility ܽ௩௦ and ܽ௩ . A theory is needed to estimate the time-
29
rate of settlement after the surcharge is removed, so the model must consider changes
in ܿ௩௦ and ܽ௩௦ with an increase in OCR during the rebound.
݈‫ݐ݃݋‬
Compression, Rebound
‫ݐ‬௣௥ ‫ݐ‬௟
‫ݐ‬
݈ܵ‫ ݁݌݋‬ൌ ‫ןܥ‬ᇱ
ܴ௦ ൌ ͲǤͶ
‫ݐ‬Ԣ௦ ݈ܵ‫ ݁݌݋‬ൌ ‫ןܥ‬ᇱᇱ
‫ݐ‬Ԣ௣௦
݈‫ݐ݃݋‬Ԣ
Figure 2.12. Elapsed times definition used to estimate post-surcharge secondary

compression (after Feng 1991)
Mesri et al. (1994) proposed Equation (2.10) for calculating post-surcharge

secondary compression.
ಉ େᇲᇲ ୲
ൌ ଵାୣ ଴ ୲ (2.10)
బ ౢ
where ‫ݐ‬௟ is the time that post-surcharge secondary compression reappears

after the surcharge is removed, and ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ is a post-surcharge secant secondary
ο௘
compression index from ‫ݐ‬௟ to any time t (‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ ൌ ο௟௢௚௧). Mesri et al. (1994) mentioned
that the post-surcharge secondary compression can be explained and predicted by the
஼ഀ
law of compressibility, so post-surcharge secondary settlement can be estimated
஼೎
using Equation (2.11).

େ େಉ େᇲᇲ ୲
ൌ ଵାୣౙ ಉ
଴ ୲ (2.11)
బ େౙ େಉ ౢ
௧ େಉ ᇱ
where ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ corresponds to ୲ . For any soil, the and ୡ values at ߪ௩௙ on the
ౢ େౙ
compression curve, in combination with ܴԢ௦ , can be used to calculate ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ from
Figure 2.13.
30
Mesri et al. (1994) stated that it is generally expected that ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ is small
initially and then gradually increases, becomes constant, or decreases with time. The
common shape of any recompression or compression EOP െ ɐᇱ୴ curve proposes
that ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ should decrease when the compression time is very long (time approaching
infinity). The post-surcharge secondary compression may be expected to begin with
஼ഀᇲ
a less than 1.0 and then ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ will automatically enlarge until the recompression
஼ഀ
curve merges with the compression curve. The succeeding variations of ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ with time
are related to the variations of ‫ܥ‬௖ with ߪ௩ᇱ .
0.5
Soft Clays and Silts ܴԢ௦ ൌ ͲǤʹ

0.4 େಉ
ൌ ͲǤͲʹͶ‫Ͳ݋ݐ‬ǤͲͷͷ
େౙ
େᇲᇲ
ಉ 0.3
େಉ
0.2
ܴԢ௦ ൌ ͲǤͶ
0.1 ܴԢ௦ ൌ ͲǤ͸

ܴԢ௦ ൌ ͳǤͲ
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
‫ݐ‬Τ ୪
େᇲᇲ
Figure 2.13. Post-surcharge secondary compression index in terms of େಉ (after Mesri
ಉ
et al. 1994)
Since ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ is not constant with time, for a practical settlement analysis, a
secant ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱᇱ is described from the time that post-surcharge secondary compression
begins to any time where post-surcharge secondary compression is to be calculated.
The definition of elapsed time used to estimate the post-surcharge secondary
compression is shown in Figure 2.12. As Feng (1991) denoted, investigations show
that both ‫ܥ‬ԢԢఈ and ‫ݐ‬௟ are functions of effective surcharge ratio (ܴԢ௦ ) or in other words,
both ‫ܥ‬ԢԢఈ and ‫ݐ‬௟ may be estimated when ܴԢ௦ is known. Ladd (1973) reported that the
31
஼ഀᇲ
post-surcharge secondary compression data showed that ஼೎
decreased from 1 to 0.1
as the effective surcharge ratio increased from 0.07 to 0.5.
݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ
ߪԢ௙
ߪԢ௦
‫ܥ‬ఈ
‫ܥ‬ఈ
‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ Loading without surcharge
Reloading after previously loaded to ߪԢ௦
݈‫ߪ݃݋‬Ԣ
Figure 2.14. Ideal model of surcharging to reduce secondary compression (after

Mesri et al. 1994)
Feng (1991) explained that Figure 2.14 is an ideal model for the reduction
of secondary compression after the surcharge is removed. The solid curve represents
the relationship of ‫ܥ‬ఈ െ ߪԢ without surcharging, whereas, the dashed curve represents
the relationship of ‫ܥ‬ఈ െ ߪԢ for the soil upon reloading while the soil is loaded to the
32
surcharging pressure (ߪԢ௦ ) and then unloaded to the final structure pressure (ߪԢ௙ ሻ. As
a result, at ߪԢ௩௙ , the value of ‫ܥ‬ఈ is reduced to ‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ by surcharging. It should be
mentioned that the key assumption in Figure 2.14 is that the primary consolidation is
achieved under the surcharge pressure before the surcharge is removed.
Choi (1982) pointed out that surcharging does not always lead to a reduction
in the secondary compression index (‫ܥ‬ఈ ) because if a soil is loaded slightly more
than its preconsolidation pressure and then unloaded, upon further reloading ‫ܥ‬Ԣఈ can
go beyond ‫ܥ‬ఈ within a certain pressure range. Choi (1982) indicated that, while
஼ᇱഀ
natural soft clays were considered, can exceed unity, but when soil is loaded
஼ഀ
beyond its preconsolidation pressure, the main structural change commences and ‫ܥ‬௖
and ‫ܥ‬ఈ increases quickly. When soil is unloaded from ߪԢ௩௦ to ߪԢ௩௙ it experiences
secondary compression at ߪԢ௩௙ at a rate related to when the main structural changes
began, but if a surcharge is not applied, the main structural change of the particles
has not yet begun at ߪԢ௩௙ . Consequently, ‫ܥ‬ఈ under ߪԢ௩௙ and without surcharge may
be smaller than the ‫ܥ‬ఈ value after the surcharge.
Mesri (2001) proposed Equations (2.12) and (2.13) as the empirical
௧೗
correlations between and ܴ௦ᇱ for inorganic clays and peats, respectively. It should
௧೛ೝ
௧
be mentioned that the values of ൬௧ ೗ ൰ for peats are much smaller than those for soft
೛ೝ
clay and silt deposits. According to Mesri (2001), it would appear that the
fundamental tendency for rebound to the tendency for compression is less in peats
than in clays, indeed a significant part of the pore water in fibrous peat fabric is held
as free water outside and within the particles so the free pore water squeezed out by
loading has no physico-chemical tendency to return to the peat fabric after an
unloading process.
௧
൬௧ ೗ ൰ ൌ ͳͲͲܴ௦ᇱଵǤ଻ (2.12)
೛ೝ
௧
൬௧ ೗ ൰ ൌ ͳͲܴ௦ᇱ (2.13)
೛ೝ
Mesri (2001) indicated that while ᇱୱ is small, ୪ is also small and thus post-
surcharge secondary compression appears soon after removing the surcharge, while
‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ increases rapidly with time, but when ܴ௦ᇱ is large, ‫ݐ‬௟ is also large and thus the
33
post-surcharge secondary compression appears long after removing the surcharge,
while ‫ܥ‬ఈᇱ increases slowly with time.
Based on a large number of surcharge tests (5 to 6 values of ܴ௦ᇱ in the range
of 0.2 to 1.0) carried out by Mesri and Ajlouni (1997) on six undisturbed specimens
௧೛ ௧೛
of soft clay and silt deposits, a typical value of ௧ ൌ ͹Ͳ was determined, in fact,
೛ೝ ௧೛ೝ
is not a constant and increases with the reduction in ܴ௦ᇱ , and since ܴ௦ᇱ approaches
zero, the secondary compression rate after unloading is the same as the continuation
of the secondary compression rate.
Hypothesis A has a huge experimental base and has been used reliably for
many years by practising engineers. Since most of the creep ratio concept equations
and parameters’ relations are empirical, the correct way of using them needs careful
study. Although the creep ratio concept is practical, it has limitations such as a lack
of excess pore water pressure simulation and difficulties with numerical calculations
when the nonlinear variation of permeability and the void ratio influence the
dissipation rate of excess pore water pressure. Furthermore, this lack of excess pore
water pressure simulation creates difficulties in predicting the end of primary
consolidation when removing the preloading. Furthermore, Mesri et al. (1975)
reported that the compression index used in the creep ratio concept as a function of
the vertical effective stress and time during consolidation, makes it difficult to
determine the compression index.
2.4 HYPOTHESIS B
Hypothesis B assumes that since the viscous behaviour of soft soils occurs
during primary consolidation, the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
(݁ாை௉ ) cannot be equal for thick and thin layers of soil. A number of constitutive
models that support Hypothesis B are presented in the literature, and for the sake of
classification they can be divided into three categories: empirical models, rheological
models, and general stress-strain-time models. These models are explained in the
next section.
34
2.4.1 Empirical models
Empirical models are generally presented by closed form solutions or
differential equations because they are mostly based on fitting experimental results
from creep, stress relaxation, and constant rate of strain tests. Furthermore, to the
extent that the boundary conditions comply with laboratory experiments, the
empirical models may provide practical solutions to engineering problems. Empirical
constitutive models are usually attained by directly fitting the experimental test data
with mathematical functions. The empirical models reviewed in detail were selected
for at least one of two reasons: (i) they present major steps for understanding the
physics of secondary compression; (ii) they raise major unresolved issues for
consolidation analysis.
2.4.1.1 Taylor and Merchant’s model

Taylor and Merchant (1940) suggested a revision to Terzaghi’s (1923)
consolidation theory to include secondary compression effects, in fact their
consolidation theory was the first to contain a time dependant effective stress model,
while their method of deriving the consolidation equation has subsequently been
used by many researchers.
The same flow equation as in Terzaghi’s consolidation theory is used in
Talyor and Merchant (1940). The following equation defines the change in volume
of a soil element by dissipating the excess pore water pressure:
ଵ డ௘ ௞ డమ ௨ೣ
ൌ ఊ೥ (2.14)
ଵା௘ డ௧ ೢ డ௭ మ
where ݁ is the void ratio, ݇௭ is the coefficient of permeability, ߛ௪ is the unit weight
of water, and ‫ݑ‬௫ stands for excess pore water pressure.
The following assumptions were adopted to obtain the above equation:
- The soil is homogeneous and saturated,
- The soil skeleton and the flow of water are compressed in a vertical direction,
- The pore water and solid grains are incompressible,
- Darcy’s law describes the flow of water, and the permeability is constant,
35
- Only small changes in the void ratio were considered because the deformations
are small,
- The change in the void ratio is proportional to the change in the applied vertical
ௗ௘
effective stress (i.e. ௗఙᇲ ൌ ܽ௩ ), and
- ܽ௩ is constant over a load increment for small changes in the void ratio.
Taylor and Merchant’s (1940) consolidation theory differs from Terzaghi’s

theory in the last two assumptions; Taylor and Merchant (1940) assumed that the
compression of an element of the soil skeleton is a function of effective stress and
time. Consequently, the void ratio of soil can be defined by Equation (2.15).
݁ ൌ ݂ሺߪ ᇱ ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ (2.15)
From Equation (2.15), the rate of change in the void ratio for a soil element
can be explained by Equation (2.16).
ௗ௘ డ௘ ௗఙᇲ డ௘
ௗ௧
ൌ ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൅ ቀడ௧ ቁ (2.16)
௧ ௗ௧ ఙᇲ
Referring to Equation (2.16), part of the decrease in the void ratio stems
from instantaneous consolidation (the first term), while the other part is the result of
secondary compression under a constant vertical effective stress (the second term).
Taylor and Merchant (1940) assumed that for any value of vertical effective stress
there is a unique final value of deformation corresponding to a linear relationship
between the void ratio and vertical effective stress. In Figure 2.15, the line related to
the final value of the void ratio under current loading is defined by segment AB with
the slope of െܽ௙ .
Taylor and Merchant (1940) also hypothesized that instantaneous
compression was proportional to the vertical effective stress. Segment AG with the
slope of െܽᇱ in Figure 2.15 defines this component. As a result, the instantaneous
compression can be calculated by Equation (2.17).
డ௘
ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൌ െܽᇱ (2.17)
௧
Taylor and Merchant (1940) suggested that hydrodynamic retardation

results in the (ߪ ᇱ ,݁) point on Figure 2.15 following an ACB curve as the effective
stress increases from ߪ ᇱଵ to ߪ ᇱ ଶ with time, but at some time throughout the
consolidation process, the total deformation would correspond to the change in the
36
void ratio from Point A to Point C. The contribution of instantaneous compression
corresponds to the difference in the void ratio between Point A and Point E, and the
contribution of delayed compression corresponds to the difference in the void ratio
between Point E and Point C.
Lastly, Taylor and Merchant (1942) assumed that the rate of secondary
compression at Point C may be proportional to the residual compression needed to
reach the value of final deformation under the current vertical effective stress (i.e. the
distance between Points C and D). As a result, the rate of secondary compression can
be calculated by the following equation:
డ௘
ቀడ௧ ቁ ൌ െߤ ቀܽ௙ ሺߪ ᇱ െ ߪଵᇱ ሻ ൅ ሺ݁ െ ݁ଵ ሻቁ (2.18)
ఙᇲ
where ߤ is a constant.
Substituting Equations (2.17) (instantaneous compression rate) and (2.18)
(secondary compression rate) in Equation (2.16) results in the model equation for a
soil element, as follows:
ௗ௘ డఙᇲ
ௗ௧
ൌ െܽᇱ െ ߤ ቀܽ௙ ሺߪ ᇱ െ ߪଵᇱ ሻ ൅ ሺ݁ െ ݁ଵ ሻቁ (2.19)
డ௧
The void ratio and vertical effective stress in a layer of soil differ with depth
ௗ௘ డ௘
(‫)ݖ‬, and actually, this expression for ௗ௧
relates to the partial derivative డ௧
in the flow
equation (Equation (2.14)). Moreover, for a constant total load, the variation of
vertical effective stress relates to the dissipation of excess pore pressure (݀‫݌‬ᇱ ൌ
െ݀‫ݑ‬௫ ). Thus Taylor and Merchant’s (1940) equation can be presented as:
డమ ௨ೣ డ௨ೣ ఓ
‫ܭ‬ ൌ െ ௔ᇲ ቀܽ௙ ሺ‫ݑ‬଴ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ሻ ൅ ሺ݁ െ ݁ଵ ሻቁ (2.20)
డ௭ మ డ௧
௞೥ ሺଵା௘ሻ
where ‫ ܭ‬ൌ and it is assumed to be constant.
௔ᇲ ఊೢ
An experimental evaluation of the precision of Taylor and Merchant’s

(1940) theory of consolidation necessitates considering the variation of the void ratio
with the variation of vertical effective stress throughout the period of pore pressure
dissipation. Taylor (1942) carried out oedometer tests with excess pore pressure
measurement at the base of the specimen and found that the results were
encouraging.
37
‫ݑ‬଴
A ‫ݑ‬௫
݁ଵ E 1
݁ ܽᇱ
C G
Void ratio
D
ܽ௙ 1
Voi
݁ଶ B
ߪଵᇱ ߪᇱ ߪଶᇱ
Vertical effective stress
Figure 2.15. Relationship between void ratio and vertical effective stress throughout
the consolidation process (after Taylor and Merchant 1940)
2.4.1.2 Suklje’s model

The model presented by Suklje (1957) is based on a system of void ratio-
effective stress lines at constant strain rate, named isotaches. The void ratio and
effective stress used in this theory are the average values over the thickness of a
sample or a soil layer. To calculate the average effective stress, it is assumed that
pore pressure isochrones are parabolic. Throughout secondary compression, the
maximum excess pore pressure was calculated by Buisman’s (1936) equation for
settlement. Suklje (1657) assumed that the same expression for pore pressure is valid
during primary consolidation when the coefficient of secondary compression is
replaced by instantaneous slope of the compression curve. If we consider these
assumptions, then the compression curves for several load increments on a sample
can be transformed into isotaches. For the settlement of a clay layer, the slope of the
compression curve is iterated in two steps: (i) for a given slope, calculate the average
strain rate and maximum pore pressure (and therefore the average effective stress),
and (ii) the current void ratio must coincide with the value on the corresponding
isotache at the current effective stress.
38
Suklje (1957) stated that since isotaches are derived from experimental
compression curves for several load increments, the variation of permeability
throughout consolidation is considered implicitly. Suklje (1957) also presented a
graphical construction of the consolidation curves for layers whose thicknesses were
several orders of magnitude larger than the thickness of the sample. The
consolidation curves gradually merged into the same linear ݁ െ ݈‫ ݐ݃݋‬relationship,
and were compared to solutions based on Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation. It
should be mentioned that the experimental excess pore pressures did not agree with
the computed values based on the slope of the experimental consolidation curves.
2.4.1.3 Bjerrum’s model

The effects of time on the compressibility of clay in terms of secondary
compression were first formulated by Buisman (1936), who presented the results of
long oedometer tests on clay and peat along with the settlement records of a road
embankment and a levee. According to laboratory tests, Buisman (1936) found that
settlements and the logarithm of time were linearly correlated after about one day for
the clay and about one minute for the peat. Moreover, settlements of a road
embankment and a levee throughout the period of observation (about two years)
linearly increased with the logarithm of time. Based on an assumption that settlement
is proportional to the load, Buisman (1936) suggested Equation (2.21) to estimate the
soil settlement for values of time corresponding to the log-linear part of the
settlement diagram.
ߝ௧ ൌ οߪ൫ߙ௣ ൅ ߙ௦ ݈‫ݐ݃݋‬൯ (2.21)
where ߝ௧ is the soil vertical strain, οߪ is the load increment, ‫ ݐ‬is time in min,
ߙ௣ represents the instant deformation per unit thickness and unit load, and ߙ௦ stands
for secondary compression rate per unit thickness and unit load.
Buisman (1936) assumed the superposition of time dependant settlement for
staged loading where secondary compression equals the sum of secondary
compressions of previous loadings, while each loading is considered individually.
Furthermore, Buisman (1936) pointed out that, as defined in Terzaghi’s (1923)
consolidation theory, typical compressibility consists of the direct load and time
dependant effects. The conclusions of the proposed method are as follows:
39
- Based on experiments, there is a linear relationship between the logarithm of
time and soil deformation except for that time immediately after loading,
- The slope of the deformation diagram (ߙ௦ ) is proportionally related to the

applied load, and
- The superposition of loads results in a superposition of the deformation

diagrams.
Following Buisman (1936), Taylor (1942) reported that there is a family of

curves called “time lines” for the one-dimensional compression of clay. The
logarithm of effective stress versus the void ratio diagram was used to define the
time lines, with each line corresponding to a given duration of loading. At the end of
primary (0.1 day), 1, and 10 days, the time lines can be gained in the laboratory. By
assuming that settlements indefinitely increase linearly with the logarithm of time
throughout secondary consolidation, the 1 year and 10 year time lines can be
obtained by extrapolation.
Bjerrum (1967) denoted that a layer of clay deforms when a deposit is
constructed and then settlement continues as a function of time under a constant
vertical effective stress. Thus, the compressibility of soil cannot be defined by a
single curve in a logarithm of vertical effective stress versus a void ratio.
Bjerrum’s (1967) theory of time dependant compressibility stands on two
baselines: (i) a system of parallel time lines or curves can be defined in a logarithm
of effective vertical stress versus void ratio figure. A sample of the time lines system
is depicted in Figure 2.16, where each line represents the void ratio equilibrium for
various values of vertical effective stress at a given time of a sustained loading; (ii) a
unique relationship between vertical effective stress, void ratio, and time is defined
by the time lines system.
Bjerrum (1967) stated there is an equivalent time of load suspension and a
certain rate of delayed consolidation for any specific value of vertical stress and void
ratio, which is independent of the way clay have reached these values. This means
the delayed component of the compression of a soil at any given void ratio and
vertical effective stress can be identified based on the initial void ratio, vertical
effective stress, and the fixed system of lines (or the age of the clay deposit).
40
Vertical stress (kPa)
10 100
1.4
ܲ଴
ܲ௖ ൌ ͳǤʹͷܲ଴
Instant compression
1.3 1 hour
Void ratio
28 days delayed consolidation
5 hours
1.2 1 day
4 days
28 days
1.1
Figure 2.16. Effect of sustained loading on results of oedometer tests (aging effect)
(after Bjerrum 1967)
Consequently, soil settlement is divided into two parts: an instant

compression that occurs concurrently with an increase in the vertical effective stress,
and a delayed compression. Instant and delayed compressions are alternatives to
primary consolidation and secondary compression which divides soil settlement into
two components that cover the before and after dissipation of excess pore water
pressure. Figure 2.17 shows a comparison between the definition of instant and
delayed compressions, as well as primary consolidation and secondary compression.
Bjerrum (1967) supported his theory by: (i) comparing the overburden
pressure of a clay deposit in Drammen with the preconsolidation pressure profile; (ii)
the preconsolidation pressure increased due to sustained loading in the laboratory;
(iii) the deformation records and analyses of six buildings in Drammen. Nearly 40
standard oedometer tests were carried out on deposits of Drammen clay to obtain a
profile of critical pressure, which is the pressure at yielding in standard oedometer
tests, versus the maximum load applied in the past. Based on geological studies, the
clay was normally consolidated and also subjected to the existing overburden
pressure for almost 3000 years. The critical pressure profile showed that delayed
compression produced a 60% increase in the critical pressure compared to the
present overburden pressure profile.
41
effective stress
Time
Instant
Primary
Compression
Delayed
Period of pore water Secondary

pressure dissipation No excess pore water pressure
Figure 2.17. Definition of instant and delayed compression compared with primary
consolidation and secondary compression (after Bjerrum 1967)
Bjerrum (1967) stated that the increase in the critical pressure due to
delayed compression is called the ageing effect. Figure 2.16 shows how an
oedometer sample was loaded in steps over a period of 24 hours each. A loading of
130 kPa, which was sustained for 28 days, increased the critical pressure by 23% to
160 kPa. Various combinations of step loading always results in the same time lines
system, thus this time lines system is unique.
2.4.1.4 Garlanger’s model

Garlanger (1972) was the first to propose a numerical model to consider the
effects of time on yielding. His model was developed based on Bjerrum (1967) time
42
lines. Garlanger (1972) defined the rate of variation in the void ratio of a soil element
throughout consolidation by Equation (2.22).
ௗ௘ డ௘ ௗఙᇲ డ௘
ௗ௧
ൌ ቂడఙᇲ ቃ ൅ ቂ డ௧ ቃ (2.22)
௧ ௗ௧ ఙᇲ
By referring to the time lines (Figure 2.16), Garlanger (1972) expressed the
change in the void ratio due to a loading from ߪ ᇱ ଴ to ߪ ᇱ௙ by Equation (2.23).
ఙᇲ ఙ೑ᇲ ௧೔ ା௧
݁଴ െ ݁ ൌ ‫ܥ‬௥ ݈‫ ݃݋‬ఙ೎ᇲ ൅ ‫ܥ‬௖ ݈‫ ݃݋‬ఙᇲ ൅ ‫ܥ‬ఈ ݈‫݃݋‬ ௧೔
(2.23)
బ ೎
where ‫ݐ‬௜ is a reference time line that Garlanger (1972) assigned to the
instant compression line in the theory of time lines, while ‫ ݐ‬is time measured from
the moment of the load application. It was assumed that the final value of the vertical
effective stress (ߪ௙ᇱ ) was larger than the critical pressure (ߪ௖ᇱ ) which is located on the
instant compression line.
As suggested by Hansen (1969), Garlanger (1972) decided to use a linear
relationship between the logarithm of void ratio, the logarithm of effective stress, and
the logarithm of time.
ఙᇲ ఙ೑ᇲ ௧೔ ା௧
െο݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ൌ ݈ܽ‫ ݃݋‬ఙ೎ᇲ ൅ ܾ݈‫ ݃݋‬ఙᇲ ൅ ݈ܿ‫݃݋‬ ௧೔
(2.24)
బ ೎
with ܽ, ܾ, and ܿ replacing ‫ܥ‬௥ , ‫ܥ‬௖ , and ‫ܥ‬ఈ , respectively. As Garlanger (1972)
stated, the first two terms on the right side of Equation (2.24) represent instant
compression and the last term represents secondary compression. Furthermore, for
any point (݁ െ ߪ ᇱ ) on the left of the instant compression line (refer to Figure 2.16),
the instant compression rate would be as follows:
డ௘ ௔௘
െ ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൌ ఙᇲ
(2.25)
௧
While on the instant compression line, the instant compression rate would
be:
డ௘ ௕௘
െ ቀడఙᇲ ቁ ൌ ఙᇲ
(2.26)
௧
To obtain the rate of delayed compression, Equation (2.24) can be

differentiated with respect to time. Equation (2.27) shows the rate of delayed
compression:
భ ್
డ௘ ௖௘ ௘ ೎ ఙᇲ ೎ (2.27)
െቀ ቁ ൌ ቀ ቁ ቀ ᇲቁ
డ௧ ఙᇲ ௧೔ ௘೎ ఙ೎
where,
43
ି௔
ఙᇲ
݁௖ ൌ ݁଴ ቀఙ೎ᇲ ቁ (2.28)
బ
It should be mentioned that Equation (2.27) defines the delayed

compression only throughout the secondary compression, so to derive an equation to
capture the rate of delayed compression at any time during consolidation (i.e. while
vertical effective stress is increasing), Garlanger (1972) made supplementary
assumptions.
Based on time line theory, each combination of overburden pressure and
void ratio relates to an equivalent time of sustained loading and a certain rate of
delayed compression. At a given point (݁ െ ߪ௙ᇱ ), the equivalent time of sustained
loading relates to the duration of creep under the final vertical effective stress needed
to reduce the void ratio from an instant line to the current value of the void ratio.
Substituting ߪ ᇱ for ߪ௙ᇱ in Equation (2.24) and solving it for ‫ ݐ‬results in an equation for
the equivalent time of sustained loading that can be related to any combination of
void ratio and vertical effective stress.
The rate of delayed compression throughout secondary compression is a
function of sustained loading time. This relationship was derived by differentiating
Equation (2.24) with respect to time. Garlanger (1972) proposed Equation (2.29) by
substituting instant and delayed compression rate equations into Equation (2.22).
ܱ݊‫݈݁݊݅݊݋݅ݏݏ݁ݎ݌݉݋ܿݐ݊ܽݐݏ݄݊݅݁ݐ݂݋݁݀݅ݏݐ݂݈݄݁݁ݐ‬ሺ‫ʹ ݋ݐݎ݂݁݁ݎ‬Ǥͳ͸ሻ
‫ۓ‬ భ ್
ۖ ௗ௘ ൌ െ ௔௘ ௗఙᇲ െ ௖௘ ቀ ௘ ቁ೎ ቀఙᇲ ቁ ೎
ۖ ௗ௧ ఙ ᇲ ௗ௧ ௧೔ ௘೎ ఙ೎ᇲ
‫݈݁݊݅݊݋݅ݏݏ݁ݎ݌݉݋ܿݐ݊ܽݐݏ݄݊݅݁ݐܱ݊ ۔‬ሺ‫ʹ ݋ݐݎ݂݁݁ݎ‬Ǥͳ͸ሻ (2.29)

ۖ భ ್
ۖௗ௘ ௕௘ ௗఙ ᇲ ௖௘ ௘ ೎ ఙ ᇲ ೎
‫ ە‬ௗ௧ ൌ െ ఙᇲ ௗ௧ െ ௧೔ ቀ௘೎ ቁ ቀఙ೎ᇲ ቁ
The numerical solution proposed by Garlanger (1972) for a load increment
applied to a clay layer consisted of three equations: (i) The flow equation of
Terzaghi’s consolidation theory; (ii) Equation (2.22) for the rate of change in the
void ratio in a soil element (Equations (2.25) and (2.26) were used to obtain the rate
of instant compression); and (iii) Equation (2.27) was used to calculate the rate of
delayed compression. Dimensionless terms were presented in these equations which
were substituted by their finite difference calculations and considered concurrently to
estimate changes in the void ratio and the excess pore water pressure with time
during consolidation.
44
A numerical solution was used to simulate oedometer tests on samples of
various thicknesses and to calculate the settlement of three buildings. As Garlanger
(1972) explained, the model parameters for laboratory tests, particularly for
parameters ܿ and ‫ݐ‬௜ , were obtained by fitting the compression curves under a
constant vertical effective stress. Garlanger (1972) indicated that the rate of delayed
compression attained in the laboratory over a short period of time may overestimate
the actual rate of delayed compression in the field. As a result, it is suggested to
assume ‫ݐ‬௜ ൌ ͲǤͳ year and to deduce the creep rate for computation from the amount
of delayed compression in the field and the age of the clay.
A unique feature of Garlanger’s (1972) model may be explained as a
hardening of the instant component of compression resulting from either instant or
delayed compression. It should be mentioned that this feature is consistent with the
theory of time lines. The definition of the rate of delayed compression applied by
Garlanger (1972) was partly based on the theory of time lines, and it resulted in
excessive values of the rate of delayed compression throughout the duration of pore
water pressure dissipation. Garlanger (1972) stated that the creep rate calculated
from Equation (2.27) could be larger than the total rate of change in the void ratio
allowed by the drainage which causes the excess pore water pressure to remain
constant over the time step. This point may result in some concerns about the
performance of the model.
2.4.1.5 Kabbaj’s model

Bjerrum’s (1967) theory of time lines was used by Kabbaj (1985) as the
physical basis of the model. Kabbaj’s (1985) approach consisted of the influence of
the strain rate on the value of preconsoldiation pressure. Kabbaj (1985) assumed that
total compression is a combination of instant (elastic) compression and delayed (time
dependant plastic) compression, so the total strain rate was proposed as:
ߝሶ ൌ ߝሶ ௘ ൅ ߝሶ௣ (2.30)
where ߝሶ ௘ is elastic compression and ߝሶ௣ is time dependant compression. The
rate of instant elastic compression is given by:
఑ ఙሶ ᇲ
ߝሶ ௘ ൌ (2.31)
ଵା௘బ ఙᇲ
where ݁଴ is the initial void ratio, and ߢ is the model parameter.
45
Kabbaj (1985) used the description of clay behaviour proposed by Leroueil
et al. (1985) to derive a model of time dependant plastic compression. Based on
Leroueil et al. (1985) proposal, the following relationships can describe the
behaviour of clay:
- A relationship between preconsolidation pressure and strain rate, and
- A relationship between strain and normalised effective stress. Normalised

effective stress is assumed to be the value of effective stress divided by the
preconsolidation pressure (the normalised stress strain curves related to constant
values of strain rate).
Kabbaj (1985) mentioned that the proposed description of clay behaviour by

Leroueil et al. (1985) is the result of observations in the normally consolidated range
which comprise mostly plastic strain. Consequently, Kabbaj (1985) proposed the
observations as the time dependant plastic behaviour. A linear relationship between
the logarithm of preconsolidation pressure and the logarithm of plastic strain rate,
and also a piece-wise linear relationship between the logarithm of effective stress and
the plastic strain were assumed by Kabbaj (1985).
݈݊ሺ݁ሶ ௣ ሻ ൌ ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫݈݊ܤ‬൫ߪ௣ᇱ ൯ (2.32)
ఙᇲ (2.33)
݈݊ ൬ఙᇲ ൰ ൌ ‫ ܥ‬൅ ‫ ݁ܦ‬௣
೛
where ‫ܣ‬, ‫ܤ‬, ‫ܥ‬, and ‫ ܦ‬are experimental constants.

To obtain the plastic strain rate, the preconsolidation pressure in Equation
(2.32) was eliminated using Equation (2.33).
ߝሶ ௣ ൌ ݁‫݌ݔ‬ሼ‫ܣ‬ሽ ൈ ݁‫݌ݔ‬ሼ‫ܤ‬ሺ݈݊ሺߪ ᇱ ሻ െ ‫ ܥ‬െ ‫ ݁ܦ‬௣ ሻሽ (2.34)
Substituting the expressions of the elastic strain rate and the rate of time
dependant plastic strain in Equation (2.30) leads to the model equation by Kabbaj
(1985).
఑ ఙሶ ᇲ
ߝሶ ൌ ଵା௘ ൅ ݁‫݌ݔ‬ሼ‫ܣ‬ሽ ൈ ݁‫݌ݔ‬ሼ‫ܤ‬ሺ݈݊ሺߪ ᇱ ሻ െ ‫ ܥ‬െ ‫ ݁ܦ‬௣ ሻሽ (2.35)
బ ఙᇲ
46
2.4.1.6 Yin’s model
An elastic visco-plastic model was originally proposed by Yin and Graham
(1989) based on Bjerrum’s equivalent time line concept which can calculate the
behaviour of soil measured in the field and the laboratory. According to Yin and
Graham (1989), the strain at any given vertical effective stress can be calculated by
the following equation:
௘௣ ఒ ఙᇲ ట ௧బ ା௧೐
ߝ௭ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ௩ ݈݊ ఙᇲ೥ ൅ ௩ ݈݊ (2.36)
೥బ ௧బ
௘௣ ఑
where ߝ௭଴ is the strain at the reference point,௩ is a material parameter
describing the elastic stiffness of the soil where ‫ ݒ‬is the specific volume ሺ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͳ ൅
ట
݁଴ ሻ, and ݁଴ is the initial void ratio,ߪԢ௭଴ and ‫ݐ‬଴ are material properties, ௩
is defined by
the slope of creep strain plotted versus ሺ‫ݐ‬௘ ሻ, and ‫ݐ‬௘ is the equivalent time.
According to Yin and Graham (1989), equivalent time can be defined at the end of
standard oedometer test. Based on Equation (2.36), the equivalent time can be
estimated by Equation (2.37).
ഊ
ି
௘௣ ௩ ఙᇲ ഗ
(2.37)
‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ െ‫ݐ‬଴ ൅ ‫ݐ‬௘ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂ൫ߝ௭ െ ߝ௭଴ ൯ టቃ ቀఙᇲ೥ ቁ
೥బ
While the incremental strain rate can be written as follows:

డఌ೥ ௞ డఙ೥ᇲ ట ଵ
ൌ ௩ఙᇲ ൅௩௧ (2.38)
డ௧ ೥ డ௧ బ ା௧೐
఑
where ௩
is a material parameter describing the elastic stiffness of the soil.
The elastic visco-plastic model can be obtained by substituting Equation (2.37) into
Equation (2.38).
ഊ
ି
డఌ೥ ௞ డఙ೥ᇲ ట ௘௣ ௩ ఙᇲ ഗ
(2.39)
ൌ ௩ఙᇲ ൅ ௧ ௩ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂെ൫ߝ௭ െ ߝ௭଴ ൯ టቃ ቀఙᇲ೥ ቁ
డ௧ ೥ డ௧ బ ೥బ
Considering Equations (2.40) and (2.41), Equation (2.39) can be rewritten

as Equation (2.42).
఑
݉௩ ൌ ௩ఙᇲ (2.40)
೥
ഊ
ି
ట ௘௣ ௩ ఙᇲ ഗ
(2.41)
݃ሺ‫ݑ‬ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ ൌ ௧ ௩ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂെ൫ߝ௭ െ ߝ௭଴ ൯ టቃ ቀఙᇲ೥ ቁ
బ ೥బ
డఌ೥ డఙ೥ᇲ (2.42)

ൌ ݉௩ ൅ ݃ሺ‫ݑ‬ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ
డ௧ డ௧
47
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
0
67kPa
78kPa
5
Vertical strain (%)
10 90kPa
98kPa
15 109kPa
121kPa
20 133kPa
139kPa
151kPa
25
Figure 2.18. Creep oedometer tests in Batiscan Clay (after Leroueil et al. 1985)
The logarithmic creep function will provide an infinitive creep settlement as

the creep time approaches infinity. The oedometer tests revealed that (such as
Figure 2.18) the relationship between strains (void ratio) and logarithmic of time was
not a straight line, so Yin (1999) proposed a new creep function to describe the creep
behaviour of soils. The proposed nonlinear creep function is expressed as follows:
డఌ೥ ఑ డఙᇱ೥
ൌ ௩ఙᇱ ൅ ݃ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ (2.43)
డ௧ ೥ డ௧
where,
೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ೥ ଶ ೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ
೥
ఌ೥బ ା ௟௡ቀ ቁିఌ೥ ௩ ఌ೥బ ାೡ ௟௡ቀ഑ᇲ೥బ ቁିఌ೥
݃ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ ൌ ௩௧ ቆ
టబ ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ቇ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൮ట ൲ (2.44)
೗೔೘೔೟ ೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ
బ ఌ೎ೝ బ ഄ೥బ శ ೗೙൬ ೥ ൰షഄ೥
ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ଵା
ഄ೗೔೘೔೟
೎ೝ
௟௜௠௜௧ టబ ట
where ߝ௖௥ is the creep strain limit, and is the initial value of at ‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ Ͳ
௩ ௩
2.4.2 Rheological models

Rheological models consist of arrangements of springs, dashpots, and
sliders to represent soil behaviour (i.e. elastic, viscous, or plastic behaviour).
Rheological models were developed by Gibson and Lo (1961), Wahls (1962), Barden
(1965), Aboshi (1973), and Rajot (1992) to study particular aspects of time-
dependent soil behaviour (i.e. pore pressure dissipation and settlement rates
throughout the early stages of the consolidation process and secondary compression).
48
These models cannot capture the effects of preconsolidation pressure, which means
that using these models requires calculating various unfamiliar parameters whose
values cannot be determined directly from standard laboratory tests. Consequently,
rheological models are not widely used.
2.4.2.1 Gibson and Lo’s model

For soils with substantial secondary compression, a lot of deformation
occurs after the excess pore water pressure has dissipated. A modification of
Terzaghi’s (1923) consolidation theory was proposed by Gibson and Lo (1961) to
calculate secondary compression, and it may be considered as the first conceptual
approach to estimate secondary compression. Gibson and Lo (1961) considered the
same assumption as Terzaghi’s (1923) theory to attain the flow equation (Equation
(2.45)):
డఌ ௞ డమ ௨ೣ
ൌఊ (2.45)
డ௧ ೢ డ௭ మ
Gibson and Lo (1961) assumed that a linear spring with a Kelvin element
could be used to model the compressibility of the soil skeleton such that when
vertical effective stress increases, the linear spring generates an instantaneous
compression that represents primary compressibility. The response of the Kelvin
element, retarded by the viscosity of the dashpot, relates to the secondary
compression. The compression of the linear spring (ߝଵ ) for an increase of vertical
effective stress is as follows:
ߝଵ ൌ ܽߪ ᇱ ሺ߬ሻ (2.46)
where ܽ is the compressibility of the linear spring at a given time ߬.
This increase in the vertical effective stress is also tolerated by the Kelvin
element where the linear spring and linear dashpot each carry part of the load, and
the dashpot carries the load related to the strain rate. As a result, compression of the
Kelvin element (ߝଶ ) due to a loading ߪ ᇱ ሺ߬ሻ is as follows:
ఌమ ଵ ௗఌమ
ߪ ᇱ ሺ߬ሻ ൌ ൅చ (2.47)
௕ ௗ௧
where ܾ is the compressibility of the spring, and ߫ is the viscosity of the dashpot.
Equation (2.47) can be integrated formally. The total compression of the
model at time ‫ ݐ‬when it is subjected to an effective stress equal to ߪ ᇱ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ is as follows:
49
ఛ చ
ߝ ൌ ߝଵ ൅ ߝଶ ൌ ܽߪ ᇱ ሺ߬ሻ ൅ ߫ ‫׬‬଴ ߪ ᇱ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൬െ ௕ ሺ߬ െ ‫ݐ‬ሻ൰ ݀߬ (2.48)
where ‫ ݐ‬is time variation between 0 and ߬. Derivation of Equation (2.48)

with respect to time gives the strain rate in a soil element.
ௗఌ ௗఙᇲ చమ ఛ చ
ௗ௧
ൌܽ ൅ ߫ߪ ᇱ ሺ߬ሻ െ ‫׬‬଴ ߪ ᇱ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൬െ ௕ ሺ߬ െ ‫ݐ‬ሻ൰ ݀߬ (2.49)
ௗ௧ ௕
For a load increment applied at a time ‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ, the change in the vertical
effective stress is a function of excess pore water pressure (ȟߪ ᇱ ൌ ‫ݑ‬଴ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ).
Combining Equations (2.45) and (2.49) leads to Gibson and Lo’s (1961)
consolidation equation, as follows:
ௗ௨ೣ చమ ఛ చ ௞ డమ ௨ೣ
ܽ ൅ ߫൫‫ݑ‬଴ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ሺ߬ሻ൯ െ ‫׬‬଴ ሺ‫ݑ‬଴ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻሻ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൬െ ௕ ሺ߬ െ ‫ݐ‬ሻ൰ ݀߬ ൌ ఊ (2.50)
ௗ௧ ௕ ೢ డ௭ మ
The Laplace transform method was used by Gibson and Lo (1961) to solve
the equation. Gibson and Lo (1961) verified their theory by simulating long term
oedometer tests and found that a comparison to the experimental data was
satisfactory.
2.4.2.2 Wahls’ model

Wahls (1962) carried out several series of incremental oedometer tests (each
one with a given value of load increment ratio) on remoulded and undisturbed
samples of calcareous organic silt from southwest Chicago. Calcareous organic silt
was selected due to its remarkable secondary compression. To determine the
secondary compression characteristics, each load increment was applied for
sufficient time, with a minimum duration of two days. As a result, after a period of
time, soil deformation becomes linearly related to the logarithm of time. Thus,
secondary compression may be defined by the rate of change in the void ratio per log
ο௘
cycle of time (‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ ൌ െ ). Wahls (1962) pointed out that the rate of secondary
ο௟௢௚௧
compression increased during the primary consolidation and eventually reached the
‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ rate during secondary compression.
Based on experimental results, Wahls (1962) drew the following
conclusions about the secondary compression rate:
50
- The rate of secondary compression (‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ ) is independent of the load increment
and the load increment ratio, but it depends on the void ratio and as a result on
the effective stress.
- ‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ represents the maximum rate at which secondary compression takes place
throughout the load increment
- The time required for the rate of secondary compression to reach ‫ܥ‬ఈ௘ is
correlated with the time required for the completion of primary consolidation.
Walhs (1962) suggested a method to calculate the magnitude of primary

consolidation for deformation curves without an inflection point, based on fitting the
settlement curve with a theoretical model. The analytical solution of Terzaghi’s
consolidation equation was used as a reference to model primary consolidation by an
infinite series of Kelvin elements, while an infinite series of nonlinear dashpots was
used to model secondary compression.
2.4.2.3 Barden’s model

Barden (1965) stated there are three experimental facts that do not agree
with Terzaghi’s (1923) consolidation theory: (i) the rate of mid-plane pore pressure
dissipation in the early stages of the oedometer tests was more than predicted
according to the value of the consolidation coefficient subtracted from the
compression curves, and (ii) creep also occurs during primary consolidation, and (iii)
the total settlement was affected by the loading conditions. Consequently, Barden
(1965) proposed a system with a non-linear spring and dashpot (Figure 2.19a).
Barden (1965) simplified his model by assuming a linear spring, and by adopting
Kelvin’s element (Figure 2.19b).
The load increment (οߪ) is carried by the linear spring, the dashpot, and the
excess pore pressure.
௘భ ି௘
οߪ ൌ ௔
൅ ߬ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௫ (2.51)
where ݁ଵ is the initial value of void ratio, ݁ is the void ratio, ܽ is the
compressibility of the linear spring, ߬ is the non-linear viscous resistance of the
dashpot, and ‫ݑ‬௫ is the excess pore water pressure at a particular time. According to
51
the power law of Ostwald, the non-linear viscous resistance of the dashpot can be
defined as follows:
భ
డ௘ ೙ (2.52)
߬ൌ ܾ ቀ డ௧ ቁ
where ݊ and ܾ are model parameters.

Since the load is transferred from the dashpot to the linear spring, the void
ratio will reach a final value ݁ଶ , which is:
௘భ ି௘మ
οߪ ൌ (2.53)
௔
Substituting Equation (2.53) in Equation (2.51) and applying the viscous

resistance of the dashpot results in Barden’s (1965) model equation for a load
increment.
భ
డ௘ ೙
݁ െ ݁ଶ ൌ ܽ ቆ‫ݑ‬௫ ൅ ܾ ቀ డ௧ ቁ ቇ (2.54)
N N L N
(a) (b)
Figure 2.19. Rheological models proposed by Barden: (a) Barden’s proposed non-
linear model, and (b) model solved by Barden (after Barden 1965) (Note: N and L
stand for non-linear and linear, respectively)
It should be noted that the soil skeleton yielding and non-linear stress-strain
behaviour of soils are not considered in Barden’s (1965) model because the final
value of compression must be defined, which means that the secondary compression
is in a non-linear relationship with the logarithm of time (Equation (2.53)).
52
2.4.2.4 Aboshi’s model
Aboshi (1973) presented settlement curves attained for single load
increments in oedometer tests on samples of different sizes, to investigate the
similarity between field and laboratory deformations of soft clay. Five samples, 2cm,
4.8cm, 20cm, 40cm, and 100cm thick and with a diameter/thickness ratio of 3 were
used. The 2cm, 4.8cm, and 20cm thick samples were tested in the laboratory and the
remaining samples were tested in the field. A trench, 15m long by 10m wide by 1.5m
deep was cut in a sand layer and filled with marine clay slurry to carry out the tests
on site. The liquid and plastic limits of the clay were 100.2% and 58.2%,
respectively. The solid matter consisted of 5% sand, 68% silts, and 27% clay. A thin
layer of sand was used to consolidate the slurry for six years. At the end of
consolidation, the average undrained shear strength of slurry was 15kPa with the
natural water content of 80%.
The first loading step was 20kPa, which was then increased from 20kPa to
80kPa at the end of primary consolidation to minimise the effects of sustained
loading on compressibility. Figure 2.20 depicts the variations of the vertical stain
versus time for all the samples.
The following observations were made by Aboshi (1973) based on the test
results:
- The consolidation coefficient (ܿ௩ ) estimated from the consolidation test results
increased as the sample increased in thickness.
- The amount of deformation at the end of primary consolidation had a direct

relationship with the thickness of the soil sample. The increasing deformation in
the thicker sample occurred because the secondary compression and primary
consolidation were not independent.
- Independent of sample thickness, the creep strain rate decreased with time to a
minimum constant value throughout secondary compression.
53
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
0
2
Vertical strain (%)
6 End of primary
consolidation
8 Drainage path = 1cm
Drainage path = 2.4cm
Drainage path = 10cm
10
12
Figure 2.20. Effect of drainage path on experimental compression curves (after

Aboshi 1973)
During secondary compression, the deformation curves became essentially

parallel, but unlike Suklje’s (1957) isotache theory, they did not merge to a single
line. As Aboshi (1973) denoted, the amount of deformation at the end of primary
consolidation depends on the effective stress loading in time, while the rate of creep
deformation is affected by the loading history.
2.4.2.5 Rajot’s model

The Rajot (1992) elastic visco-plastic model of clay compressibility can
simulate the observed phenomena of time lines, secondary compression, and stress
relaxation. By referring to Figure 2.21, Rajot (1992) applied a mechanism involving
two springs, a dashpot, and a slider to formulate the time dependant constitutive
relationships. The instant component of compression is elasto-plastic with an elastic
spring and a rigid plastic slider. The deformation(s) of the spring relate to
recoverable changes in volume (݀ߝ௜௘ ), while deformation(s) of the slider relate to
௣
instant non-recoverable changes in volume (݀ߝ௜ ) that take place when the vertical
effective stress exceeds the yield effective stress. The non-recoverable creep
௣
component of compression (݀ߝ௜ ) can be defined by the extended Kelvin element, as
54
shown on the right side of Figure 2.21. Deformation of this part of the model relates
to time dependant non-recoverable changes in volume (i.e. creep). The model
generates simultaneous plastic creep deformation and instant compression when an
extended Kelvin element is placed in series with the instant spring and slider. Since
this occurs with all elastic visco-plastic models, the soil skeleton is always yielding
as a result of any increase in loading.
Rajot (1992) extended Bjerrum’s concept of time lines to include instant
plastic compression of the soil skeleton, whereas the existing vertical effective stress
and void ratio are not on Bjerrum’s instant time line, and creep compression is not
throughout recompression loading. The new model proposed by Rajot (1992)
consists of the following assumptions:
- A strain decomposition that includes instant elastic, instant plastic, and creep
deformations,
- Instant plastic compression takes place while the existing vertical effective stress
matches the yield stress,
- Variations of the yield stress values are a function of the quantity of the plastic
strain (instant or creep) and the creep strain rate,
- Bjerrum’s time lines express a set of yield stress loci related to the creep strain
rate,
- The time lines are equally spaced with respect to the logarithm of time.
In this proposed model, and according to the above mentioned assumptions,

the yield stress and creep are related (see Figure 2.21), and even though the slider is
included in the instant compression component of the model, its properties are also a
function of the amount of creep and the creep rate obtained from the creep
compression component of the model. The preconsolidation stress defined from a
laboratory oedometer test is a yield stress related to the creep rate that takes place
throughout the test. For other loading conditions that generate creep rates which are
not equal to laboratory creep rates, the yield stress is not equal to the laboratory
preconsoldiation stress.
55
Instant compression Creep compression
Elastic Plastic Non-linear spring
Tangent stiffness,
௣ ௣
݇௖ ൌ ൫ʹǤ͵ߟߝሶ௖ ൯Τ‫ܥ‬ఈ
Linear spring Slider yield stress,
tangent stiffness, ௣ ௣ ௣
ߪ௬ ൌ ߪ௣ ൫ߝ௜ ǡ ߝሶ௖ ǡ ߝ௖ ൯
݇௜௘ ൌ ሺʹǤ͵ߪ ᇱ ሻΤ‫ܥ‬ఌ௥
Non-linear dashpot
viscosity, ߟ
Figure 2.21. Rajot’s Rheological mechanical model (after Perrone 1998)
2.4.3 General stress-strain-time models

General constitutive laws define not only viscous effects but also the rate
dependant behaviour of soils under any possible loading conditions. Since an elastic
visco-plastic approach combines the rate dependant elastic and time-dependant
plastic behaviour of soft soils, special attention was given to the elastic visco-plastic
approach in this section. As with elasto-plastic theory, a physical interpretation of the
soil response was applied for elastic visco-plastic approach such that the principal
features of experimentally observed soil behaviours (e.g. dilatacy and soil hardening)
were incorporated. For instance, variations in the state parameters such as the void
ratio, strain rate, and effective stress were defined by the hardening or softening
functions used in visco-plastic formulations. According to Liingaard et al. (2004), the
elastic visco-plastic models can be divided into three classes: (i) overstress theory,
(ii) Non-stationary flow surface theory, and (iii) others.
2.4.3.1 Overstress theory

Satake (1989) reported that the concept of overstress theory was introduced
and developed by Ludwick (1922), Prandtl (1928), Hohenemser and Prager (1932),
Sokolovsky (1948), and Malvern (1951). The elastic visco-plastic approach is based
56
on Perzyna’s (1963) visco-plastic over-stress theory and was then used in one
dimensional visco-plastic models for multi-dimensional stress space. Based on
Perzyna’s (1963) elastic visco-plastic theory, only when the stress state reaches the
yield surface, can visco-plastic strains happen, whereas below the yield surface (in
the elastic zone), they are insignificant (Figure 2.22). The visco-plastic strain rate is a
function of the over-stress (the amount that the effective stress surpasses the current
static yield stress). The effects of ageing were not considered in this model, so the
yield surface does not change with time when the visco-plastic strains are held
constant, and when the over-stress is zero, the visco-plastic strains rate is zero.
Perzyna (1963) assumed that the difference between the dynamic loading
function (Equation (2.55)) and static yield function (Equation (2.56)) is defined as
the excess stress function (Equation (2.57)).
௩௣
݂ௗ ൫ߪ௜௝ ǡ ߠǡ ߝ௜௝ ൯ ൌ ݇ௗ (2.55)
௩௣
݂௦ ൫ߪ௜௝ ǡ ߠǡ ߝ௜௝ ൯ ൌ ݇௦ (2.56)
௙೏ (2.57)
‫ܨ‬ൌ െͳ
௙ೞ
where ߪ௜௝ is the stress tensor, ߠ is the temperature, ݇௦ stands for the work
hardening parameter, and ݇ௗ captures the effect of both work hardening and strain
୴୮
rate hardening and is a functional of excess stress. The visco-plastic strain rate ɂሶ ୧୨ is
assumed to obey the following non-associated flow rule:
௩௣ డ௙
ߝሶ௜௝ ൌ ȯሺߠሻ߶ሺ‫ܨ‬ሻ డఙ೏ (2.58)
೔ೕ
where ȯ is the fluidity parameter and ߶ is the viscous nucleus.
57
Critical state line
Deviator stress (‫)ݍ‬
݀ߝ௩ ௣ due to over-stress
Yield surface corresponding

to current ݀ߝ௩ ௣ and ߝሶ௩ ௣ ൌ Ͳ
Elastic zone (ߝሶ௩ ௣ ൌ Ͳ)
ܲᇱ yield Mean effective stress (ܲᇱ )

Figure 2.22. Perzyna’s (1963) visco-plastic theory (after Perrone 1998)
2.4.3.2 Non-stationary flow surface theory

Matsui and Abe (1985) reported that a non-stationary flow surface theory
has been proposed and developed by Naghdi and Murch (1963) and Olszak and
Perzyna (1966, 1970), so the following description is based on Olszak and Perzyna
(1966, 1970). To include the concept of a yield surface that changes in time
according to creep behaviour, Olszak and Perzyna (1966) modified Perzyna’s (1963)
visco-plastic theory such that, although the yield surface does not distinguish
between viscous and non-viscous behaviour, it still represents a specific visco-plastic
strain rate (Figure 2.23). This modified theory consists of a time dependant yield
surface. By considering the associated flow rule, the visco-plastic potential function
is as follows:
௩௣
‫ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬൫ߪ௜௝ᇱ ǡ ߝ௜௝ ǡ ߚ൯ (2.59)
௩௣
where ߪ௜௝ᇱ is the effective stress component ݅ in the ݆ direction, ߝ௜௝ is visco-
plastic strain, and ߚ is a scalar parameter for the time dependant behaviour of
material. Selecting parameter ߚ and stating its physical nature differentiates the
various visco-plastic models because in 1-D consolidation, ߚ is defined as either
based on a total or delayed strain rate, or on the duration of loading. Using the
associated flow rule:
58
௩௣ డி
ߝ௜௝ ൌ Ȧ డఙᇲ (2.60)
೔ೕ
where Ȧ is the time-dependent multiplier, when ‫ ܨ‬൏ Ͳ, elastic compression

happens and when ‫ ܨ‬ൌ Ͳ, visco-plastic flow happens. Consequently, a visco-plastic
flow equation can be obtained as follows:
డி డி ௩௣ డி
‫ܨ‬ሶ ൌ డఙᇲ ߪሶ௜௝ᇱ ൅ డఌೡ೛ ߝሶ௜௝ ൅ డఉ ߚሶ௜௝ ൌ Ͳ (2.61)
೔ೕ ೔ೕ ೔ೕ
Critical state line

Deviator stress (‫)ݍ‬
݀ߝ௩ ௣
Time dependant yield surfaces
Yield surface corresponding

to current ݀ߝ௩ ௣ and ߝሶ௩ ௣
ܲᇱ yield Mean effective stress (ܲᇱ )
Figure 2.23. Olszak and Perzyna (1966) visco-plastic theory (after Perrone 1998)
The time-dependent multiplier (Ȧ) and multi-dimensional visco-plastic

strain can be obtained by substituting Equation (2.60) in Equation (2.61). Oka
(1981), Matsue and Abe (1985), and Sekiguchi (1984) proposed multi-dimensional
formulations of time-dependent soil behaviour based on visco-plastic flow theory.
Olszak and Perzyna’s (1966) theory was extended by Niemunis and Krieg (1996) to
develop a one dimensional computer program that would allow viscous plastic strain
(creep) to happen inside and outside the reference yield surface.
As mentioned earlier, the methods proposed for Hypothesis B can be
divided into three classes: (i) empirical models, (ii) rheological model, and (iii)
general stress-strain-time models. A summary of these models is presented in the
following table.
59
Table 2.2. A summary of the Hypothesis B models presented
Category Reference Comment about creep

Assuming a final settlement under any given loading
Taylor and
and the rate of secondary compression is proportional
Merchant
to the residual compression to reach the value of final
(1940)
compression.
Graphical construction of consolidation curves for
Suklje (1957) layers several orders of magnitude thicker than sample
thickness (isotache theory).
Bjerrum Linear relationship between logarithm of time and soil
(1967) deformation.
Empirical
Garlanger The rate of secondary compression is a function of
model
(1971) sustained loading time.
A linear relationship between the logarithm of the
preconsolidation pressure and the logarithm of the
Kabbaj
plastic strain rate, and also a piece-wise linear
(1985)
relationship between the logarithm of effective stress
and the plastic strain were assumed.
Yin and
Creep is a nonlinear function of time with a finite
Graham
creep strain limit.
(1989)
Gibson and Secondary compression was modelled by a linear
Lo (1961) dashpot.
An infinite series of nonlinear dashpots was used to
Wahls (1962)
model secondary compression.
A nonlinear secondary compression in relation to
Rheological Barden
logarithm of time which leads to an end for total
model (1965)
settlement.
Aboshi Creep rate decreased with time to a minimum constant
(1973) value throughout the secondary compression.
Creep was modelled based on a combination of a
Rajot (1992)
nonlinear spring and dashpot.
Overstress Perzyna Ageing effects not considered in this model, so the
60
theory (1963) yield surface does not change with time when the
visco-plastic strains are held constant. Moreover, when
the over-stress is zero, the visco-plastic strains rate is
zero.
Non- Olszak and
Visco-plastic flow equation is proposed based on time
stationary Perzyna
dependant yield surfaces.
flow theory (1966)
2.5 PRELOADING WITH VERTICAL DRAINS
Preloading can be considered as an economic and successful ground

improvement technique for stabilising deposits of soft soil. The aim of constructing
a surcharge embankment is to provide the initial vertical stress produced as a result
of the compressive forces the soil will experience after the structure has been
constructed. Therefore, loading the soil with an adequate level of vertical stress prior
to construction is crucial to achieve the desired level of settlement. The void spaces
will be replaced by soil grains to enable the soil to carry the load from the
foundations. If the temporary load exceeds the final load (loading when the structure
is in use), the amount of excess is referred to as a surcharge load. Preloading by
adopting a staged surcharge embankment is one of the most successful and cost
effective techniques for improving the shear strength of low-lying areas because it
loads the ground to with a larger part of the ultimate settlement that it is expected to
carry after construction (Richart 1957, Indraratna and Redana 2000, Indraratna et al.
2005a). Since traditional preloading is time consuming, it is commonly used in
combination with other methods such as vertical drains and vacuum preloading.
2.5.1 Vertical drains assisted preloading

The application of vertical drains was introduced as a ground improvement
method to reduce the duration of consolidation by reducing the seepage path of
excess pore water pressure trapped deep inside the ground. Without vertical drains,
the travel distance of pore water is taken as being equal to either full or half the
thickness of the strata undergoing consolidation, depending on the boundary
61
conditions. The addition of vertical drains means that the drainage path would be
correlated to the vertical drain spacing.
Sand blanket Vertical drain (‫ݎ‬௪ )

Embankment
H: Vertical drains height

r r: Vertical drains spacing ‫ݎ‬ௗ
H Vertical drains ୵: Vertical drains radius ‫ݎ‬௨
ୢ : Disturbed zone radius
୳ : Undisturbed zone radius
Figure 2.24. Schematic diagram of embankment
A site is prepared for vertical drains by removing vegetation and surface

debris and grading the ground if necessary. Sometimes the initial step is challenging,
particularly for very soft soils, because the construction equipment can get bogged,
which results in severe rutting at the site. Minimising the disturbance to any
weathered surface crust that may generate some strength to the soil and help prevent
lateral spreading under embankment loading is beneficial. Vertical drains are
commonly installed from a sand blanket that is used to create a sound working
platform and let water egress from the drains. Horizontal drains may be used on the
surface to facilitate the drainage of the sand blanket. A typical instrumented vertical
drain scheme is shown in Figure 2.24.
In most vertical drains solutions, it is assumed that pore water pressure
flows into a drain with a circular cross section, however, Wang and Jiao (2004)
presented an analytical solution that did not assume a circular drain and modelled a
polygonal influence area that drained to a similarly shaped but smaller sized
polygon. Rectangular cross sections must be converted to a corresponding circular
one if band shaped drains are to be analysed with solutions developed for cylindrical
drains. The following conversion relationships are suggested for a rectangular drain
with a width ܽ and a thickness ܾ:
62
Table 2.3. Conversion relationships suggested for a rectangular drain
Suggested equation Reference Equation number

ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ
݀௪ ൌ ʹ Hansbo (1981) (2.62)
ߨ
ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ
݀௪ ൌ Atkinson and Eldred (1981) (2.63)
ʹ
Ͷܾܽ ଴Ǥହ Fellenius and Castonguay
݀௪ ൌ ൬ ൰ (2.64)
ߨ (1985)
݀௪ ൌ ͲǤͷܽ ൅ ͲǤ͹ܾ Long and Corvo (1994) (2.65)
Equations (2.62) and (2.64) are based on the perimeter and area
equivalence, respectively, whereas Long and Corvo (1994) used an electrical analogy
to determine an equivalent diameter. A rectangular drain was painted on electrically
conducting paper with silver paint and the resulting flow net is found with an
analogue field plotter. The size of the equivalent circular drain cross section that best
matches the flow net is defined by Equation (2.65), while equation (2.63) was
established to justify the throttle that takes place close to the drain.
However, there is no definitive answer as to which of these equations is the
best; Rixner et al. (1986) endorsed Equation (2.63) based on finite element studies,
Long and Corvo (1994) believed that Equation (2.63) was better than Equation
(2.62), but Equation (2.65) was the most accurate. It can be noted that there is almost
no variance in the consolidation rates that were estimated using any of the above
equations (see Indraratna and Redana 2000, Welker et al. 2000).
Vertical drains are usually installed in square or triangular patterns
(Figure 2.25), and the influence zone is recognised as the area covered by pore water
flowing to a single drain. To change the square or hexagonal influence zones to
circular zones for use in numerical solutions, a circle with an equal area must be
calculated. The equivalent influence radius (‫ݎ‬௘ ) for triangular and square spacing
arrangements is a function of the drain spacing (ܵ௣ ) as follows:
63
‫ݎ‬௘ ൌ ͲǤͷ͸Ͷܵ௣ ‫݊ݎ݁ݐݐܽ݌݁ݎܽݑݍݏݎ݋ܨ‬ (2.66)
‫ݎ‬௘ ൌ ͲǤͷ͸Ͷܵ௣ ‫݊ݎ݁ݐݐܽ݌ݎ݈ܽݑ݃݊ܽ݅ݎܶݎ݋ܨ‬ (2.67)
Although the square pattern of drains may be easier to lay out and manage
while being installed in the field, a triangular pattern is often used because it provides a
more uniform consolidation between drains.
ܵ௣ ܵ௣
ܵ௣
ܵ௣
(a) (b)
Figure 2.25. Vertical drain installation patterns; (a) square pattern, (b) triangular
pattern
2.5.2 Vacuum preloading with membrane

There are situations where the application of a surcharge loading alone is
very slow or unsuitable for the site; the specified construction times might be too
short, the essential load may result in an embankment with a dangerous height, the
space for constructing an embankment might be inadequate or there is no access to
appropriate fill material. These cases require more sophisticated techniques either in
place of, or combined with the surcharge loading. The Vacuum pressure technique
has several advantages over embankment loading, such as: (i) less fill material needs
to be used, (ii) the construction period is generally shorter, (iii) there is no need for
heavy machinery for heavy preloading, and (iv) it is an environmentally friendly
ground improvement method.
In vacuum preloading using the membrane method, vacuum consolidation
consists of a system of vertical drains and a drainage sand blanket on the surface
which in turn is sealed from the atmosphere by an impervious membrane on top.
64
Horizontal drains are installed in the drainage layer and then connected to a vacuum
pump. The ends of the membranes are placed at the bottom of a peripheral trench
filled with bentonite to maintain air tightness. Q negative pressure is generated in the
drainage layer by the vacuum pump which leads to an increase in the effective
stresses in the soil, and which in turn accelerates the consolidation process (Qian et
al. 2003).
New materials have been developed for horizontal drain pipes to advance
the vacuum preloading process, but with combined fill and vacuum preloading,
drainage panels can be used instead of pipes to confirm that the drainage channels
will still function correctly under a high surcharge pressure. These drainage panels
actually provide better channels for distributing vacuum pressure and water
discharging, and some even have slots for a direct connection with PVDs, which also
increases the efficiency of the system.
2.5.3 Membraneless vacuum preloading

When the total area must be sub-divided into a number of sections to
facilitate installation of the membrane, vacuum preloading can only be carried out in
one section at a time, but this may not be efficient when vacuum preloading is used
to reclaim land over a large area. To overcome this problem a common method is to
connect the vacuum channel directly to each individual drain using a tubing system
so that the channel from the top of the PVD to the vacuum line is sealed and
therefore a sand blanket and membranes are not needed. This system was used to
construct the new Bangkok International Airport (Seah, 2006). Nevertheless, because
this system does not provide an airtight condition for the entire area, its efficiency
can be low (Seah, 2006), so in reality, this method only works when the layer of soil
to be improved is predominantly clay with a very low permeability.
Another way of excluding the membrane is the so-called low level vacuum
preloading method (Yan and Cao, 2005) where, by using clay slurry as fill for land
reclamation, the vacuum pipes can be installed at the seabed or a few metres below
the ground surface, and the clay slurry fill can be placed on top of the vacuum pipes.
Since clay has a low permeability, the fill material provides a good sealing cap, thus
membranes will not be required. Nonetheless, this method has some disadvantages;
65
when the top layer is in direct sunlight, it dries and develops tension cracks (Chu et
al., 2008), so unless a drainage blanket is used at the level where the drainage pipes
are installed, or where individual drains are directly connected to the vacuum pipes,
the vacuum pressure may not be distributed properly. Furthermore, installing
drainage pipes or panels underwater is very difficult, but this method does not need
inner dikes for a sub-division and therefore it cuts down the project costs
considerably (Chu et al., 2008).
2.6 SOIL DISTURBANCE INDUCED WHILE INSTALLING

VERTICAL DRAINS
Installing vertical drains disturbs the soil around the drain to a certain extent
and also reduces the horizontal permeability in this region. The extent to which the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil changes in the disturbed zone versus the distance
from the vertical drain has not been identified with certainty, and so far there is no
comprehensive or standard method for measuring these characteristics. According to
field and laboratory observations (e.g. Bergado et al. 1991, Madhav et al. 1993,
Indrarantna and Redana 1998, Hird and Moseley 2000), the hydraulic conductivity of
soil varies with the radial distance away from the vertical drain. Although some
efforts have been made to simulate a gradual variation of the hydraulic conductivity
with radius (Madlav et al. 1993, Chai et al. 1997, Hawlader et al. 2002), quantifying
the effects of disturbance has never been a straight forward task (Hansbo 1997). So
to characterise the disturbed zone, two major parameters, including the permeability
(݇Ԣ௥ ) and the extent (‫ݎ‬ௗ ) of the disturbed zone were proposed. Bergado et al. (1991)
stated that the procedure for installing vertical drains, the specifications of the
mandrel, and the type of soil, are the key factors influencing the disturbed zone
characteristics. According to Barron (1948), inserting and withdrawing cased holes,
which are back filled, would distort and remould the soil near the vertical drain, so in
response researchers have suggested two broad concepts to determine the
characteristics of soil surrounding the drain; (i) a two zone hypothesis that consists of
the intact zone surrounding the disturbed zone adjacent to the vertical drain, and (ii)
the three zones hypothesis, consisting of the undisturbed zone surrounding the
transition zone, and the smear zone near the vertical drain.
66
Based on the available literature (e.g. Barron 1948, Onoue et al. 1991,
Madhav et al. 1993, Walker and Indraratna 2006, Basu et al. 2006 and 2010, and
Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna 2009), proposed various patterns for the initial
hydraulic conductivity of the soil in the disturbed region are presented in Figure 2.26.
According to most researchers (e.g. Barron 1948; Holtz and Holm 1973; Hansbo
1981; Jamiolkowski et al. 1983; Chai and Miura 1999), the soil inside the disturbed
zone is entirely remoulded, causing an initial constant hydraulic conductivity which
is smaller than the undisturbed horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Figure 2.26a, Case
A). Indeed, Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna (2009) stated that the initial hydraulic
conductivity of the disturbed zone may have a linear variation with the radial
distance (Figure 2.26a, Case B), while a parabolic distribution of the permeability in
the disturbed region was proposed by Walker and Indraratna (2006) (Figure 2.26a,
Case C). Madhav et al. (1993) proposed a constant hydraulic conductivity which is
smaller than the undisturbed hydraulic conductivity in the smear zone and a linear
hydraulic conductivity variation in the transition zone (Figure 2.26b, Case D). Onoue
et al. (1991) proposed a bilinear variation for hydraulic conductivity by assuming
that the permeability is changing linearly in the smear and transition zones
(Figure 2.26b, Case E). Furthermore, Basu et al. (2006) assumed that the horizontal
hydraulic conductivity is constant in the smear zone and proposed a bi-linear
variation of permeability in the transition zone (Figure 2.26b, Case F).
Moreover, a mechanical installation of vertical drains inevitably disturbs the
surrounding soil due to induced shear strains. Baligh (1985), and Whittle and
Aubeny (1993) stated that the induced shear strain is a function of the radial distance
and diameter of the vertical drain. Shear strains caused by the installation of vertical
drains help reduce the shear strength and as a result, the over consolidation ratio of
the soil. The extent to which the over consolidation ratio of soil changes in the
disturbed zone versus the distance from the vertical drain has not been identified with
certainty, and so far there is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring
these characteristics.
67
Smear Zone
Intact Zone Intact Zone Vertical
Drain
Transition Zone
Smear Zone
‫ݎ‬௦
݇௥ ‫ݎ‬௪ ݇Ԣ௥ ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥
݇௭ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ݇Ԣ௭ ݇௭ ‫ݎ‬௪ ݇Ԣ௭
‫ݎ‬ௗ
R
R
Vertical
Drain
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥

1 1
Case A Case D
ߙ ߙ
ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥
1 1
Case B ߚଵ
Case E
ߙ ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥

1 1
Case C Case F ߚଶ
ߙ
ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
‫ݎ‬ௗ ‫ݎ‬௦ ‫ݎ‬௣ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
(a) (b)
Figure 2.26. Cross section of the disturbed zone surrounding a vertical drain, (a) two
zones hypothesis, (b) three zones hypothesis
2.7 ANALYTICAL FORMULATION FOR VERTICAL DRAIN

ASSISTED PRELOADING
Researchers have used different analytical developments to simulate the

behaviour of soft soils. Tang and Onitsuka (2001) proposed a solution using double-
layered ground consolidation with vertical drains, by considering the well resistance
and the smear action. The basic assumption here is that every layer of ground with
vertical drains satisfies the assumption of the consolidation of single-layered ground
68
with vertical drains under a quasi-equal strain condition, apart from the conjunction
plane with two layers. The solution proposed by Tang and Onitsuka is: (i) to adopt
and modify Barron's equal-strain hypothesis such that the modified part is where the
analysis for the vertical consolidation of soil applies to the average value of the pore
water pressure at the same depth, instead of the pore water pressure at any point, as
suggested by Barron, (ii) the horizontal coefficient of the permeability of the smear
zone is less than the natural soil, the coefficient of volume compressibility and the
vertical coefficient of permeability of the smear zone are the same as natural soil, and
(iii) the total inflow of pore water through the boundary of the vertical drains is equal
to the vertical flow of pore water within the vertical drains. The radial water flow in
the vertical drains is omitted. By considering the boundary conditions at the top and
bottom surfaces of the system, general solutions for excess pore water pressure
within a vertical drain (‫ݑ‬௪௜ ) and the average pore water pressure of soil (‫ݑ‬ത௜ ) can be
expressed as follows:
(2.68)
‫ݑ‬௪௜ ሺ‫ݖ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ σஶ
௠ୀ଴ ‫ܣ‬௠ ݃௪௠௜ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݁
ିఉ೘ ௧
(2.69)
‫ݑ‬ത௜ ሺ‫ݖ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ σஶ
௠ୀ଴ ‫ܣ‬௠ ݃௠௜ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݁
ିఉ೘ ௧
where
௭
݃௪௠ଵ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ௠ଵ ‫ ݊݅ݏ‬ቀߣ௠ଵ ுቁ ൅ ܿ௠ଵ ‫ ݄݊݅ݏ‬ቀߦ௠ଵ ுቁ
௭ (2.70)
ଵ ௭
݃௠ଵ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ቀͳ ൅ ఝ ߣଶ௠ଵ ቁ ܽ௠ଵ ‫ ݊݅ݏ‬ቀߣ௠ଵ ுቁ ൅ ቀͳ െ ఝ ߦ௠ଵ
ଶ ଵ
ቁ ܿ௠ଵ ‫ ݄݊݅ݏ‬ቀߦ௠ଵ ுቁ
௭ (2.71)
భ భ
௭
݃௪௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ܾ௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݏ݋‬൬ߣ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ுቁ൰ ൅ ݀௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݄ݏ݋‬൬ߦ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ுቁ൰
௭ (2.72)
݃௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ
ଵ ௭ ଵ ௭
(2.73)
ቀͳ ൅ ఝ ߣଶ௠ଶ ቁ ܾ௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݏ݋‬൬ߣ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ுቁ൰ ൅ ቀͳ െ ఝ ߦ௠ଵ
ଶ
ቁ ݀௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݄ݏ݋‬൬ߦ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ுቁ൰
మ మ
೓ ಹ
௠ೡభ ‫׬‬బ భ ௨బ ሺ௭ሻ௚೘భ ሺ௭ሻௗ௭ା௠ೡమ ‫׬‬೓ ௨బ ሺ௭ሻ௚೘మ ሺ௭ሻௗ௭ (2.74)
‫ܣ‬௠ ൌ ೓భ మ
భ
ಹ మ
௠ೡభ ‫׬‬బ ௚೘భ ሺ௭ሻௗ௭ା௠ೡమ ‫׬‬೓భ ௚೘మ ሺ௭ሻௗ௭
in which ߮௜ , ߣ௠௜ , ߦ௠௜ , ܽ௠ଵ , ܾ௠ଶ , ܿ௠ଵ , ݀௠ଶ, and ܹ௠௜ are the solution parameters that
can be found in Tang and Onitsuka (2001).
The average degree of consolidation for each layer is:
ഥ ሺ௭ሻ
ଵ ௛భ ௨ ଵ ଵ (2.75)
ഥଵ ൌ ͳ െ
ܷ ‫ ׬‬భ௨ ݀‫ݖ‬ ൌͳെ σସ௠ୀ଴ ‫ܣ‬௠ ܹ௠ଵ ݁ ିఉ೘௧
௛భ ଴ బ ௨బ ௛భ
ഥଶ ൌ ͳ െ ଵ ‫׬‬ு ௨ഥమ ሺ௭ሻ ݀‫ ݖ‬ൌ ͳ െ ଵ

ܷ
ଵ
σସ௠ୀ଴ ‫ܣ‬௠ ܹ௠ଶ ݁ ିఉ೘௧
௛ ௛ ௨ మ భ బ ௨ బ ௛మ (2.76)
69
The overall average degree of consolidation defined by the pore pressure is:
೓ ೠഥ భ ሺ೥ሻ ಹೠഥ ሺ೥ሻ
‫׬‬బ భ ೠ ௗ௭ ା‫׬‬೓ మ ௗ௭ ଵ (2.77)
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ
ܷ బ ೠ భ బ
ൌ ͳെ௨ σସ௠ୀ଴ ‫ܣ‬௠ ሺܹ௠ଵ ൅ ܹ௠ଶ ሻ݁ ିఉ೘௧
௨బ ு బு
The overall average degree of consolidation defined by the total settlement

is:
೓ ೠഥ ሺ೥ሻ ಹೠഥ ሺ೥ሻ
௠ೡభ ‫׬‬బ భ భ ௗ௭ ା௠ೡమ ‫׬‬೓ మ ௗ௭
ഥ௦ ൌ ͳ െ
ܷ
ೠబ భ ೠబ
ൌ
௨బ ௠ೡభ ௛భ ା௨బ ௠ೡమ ௛మ
ଵ σర೘సబ ஺೘ ሺ௠ೡభ ௐ೘భ ା௠ೡమ ௐ೘మ ሻ௘ షഁ೘ ೟ (2.78)
ͳെ௨
బு ௨బ ௠ೡభ ௛భ ା௨బ ௠ೡమ ௛మ
The results of this study were compared with the finite difference method
and finite element method results provided by Amirebrahimi et al. (1993) and Onoue
(1988), respectively. The key shortcoming of this method was omitting the viscous
behaviour (creep) of soils.
Indraratna et al. (2005) presented an analytical model of vertical drains
combined with vacuum preloading in axisymmetric conditions by considering the
vacuum pressure along the length of the drain. Indraratna et al. (2005) stated that
when a vacuum is applied in the field through PVDs, the suction head may decrease
with depth, as well as laterally, thus reducing its efficiency. To study the effect of
loss of vacuum, a trapezoidal vacuum pressure distribution was assumed. In the
vertical direction (along the drain boundary), the vacuum pressure varied from െ‫݌‬଴
to െ݇ଵ ‫݌‬଴, whereas it varied from െ‫݌‬଴ ሺ‫ݖ‬ǡ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻ to െ݇ଶ ‫݌‬଴ ሺ‫ݖ‬ǡ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻ across the soil.
According to Indraratna et al. (2005), the excess pore pressure variation inside and
outside the smear zone can be derived as follows:
డ௨ᇲ ఊ డఌ ௥೎మ ି௥ మ ሺଵି௞ ሻ ௭
ൌ ଶ௞ೢᇲ ቀ ቁ ൅ ‫݌‬଴ ሺோି௥ మ ሻ ቂͳ െ ሺͳ െ ݇ଵ ሻ ௟ ቃ‫ݎ‬௪ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௦ (2.79)
డ௥ ೓ డ௧ ௥ ೢ
డ௨ ఊ డఌ ௥೎మ ି௥ మ ሺଵି௞ ሻ ௭
డ௥
ൌ ଶ௞ೢ ቀ ቁ ൅ ‫݌‬଴ ൫௥ మ ି௥మ ൯ ቂͳ െ ሺͳ െ ݇ଵ ሻ ௟ ቃ‫ݎ‬௦ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௖ (2.80)
೓ డ௧ ௥ ೎ ೢ
డ௨ᇲ డ௨
where and are the variations in excess pore pressure in the smear and
డ௥ డ௥
intact zones, respectively, ‫݌‬଴ is the applied vacuum pressure, ݇ଵ is vacuum pressure
reduction factor by depth, ‫ ݖ‬is the depth, ݈ is the total depth, ݇ଶ is the vacuum
pressure reduction factor by radius, ‫ ݎ‬is the radius, ‫ݎ‬௪ is the drain radius, ‫ݎ‬௦ is the
smear zone radius, ‫ݎ‬௖ is the total radius, and ݇௛ᇱ and ݇௛ are the smear and intact zones
70
permeability, respectively. By integrating Equation (2.79) in a radial direction with a
ᇱ
boundary condition of ‫ݑ‬௥ୀ௥ೢ
ൌ ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݖ‬ǡ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻ, the excess pore pressure within the smear
zone is given by:
ఊ డఌ ௥ మ൯
൫௥ మ ି௥ೢ ௭
‫ݑ‬ᇱ ൌ ଶ௞ೢᇲ ቂ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݈݊ ቀ௥ ቁ െ
డ௧ ௖ ଶ
ቃ െ ‫݌‬଴ ቂͳ െ ሺͳ െ ݇ଵ ሻ ௟ ቃ ൈ ቂͳ െ
೓ ೢ
ሺ௥ି௥ೢ ሻ (2.81)
ሺͳ െ ݇ଶ ሻ ሺ௥ ቃ
೎ ି௥ೢ ሻ
By integrating Equation (2.80) in a radial direction with the boundary
ᇱ
condition of ‫ݑ‬௥ୀ௥ೞ
ൌ ‫ݑ‬௥ୀ௥ೞ the excess pore pressure outside the smear zone can be
calculated by:
ఊ డఌ ௥ ൫௥ మ ି௥ೞమ ൯ ఊ డఌ ௥ ൫௥ೞమ ି௥ೢ
మ൯
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ଶ௞ೢ ቂ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݈݊ ቀ௥ ቁ െ
డ௧ ௖ ଶ
ቃ ൅ ଶ௞ೢᇲ ቂ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݈݊ ቀ௥ ೞ ቁ െ
డ௧ ௖ ଶ
ቃെ
೓ ೞ ೓ ೢ
௭ ሺ௥ି௥ ሻ (2.82)
‫݌‬଴ ቂͳ െ ሺͳ െ ݇ଵ ሻ ௟ ቃ ൈ ቂͳ െ ሺͳ െ ݇ଶ ሻ ሺ௥ ି௥ೢ ሻቃ
೎ ೢ
Consequently, the average excess pore pressure at a given time is:
డఌ ௥మ
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ డ௧ ߛ௪ ଶ௞೎ ߤ െ ‫݌‬଴ ‫ܩ‬ሺ݊ሻ (2.83)
೓
where
ሺଵା௞భ ሻሾ௡ሺଵାଶ௞మ ሻାሺଶା௞మ ሻሿ
‫ܩ‬ሺ݊ሻ ൌ ଺ሺ௡ାଵሻ
(2.84)
௡మ ௡ ௞ ଷ ௦మ ௦మ ௞ ଵ ௦ర ିଵ
ߤ ൌ ௡మ ିଵ ൤݈݊ ቀ ௦ ቁ ൅ ௞೓ᇲ ݈݊ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ െ ସ൨ ൅ ௡మ ିଵ ቀͳ െ ସ௡మ ቁ ൅ ௞೓ᇲ ௡మ ିଵ ቀ ସ௡మ െ ‫ ݏ‬ଶ ൅ (2.85)
೓ ೓
௡ ௞ ଷ
ͳቁ ൎ ൤݈݊ ቀ ௦ ቁ ൅ ௞೓ᇲ ݈݊ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ െ ସ൨
೓
௥೎ ௥ೞ
and ݊ ൌ ௥ , ‫ ݏ‬ൌ ௥ .
ೢ ೢ
The average degree of consolidation can be obtained as follows:

ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ௨ഥ ൌ ͳ െ ቂቀͳ ൅ ௣బ ீሺ௡ሻቁ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቀെ ଼்೓ ቁ െ ௣బ ீሺ௡ሻቃ
ܷ (2.86)
ഥ
௨ బ ௨ഥ ఓ ௨ഥ బ బ
The finite element analysis using ABAQUS software was used to support
the exact solutions based on unit cell theory, with the result that the details of a
proper corresponding method by transforming the permeability and vacuum pressure
between the axisymmetric condition, is described through analytical and numerical
schemes. The extent and distribution of vacuum pressure on the consolidation of soft
clay were inspected with average excess pore pressure, consolidation settlement, and
time analyses. Moreover, viscous creep was omitted by Indraratna et al. (2005) in the
present method.
Basu et al. (2006) developed closed-form solutions for the rate of
consolidation for four assumptive hydraulic conductivity profiles (i.e. Cases B, D, E,
and F in Figure 2.26) in the disturbed zone using methodology that was similar to
71
Hansbo (1981). In this methodology, a number of drains are installed into the
ground, with each one having an influence zone that performs identically (for
homogeneous deposits), but where water inside one influence zone does not flow
into another; this influence zone is called a ‘unit cell’. One such unit cell with a
circular cross section was considered in the analytical simulation where the effect of
the flow of water in a vertical direction within the unit cell is negligible (Leo 2004).
As a consequence, the interface between the drain and the unit cell is the only
pervious boundary of the unit cell, and it results in a radially convergent horizontal
flow of water into the drain. Flow patterns are identical along any horizontal plane
because they assume a homogeneous deposit with no horizontal strain in the soil
cylinder. To solve this problem, only one such horizontal plane with axisymmetric
flow should be considered. It was assumed that the flow of water would follow
Darcy’s law and the vertical strain within the unit cell is spatially uniform. This
represents the case of ‘equal strain’ consolidation (Richart 1959). By considering ‫ݑ‬ത
to be the average excess pore pressure throughout the unit cell, the average excess
pore water pressure in Case D, for instance, can be obtained by the following
equation:
௥ ௥ ௥
ߨሺ‫ݎ‬௖ଶ െ ‫ݎ‬௪ଶ ሻ‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ‫׬‬௥ ೞ ʹߨ‫ݑݎ‬௦௠ ݀‫ ݎ‬൅ ‫׬‬௥ ೏ ʹߨ‫ݑݎ‬௧௥ ݀‫ ݎ‬൅ ‫׬‬௥ ೎ ʹߨ‫ݑݎ‬௖ ݀‫ݎ‬ (2.87)
ೢ ೞ ೏
where ‫ݎ‬௖ , ‫ݎ‬ௗ , ‫ݎ‬௦ , and ‫ݎ‬௪ represent unit the cell, the disturbed zone, the smear
zone, and the drain radii, respectively, ‫ݑ‬௦௠ , ‫ݑ‬௧௥ , ‫ݑ‬௖ are the excess pore water
pressures in the smear zone, transition zone, and unit zone respectively. By
rearranging Equation (2.87) we obtain:
ఊೢ ௥೎మ డఌೡ
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ߤ (2.88)
ଶ௞ೝ డ௧
where
௡మ ௡ ଵ ሺ௤ି௠ሻ ఈ௤ ଷ ଵ ଵ
ߤ ൌ ௡మ ିଵ ቂ݈݊ ቀ௤ ቁ ൅ ఈ ݈݊ሺ݉ሻ ൅ ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻ ݈݊ ቀ ௠ ቁ െ ସቃ െ ௡మ ିଵ ቂఈ ሺ݉ଶ െ ͳሻ െ
ሺ௤ି௠ሻ൫௤ మ ି௠మ ൯ ଵ ଵ ଵ
‫ݍ‬ଶ ൅ ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻ
ቃ ൅ ௡మ ሺ௡మ ିଵሻ ቂସఈ ሺ݉ସ െ ͳሻ ൅ ଷሺଵିఈሻ ሺ‫ ݍ‬ଷ െ ݉ଷ ሻሺ‫ ݍ‬െ
ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻሺ௤ି௠ሻమ ሺఈି௠ሻሺఈ௤ି௠ሻయ ଵ
݉ሻ െ ሼͷሺߙ‫ ݍ‬െ ݉ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݍ‬െ ߙ݉ሻሽ െ ݈݊ ቀఈቁ െ
ଶሺଵିఈሻయ ሺଵିఈሻర
௤ర (2.89)
ቃ
ସ
௥ ௥ ௥ ௞ᇲ
and where ݊ ൌ ௥ ೎ , ݉ ൌ ௥ ೞ , ‫ ݍ‬ൌ ௥೏ , and ߙ ൌ ௞೓ .
ೢ ೢ ೢ ೓
72
Equation (2.89) is difficult to use in routine design, nonetheless a number of
terms on the right hand side make an insignificant contribution to the value of ߤ, but
if we omit these terms, Equation (2.89) can be simplified to:
௡ ଵ ሺ௤ି௠ሻ ఈ௤ ଷ
ߤ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ௤ ቁ ൅ ఈ ݈݊ሺ݉ሻ ൅ ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻ ݈݊ ቀ ௠ ቁ െ ସ (2.90)
௡మ
Since the ratio is close to unity for a typical unit cell and drain
௡మ ିଵ
diameters used in practice, it was not included in Equation (2.90). Assuming that all
the excess pore pressure due to preloading is generated instantaneously:
డఌೡ ഥᇲ
డఙ ഥ
డ௨
ൌ ݉௩ ൌ ݉௩ డ௧ (2.91)
డ௧ డ௧
where ߪത ᇱ is the average effective stress in the unit cell due to preloading at the end of
consolidation, ‫ݑ‬ത is the average excess pore pressure at the time of load application,
and ݉௩ is the coefficient of volume compressibility.
By substituting Equation (2.88) into Equation (2.91), the following linear
differential equation can be obtained:
ഥ
ௗ௨ ଶ௞೎
ௗ௧
൅௠ మ ‫ݑ‬ത ൌ Ͳ (2.92)
ೡ ఊೢ ௥೎ ఓ
Solving Equation (2.92) using the initial condition and the change in
average excess pore pressure with time can be obtained as follows:
ఴ೅೓
ି (2.93)
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ‫ݑ‬ത଴ ݁ ഋ
ഥ௛ at a particular time ‫( ݐ‬or time factor) is the

The degree of consolidation ܷ
ratio of excess pore pressure dissipated to the excess pore pressure induced at that
time.
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ௨ഥ
ܷ (2.94)
ഥ ௨బ
Substituting Equation (2.93) in Equation (2.94) gives the following

expression for the degree of consolidation:
ఴ೅೓
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁ ି
ܷ ഋ (2.95)
The results of these analyses showed that different variations of the

hydraulic conductivity profiles in the disturbed zone caused various rates of
consolidation, although in the method presented by Basu et al. (2006) the time
dependant behaviour of soft soils was not included.
73
Walker and Indraratna (2006) presented an analytical solution for nonlinear
radial consolidation under equal-strain conditions that included soil disturbance and
ignored well resistance. Walker and Indraratna (2006) considered the following
aspects of non-linearity: (i) non-Darcian flow; (ii) a logarithm-linear void-ratio-stress
relationship; and (iii) a logarithm-linear void-ratio-permeability relationship. As
Hansbo (1981) expressed, the average degree of consolidation for axisymmetric flow
ഥ௛ ) on a horizontal plane at a depth ‫ ݖ‬and at time ‫ ݐ‬is:
(ܷ
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂെ ଼்೓ ቃ
ܷ (2.96)
ఓ ೓ೞ
where the value of ߤ௛௦ for smear effect, assuming no well resistance, is
given by:
௡ ௞
ߤ௛௦ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ௦ ቁ ൅ ൬௞೓ᇲ ൰ ݈݊ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ െ ͲǤ͹ͷ (2.97)
೓
௥ ௥
In the preceding, ݊ ൌ ௥೐ and ‫ ݏ‬ൌ ௥ ೞ , ‫ݎ‬௘ is the external radius of unit cell, ‫ݎ‬௪
ೢ ೢ
and ‫ݎ‬௦ are the radius of the vertical drain and smear zone, respectively, ݇௛ is the
horizontal coefficient of permeability, and ݇௛ᇱ is the horizontal coefficient of
permeability in the smear zone, which was assumed to be constant throughout the
smear zone in the Hansbo’s (1981) theory. Hansbo (1981) used a constant value of
݇௛ᇱ , so in the proposed model, ݇௛ᇱ is a parabolic function of ‫ ݎ‬as follows:
஼௥ ஼௥
݇௛ᇱ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇଴ ሺߢ െ ͳሻ ቀ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬൅ ௥ ቁ ቀ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܤ‬െ ௥ ቁ (2.98)
ೢ ೢ
௞೓ ఑ ௦ ଵ డఌ
where ߢ ൌ , ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ටሺ఑ିଵሻ, ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ሺ௦ିଵሻ, and ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሺ௦ିଵሻ. By considering as
௞బ డ௧
the depth averaged vertical strain rate, the pore pressure gradient in the undisturbed
zone can be obtained as follows:
డ௨ ఊ డఌ ௥మ
ቀడ௥ ቁ ൌ ቀଶ௞ೢ ቁ ቀడ௧ ቁ ቀ ௥೐ െ ‫ݎ‬ቁ‫ݎ‬௦ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௘ (2.99)
೓
Similarly, the pore pressure gradient in the smear zone is:

డ௨ᇲ ఊ డఌ ௥మ
ቀ డ௥ ቁ ൌ ൬ଶ௞ೢᇲ ൰ ቀడ௧ ቁ ቀ ௥೐ െ ‫ݎ‬ቁ‫ݎ‬௪ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௦ (2.100)
೓
The resulting expressions for pore water pressure on either side of the smear
zone boundary, and by substituting Equation (2.98) in Equation (2.99) and (2.100)
are:
ఊೢ ௥೐మ డఌ ௥ Τ௥ೢ ଵ ௥మ ଵ
‫ݑ‬ൌ ቀడ௧ ቁ ቂ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ଶ௡మ ቀ௥ మ െ ‫ ݏ‬ଶ ቁ ൅ ‫ܣ‬ଶ ቀ஺మ ି஻మ ቀ݈݊ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ െ (2.101)
ଶ௞೓ ௦ ೢ
74
ଵ ஻ா ଵ ஻ா ௞
ଶ
ቄ݈݊ሺߢሻ ൅ ஺
ቅቁ ൅ ଶ௡మ ஼ మ ቄ݈݊ሺߢሻ െ ஺
ቅቁ ൅ ௞ ೓ ሺ݊ଶ െ ͳሻሺʹ݈‫ ݖ‬െ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ ሻቃ
ೢ
ᇱ ఊೢ ௥೐మ డఌ ଵ ௥ ଵ
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ቀ ቁ ቂ஺మି஻మ ቀ݈݊ ቀ௥ ቁ െ ଶ஺ ሼሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܨ‬൅ ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ܩ‬ሽቁ ൅ (2.102)
ଶ௞బ ሺ఑ିଵሻ డ௧ ೢ
ଵ ௞బ ሺ఑ିଵሻ
൫ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܨ‬൅ ሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ܩ‬൯ ൅ ሺ݊ଶ െ ͳሻሺʹ݈‫ ݖ‬െ ‫ ݖ‬ଶ ሻቃ
ଶ௡మ ஺஼ మ ௞ೢ
where
஺ାଵ
‫ ܧ‬ൌ ݈݊ ቀ஺ିଵቁ (2.103)
஺ା஻ି஼௥ Τ௥ೢ
‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ஺ାଵ
ቁ (2.104)
஺ି஻ା஼௥ Τ௥ೢ
‫ܩ‬ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ஺ାଵ
ቁ (2.105)
If ‫ݑ‬ത is the average excess pore pressure in the soil cylinder at a depth ‫ݖ‬, then
௥ ௥
‫ݑ‬തߨሺ‫ݎ‬௘ଶ െ ‫ݎ‬௪ଶ ሻ ൌ ‫׬‬௥ ೞ ʹߨ‫ݑݎ‬ᇱ ݀‫ ݎ‬൅ ‫׬‬௥ ೐ ʹߨ‫ݎ݀ݑݎ‬ (2.106)
ೢ ೞ
Substituting Equations (2.101) and (2.102) into Equation (2.105) and

subsequent solution gives:
ఊೢ ௥೐మ డఌ
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ቀడ௧ ቁ ߤ (2.107)
ଶ௞೓
where
௡ ଷ ఑ሺ௦ିଵሻమ ௦ ௦ሺ௦ିଵሻඥ఑ሺ఑ିଵሻ ξ఑ାξ఑ିଵ
ߤ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ௦ ቁ െ ସ ൅ ሺ௦మ ିଶ఑௦ା఑ሻ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ ൅
ξ఑ ଶሺ௦మ ିଶ఑௦ା఑ሻ ξ఑ିξ఑ିଵ
௞ (2.108)
௤ೢ
ߨ‫ݖ‬ሺʹ݈ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ
௥ ௥
In the preceding, ݊ ൌ ௥ ೎ , ‫ ݏ‬ൌ ௥ ೞ , ‫ݎ‬௖ is the external radius of unit cell, ݈ is the
ೢ ೢ
initial length of the drainage path, ‫ݎ‬௪ and ‫ݎ‬௦ are the radius of the vertical drain and
smear zone, respectively, and ‫ݍ‬௪ is the discharge capacity of the drain. Equation
(2.107) may now be combined with Terzaghi’s constitutive equation for one-
dimensional compression.
డఌ ഥᇲ
డఙ ഥ
డ௨
ൌ ݉௩ ൌ െ݉௩ డ௧ (2.109)
డ௧ డ௧
where ݉௩ is the coefficient of volume compressibility (݉௩ in the smear and

undisturbed zone are assumed to be equal) and ߪത ᇱ is the average effective stress.
Combining Equations (2.108) and (2.109) with the initial condition gives:
଼்೓
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ‫ݑ‬ത଴ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቔെ ቕ (2.110)
ఓ
where ܶ௛ is the horizontal time factor. The average degree of consolidation

in a radial direction and at a particular depth with well resistance, as in Equation
(2.96), is now given by:
75
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ௨ഥ ൌ ͳ െ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂെ ଼்೓ ቃ
ܷ (2.111)
ഥ
௨ బ ఓ
The behaviour of over consolidated and normally consolidated soils can be

captured by the analytical solution to non-linear radial consolidation theory. Walker
and Indraratna (2006) mentioned that compared to the cases with constant material
properties, consolidation might be faster or slower for non-linear material properties,
with the difference being a function of the compressibility/permeability ratios, the
preconsolidation pressure and the stress increase. It is worth noting that the method
proposed by Walker and Indraratna (2006) did not include the viscous behaviour of
soft soils.
Indraratna et al. (2008) proposed a new technique to model consolidation by
vertical drains below a circular loaded area where the system of vertical drains in the
field was transformed by a series of equivalent and concentric cylindrical drain walls.
Soil that has consolidated around an individual vertical drain can easily be analysed
as a single unit cell, but to analyse a multi-drain system under an axisymmetric
condition, the equivalent soil parameters that give the same time-settlement response
in the field must be determined. In such a transformation, each drain element should
behave as part of the concentric cylindrical drain wall with a perimeter that is
increasing with the radial distance from the centreline. The main assumptions made
in this analysis were: (i) an equal strain assumption (small strain) and Darcy’s law
are valid, (ii) only vertical strains are allowed, (iii) the soil is fully saturated, and the
permeability of the soil is assumed to be constant during consolidation, (iv) well
resistance is omitted because the discharge capacity of the drain is sufficient and thus
the pore pressure at the interface is assumed to be zero, (v) each set of vertical drains
located the same radial distance from the line of axisymmetric is modelled as a
continuous cylindrical drain wall with a radius (‫ݎ‬௜ ൌ ݅Ǥ ܵ) where ܵ is the spacing of
the drains and ݅ is the number of that set (݅ ൌ ͳǡʹǡ͵ǡ ǥǤ). For (݅ ൐ ͳ), each cylindrical
drain wall lies in the middle of a revolving prism of soil which has a thickness of ܵ,
and (vi) it is assumed that the cylindrical drain wall has a negligible thickness.
Indraratna et al. (2008) assumed the radial flow rate to be equal to the rate
of volume change of the soil mass in a vertical direction, so:
௞೓ డ௨ డఌ ௌ ଶ (2.112)
ʹߨ‫ݎ‬ሺ݀‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ߨ ൬ቀ‫ݎ‬௜ െ ቁ െ ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ൰ ݀‫ݖ‬
ఊೢ డ௥ డ௧ ଶ
76
The excess pore pressure gradient can be derived by rearranging Equation
(2.112) as follows:
మ ೄ మ
డ௨ ఊೢ డఌ ൬ቀ௥೔ ିమቁ ି௥ ൰ ௌ (2.113)
డ௥
ൌ ଶ௞ డ௧
‫ݎ‬௜ െ ଶ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௜
೓ ௥
Integrating Equation (2.113) in the radial direction with the boundary
condition (‫ ݑ‬ൌ Ͳܽ‫ ݎݐ‬ൌ ‫ݎ‬௜ ), the distribution of excess pore pressure ‫ ݑ‬in Zone ‫ܣ‬
ௌ
(‫ݎ‬௜ െ ଶ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௜ ) can be expressed by
ఊ డఌ ௌ ଶ ௥ ଵ ௌ (2.114)
‫ݑ‬஺ ൌ ଶ௞ೢ ቆቀ‫ݎ‬௜ െ ቁ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ሺ‫ ݎ‬ଶ െ ‫ݎ‬௜ଶ ሻቇ‫ݎ‬௜ െ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௜
೓ డ௧ ଶ ௥೔ ଶ ଶ
ௌ
Similarly, the excess pore pressure ‫ ݑ‬in Zone ‫ݎ( ܤ‬௜ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௜ ൅ ଶ)) is
determined by:
ఊ డఌ ௌ ଶ ௥ ଵ ௌ (2.115)
‫ݑ‬஻ ൌ ଶ௞ೢ డ௧
ቆቀ‫ݎ‬௜ ൅ ଶቁ ݈݊ ቀ௥ ቁ െ ଶ ሺ‫ ݎ‬ଶ െ ‫ݎ‬௜ଶ ሻቇ‫ݎ‬௜ ൑ ‫ ݎ‬൑ ‫ݎ‬௜ ൅ ଶ
೓ ೔
The subscripts ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬were denoted for Zones ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ܤ‬, respectively, and a
subscript ‘ring’ was denoted for circular loading. The average excess pore pressure is
given by:
ఊೢ డఌ ଵ
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ݀௘ଶ ߤ (2.116)
௞೓ డ௧ ଼
where
ఈమ ௜ ଵ
ߤൌ ቂʹሺ݅ െ ͲǤͷሻସ ݈݊ ௜ି଴Ǥହ ൅ ସ ሺʹ݅ െ ͲǤͷሻሺെʹ݅ ଶ ൅ ͵݅ െ ͲǤ͹ͷሻ ൅
௜
௜ା଴Ǥହ ଵ ଶఈమ (2.117)
ʹሺ݅ ൅ ͲǤͷሻସ ݈݊ ቀ ௜
ቁ െ ସ ሺʹ݅ ൅ ͲǤͷሻሺʹ݅ ଶ ൅ ͵݅ ൅ ͲǤ͹ͷሻቃ ൎ ଷ
ܵ ൌ ߙ݀௘ (2.118)
Ƚ ൌ ͲǤͺͺ͹ and ͲǤͻͷʹ for drains installed in a square pattern and an

equilateral triangular pattern, respectively (Holtz et al. 1991). It is interesting to note
ଶఈమ
that the value of ߤ௥௜௡௚ converges to ଷ
for all values of ݅ ൐ ͳ, and combining
Equations (2.116) to (2.118) with the well-known compressibility relationship

(߲ߝΤ߲‫ ݐ‬ൌ െ݉௩ ߲‫ݑ‬തΤ߲‫ )ݐ‬yields:
ఊ ഥଵ
డ௨
‫ݑ‬ത ൌ െ ௞ೢ ݉௩ డ௧ ଼
݀௘ଶ ߤ (2.119)
೓
Rearranging the above Equation (2.119) and then integrating it by applying

the initial boundary condition ‫ݑ‬ത ൌ ߪଵ at ‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ gives:
ഥ
௨ ି଼்೓
ൌ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቀ ቁ (2.120)
ఙభ ఓ
77
Table 2.4. Proposed analytical solutions for vertical drain assisted preloading
Reference Suggested theoretical solution for radial consolidation

Tang and ସ
ͳ
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ
ܷ ෍ ‫ܣ‬௠ ሺܹ௠ଵ ൅ ܹ௠ଶ ሻ݁ ିఉ೘ ௧
Onitsuka ‫ݑ‬଴ ‫ܪ‬
௠ୀ଴
(2001) ௛ ு
݉௩ଵ ‫׬‬଴ భ ‫ݑ‬଴ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݃௠ଵ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݀‫ݖ‬ ൅ ݉௩ଶ ‫׬‬௛ ‫ݑ‬଴ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݃௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݀‫ݖ‬
భ
‫ܣ‬௠ ൌ ௛ ு ଶ
ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݀‫ݖ‬
݉௩ଵ ‫׬‬଴ భ ݃௠ଵ ൅ ݉௩ଶ ‫׬‬௛ ݃௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ݀‫ݖ‬
భ
ͳ ଶ ‫ݖ‬ ͳ ଶ ‫ݖ‬
݃௠ଵ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ൬ͳ ൅ ߣ ൰ ܽ ‫ ݊݅ݏ‬ቀߣ௠ଵ ቁ ൅ ൬ͳ െ ߦ௠ଵ ൰ ܿ௠ଵ ‫ ݄݊݅ݏ‬ቀߦ௠ଵ ቁ
߮ଵ ௠ଵ ௠ଵ ‫ܪ‬ ߮ଵ ‫ܪ‬
௭ ௭
݃௪௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ܾ௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݏ݋‬൬ߣ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ቁ൰ ൅ ݀௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݄ݏ݋‬൬ߦ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ቁ൰
ு ு
ଵ ௭ ଵ ଶ
݃௠ଶ ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ቀͳ ൅ ߣଶ௠ଶ ቁ ܾ௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݏ݋‬൬ߣ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ ቁ൰ ൅ ቀͳ െ ߦ ቁ ݀௠ଶ ܿ‫ ݄ݏ݋‬൬ߦ௠ଶ ቀͳ െ
ఝమ ு ఝమ ௠ଵ
௭
ቁ൰
ு
Indraratna ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ቂቀͳ ൅ ௣బீሺ௡ሻቁ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቀെ ଼்೓ ቁ െ ௣బீሺ௡ሻቃ

ܷ ഥ ௨బ ഥ ఓ ௨బ
et al. ሺଵା௞భ ሻሾ௡ሺଵାଶ௞మ ሻାሺଶା௞మ ሻሿ
‫ܩ‬ሺ݊ሻ ൌ
(2005) ଺ሺ௡ାଵሻ
௡మ ௡ ௞೓ ଷ ௦మ ௦మ ௞೓ ଵ ௦ ర ିଵ
ߤൌ ൤݈݊ ቀ ቁ ൅ ᇲ ݈݊ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ െ ൨ ൅ ቀͳ െ ቁ൅ ᇲ ௡మ ିଵ ቀ െ ‫ ݏ‬ଶ ൅ ͳቁ
௡మ ିଵ ௦ ௞೓ ସ ௡మ ିଵ ସ௡మ ௞೓ ସ௡మ
ఴ೅
Basu et al. ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁ ି ഋ
ܷ
(2006) ௡మ ௡ ଵ ሺ௤ି௠ሻ ఈ௤ ଷ ଵ ଵ
ߤൌ ቂ݈݊ ቀ ቁ ൅ ݈݊ሺ݉ሻ ൅ ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ቃ െ ቂ ሺ݉ଶ െ ͳሻ െ ‫ ݍ‬ଶ ൅
௡మ ିଵ ௤ ఈ ௠ ସ ௡మ ିଵ ఈ
ሺ௤ି௠ሻ൫௤ మ ି௠మ ൯ ଵ ଵ ଵ
ቃ൅ ൈቂ ሺ݉ସ െ ͳሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݍ‬ଷ െ ݉ଷ ሻሺ‫ ݍ‬െ ݉ሻ െ
ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻ ௡మ ሺ௡మ ିଵሻ ସఈ ଷሺଵିఈሻ
ሺఈ௤ି௠ሻሺ௤ି௠ሻమ ሺఈି௠ሻሺఈ௤ି௠ሻయ ଵ ௤ర
ሼͷሺߙ‫ ݍ‬െ ݉ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݍ‬െ ߙ݉ሻሽ െ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ቃ
ଶሺଵିఈሻయ ሺଵିఈሻర ఈ ସ
Walker ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቂെ ଼்೓ ቃ

ܷ
ఓ
and
௡ ଷ ఑ሺ௦ିଵሻమ ௦ ௦ሺ௦ିଵሻඥ఑ሺ఑ିଵሻ ξ఑ାξ఑ିଵ ௞
Indraratna ߤ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ൅ ሺ௦మ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ൅ ߨ‫ݖ‬ሺʹ݈ െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ
௦ ସ ିଶ఑௦ା఑ሻ ξ఑ ଶሺ௦ మ ିଶ఑௦ା఑ሻ ξ఑ିξ఑ିଵ ௤ೢ
(2006)
Indraratna ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቀି଼்೓ ቁ
ܷ
ఓ
et al.
ఈమ ௜ ଵ
ߤൌ ቂʹሺ݅ െ ͲǤͷሻସ ݈݊ ൅ ሺʹ݅ െ ͲǤͷሻ ൈ ሺെʹ݅ ଶ ൅ ͵݅ െ ͲǤ͹ͷሻ ൅ ʹሺ݅ ൅
(2008) ௜ ௜ି଴Ǥହ ସ
௜ା଴Ǥହ ଵ
ͲǤͷሻସ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ െ ሺʹ݅ ൅ ͲǤͷሻሺʹ݅ ଶ ൅ ͵݅ ൅ ͲǤ͹ͷሻቃ
௜ ସ
Note: ഥ ୦ is the average degree of consolidation; ɔ୧ , ɉ୫୧ , Ɍ୫୧ , ୫ଵ , ୫ଶ , ୫ଵ , ୫ଶ , and ୫୧
are the solution parameters which can be found in Tang and Onitsuka (2001); ൌ ୡ Τ୵ ;
ൌ ୱ Τ୵ ;ଵ is vacuum pressure reduction factor by depth; ଶ is vacuum pressure
reduction factor by radius; is depth, is total depth; ൌ ୱ Τ୵; ൌ ୢ Τ୵ ; and Ƚ ൌ
ୱ Τ ୰ ; Ƚ is the model parameter related to vertical drains pattern; is the number of the set
( ൌ ୧ Τǡ ൌ ͳǡʹǡ͵ǡ ǥǤ); is the spacing of the drains.
78
ഥ௛ ൌ ͳ െ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬ቀି଼்೓ ቁ
ܷ (2.121)
ఓ
Indraratna et al. (2008) used the proposed model to study the consolidation
process by vertical drains at Area II of the Skå-Edeby circular test embankment. In
should be mentioned that the proposed method omitted the viscous behaviour of soft
soils. Table 2.4 summarised the proposed solutions for analytical formulations of
vertical drain assisted preloading.
2.8 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF VERTICAL DRAIN

ASSISTED PRELOADING
Geotechnical engineers have used various methods of numerical analysis in

preloading projects to rectify the limitations of using analytical approaches to
simulate complex vertical drains and to estimate the behaviour of soils. To conduct a
numerical analysis, various programs such as CRISP, PLAXIS, ABAQUS, and
FLAC as well as developed codes have been used by researchers, and a number of
numerical investigations already conducted are tabulated in Table 2.5. Indraratna and
Redana (2000) applied the finite element code CRISP92 (Britto and Gunn 1987) to
simulate ground improved by vertical drains under the load of an embankment by
implementing the equivalent coefficient of permeability for the undisturbed soil and
the disturbed zone. The Modified Cam-Clay model as the soil constitutive model was
used to carry out the numerical analysis, while incremental vertical loads were
applied to the upper boundary to model the embankment surcharge. The smear zone
was presumed to be three to four times the radius of the mandrel while permeability
within the smear zone was assumed to decrease linearly. Based on a numerical
simulation carried out by Indraratna and Redana (2000), including the smearing
effects can increase the accuracy of the estimated settlements.
Zhu and Yin (2000) proposed a finite element procedure to analyse the
consolidation of layered soils with a vertical drain by using general one dimensional
(1-D) constitutive models. A Newton-Cotes-type integration formula was used to
formulate the finite element procedure to elude the asymmetry of the stiffness matrix
for a Newton (Modified Newton) iteration scheme. This procedure was then used to
analyse the consolidation of numerous and usual problems by applying linear and
nonlinear soil models. The results from this simplified method were compared with
79
results from fully coupled consolidation analysis by applying the recognised finite
element package. One of the shortcomings of Zhu and Yin’s (2000) method was
assuming that the creep part of equations was equal to zero.
Nash and Ryde (2001) proposed a one-dimensional finite difference
consolidation analysis to simulate the vertical and radial drainage of a multilayer soil
profile in the zone of influence of a vertical drain. The model was illustrated with a
back-analysis of field data from construction of the approach motorways to the new
Second Severn Crossing in the UK with temporary surcharge over estuarine
alluvium. For simplicity, it was assumed by Nash and Ryde (2001) that the creep
coefficient is constant at any vertical effective stress.
Arulrajah et al. (2005) used the PLAXIS 2D V.8 program to simulate the
unit cell and full scale embankment with a finite element model. Based on Arulrajah
et al. (2005), a good agreement was attained between the numerical results and the
field measurements. Settlement estimations attained from the axisymmetric unit cell
and a full scale analysis of vertical drains were found to agree with each other, and
with the actual field measurements. Moreover, to simplify the analysis, the
constitutive model used to simulate the soil considered the creep coefficient to be
constant with time and effective stress.
Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna (2006) introduced a numerical model based
on a three-dimensional finite element model to analyse the behaviour of soft soil
improved with prefabricated vertical drains. In the numerical simulation, the cross
section of these prefabricated vertical drains was considered to be rectangular, so the
equivalent drain diameter was back calculated and then compared to the results of
previous studies based on consolidation behaviour. The study confirmed that the
equivalent drain diameter was comparable to that attained from the numerical results.
The predictions from the 3D numerical model and the laboratory measurements from
large-scale consolidation testing agreed with each other. Including the effect of the
disturbed zone, the actual variation of horizontal permeability along the radial
direction, and the void ratio permeability relationship helped in making the
estimation of settlement more accurate, although the estimations made using
conventional analysis (Hansbo 1979) slightly underestimated the laboratory data, and
the creep coefficient was considered to be a function of the square root of time.
80
Basu et al. (2010) used two dimensional finite element analyses to study
how prefabricated vertical drains affected the rate of consolidation of the soil. In this
analysis, the highly disturbed smear and intact zones were separated by a transition
zone lying between them. It was assumed that the permeability in the transition zone
varied linearly from a low value in the smear zone to the original in situ value in the
undisturbed zone. Basu et al. (2010) also carried out a parametric study to study the
effects of the degree of soil disturbance, the size of the smear and the transition
zones, the spacing of the prefabricated vertical drains, and the shape and size of the
mandrel. A comparison with the experimental results showed that a consideration of
the transition zone was enough to make an accurate approximation of the degree of
consolidation. It should be noted that in Basu et al. (2010) study, the time dependant
behaviour of soil was not included.
Table 2.5. Summary of numerical studies conducted to simulate PVD assisted

preloading
Applied Comment
Simulated Case Inclusion
Reference Objective of the Numerical Study Numerical about
Study of creep
Program creep
Adopting
Hypothesis
A (the
creep
coefficient
To investigate the settlement of
Mesri et al. considered
embankments on soft clays - ILLICON Yes
(1994) to be
improvement using vertical drains
constant
with
effective
stress and
time)
Proposed a finite element Berthierville
procedure to analyse consolidation Test
Zhu and
of layered soils with vertical drain Embankment in - No -
Yin (2000)
using general one-dimensional (1- Quebec,
D) constitutive models Canada
To evaluate the performance of soft
Indraratna clay foundation beneath Muar clay
CRISP92
and Redana embankments stabilised with embankment No -
2D
(2000) vertical drains by considering Malaysia
smear effects
Adopting
To simulate vertical and radial motorways to the Hypothesis
Nash and
drainage of a multilayer soil profile new Second B (the
Ryde - Yes
in the zone of influence of a Severn Crossing creep
(2001)
vertical drain in the UK coefficient
considered
81
to be
constant
with time)
To investigate the effect of

Indraratna unsaturation at a drain boundary Large-scale
ABAQUS
et al. on the behaviour of a single PVD consolidometer No -
2D
(2004a) subjected to vacuum preloading test
applying 2D plane-strain model
To study the performance of a
Second
Indraratna full-scale test embankment
Bangkok ABAQUS
et al. constructed on PVD improved No -
international 2D
(2005a) soft clay incorporating vacuum
airport
preloading
To model a single vertical drain
Indraratna incorporating the effects of
ABAQUS
et al. vacuum preloading and compare - No -
2D
(2005b) the results with proposed
analytical solutions
Adopting
Hypothesis
B (the
To investigate the deformation creep
behaviour of marine clay under coefficient
Arulrajah Singapore
reclamation fills conducting full- PLAXIS considered
et al. marine clay at Yes
scale analysis of PVDs and 2D to be
(2005) Changi
compare the results with the constant
axisymmetric approach with time
and
effective
stress)
Rujikiatka
To analyse the behaviour of soft Large-scale
mjorn and
soil improved by prefabricated consolidometer - No -
Indraratna
vertical drains test
(2006)
Adopting
Hypothesis
B (the
creep
Indraratna
coefficient
and To analyse the behaviour of soft Sunshine
PLAXIS considered
Rujikiatka soil improved by prefabricated Motorway, Yes
2D to be
mjorn vertical drains Queensland
constant
(2007)
with time
and
effective
stress)
Indraratna To evaluate the consolidation of
Skå-Edeby ABAQUS
et al. soft soil beneath a circular No -
Sweden 2D
(2008) embankment improved with PVD
To evaluate the efficiency of a
Tran and
proposed method to convert an CRISP
Mitachi - No -
axisymmetric unit cell to an 2D
(2008)
equivalent plane-strain unit cell
82
under embankment loading
combined with vacuum
preloading
To conduct 2D and 3D numerical
Rujikiatka storage yard at
modelling of combined surcharge ABAQUS
mjorn et al. Tianjin Port, No -
and vacuum preloading with 2D & 3D
(2009) China
vertical drains
To study the performance of the
matching procedures proposed by
Yildiz and Haarajoki
Hird et al. (1991 & 1995) when PLAXIS
Karstunen embankmentFin No -
complex elasto-plastic models are 3D
(2009) land
used in the plane-strain analyses
of vertical drains
To evaluate the accuracy of three
different matching methods for
Haarajoki
Yildiz conversion of axisymmetric to PLAXIS
embankmentFin No -
(2009) plane-strain conditions by 3D
land
comparing results of 2D and 3D
analyses
To investigate the drainage of a Second

Lin and
PVD unit cell and full-scale PVD Bangkok
Chang FLAC 3D No -
improved ground with a 3D international
(2009)
numerical simulation airport
To study the effect of soil

disturbance induced by
large-scale
Basu et al. installation of prefabricated
consolidometer - No -
(2010) vertical drains on the rate of
experiment
consolidation by two dimensional
finite element analyses
2.9 SUMMARY
Due to its heterogeneous compositions, soil has a complex structure, unlike

other materials such as metal or glass. Taylor and Merchant (1940) and Terzaghi
(1941) stated that the process of compression consists of primary consolidation and
secondary compression (or creep), and it is defined based on the transfer of stress and
adjustment of the soil structure. As free water flows out of the soil due to the applied
stress, the structure is rearranged such that there may be an increase in the solid-to-
solid contacts in the soil. Secondary compression (creep) may be due to: (i) the
breakdown of inter-particle bonds, (ii) the bonds jumping, (iii) sliding between the
particles, (iv) double porosity, and (v) structural viscosity. An attempt was made in
this chapter to explain the mechanism of creep for clayey soils.
Various approaches have been suggested to simulate the time dependant
deformation of soft soils, but researchers have suggested the following two broad
83
concepts: (i) Hypothesis A; and (ii) Hypothesis B. In Hypothesis A, regardless of the
fact that creep occurs during primary consolidation, or the thickness of the sample,
the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation is considered constant. However,
Hypothesis B assumes that since creep occurs during primary consolidation and
secondary compression, the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation cannot be
constant for samples with different thickness. This chapter then, provides an
explanation of how these two Hypotheses (i.e. Hypothesis A and B) can be used to
simulate the behaviour of soft soils. The concept of a creep ratio as one of the main
methods supporting Hypothesis A was explained in detail, while a number of
constitutive models that support Hypothesis B proposed in the literature were
discussed. To classify the proposed models, they were divided into three categories;
empirical models, rheological models, and general stress-strain-time models.
As elaborated in this Chapter, the system of vertical drains assisted
preloading has been broadly used as a ground improvement technique for soft soil to
accelerate consolidation and improve the strength of the soil, including its bearing
capacity and shear strength. However, vertical drains disturb the soil, reduce the
permeability and shear strength of the smear zone, and retard the rate of
consolidation quite significantly.
Since different methods are presented in literature to capture the time
dependant behaviour of soft soils or consider the reduction of hydraulic permeability
induced by vertical drains, the combined effects of hydraulic conductivity or shear
strength profile in the disturbed zone and how the visco-plastic behaviour of the soil
influences the creep parameters, rate of settlement, and consequent deformation of
soft soils improved with vertical drains has not been considered.
Researchers have proposed various analytical developments to simulate the
behaviour of soft soils improved with vertical drains assisted preloading, and while
these analytical models considered the reduction in hydraulic conductivity induced
by installation of vertical drains, the resulting reduction in shear strength and time
dependant behaviour of soft soils (creep) were not included in these models.
Moreover, geotechnical engineers have used numerous methods of numerical
analysis to overcome limitations in the analytical approaches to simulate projects
with complex vertical drains. Indeed, most of these numerical models either did not
consider the time dependant behaviour of soft soils (creep) or considered the creep
84
coefficient to be constant with time and effective stress, and the reduction in shear
strength due to vertical drains were not included in the proposed numerical analysis.
In this research, finite difference formulations for fully coupled one
dimensional axisymmetric consolidation are used to model the time dependent
behaviour of soft soil combining vertical and radial drainage, as well as variations of
the settlement and excess pore water pressures with time. The elastic visco-plastic
model developed by Yin (1999) is incorporated in the consolidation equation, while
the selected elastic visco-plastic model can simulate consolidation and creep in a
single constant analysis that consists of a nonlinear creep function, as a function of
effective stress and time, and a creep strain limit. Different possible variations of
horizontal permeability and shear strength in the disturbed zone, and nonlinear
variations of permeability with changes in the void ratio combined with soil creep are
also considered. The effects of different hydraulic conductivity and shear strength
profiles on settlement, the rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation, the creep
strain rate, and the creep strain limit are also investigated and discussed.
85
CHAPTER THREE
3 FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR 2D

AXISYMMETRIC CONSOLIDATION EQUATION
CONSIDERING NONLINEAR ELASTIC VISCO-
PLASTIC MODEL
3.1 GENERAL
Post-construction deformation of soft soils including clays, silt deposits,

organic soils and peat deposits, may be extreme during the life time of the structure.
Therefore, in order to minimise the post-construction settlement and improve the
bearing capacity and the shear strength of the soft soil deposits, preloading combined
with vertical drains is commonly used. Preloading comprises of applying a load,
equal to or greater than the entire load of a planned structure, over the site earlier
than constructing the structure. Preloading, which is commonly an earth fill, applies
compression to the underlying soil, which is being partially or fully removed, while
the required settlement has taken place. Installation of vertical drains causes soil
disturbance in the vicinity of the drain. The disturbed zone around the vertical drain
possesses reduced strength and hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction,
remarkably affecting the excess pore water pressure dissipation rate as well as the
creep rate (Holtz and Holm 1973; Massarsch 1976; Bozozuk et al. 1977; Baligh
1985; Whittle and Aubeny 1993; Lo and Mesri 1994; Bergado et al. 1991; Sharma
and Xiao 2000; Basu and Prezzi 2007; Walker and Indraratna 2006).
Elastic visco-plastic model divides the soil deformation into two parts: (i) an
instant compression as a result of a reduction in the void ratio; and (ii) a delayed
compression representative of the volume decrease under the unchanged effective
stress. Elastic visco-plastic model originally proposed by Yin and Graham (1989) is
based on Bjerrum’s (1967) equivalent time line concept, which is capable of
calculating soil behaviour measured in the field and laboratory. Different numerical
solutions (e.g. finite difference and finite element methods) have been proposed by
86
researchers to solve the elastic visco-plastic models. In this chapter, the elastic visco-
plastic model, considering a nonlinear creep function and creep strain limit is
incorporated in the consolidation equation. Finite difference formulations for fully
coupled one dimensional axisymmetric consolidation are adopted to investigate the
long term behaviour of soft soils considering the disturbance induced by installation
of vertical drains. The finite difference solution of elastic visco-plastic model is
developed using MATLB software to model the time dependent behaviour of the soft
soils.
3.2 NONLINEAR ELASTIC VISCO-PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF

SOILS
Bjerrum (1967) represented a relationship between the applied stresses,

compression and time, by a system of lines, while each line being a representative of
a unique relationship between stress, strain and time. Time line system concept of
Bjerrum (1967) was adopted by Yin (1990) assuming that time lines are lines with
the same values of “equivalent times” (‫ݐ‬௘ ). However, as explained by Yin (1999),
unlike Bjerrum (1967) concept, each time line can be correlated to a unique creep
strain rate. Furthermore, time lines are not necessarily equal to the loading duration.
The time line concept comprises an instant time line, a reference time line, a limit
time line, and a set of equivalent time lines. Figure 3.1 depicts schematic fitting
curves for instant, reference, equivalent, and limit time lines.
As described by Yin and Graham (1989), the instant time line defines the
elastic-plastic settlement and is correlated to the normal consolidation line.
Nevertheless, instant compression is expressed by Yin (1990) as time independent
elastic compression. As explained by Graham and Yin (2001), the normal
consolidation or overconsolidation lines are often generated by the standard
oedometer tests, which may include creep deformation (while the excess pore water
pressure is being dissipated) since the consecutive loadings in the tests are generally
kept constant for 24 hours. As a result, the true instant line should be obtained by
reloading/unloading tests. The instant time line fitting equation can be defined as
follows:
௘ ఑ ఙᇱ
ߝ௭௘ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ௩ ݈݊ ቀఙᇱ ೥ ቁ (3.1)
ೠ
87
௘
where ߪԢ௨ is a unit stress, ɂୣ୸ is the vertical strain at stress level ߪԢ௭ , ߝ௭଴ is
఑
the vertical strain at ߪԢ௭ ൌ ߪԢ௨ , and ௩
is a material parameter describing the elastic
stiffness of the soil, in which ‫ ݒ‬is the specific volume ሺ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͳ ൅ ݁଴ ሻ, and ݁଴ is the
initial void ratio.
Logarithm of vertical effective stress

ߪԢ௨ ൌ ͳ݇ܲܽ ߪԢ௭଴ ߪԢ௭
௘
ߝ௭଴ Instant time line (ߢ line)
௘௣
Vertical Strain
ߝ௭଴
ߢ Τ‫ݒ‬
V
௥௘௙
ߝ௭
Reference time line (ߣ line)
(‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ Ͳሻ
Limit time line
(Creep strain limit) Ͳ ൐ ‫ݐ‬௘ ൐ െ‫ݐ‬଴
‫ݐ‬௘ ൐ Ͳ
(‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ λሻ
Lines of Equivalent time
Figure 3.1. Schematic fitting curves for instant, reference, equivalent and limit time
lines
Yin and Graham (1989) proposed their original elastic visco-plastic model
assuming the creep strain rate is constant. However, according to the field
measurements and laboratory test results (e.g. Yin 1999, Mesri 2001, and Yin et al.
2002) the relationship between the strain (or void ratio) and logarithm of time is not
linear. Consequently, in order to simulate the behaviour of soft soils more accurately,
Yin (1999) proposed a modified creep function incorporating a nonlinear creep strain
rate and the creep strain limit. The author believes that there is an absolute minimum
value for the volume of solid in a soil element while approximately no real void
exists within that soil element. As expressed by Mitchell (1956), regardless of the
pressure or initial orientation, void ratio for a particular soil can reach to a minimum
value. It means that the soil structure cannot deform forever. Thus, the deformation
of the soil under a particular applied pressure must cease after a finite period that can
be counted in years or decades, meaning that there is a finite strain. The compression
88
may end under the final effective stress that the ultimate equilibrium inside the soil
structure is reached or when almost no void exist inside the clay mass. Obviously,
creep strain limit measurement is not an easy task, since it is not feasible to carry out
the tests for a very long duration approaching infinity. Hence, it can be assumed that
the limit strain can be reached when the volume of voids within the soil approaches
zero under the applied stress at the infinity time. Yin et al. (2002) proposed that the
creep strain limit may be estimated based on the initial void ratio as follows:
௟௜௠௜௧ ௘బ
ߝ௖௥ ൌ (3.2)
ଵା௘బ
௟௜௠௜௧
whereߝ௖௥ is the creep strain limit and ݁଴ is the initial soil void ratio.
However, the author believes that Equation (3.2) is an overestimation of the
௘బ
creep strain limit since the term consists of the conventional consolidation
ଵା௘బ
volume change due to hydrodynamic excess pore water pressure dissipation as well
as the creep. As a result, the soil void ratio at a certain effective stress on the
reference time line should be used to define the creep strain limit for a particular
applied effective stress as follows:
௟௜௠௜௧ ௘
ೝ೐೑
ߝ௖௥ ൌ ଵା௘ (3.3)
బ
where
ߣ ߪԢ௭ (3.4)
݁௥௘௙ ൌ ൭ߝ௭ െ ݈݊ ቆ ቇ൱ ሺͳ ൅ ݁଴ ሻ ൅ ݁௭
‫ݒ‬ ߪԢ௭଴
where ݁௥௘௙ is the void ratio at effective stress equal to ߪԢ௭ on the reference
time line, ɂ୸ is the soil vertical strain, ߪԢ௭଴ is a material property, and ݁௭ is the void
ratio at a particular applied effective stress.
As stated by Yin and Graham (1989), the equivalent time line to some
extent is comparable to the equivalent pressure, defined in the critical state soil
mechanics. The equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ ) is referred to the time that clay needs to wait
after instantaneous loading along the reference line (ߣ line) to get to the required
future state point condition. The time needed for soil to creep from the reference time
line to a state point under the same effective stress is defined by Yin (1999) as the
equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ ). As explained by Yin et al. (2002), an equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ ) can
be defined as a function of the state point (ߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ), as follows:
89
‫ۍ‬ ೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ೥
‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ۇ‬ ఌ ೥ ିఌ ೥బ ି
ೡ
௟௡ቀ
഑ᇲ೥బ
ቁ ‫ۊ‬ ‫ۑ‬ (3.5)
‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ െ‫ݐ‬଴ ൅ ‫ݐ‬଴ ݁‫ۈێ ݌ݔ‬ ‫ۑ‬
ഄ೥ షഄ೥బ ష ೗೙൬ ೥ ൰ ‫ۋ‬
೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ
‫ ێ‬ഗೡబቌଵି ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ቍ ‫ۑ‬
ഄ೗೔೘೔೟
‫ۉۏ‬ ೎ೝ
‫ےی‬
நబ ஛ ୣ୮
where ଴ , , ୴, and ɂ୸଴ are the model parameters, related to the choice of the
୴
reference time line, the initial creep strain rate, the elastic-plastic stiffness of the soil,
and the vertical strain at ɐԢ୸ ൌ ɐԢ୸଴ , respectively.
Equivalent times above and below the reference time line are negative and
positive, respectively, as shown in Figure 3.1. In the overconsolidated range, the
equivalent time is a function of the consolidation ratio, however, in the normally
consolidation range and multistage loading tests (i.e. constant load increment), the
equivalent time is equal to the duration of the load increment (Yin and Graham
1994). According to Yin (2006), the vertical creep compression strain (ߝ௭௩௣ ) can be
calculated by the following equation:
ట ௧బ ା௧೐
ߝ௭௩௣ ൌ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ ݂‫ݐݎ݋‬଴ ൏ ‫ݐ‬௘ ൏ λ (3.6)
௩ ௧బ
where
ഗబ
ట (3.7)
ൌ ഗబ
ೡ
೟ శ೟
௩ ଵା ೗೔೘೔೟ ௟௡ቀ బ ೐ ቁ
ೡഄ೎ೝ ೟బ
ట టబ ట
where ௩ is the creep strain rate, and is the initial value of at ‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ Ͳ.
௩ ௩
Yin (1990) defined the reference time line as the line with the equivalent
time equal to zero (‫ݐ‬௘ ൌ Ͳ). The reference line can be used to calculate the equivalent
time and the creep strains (Yin 1990). As explained by Yin and Graham (1994), in
time independent soils, while viscosity of the soil is equal to zero, the reference time
line is the elastic-plastic line. The fitting function for the reference time line strain
can be presented as:
ఒ ఙᇱ
ߝ௭௘௣ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ௩ ݈݊ ቀఙᇱ ೥ ቁ
௘௣
(3.8)
೥బ
As suggested by Yin and Graham (1994), a unique limit time line in the
space of (ߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ) exists for both viscous and non-viscous soils. They expressed the
limit time line as the line in which ‫ݐ‬௘ ՜ λ and the creep strain rate approaches zero.
Behaviour of the soil beyond the limit time line is time independent. It is believed
that the creep straining will finally terminate after very long time (approaching
90
infinity) when the soil particles occupy a fixed volume. The fitting function for the
limit time line is as follows:
௘௣ ఒ ఙᇱ
ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ௩ ݈݊ ቀఙᇱ ೥ ቁ ൅ ߝ௖௥
௟௜௠௜௧ (3.9)
೥బ
௘௣
where ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ is the strain limit, and ߝ௭଴ is the initial strain on the reference
time line.
According to Yin (2006), considering and combining Equations (3.1) to
(3.9), the elastic visco-plastic model to predict the time dependant behaviour of soft
soils can be obtained using Equations (3.10) and (3.11):
‫ߝ߲ۓ‬௭ ൌ ߢ ߲ߪԢ௭ ݂‫ݎ݋‬ሺߪԢ ǡ ߝ ሻܾ݈݁‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐݓ݋‬ሺܽሻ

ۖ ߲‫ݐ‬ ‫ߪݒ‬Ԣ௭ ߲‫ݐ‬ ௭ ௭
(3.10)
‫ߝ߲۔‬௭ ߢ ߲ߪԢ௭
ۖ ߲‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ߪݒ‬Ԣ ߲‫ ݐ‬൅ ݃ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ݂‫ݎ݋‬ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻܾܽ‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐ݁ݒ݋‬ሺܾሻ
‫ە‬ ௭
where
೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ೥ ଶ ೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ
೥
ఌ೥బ ା ௟௡ቀ ቁିఌ೥ ௩ ఌ೥బ ାೡ ௟௡ቀ഑ᇲ೥బ ቁିఌ೥
టబ
݃ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ ൌ ௩௧ ቆ
ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ቇ ݁‫ ݌ݔ‬൮ట ൲ (3.11)
೗೔೘೔೟ ೐೛ ഊ ഑ᇲ
బ ఌ೎ೝ బ ഄ೥బ శ ೗೙൬ ೥ ൰షഄ೥
ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ଵା
ഄ೗೔೘೔೟
೎ೝ
Equations (3.10a) and (3.10b) represent the soil behaviour transition from
heavily over-consolidated to lightly over-consolidated and then the normally
consolidated situation. Equation (3.10a) denotes the situation where the soil is
heavily over-consolidated and as a result, the viscous creep component is
insignificant, while Equation (3.10b) denotes the situation where the soil is lightly
over-consolidated or normally consolidated and consequently, the behaviour is a
function of the effective stress and time (Figure 3.1). It should be noted that the
above mentioned equations are in 1-D platform and can be used for one dimensional
consolidation. Further explanation regarding equations in 3-D can be found in Yin et
al. (2002) and Yin (2006).
91
3.3 FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR AXISYMMETRIC
CONSOLIDATION EQUATION
3.3.1 Solution to general parabolic differential equations

As presented by Kharab and Guenther (2012), Equation (3.12) defines the
one-dimensional partial differential equations of parabolic type for unsteady-state
flow which is derived for heat flow but applies equally to diffusion of material, flow
of fluids, flow of electricity in cables, etc. Equation (3.12) is subjected to the
boundary conditions and initial conditions as presented in Equations (3.13) and
(3.14), respectively.
డమ ௛ డ௛
ߤ డ௫ మ ൌ Ͳ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ‫ܮ‬ǡͲ ൏ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ܶ (3.12)
డ௧
݄ሺͲǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳǡ݄ሺ‫ܮ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ͲǡͲ ൑ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ܶ (3.13)
݄ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ Ͳሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻͲ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ‫ܮ‬ (3.14)
௞
where for example in heat transfer problem, ߤ ൌ ௖ఘ, ݇ is thermal
conductivity, ܿ is the heat capacity, ߩ is the density, ݄ሺͲǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ represents the
temperature at any time ‫ ݐ‬along a thin, long rod of length ‫ ܮ‬in which heat is flowing
as depicted in Figure 3.2. It is assumed that the rod is of homogeneous material and
has a cross sectional area ‫ ܣ‬that is constant throughout the length of the rod. The rod
is laterally insulated along its entire length.
Area=‫ܣ‬ ο‫ݔ‬
݄ሺͲǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ ݄ሺ‫ܮ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݄ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ Ͳሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
L
Figure 3.2. One dimensional rod of length L
x General explicit finite difference solution

Finite difference is one of the approaches to approximate the solution to
Equations (3.12) to (3.14). A network of grid points is first established throughout
92
the rectangular region to approximate the solution for the problem as shown in
Figure 3.3.
‫݁݉݅ݐ‬
‫ݐ‬௠
ο‫ݐ‬
‫ݐ‬ଶ
‫ݐ‬ଵ
‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ
‫ݔ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ο‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ‫ݔ‬௡ ‫ݔ‬
Figure 3.3. Region ܴ and the mesh points (after Kharab and Guenther 2012)
ܴ ൌ ሼሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻȁͲ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ‫ܮ‬ǡ Ͳ ൏ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ܶሽ (3.15)
Region ܴ is partitioned by dividing the interval ሾͲǡ ‫ܮ‬ሿ into ݊ equal

subintervals, each of the length ο‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ܮ‬Τ݊ and the interval ሾͲǡ ܶሿ into ݉ equal
subintervals, each of length ο‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܶΤ݉. The corresponding points of the intervals
ሾͲǡ ‫ܮ‬ሿ and ሾͲǡ ܶሿ are denoted by ‫ݔ‬௜ , for ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊ and ‫ݐ‬௝ , for ݆ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݉,
respectively. The points ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ are called the mesh or grid points and can be
calculated as follows:
‫ݔ‬௜ ൌ ο‫݅ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൌ ο‫ ݅ݎ݋݂݆ݐ‬ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݆݊ܽ݊݀ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݉ (3.16)
The approximate solution of ݄ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ at the mesh point ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ is explained
by ݄௜ǡ௝ and the true solution is explained by ݄൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯. As presented by Kharab and
Guenther (2012), Equation (3.17) explains the central difference formula for
డమ ௛
approximating ݄௫௫ ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ డ௫ మ ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯Ǥ
௛൫௫೔శభ ǡ௧ೕ ൯ିଶ௛൫௫೔ ǡ௧ೕ ൯ା௛൫௫೔ ǡ௧ೕ ൯ (3.17)

݄௫௫ ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ ൅ ܱሺο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ
ο௫ మ
93
డ௛
And the forward difference formula for approximating డ௧
൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ is as
follows:
డ௛ ௛൫௫೔ ǡ௧ೕశభ ൯ି௛൫௫೔ ǡ௧ೕ ൯ (3.18)

డ௧
൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ ݄௧ ൫‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ ൅ ܱሺο‫ݐ‬ሻ
ο௧
By substituting Equations (3.17) and (3.18) into Equation (3.12) and
neglecting error terms ܱሺο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ and ܱሺο‫ݐ‬ሻ Equation (3.19) can be obtained.
௛೔ǡೕశభ ି௛೔ǡೕ
ൌߤ
௛೔శభǡೕ ିଶ௛೔ǡೕ ା௛೔షభǡೕ (3.19)
ο௧ ο௫ మ
If we set ߠ ൌ ߤሺο‫ݐ‬Το‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ and solve for ݄௜ǡ௝ାଵ in Equation (3.19), the
explicit difference formula can be obtained as follows:
݄௜ǡ௝ାଵ ൌ ሺͳ െ ʹߠሻ݄௜ǡ௝ ൅ ߠ൫݄௜ାଵǡ௝ ൅ ݄௜ିଵǡ௝ ൯ (3.20)
For ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊ and ݆ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݉ known as the “Forward Difference”

or “Classical explicit method”. Equation (3.20) is schematically shown in Figure 3.6.
‫݁݉݅ݐ‬
݄ሺͲǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݄ሺ‫ܮ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݅ǡ ݆ ൅ ͳ
ȟ‫ݐ‬
ȟ‫ݔ‬ ȟ‫ݔ‬
݅ െ ͳǡ ݆ ݅ǡ ݆ ݅ ൅ ͳǡ ݆
Ͳ ݄ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ Ͳሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ‫ܮ‬ ‫ݔ‬
Figure 3.4. Schematic form of the Forward-difference method (after Kharab and
Guenther 2012)
Kharab and Guenther (2012) defined the solution at every point ሺ݅ǡ ݆ ൅ ͳሻ on
the ሺ݆ ൅ ͳሻ௧௛ time level in terms of the solution values at the points ሺ݅ െ ͳǡ ݆ሻ, ሺ݅ǡ ݆ሻ,
and ሺ݅ ൅ ͳǡ ݆ሻ of the previous time level. Such a method is named an explicit method.
It can be shown that the Forward-Difference method has an accuracy of the order
ܱሺο‫ݐ‬ǡ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ. The values of the initial condition ݄ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ǡ Ͳሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬௜ ሻ, for ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊,
are applied in Equation (3.20) to calculate the values of ݄௜ǡଵ, for ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊. The
boundary conditions, ݄൫Ͳǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ ݄൫‫ܮ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬௝ ൯ ൌ Ͳ, imply that ݄଴ǡ௝ ൌ ݄௝ǡ௡ ൌ Ͳ, for
94
݆ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݉. Once the approximations ݄௜ǡଵ, ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊ are known, the values
of ݄௜ǡଶ, ݄௜ǡଷ ,…,݄௜ǡ௠ can be calculated in a similar manner.
x General implicit finite difference solution

In the explicit method explained earlier, the approximate solution ݄௜ǡ௝ାଵ
depends on the values ݄௜ିଵǡ௝ , ݄௜ǡ௝ , ݄௜ାଵǡ௝ of ݄ at the previous level. Moreover, the
ଵ
condition Ͳ ൏ ߠ ൑ ଶ places an undesirable restriction on the time step ο‫ ݐ‬that can be
applied. The implicit method overcomes the stability condition by being

unconditionally stable. As explained by Kharab and Guenther (2012), the finite
difference equation of this method is attained by replacing ݄௫௫ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ in Equation
(3.12) with the average of the centred difference at the time steps ݆ ൅ ͳ and ݆ and
݄௧ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ with the forward difference.
௛೔ǡೕశభ ି௛೔ǡೕ ఓ ௛೔శభǡೕ ିଶ௛೔ǡೕ ା௛೔షభǡೕ
ൌ ଶቂ ൅
௛೔శభǡೕశభ ିଶ௛೔ǡೕశభ ା௛೔షభǡೕశభ
ቃ (3.21)
ο௧ ο௫ మ ο௫ మ
By setting ߠ ൌ ߤ ο‫ݐ‬Το‫ ݔ‬ଶ as before, Equation (3.21) can be written as
follows:
െߠ݄௜ିଵǡ௝ାଵ ൅ ʹሺͳ ൅ ߠሻ݄௜ǡ௝ାଵ െ ߠ݄௜ାଵǡ௝ାଵ ൌ ߠ݄௜ିଵǡ௝ ൅ (3.22)
ʹሺͳ െ ߠሻ݄௜ǡ௝ ൅ ߠ݄௜ାଵǡ௝
where for ݅ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ ݊ െ ͳ. This method is named “Crank-Nicolson”
method. Figure 3.5 shows the schematic form of Equation (3.22). The solution value
at any point ሺ݅ǡ ݆ ൅ ͳሻ on the ሺ݆ ൅ ͳሻ௧௛ time level is dependent on the solution values
at the neighbouring points on the same level and three points on the ݆ ௧௛ time level.
Since values at the ሺ݆ ൅ ͳሻ௧௛ time level are calculated implicitly, the method is called
an implicit method. It can be shown that the Crank-Nicolson method has an accuracy
of the order ܱሺο‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ and is unconditionally stable.
Kharab and Guenther (2012) explained that the classical implicit method
can be obtained by replacing the time derivative by a forward difference and the
space derivative by a centred difference at the forward time step (݆ ൅ ͳ) in Equation
(3.12) as follows:
݄௜ǡ௝ ൌ െߠ݄௜ିଵǡ௝ାଵ ൅ ሺͳ ൅ ʹߠሻ݄௜ǡ௝ାଵ െ ߠ݄௜ାଵǡ௝ାଵ (3.23)
where ߠ ൌ ߤ ο‫ݐ‬Το‫ ݔ‬ଶ .

The matrix form of the Crank-Nicolson method is as Equation (3.24).
95
‫ࢎܣ‬ሺ௝ାଵሻ ൌ ‫ࢎܤ‬ሺ௝ሻ ǡ ݆ ൌ Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ ǥ (3.24)
where
௧
ࢎሺ௝ାଵሻ ൌ ൣ݄ଵǡ௝ାଵ ǡ ݄ଶǡ௝ାଵ ǡ ǥ ǡ ݄௡ିଵǡ௝ାଵ ൧ (3.25)
ʹሺͳ ൅ ߠሻ െߠ Ͳ ǥ Ͳ
‫ۍ‬ ʹሺͳ ൅ ߠሻ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڭ‬ ‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ െߠ െߠ ‫ۑ‬
‫ܣ‬ൌ‫ێ‬ Ͳ െߠ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڰ‬ Ͳ (3.26)
‫ڰ‬ ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ڭ‬ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڰ‬ െߠ ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬ Ͳ ǥ Ͳ െߠ ʹሺͳ ൅ ߠሻ‫ے‬
ʹሺͳ െ ߠሻ ߠ Ͳ ǥ Ͳ
‫ۍ‬ ʹሺͳ െ ߠሻ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڭ‬ ‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ ߠ ߠ ‫ۑ‬
‫ܤ‬ൌ‫ێ‬ Ͳ ߠ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڰ‬ Ͳ (3.27)
‫ڰ‬ ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ڭ‬ ‫ڰ‬ ‫ڰ‬ ߠ ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬ Ͳ ǥ Ͳ ߠ ʹሺͳ െ ߠሻ‫ے‬
The tridiagonal matrix ‫ ܣ‬is positive define and strictly diagonally dominant.
It should be mentioned, explained implicit and explicit methods can easily
transferred to 2D situation.
As previously stated, in order to ensure stability and convergence in the
explicit method, the ratio ߠ ൌ ߤሺο‫ݐ‬Το‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ must less than 0.5. However, the implicit
Crank-Nicolson method has no such limitation. Consequently, in this research the
implicit Crank-Nicolson method has chosen to solve the equations.
‫݁݉݅ݐ‬
݄ሺͲǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݄ሺ‫ܮ‬ǡ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݅ െ ͳǡ ݆ ൅ ͳ ݅ǡ ݆ ൅ ͳ ݅ ൅ ͳǡ ݆ ൅ ͳ
ȟ‫ݐ‬
ȟ‫ݔ‬ ȟ‫ݔ‬
݅ െ ͳǡ ݆ ݅ǡ ݆ ݅ ൅ ͳǡ ݆
Ͳ ݄ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ Ͳሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ‫ܮ‬ ‫ݔ‬
Figure 3.5. Schematic form of the Crank-Nicolson method (after Kharab and
Guenther 2012)
96
3.3.2 Axisymmetric consolidation equations
Barron (1948) proposed the governing equation for estimation of one
dimensional axisymmetric consolidation deformation of a saturated soil considering
both vertical and horizontal drainage as shown in Equation (3.28).
డఌ೥ ௞ డమ ௨ ଵ డ௨ ௞ డమ ௨
െ ൌ ఊ ೝ ቀడ௥ మ ൅ ௥ డ௥ ቁ ൅ ఊ ೥ ቀడ௭ మ ቁ (3.28)
డ௧ ೢ ೢ
whereߝ௭ is the vertical strain, ݇௥ and ݇௭ are the coefficients of permeability

in horizontal and vertical directions, respectively, ߛ௪ is the unit weight of water, ‫ ݑ‬is
the excess pore water pressure at time ‫ݐ‬, and ‫ ݎ‬and ‫ ݖ‬are the radial and vertical
coordinates, respectively (Figure 3.6).
The assumptions to obtain this equation are: (i) the soil is fully saturated, (ii)
water and soil particles are incompressible, (iii) Darcy’s law is valid and (iv) strains
are small. Obviously, when the soil consists of horizontal layers with thickness (or
the length of vertical drains) of much lesser than the dimensions of the preloading
area, or for the points located at the centre of the embankment, the average strain or
deformation of the soil can be calculated using 1D (vertical) assumption reasonably
accurate.
Drainage surface Disturbed and transition zone
z
Cell height
Vertical drain boundary
Cell diameter
Figure 3.6. Schematic 3D-axisymetric consolidation
Equations (3.10) and (3.28) and the effective stress concept of Terzaghi can
be combined to predict the time dependent behaviour of the soil inside and outside of
the disturbed zone (Equations (3.29) and (3.30)). Furthermore, defining equations
97
based on the effective stresses in combination with the consolidation theory
(Equation (3.10)) facilitates embracing the effects of excess pore water pressure on
the settlement rate, while considering elastic visco-plastic behaviour of soils. It can
డఙ೥
be noted that the term captures both time dependant loading and unloading
డ௧
processes (i.e. staged construction).
For the disturbed zone:

‫݄݊݁ݓ‬ሺɐᇱ ୸ ǡ ɂ୸ ሻ݅‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐݓ݋݈ܾ݁ݏ‬
‫ۓ‬
ۖ మ మ
ۖ െ ఑ ቀ߲ߪ‫ ݖ‬െ ߲‫ݑ‬ቁ ൌ ௞ᇱೝ ሺ௥ሻ ቀడ ௨ ൅ ଵ డ௨ቁ ൅ ௞ᇱ೥ ሺ௥ሻ ቀడ ௨ቁ
ۖ ௩ሺఙ೥ ି௨ሻ ߲‫ݐ߲ ݐ‬ ఊೢ డ௥ మ ௥ డ௥ ఊೢ డ௭ మ
(3.29)
‫݄݊݁ݓ ۔‬ሺɐᇱ ǡ ɂ ሻ݅‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐ݁ݒ݋ܾܽݏ‬
୸ ୸
ۖ
ۖ
ۖ ఑ ߲ߪ‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݑ‬ ௞ ᇲ ೝ ሺ௥ሻ డమ ௨ ଵ డ௨ ௞ ᇲ ೥ ሺ௥ሻ డమ ௨
െ ቀ
‫ ە‬௩ሺఙ೥ ି௨ሻ ߲‫ݐ߲ ݐ‬െ ቁൌ
ఊೢ
ቀ డ௥ మ
൅ ௥ డ௥
ቁ ൅ ఊೢ
ቀడ௭ మ ቁ ൅ ݃ሺɐᇱ ୸ ǡ ɂ୸ ሻ
For the intact zone:

‫݄݊݁ݓ‬ሺɐᇱ ୸ ǡ ɂ୸ ሻ݅‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐݓ݋݈ܾ݁ݏ‬
‫ۓ‬
ۖ మ మ
ۖെ ఑ ቀడఙ೥ െ డ௨ቁ ൌ ௞ೝ ቀడ ௨ ൅ ଵ డ௨ቁ ൅ ௞೥ ቀడ ௨ቁ
ۖ ௩ሺఙ೥ ି௨ሻ డ௧ డ௧ ఊೢ డ௥ మ ௥ డ௥ ఊೢ డ௭ మ
(3.30)
‫݄݊݁ݓ ۔‬ሺɐᇱ ǡ ɂ ሻ݅‫݈݁݊݅݁݉݅ݐݐ݈݄݅݉݅݁ݐ݁ݒ݋ܾܽݏ‬
୸ ୸
ۖ
ۖ
ۖ ఑ డఙ೥ డ௨ ௞ೝ డ మ ௨ ଵ డ௨ ௞೥ డ మ ௨
െ ቀ
‫ ە‬௩ሺఙ೥ ି௨ሻ డ௧ െ ቁ ൌ ቀ మ ൅ ቁ ൅ ቀ ቁ ൅ ݃ሺɐԢ୸ ǡ ɂ୸ ሻ
డ௧ ఊೢ డ௥ ௥ డ௥ ఊೢ డ௭ మ
where ߪ௭ is the total vertical stress, ݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ and ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ are the horizontal and
vertical coefficients of permeability in the disturbed zone, respectively, and ݇௥ and
݇௭ are the horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability in the intact zone,
respectively. Referring to previous studies (e.g. Hansbo 1987; Bergado et al. 1991;
Indraratna and Redana 1998), horizontal and vertical permeability coefficients in the
disturbed zone can be assumed to be equal (i.e. ݇ ᇱ ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇ ᇱ ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ)Ǥ
Equations (3.29) and (3.30) are nonlinear partial differential equations
simulating the consolidation process considering combined vertical and horizontal
drainage conditions. To simulate the consolidation of layered soil profiles as a result
of vertical and radial flow, Equations (3.29) and (3.30) have been expressed in finite
difference form. The adopted numerical formulation in this research is similar to that
98
in the analysis of heat flow (Equation (3.12)). The soil is divided into a series of
horizontal and vertical layers and annuli. The state of the soil in each cell is defined
by the conditions at a central node while the cell boundaries lie halfway between
adjacent nodes. Equations (3.31) - (3.38) are obtained after applying the general
implicit finite difference solution (Crank-Nicholson finite difference scheme) to
Equations (3.29) and (3.30).
For the disturbed zone when ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ is below the limit time line:
௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ
൬ఊ ൅ఊ ൅ ൰ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ ൅ ቀ െ ቁ ‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ െ
ೢ ௱௥ మ ೢ ௱௭ మ ௱௧ ఊೢ ସ௥௱௥ ଶ௱௥ మ
௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟
ቀସ௥௱௥ ൅ ଶ௱௥ మ ቁ ‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ െ ൈ ଶ௱௭ మ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ାଵ െ ൈ
ఊೢ ఊೢ ఊೢ
ଵ ௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ (3.31)
ଶ௱௭ మ
‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ାଵ ൌ ቂଶ௱௥ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ ൅ ସ௥௱௥ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ െ
ఊೢ
௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟
‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ఊೢ
ቂଶ௱௭ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ௱௧
‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅
ఙ೥ ೔ǡೕǡ೟శభ ିఙ೥ ೔ǡೕǡ೟
݉௩೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௱௧
For the disturbed zone when ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ is above the limit time line:
௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ
ೢ ௱௥ మ ೢ ௱௭ మ ௱௧ ఊೢ ସ௥௱௥ ଶ௱௥ మ
௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟
ଵ ௞ᇱೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ (3.32)
ଶ௱௭ మ
ఊೢ
௞ᇱ೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟
‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ቂଶ௱௭ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ݃௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅
ఊೢ ௱௧
݉௩೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௱௧
For the intact zone when ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ is below the limit time line:
௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ
ೢ ௱௥ మ ೢ ௱௭ మ ௱௧ ఊೢ ସ௥௱௥ ଶ௱௥ మ
௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟
ଵ ௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ (3.33)
‫ݑ‬
ଶ௱௭ మ ௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ାଵ
ൌ ቂଶ௱௥ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ ൅ ସ௥௱௥ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ െ
ఊೢ
௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟
‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ቂଶ௱௭ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅
ఊೢ ௱௧
݉௩೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௱௧
For the intact zone when ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ is above the limit time line:
௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ
൬ఊ ൅ఊ ൅ ൰ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ ൅ ቀସ௥௱௥ െ ଶ௱௥ మ ቁ ‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ െ (3.34)
ೢ ௱௥ మ ೢ ௱௭ మ ௱௧ ఊೢ
99
௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟
ଵ ௞ೝ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ଵ
ଶ௱௭ మ
ఊೢ
௞೥೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଵ ௠ೡ೔ǡೕǡ೟
‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ቂଶ௱௭ మ ൫‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ െ ʹ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ ൯ቃ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ݃௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅
ఊೢ ௱௧
݉௩೔ǡೕǡ೟
௱௧
where
೐೛ ഊ ഑೥ ೔ǡೕǡ೟ షೠ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ଶ ೐೛ ഊ ഑೥ ೔ǡೕǡ೟షೠ೔ǡೕǡ೟

టబ ఌ೥బ ା ௟௡ቀ
ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ቁିఌ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ‫ۇ‬௩ ఌ೥బ ା ௟௡ቀ
ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ቁିఌ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ‫ۊ‬ (3.35)
݃௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൌ ௩௧ ൭ ೗೔೘೔೟ ൱ ݁‫ۈ ݌ݔ‬ట ೐೛ ഊ ഑ ೥ ೔ǡೕǡ೟ షೠ ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ‫ۋ‬
బ ఌ೎ೝ బ ഄ೥బ శ ೗೙൬ ൰షഄ೔ǡೕǡ೟
೔ǡ೔ǡ೟ ೡ ഑ᇲ೥బ
ଵା ೗೔೘೔೟
ഄ೎ೝ
‫ۉ‬ ೔ǡ೔ǡ೟ ‫ی‬
఑
݉௩೔ǡೕǡ೟ ൌ ௩൫ఙ (3.36)
೔ǡೕǡ೟ ି௨೔ǡೕǡ೟ ൯
௘ೝ೐೑೔ǡೕǡ೟
௟௜௠௜௧ (3.37)
ߝ௖௥ ೔ǡ೔ǡ೟
ൌ ଵା௘బ
݁௥௘௙ ൌ ቆߝ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ െ ௩ ݈݊ ቀ

ఒ ఙ೔ǡೕǡ೟ ି௨೔ǡೕǡ೟
ቁቇ ቀͳ ൅ ݁଴ ௜ǡ௝ ቁ ൅ ݁௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ (3.38)
௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ఙᇱ೥బ
where the subscripts i and j represent the horizontal and vertical node
coordinates as i = 1, 2, 3,…, m and j = 1, 2, 3,…, n, respectively. ߂‫ ݖ‬and ߂‫ݎ‬, are the
mesh size in vertical and horizontal directions and ߂‫ ݐ‬is the time step, as shown in
Figure 3.7.
Permeability changes are taken into consideration as a function of void ratio
changes. In other words, the slope of the straight line in ݁ െ ݈‫ ݇݃݋‬space
(permeability change index, ܿ௞ ) is considered to calculate the permeability
coefficient at each time step based on changes in the void ratio, as presented in
Equation (3.39).
ο௘೔ǡೕǡ೟
ο݈‫݇݃݋‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൌ (3.39)
௖ೖ
To model the elastic visco-plastic behaviour of the soft soil, according to

Yin and Zhu (1999), the initial values of vertical strain in soil profile can be
calculated applying the following equation:
ఒ ఙ೔ǡೕǡభ ି௨೔ǡೕǡభ ఒ ఑
ߝ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡଵ ൌ ௩ ቀ ቁ ൅ ቀ௩ െ ௩ ቁ ൫ܱ‫ܴܥ‬௜ǡ௝ ൯ (3.40)
ఙᇲ ೥బ
where ߝ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡଵ represents the initial vertical strain and ܱ‫ܴܥ‬௜ǡ௝ is
overconsolidation ratio of soil.
100
ο‫ݎ‬ ο‫ݎ‬ ο‫ݐ‬ ο‫ݐ‬
݅െͳ ݅ ݅൅ͳ ‫ݐ‬െͳ ‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ‬൅ͳ
݆െͳ
ο‫ݖ‬
݆
ο‫ݖ‬
݆൅ͳ
(a) (b)
Figure 3.7. (a) Location of finite difference nodes at any given time; (b) time steps
Drainage surface Drainage surface
Impervious surface r r
Vertical drain
z z
Vertical drain Impervious surface
Drainage surface Impervious surface
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8. Boundary conditions for (a) soil layer surrounded by two permeable
layers (drains) at the top and bottom; (b) soil layer surrounded by impervious layer at
the bottom and highly permeable layer (drainage blanket) at the top
Furthermore, two different boundary conditions, which are the most

frequent situations, are taken into consideration. Figure 3.8a represents the situation
when soft soil layer is sandwiched between two permeable layers at the top and
bottom. Figure 3.8b represents the situation when soft soil layer is surrounded by
impervious layer at the bottom and highly permeable layer (drainage blanket) at the
top. The following boundary conditions (Equations (3.41) and (3.42)) can be applied
for two-way drainage (Figure 3.8a) and one-way drainage (Figure 3.8b) conditions,
respectively.
101
One-way drainage system:
‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൌ ߪ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ െ ߪ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ିଵ (3.41)
ቊ
‫ݑ‬ଵǡ௝ǡଶǣ௧ ൌ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡଵǡଶǣ௧ ൌ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௡ǡଶǣ௧ ൌ Ͳ
Two-way drainage system:

‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൌ ߪ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ െ ߪ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ିଵ
ቐ‫ݑ‬ଵǡ௝ǡଶǣ௧ ൌ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡଵǡଶǣ௧ ൌ Ͳ (3.42)
‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௡ǡଶǣ௧ ൌ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௡ିଵǡଶǣ௧
3.4 DEVELOPING A CODE INCORPORATING CREEP

MODEL
In this study, a MATLAB code has been developed to calculate the excess
pore water pressure and the settlement of soil at any given depth and time. Figure 3.9
presents a detailed flowchart of the developed code. As illustrated in the flowchart of
Figure 3.9, the approach starts with collecting the input data, including the soil
properties, soil disturbance parameters, boundary conditions, and loading history
(Equations (3.41) and (3.42)) (Stage 1). The first stage is completed by defining the
initial vertical strain applying Equation (3.40) followed by calculating the effective
vertical stress and the void ratio. Afterward, Equations (3.36), (3.38), and (3.39) are
applied to calculate ݉௩ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ , ݁௥௘௙ , and the permeability, respectively. Calculating the
limit time line (ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧

೔ǡೕǡ೟
௟௜௠௜௧
) and the creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥ ೔ǡ೔ǡ೟
ሻ (Equations (3.3) and (3.9)) is
the next step to be conducted. For using Equation (3.10), the actual vertical strain for
each point should be compared by strain limit (Figure 3.1 and Equation (3.9)). If
actual vertical strain at any point is smaller than the strain limit, Equations (3.32) and
(3.34) are applied for calculation, while, Equations (3.31) and (3.33) are applied if
actual vertical strain is bigger than the strain limit at any point. A system of
equations involving tridiagonal square matrix is formed to obtain excess pore water
pressures (i.e. ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ , ‫ݑ‬௜ିଵǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ , ‫ݑ‬௜ାଵǡ௝ǡ௧ାଵ , ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ିଵǡ௧ାଵ , and ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ାଵǡ௧ାଵ for ݅ ൌ
ͳǡʹǡ͵ǡ ǥ ǡ ݉ െ ͳ and ݆ ൌ ͳǡʹǡ͵ǡ ǥ ǡ ݊ െ ͳ). Excess pore water pressures values are
used to calculate vertical strain applying Equations (3.10) and (3.11) (Stage 2). On
Stage 3, settlement and excess pore water pressure values are reported for each time
step.
102
Start
Input (Stage 1)
Read soil parameters Read boundary conditions

(݁଴ , OCR, ߢΤ‫ ݒ‬, ߣΤ‫ݒ‬, ܿ௞ , ߙ, ߚଵ , and ߚଶ ) ሺ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ ǡ ‫ݑ‬ଵǡ௝ǡଶǣ௧ ǡ ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௡ǡଶǣ௧ ǡ οߪ௧ )
Calculate
initial vertical (Equations 3.41 or 3.42)
strains (ߝ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡଵ )
(Equation 3.40)
Calculate effective vertical stress (ߪԢ௭ ൌ ߪ௭ െ ‫)ݑ‬ Calculate void ratio (e)
Calculate ୴ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ (Equation 3.36) Calculate permeability

Calculate ୰ୣ୤ (Equation 3.38) (Equation 3.39)
Calculate limit time line (ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧

೔ǡೕǡ೟
௟௜௠௜௧
) & creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥ ೔ǡ೔ǡ೟
ሻ (Equations 3.3 and 3.9)
Yes If ɂ୸ ൏ ɂ௟௜௠௜௧
௭
Numerical analysis
(Figure 3.1 and Equation 3.9)

Calculate ݃ሺߪԢ௭ ǡ ߝ௭ ሻ
(Stage 2)
(Equation 3.35)
No
Calculate ‫ݑ‬௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ (Equations 3.31 to 3.38)
Calculate vertical strain (ɂ୸೔ǡೕǡ೟ ) (Equations 3.10 and 3.11)
Calculate Settlement (Equation 3.44)
If ‫ݐ‬௜ ൐ ‫ݐ‬௧௢௧௔௟ No ‫ݐ‬௜ିଵ ൌ ‫ݐ‬௜

(‫ݐ‬௧௢௧௔௟ is the maximum ‫ݐ‬௜ ൌ ‫ݐ‬௜ିଵ ൅ ο‫ݐ‬
calculation time)
Yes
results (Stage 3)
Reporting the
Print the results (Settlement, Excess pore water pressures, etc)
End
Figure 3.9. Flowchart of the developed MATLAB code
103
The average time dependant settlement in the influence area of a drain
(‫ ݎ‬ൌ ܴ) at the top of the soil layer (‫ ݖ‬ൌ Ͳ) for a specific soil thickness (‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ )ܪ‬is
given by:
௥ୀோ ௭ୀு ఌ೥ ሺ௥ǡ௭ǡ௧ሻ
ܵ௧ ൌ ‫׬‬௥ୀ଴ ‫׬‬௭ୀ଴ ோ
݀‫ݎ݀ݖ‬ (3.43)
Applying finite difference method to Equation (3.43) provides the following

equation to estimate settlement at time ‫ݐ‬.
ு
ܵ௧ ൌ ோ σ௠ ௡
௜ୀଵ σ௝ୀଵ ߝ௭ ௜ǡ௝ǡ௧ (3.44)
where the subscripts i and j represent the horizontal and vertical node
coordinates. The mentioned steps are applied in a loop until the step time is equal to
the maximum calculation time.
3.5 CAPABILITIES OF THE DEVELOPED FINITE

DIFFERENCE SOLUTION
The developed code can be run on micro-computers and has the following
capabilities:
- Calculating the initial vertical effective stress with depth,
- Estimating the initial void ratio with depth,
- Considering variations of permeability with radius, depth, and void ratio,
- Considering variations of overconsolidated ratio with depth and radius,
- Simulating layered soil,
- Considering different set of elastic visco-plastic model and soil parameters for
each set of finite difference,
- Considering the combined effects of smear zone and creep,
- Considering elastic visco-plastic model and soil parameters as functions of time,
- Considering various permeability profiles in the smear zone in combination with

creep,
104
- Considering shear strength variation due to mandrel installation and
investigating the long term effects in combination with creep.
3.6 SUMMERY
In this chapter, the adopted elastic visco-plastic model capable of capturing

time dependant behaviour of soft soils was explained in detail. Different finite
difference methods are available in literature to solve the elastic visco-plastic
equations in combination with 1-D consolidation equation. Implicit (e.g. Crank-
Nicolson) and explicit methods, which are capable of solving parabolic equations,
were explained in depth. In order to ensure the stability and the convergence of the
ଵ
explicit method, the ratio ߠ ൌ ߤሺο‫ݐ‬Το‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ should be less than or equal . However,
ଶ
the implicit Crank-Nicolson method has no such limitation. Consequently, in this

research the implicit Crank-Nicolson method has been chosen to solve the equations.
The finite difference solution for axsisymmetric equation, applying the Crank-
Nicolson method to combine the elastic visco-plastic and 1-D consolidation
equations were systematically presented. The developed MATLAB code was
explained in detail. The developed MATLAB code can be run on micro-computers;
and it is capable of simulating layered soils, considering various initial values as
functions of depth and radius, considering time dependant soil parameters, etc.
Verification exercise is presented in the next chapter by comparing the predictions
with the soil laboratory experimental results.
105
CHAPTER FOUR
4 LABORATORY EXPERIMANTS AND

VERIFICATION OF THE NUMERICAL SOLUTION
4.1 GENERAL
This chapter presents the details and results of an array of laboratory tests
carried out using oedometer and Rowe cell apparatus to verify the developed
numerical code for the axisymmetric condition. Two different sizes of Rowe cells,
with diameters of 75.3 mm and 250 mm, were used in this research. In this chapter,
the Rowe cells with the diameters of 75.3 mm and 250 mm are called small and large
Rowe cells, respectively. Oedometer tests were carried out to finalise soil mixes of
reduced permeability and intact zones. Two sets of small Rowe cell tests were
conducted on selected soil mixes to obtain the elastic visco-plastic model parameters.
Large Rowe cell test was carried out for the purpose of verification by installing a
vertical drain in the centre of the cell, and using a different mix with reduced
permeability for the area surrounding the vertical drain simulating the reduced
permeability zone. To simulate the vertical drain, a compacted sand column covered
with flexible porous geotextile installed in the centre was used. Transducers were
installed at different heights and various distances away from the vertical drain to
capture the pattern of excess pore water pressure variations during consolidation. At
the same time, the surface settlement was measured using a displacement transducer
connected to a data logger. Finally, the laboratory test results were used to verify the
developed numerical code by comparing measured and predicted surface settlements
and excess pore water pressure values at different heights and radiuses.
106
4.2 TESTING APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
4.2.1 Large Rowe Cell Apparatus

The large scale Rowe cell used in this study consists of the body, the base,
and the top. The internal diameter and height of the cell are 250 mm and 200 mm,
respectively (Figure 4.1a). Nine bolts are used to fix the base and the cover to flanges
on the body. A rubber loading jack and a ‘O’ ring seal the top part; and another ‘O’
ring seals the base.
A water pressure acting on a convoluted rubber jack has been used to apply
a uniform load to the sample. To measure vertical settlement at the centre of the
sample, a spindle that is attached to the jack and passes through the cover of the cell
using an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) was used. Two washers
seal the spindle through the centre of the rubber diaphragm on the jack to eliminate
any error in the settlement readings due to the rubber diaphragm compressing under
pressure. Nine pore water pressure transducers (PWPTs) have been installed at
various distances and depths to measure the changes in pore water pressure during
consolidation (Figure 4.1). All the transducers are connected to a PC based data
logger to continuously capture and record the test data.
A single drainage system from the top through a perforated brass disc
situated between the sample and the jacket has been designed for the Rowe cell. The
drainage outlet is via the centre of the settlement spindle and a short flexible tube
leading to a Klinger valve at the edge and on top of the cell (Figure 4.1a).
A series of pressure lines, connected to the enterprise level pressure/volume
controllers (ELDPC) that are filled with de-aired water, are used to apply pressure to
the cell (cell pressure) and to the jacket (back pressure). The de-aired water in the
ELDPC cylinder is pressurised and displaced by a piston moving in the cylinder. The
piston is actuated by a ball screw that rotates in a ball nut held by an electric motor
and gearbox that move rectilinearly on a ball slide. The ELDPC instrument is
illustrated in Figure 4.2. The applied ELDPC had a volumetric capacity (nominal) of
200 cm3 for a pressure range of 1 MPa. The resolution of the measurements for
pressure and volume were 1 kPa and 1 mm3, respectively. The pressure and volume
107
measurements were accurate to 0.25% of the full range and 0.4% of the measured
value with +/- 500 mm3 back lash, respectively.
Settlement
gauge support Settlement
dial gauge
Cell pressure
Settlement supply line
rod Cell top
Drainage control valve de-airing

screw Water
Back pressure
Initial drainage &
de-airing valve
Diaphragm
Porous plate
Initial drainage &
Cell body PWPT A4 de-airing valve
250mm
PWPT A3
200mm
90mm
PWPT A2
18mm
de-airing
PWPT A1 Porous
64mm
system de-airing
stone
40mm
PWPT B5 system
O-ring seal
PWPT B4 PWPT B1
PWPT B2 PWPT B3
Cell base
(a)
PWPT B2
PWPT B3
PWPT B1
27mm
102mm 52mm
PWPT B5 75mm
PWPT B4
(b)
Figure 4.1. Large scale Rowe cell apparatus (a) schematic diagram of the cell and (b)
locations of the pore pressure transducers at the base of the cell (after Parsa-Pajouh
2014)
The pressure was captured by an integral solid state transducer. To enable

the controller to seek a target pressure or step to a target volume change, control
108
algorithms were built into the on-board micro-controller. The change in volume was
measured by counting the steps of the incremental motor. The instrument was
controlled via PC based software.
Figure 4.2. A photographic view of the GDS pressure/volume controller device
Figure 4.3. Infinite volume controller instrument
Using a single pressure/volume controller, there is a need to manually fill or

empty the controller once the volumetric capacity of the barrel has reached either
100% full or 100% empty, respectively. To solve this problem in this study, two
109
parallel pressure/volume controllers (primary and secondary) connected to an infinite
volume controller (IVC) device (Figure 4.3) were used for each pressure line. The
IVC was designed to eliminate constraints from the volume such that in a test, fluid
can flow continuously under pressure control or volume control. The IVC system
automatically switches between the two controllers when one runs out of volume.
DL: Data logger LVDT: Vertical Displacement Transducer

IVC: Definite Volume Controller CP: Cell Pressure
P/V C: Pressure/Volume Controller BP: Back Pressure
PWPT: Pore water Pressure Transducer PC: Computer
Water
Tank
DL DL
P/V C P/V C
IVC IVC
P/V C P/V C
LVDT
CP
BP
PWPT DL
PC
Figure 4.4. Schematic diagram of Rowe cell set-up (after Parsa-Pajouh 2014)
One controller, called the primary/master controller was used to provide

pressure source. At the same time the secondary/slave controller can refill and
become ready for switching when the master controller exceeds its volumetric limit.
When this happens the secondary controller takes over by providing the pressure
110
and thus becomes the master. The primary controller becomes the slave and as a
result can refill/empty and centralise itself. When this is complete, the primary
controller resumes pressure control and becomes the master again and the
secondary controller centralises itself.
Infinite Volume
Water tank
Controller (IVC)
Rowe cell
Data Logger (DL)
Pressure/Volume Pore Water Pressure

Controller (PVC) Transducers (PWPT)
Figure 4.5. Established setup in the laboratory (large Rowe cell)
The secondary pressure controller is only temporarily used as the master

(to provide the required pressure or a change in volume) when the primary
controller exceeds its volume capacity and thus needs to refill/empty and centralise
itself. The infinite volume controller panel consists of four boxes of infinite volume
controller channel which connect the infinite volume controller panel to the
computer. GDS software controls the system and captures the data from data loggers
in every stage of loading. An elevated water reservoir is used to provide the de-aired
water. A schematic diagram of the experimental set up is shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.5 shows the setup established in the laboratory.
111
4.2.2 Material Properties
4.2.2.1 Soil samples

A number of reconstituted clay samples were prepared by mixing the
following materials to select the reduced permeability zone soil (with reduced
horizontal permeability) and the intact zone soil to carry out the tests:
- Q38 kaolinite
- ActiveBond23 bentonite
- Fine sand
Kaolinite and bentonite were selected because they are common artificial
clays with significantly different properties. Based on Casagrande method, the
kaolinite samples had an average liquid limit of 50% in comparison with 340% for
the bentonite sample. According to AS 1289.3.4.1, the shrinkage limits of kaolinite
and bentonite samples were 9% and 35%, respectively. Table 4.1 summarises the
properties of the clay samples used in this study.
Table 4.1. Properties of the adopted soil samples in this study
Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Linear Shrinkage USCS

Soil Type
(%) (%) (%) Symbol
Q38 kaolinite 49.5 27.5 9 CL
ActiveBond23
340 50 35 CH
Bentonite
Based on Nelson and Miller (1997) classification, the adopted kaolinite and
bentonite clays have medium and very high expansion or shrinkage potentials,
respectively. ActiveBond 23 is a pure form of bentonite, which is plastic and
impermeable, and has a high absorbing and swelling capacity, as well as being highly
viscous when suspended in water. Generally, Bentonite is used in constructing
diaphragm walls, piling, tunnelling and sealing dams. The high swelling properties of
bentonite in exposure to water facilitates sealing porous soils and dams. Q38
112
kaolinite clay is a dry milled creamy white kaolin China clay. Kaolinite is one of the
most abundant minerals in soil, and as such is often encountered in on-site
conditions. Kaolinite is formed by the breakdown of feldspar, which is induced by
water and carbon dioxide, and is often formed by the alteration of aluminium silicate
minerals in a warm and humid environment (Craig, 2000; Murray, 1999). Uniformly
graded sand (SP) was used for two purposes: (i) to be added to clay materials to
simulate the in situ clayey soils that usually contain fine sand, and (ii) represent the
drain material. The grain size distribution curve of the utilised sand is illustrated in
Figure 4.6, and some important sizes are shown in Table 4.2.
Clay Silt Sand Gravel

100
90
ܿ௨ ൌ ‫଺ܦ‬଴ Τ‫ܦ‬ଵ଴ ൌ ʹǤ͵
80 ଶ Τሺ‫ܦ‬
ܿ௖ ൌ ‫ܦ‬ଷ଴ ଺଴ ‫ܦ‬ଵ଴ ሻ ൌ ͳǤʹ
Precent passing (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain size (mm)
Figure 4.6. Grain size distribution curve for vertical drain sand
Table 4.2. Important sizes for vertical drain sand
Symbol Grain size (mm)
D10 0.24
D30 0.4
D60 0.55
Note: D10 is the effective particle size (the grain diameter at 10% passing), D30 is the grain
diameter at 30% passing, and D60 is the grain diameter at 60% passing
113
Table 4.3 shows three mix designs for the samples. The Australian Standard
(AS 1289.3.5.2) was used to determine the plastic limit (PL) and liquid limit (LL) of
the mixtures, which are illustrated in Table 4.4. The specimens were thoroughly
mixed with a water content that was 1.4-1.8 times the liquid limit (LL) and kept in a
closed container for couple of days to ensure full saturation and homogeneity. The
properties of the reconstituted clay samples are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.3. Mix design for the reconstituted samples
ActiveBond 23
Soil Reference Number Q38 Kaolinite (%) Fine sand (%)
Bentonite (%)
S1 70 15 15
S2 68 17 15
S3 65 20 15
Table 4.4. Properties of the reconstituted samples
Soil Reference Number S1 S2 S3
Water Content, w (%) 120 120 120

Liquid Limit, LL (%) 67 70 87
Plastic Limit, PL (%) 27 29 34
Plasticity Index, PI 40 41 43
4.2.2.2 Consolidation tests on reconstituted samples

Materials for reduced permeability and intact zones have been selected from
the reconstituted samples after a number of oedometer tests were carried out. A
preconsolidation pressure of 20 kPa was applied to samples before consolidation test
was conducted. For this purpose, three cylinders were filled with the reconstituted
samples (Table 4.3) and submerged in buckets of water to maintain their saturation
condition. The pre-consolidation process is shown in Figure 4.7. Once pre-
114
consolidation was completed, samples were taken from the soils using the oedometer
ring (Figure 4.8).
A conventional oedometer test was conducted based on the Australian
Standard (AS 1289.6.6.1) to determine the coefficient of permeability for each
sample by applying five stages of loading, including: 12.5 kPa, 25 kPa, 50 kPa, 100
kPa, and 200 kPa (Figure 4.9). The soil samples were 20 mm thick by 50 mm in
diameter, respectively. The settlement and pore water pressure data were collected
continuously for 24 hours for each load increment using a data logger.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.7. Pre-consolidation process prior to the oedometer test; (a) cylinder
contacting reconstituted sample and (b) samples under pre-consolidation pressure
The data obtained from the oedometer tests were analysed to calculate the
permeability of the reconstituted samples. Table 4.5 shows the permeability of the
samples under a surcharge of 20 kPa. According to Taylor (1948), the variation of
permeability (݇) with void ratio (݁) for the clays can be estimated using the
following equation:
݁଴ െ ݁
݈‫ ݇ ݃݋‬ൌ ݈‫݇ ݃݋‬଴ െ (4.1)
ܿ௞
where ܿ௞ is the permeability change index, ݇଴ and ݁଴ are the initial
coefficient of permeability and the void ratio, respectively. The variations of
permeability against the void ratio, for all samples, are shown in Figures 4.10 to 4.12.
115
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.8. Preparing the samples for the oedometer test, (a) placing the oedometer
ring, (b) cutting the extra top part, (c) cutting the extra bottom part, and (d) the final
sample
(a) (b)
Figure 4.9. Consolidation test, (a) placing the prepared sample and (b) oedometer
apparatus connected to the data logger
116
1.6
1.4
ܴ ଶ ൌ ͲǤͺͳ
Void ratio (e)
1.2
1.0
Q38 Kaolinite = 70%

0.8 ActiveBond 23 Bentonite = 15%
Fine sand = 15%
0.6
0.4
1E-10 1E-09 1E-08 1E-07
Permeability (m/s)
Figure 4.10. Variation of permeability against void ratio (sample S1)
1.8
1.6
1.4 ܴ ଶ ൌ ͲǤͺͻ
Void ratio (e)
1.2
1.0
Q38 Kaolinite = 68%
Fine sand = 15%
0.6
0.4
1E-10 1E-09 1E-08 1E-07
Permeability (m/s)
117
1.8
1.6
Q38 Kaolinite = 65%
Void ratio (e)
Fine sand = 15%

1.2
ܴ ଶ ൌ ͲǤͻ͹
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
1E-10 1E-09 1E-08
Permeability (m/s)
Table 4.5. Permeability of mixtures (Surcharge = 20 kPa)
Soil reference number S1 S2 S3

Permeability (m/s) ͳǤͲ͸Ͳ ൈ ͳͲି଼ ͹ǤͶͶ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଽ ʹǤ͹ͳͲ ൈ ͳͲିଽ
Void ratio (e) ͳǤͶ ͳǤͶͺ ͳǤͷͶ
In this study, the permeability ratio (݇௥ Ȁ݇Ԣ௥ ) of 4 and an extent ratio (‫ݎ‬ௗ Ȁ‫ݎ‬௪ )
of 3 were desired to conduct the consolidation test assisted with a vertical drain.
Samples S1 and S3 were chosen as the soils for the intact and reduced permeability
zones, respectively, to meet the permeability ratio criteria (ሺ݇௥ Ȁ݇Ԣ௥ ሻଶ଴௞௉௔ ൌ ͵Ǥͻͳ).
Table 4.6 indicates the properties (permeability and extent) of the intact zone, the
reduced permeability zone, and the vertical drain.
Table 4.6. Properties of the intact zone, the reduced permeability zone, and drain
Reduced
Area Intact zone permeability Vertical drain
zone
Selected Soil S1 S3 Uniformly graded sand (SP)
Radius (mm) 125 33 11
118
4.2.2.1 Small Rowe cell tests on reconstituted samples
Two sets of Rowe cell tests were conducted on reconstituted samples S1 and S3 for
the applied stresses in the range of 20 kPa to 800 kPa to calculate the soil properties
of intact and reduced permeability zones. The internal diameter and height of the cell
are 50 mm and 40 mm, respectively (Figure 4.13).
Settlement
Settlement gauge support
dial gauge
Cell pressure
supply line Settlement
Cell top rod
de-airing
Watter screw
Back pressure
Drainage control valve

Diaphragm
Porous plate
Initial drainage &
de-airing valve 75.3 mm Cell body
56 mm
de-airing Porous
system stone O-ring seal
PWPT
Cell base
Figure 4.13. Schematic diagram of the small Rowe cell apparatus
The following steps were conducted to prepare the small Rowe cell and
conduct the tests: (i) preparing the reconstituted sample by mixing the right portions,
(ii) adding water to the mix to reach the saturated level, (iii) applying a vacuum
pressure to the water tank for the de-airing process, (iv) connecting the pore pressure
transducer, pressure lines, drainage and de-airing pipes, and data transfer cables
according to the illustrated diagram in, (v) running the software to check the
functionality of pressure controllers and data loggers, (vi) de-airing process of the
pore pressure transducers, (vii) filling the Rowe cell with soil sample and levelling
the surface of sample (Figure 4.14a), (viii) placing the porous plate on top of the
sample and fixing the top cap (Figure 4.14b and Figure 4.14c), and (ix) applying a
119
pressure of 110 kPa and a back pressure of 100 kPa for 24 hours to ensure full
saturation (Figure 4.14d). Figure 4.15 shows the setup established in the laboratory.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.14. Testing procedure, (a) filling the Rowe cell with soil sample and
levelling the surface of sample, (b) placing the porous plate on top of the sample, (c)
fixing the top cap, and (d) Applying a pressure to ensure full saturation
To ensure the saturation, the B-check stage was operated. With the applied
stress increment of 10 kPa, the B-value was calculated as the ratio of the increase of
excess pore water pressure to the stress increment at PWP measurement point. The
B-Check values for Rowe-cell test on Sample S3 and S1 were 0.98 and 0.97,
respectively. Loading stages were conducted in series by increasing the cell pressure
and maintaining the constant back pressure. The details of the loading stages for
Sample S1 and S3 are presented in Table 4.7 and Table 4.8, respectively. The
settlement and pore water pressure data captured continuously by an LVDT at the top
and a pore water pressure transducer at the bottom of the cell. Figures 4.16 to 4.21
and Figures 4.22 to 4.27 show Rowe cell test results carried out on reconstituted soil
samples S1 and S3, respectively.
120
Rowe cell
Data Logger (DL)
Pressure/Volume
Controller (PVC)
Figure 4.15. Established setup in the laboratory (small Rowe cell)
Table 4.7. Details of loading stages using small Rowe cell (Sample S1)
Loading Loading Target Back Initial cell Final cell Duration

stage condition effective pressure pressure pressure (days)
(kPa) stress (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
25 Loading 25 50 60 75 14
50 Loading 50 50 75 100 20
200 Loading 200 50 100 250 20
400 Loading 400 50 250 450 20
200 Unloading 200 50 450 250 1
100 Unloading 100 50 250 150 1
50 Unloading 50 50 150 100 3
25 Unloading 25 50 100 75 1
50 Reloading 50 50 75 100 2
100 Reloading 100 50 100 150 2
200 Reloading 200 50 150 250 2
400 Reloading 400 50 250 450 2
800 Reloading 800 50 450 850 21
121
Table 4.8. Details of loading stages using small Rowe cell (Sample S3)
Loading Loading Target Back Initial cell Final cell Duration

stage condition effective pressure pressure pressure (days)
(kPa) stress (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
20 Loading 20 100 110 120 14
50 Loading 50 100 120 150 21
100 Loading 200 100 150 250 21
200 Loading 400 100 250 300 21
400 Loading 200 100 300 500 24
800 Loading 100 100 500 900 24
50 Unloading 50 100 900 150 3
100 Reloading 25 100 150 200 1
200 Reloading 50 100 200 300 1
400 Reloading 100 100 300 500 2
800 Reloading 200 100 500 900 2
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
0
Applied vertical
10 effective stress range
5-25kPa
Vertical strain (%)
20 25-50kPa
50-200kPa
30 200-400kPa
40
50
60
Figure 4.16. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (loading)
122
160
Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

140
Applied vertical
120
effective stress range
100 5-25kPa
80 25-50kPa
60 50-200kPa
40 200-400kPa
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (min)
Figure 4.17. Excess pore water pressure measurement on reconstituted sample S1

(loading)
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
51
Applied vertical effective stress range
52
400-200kPa
200-100kPa
Vertical strain (%)
53
100-50kPa
50-25kPa
54
55
56
57
58
Figure 4.18. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (unloading)
123
Time (min)
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0

-5
Applied vertical
-10 effective stress range
400-200kPa
-15 200-100kPa
100-50kPa
-20
50-25kPa
-25

(unloading)
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
53
55
Vertical strain (%)
57
59 Applied vertical
25-50kPa
61 50-100kPa
100-200kPa
200-400kPa
63
400-800kPa
Figure 4.20. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S1 (reloading)
124
300
250
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) Applied vertical
25-50kPa
150 50-100kPa
100-200kPa
100
200-400kPa
50 400-800kPa
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (min)

(reloading)
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
0
10
20
Vertical strain (%)
30
40
50
60 Applied vertical effective stress range

6-20kPa 25-50kPa
70
50-100kPa 100-200kPa
80
200-400kPa 400-800kPa
90
Figure 4.22. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (loading)
125
200
180 Applied vertical
140 6-20kPa
120 25-50kPa
100 50-100kPa
100-200kPa
80
200-400kPa
60
400-800kPa
40
20
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time (min)

(loading)
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
46
47
Applied vertical
Vertical strain (%)

48 800-50kPa
49
50
51
Figure 4.24. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (unloading)
126
Time (min)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) 0
-10
-20
-30
-40
Applied vertical
-50 effective stress range
800-50kPa
-60
-70
-80

(unloading)
52
Applied vertical effective stress range
51 50-100kPa 100-200kPa
200-400kPa 400-800kPa
Vertical strain (%)
50
49
48
47
46
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (min)
Figure 4.26. Consolidation test results on reconstituted sample S3 (reloading)
127
140
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) 120

Applied vertical
50-100kPa
80
100-200kPa
60 200-400kPa
400-800kPa
40
20
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (min)

(reloading)
To calculate soil parameters, curve fitting procedure proposed by Yin

(1999) was applied. ߢΤ‫ ݒ‬can be obtained as the slope of best fitting curves for the
unloading-reloading points. Referring to Figure 4.28 and Figure 4.29, ߢΤ‫ ݒ‬is equal to
0.010, and 0.011 for intact and reduced permeability zones, respectively.
The next step is to define the model parameters of the reference time line.
The reference time line was obtained by curve fitting of the end of primary
consolidation data points of normally consolidated stresses (Yin 1999). Considering
the fact that the excess pore water pressure is measured during the tests, the end of
primary consolidation is selected when the excess pore water pressure is smaller than
2 kPa. End of primary consolidation data points of 50 kPa to 800 kPa, representing
normally consolidated behaviour, were obtained to define ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬and ߪԢ௭଴. The slope of
the best fit line on loading line in Figures 4.28 and 4.29 are the values of ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬, and
the intercept of the best fit line and the horizontal axis is the value of ߪԢ௭଴, assuming
௘௣
that ߝ௭଴ ൌ Ͳ. Thus, ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬for intact and reduced permeability zones are 0.081 and
0.092, respectively. While, ߪԢ௭଴ for intact and reduced permeability zones are 0.5 kPa
and 4.6 kPa, respectively.
128
Vertical effective stress (kPa)
10 100 1000
30
Q38 Kaolinite = 70%
35 ActiveBond 23 Bentonite = 15%
ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͺͳ
Fine sand = 15%
Vertical strain (%)
40
45
ᇱ
ߪ௭଴ ൌ ͲǤͷ
50 ߢΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͳͲ ௘௣
ߝ௭଴ ൌ Ͳ
55
60 Best fits
Laboratory measurements
65
Figure 4.28. Variation of void ratio versus effective vertical stress (Sample S1)

10 100 1000
20
Q38 Kaolinite = 65%
25 ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͻʹ
ActiveBond 23 Bentonite = 20%
30 Fine sand = 15%

Vertical strain (%)
35
ᇱ
ߪ௭଴ ൌ ͶǤ͸
40
௘௣
ߝ௭଴ ൌ Ͳ
45
ߢΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͳͳ
50 Laboratory measurements
Best fits
55
Figure 4.29. Variation of void ratio versus effective vertical stress (Sample S3)
129
೟ శ೟
టబ ௟௡ቀ బ ቁ
ߝ௖௥௘௘௣ ൌ
೟బ (4.2)
ഗబ ೟ శ೟
ଵାሺ ೗೔೘೔೟ ሻ௟௡ቀ బ ቁ
ഄ೎ೝ ೟బ
In order to determine the model parameters in the nonlinear creep function,

Equation (4.2) was rearranged to the form of Equation (4.3).
ଵ
߰଴ ൌ ೟ శ೟ (4.3)
೗೙൬ బ ൰
೟బ భ ೟ శ೟
ି ௟௡ቀ బ ቁ
ഄ೎ೝ೐೐೛ ഄ೗೔೘೔೟ ೟బ
೎ೝ
where ߝ௖௥௘௘௣ is the strain increase due to creep only, excluding any
instantaneous strain and ‫ ݐ‬is the creep time corresponding to ߝ௖௥௘௘௣ . ‫ݐ‬଴ was chosen in
advance as ‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ ͻ͸Ͳ minutes (57600 s) and ‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ ͳͻʹͲ minutes (115700 s) for intact
௟௜௠௜௧
and reduced permeability zones, respectively. Substituting ߝ௖௥ values (Equation
(3.3)) in Equation (4.3), ߰଴ corresponding to each effective stress ߪԢ௭ were obtained.
టబ
The calculated values of and ɂ୪୧୫୧୲
ୡ୰ are tabulated in Table 4.9 and Table 4.10 for
௩
intact and reduced permeability zones, respectively. For instance, the predicted creep
strains are compared to measured values for ߪԢ௭ ൌ ͺͲͲ݇ܲܽ and presented in Figures
4.30 and 4.31.
ந
Table 4.9. The calculated values of ୴బ and ɂ୪୧୫୧୲
ୡ୰ at different vertical effective stress
for intact zone (Sample S1)
Vertical effective ߰଴ ௟௜௠௜௧

݁௥௘௙
ߝ௖௥ ൌ
stress (kPa) ‫ݒ‬ ͳ ൅ ݁଴
50 0.0080 0.27
200 0.0040 0.14
400 0.0037 0.05
800 0.0015 0.01
130
ந
Table 4.10. The calculated values of ୴బ and ɂ୪୧୫୧୲
ୡ୰ at different vertical effective stress
for intact zone (Sample S3)
Vertical effective ߰଴ ௟௜௠௜௧

݁௥௘௙
ߝ௖௥ ൌ
stress (kPa) ‫ݒ‬ ͳ ൅ ݁଴
50 0.0150 0.40
100 0.0085 0.35
200 0.0055 0.29
400 0.0011 0.23
800 0.0008 0.18
Time (min)
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
0.000
Test results at 800kPa

0.001
Creep strain (ߝ௖௥௘௘௣ )
Predictions at 800kPa
0.002 టబ
ൌ ͲǤͲͲͳͷ
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻ͵ ௩
௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥ ൌ ͲǤͲͳ
0.003
0.004
Reconstituted sample S1
0.005
Figure 4.30. Comparison between predicted numerical creep strain and laboratory
measurements at 800 kPa (sample S1)
131
Time (min)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0.0000
0.0002
Test results at 800kPa
Creep strain (ߝ௖௥௘௘௣ )
0.0004 Predictions at 800kPa

ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻͲ
0.0006
టబ
ൌ ͲǤͲͲͲͺ
௩
0.0008
௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥ ൌ ͲǤͳͺ
0.0010
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
Figure 4.31. Comparison between predicted numerical creep strain and laboratory
measurements at 800 kPa (sample S3)
టబ
Combining the results obtained from Table 4.9 and Table 4.10, values as
௩
functions of vertical effective stress for intact and reduced permeability zones are
presented in Figure 4.32 and Figure 4.33, respectively.
0.010
0.008
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻ͸
߰Ͳ Τ‫ݒ‬
0.006
0.004
టబ
ൌ ܽǤ ݈݊ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ሻ ൅ ܾ
௩
ቐܽ ൌ െʹ ൈ ͳͲିଷ
0.002
ܾ ൌ ͲǤͲͳ͸͸
0.000
10 100 1000
Figure 4.32. Changes of ɗ଴ Τ versus vertical effective stress for reconstituted

sample S1
132
0.016
0.014
0.012
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻ͵
0.010
0.008
߰Ͳ Τ‫ݒ‬
0.006 Reconstituted sample S3

టబ
0.004 ൌ ܽǤ ݈݊ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ሻ ൅ ܾ
௩
ቐ ܽ ൌ െͷ ൈ ͳͲିଷ
0.002 ܾ ൌ ͲǤͲ͵͵͸
0.000
10 100 1000
Figure 4.33. Changes of ɗ଴ Τ versus vertical effective stress for reconstituted

sample S3
Table 4.11, Figures 4.34 and 4.35 summarise the elastic visco-plastic (EVP)
model parameters for the soil samples tested (i.e. reconstituted samples S1 and S3).
ߪԢ௭଴ ൌ ͲǤͷ݇ܲܽ Stress (kPa)

0.1 1 10 100 1000
0
ߢ Τ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͳͲ
10
Vertical strain (%)
20
ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͺͳ
30
௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
40
0 ௘௣ ߣ ߪԢ௭ ݁௥௘௙
ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ݈݊ ቆ ቇ൅
‫ݒ‬ ߪԢ௭଴ ͳ ൅ ݁଴ ௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
50 Limit time line
60
70
Figure 4.34. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for reconstituted

sample S1
133
ߪԢ௭଴ ൌ ͶǤ͸݇ܲܽ Stress (kPa)
0.1 1 10 100 1000
0
ߢ Τ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͳͳ
Vertical strain (%) 10
20 ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲͻʹ
30
௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
௘௣ ߣ ߪԢ௭ ݁௥௘௙ ௟௜௠௜௧
40 ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ݈݊ ቆ ቇ൅ ߝ௖௥
‫ݒ‬ ߪԢ௭଴ ͳ ൅ ݁଴
Limit time line
50
60
70
Figure 4.35. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for reconstituted

sample S3
Table 4.11. Elastic visco-plastic model parameters for soil samples S1 and S3
ߣ ߢ ߛௗ௥௬ ‫ݐ‬଴ ߪԢ௭଴ ݇௥

Sample Soil type ݁଴
‫ݒ‬ ‫ݒ‬ (݇ܰȀ݉ଷ ) (s) (kPa) ݇௭
S1 Intact zone 0.081 0.010 1.57 10.4 57600 0.5 1

reduced
S3 0.092 0.011 1.55 10.6 115200 4.6 1
permeability zone
Permeability of the soil samples at each loading stage in the small Rowe cell
test has been calculated using ݇௥଴ ൌ ‫ܥ‬௩ ݉௩ ߛ௪ . For this purpose, the Casagrande
method (Casagrande and Fadum 1940) has been used to obtain the coefficient of the
consolidation (‫ܥ‬௩ ). Permeability variations against the void ratio for both samples are
calculated based on small Rowe cell test results and depicted in Figure 4.36 and
Figure 4.37.
134
0.6
0.5
Void ratio (e)
0.4
0.3
ܿ௞ ൌ ͲǤ͵͸
0.2 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻͳ
Q38 Kaolinite = 70%
Fine sand = 15%
0.0
1E-11 1E-10 1E-09
log k (m/s)
0.9
0.8
Void ratio (e)
0.7
0.6
ܿ௞ ൌ ͲǤͷ
0.5 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻͷ
Q38 Kaolinite = 65%
Fine sand = 20%
0.3
1E-11 1E-10
log k (m/s)
135
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
30
35
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͺ͸
40
45
Vertical strain (%)
50 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻʹ
55 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͺ͹
60
50kPa (measurement)
65 200kPa (measurement) ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻͶ
400kPa (measurement)
70 50kPa (predictions)
200kPa (predictions)
75 400kPa (predictions)
800kPa (predictions)
80
Figure 4.38. Comparison between predicted numerical settlements and laboratory

measurements for small Rowe cell (sample S1)
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
15
25 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͻ͹
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤ͹ͺ
Vertical strain (%)
35
ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤ͹ͺ
45 ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤ͸Ͷ
50kPa (measurement)
100kPa (measurement) ܴଶ ൌ ͲǤͺ͸
55
50kPa (prediction)
65 100kPa (prediction)
200kPa (prediction)
400kPa (prediction)
800kPa (prediction)
75

measurements for small Rowe cell (sample S3)
136
To verify the determined model parameters, small Rowe cell tests were
simulated with the developed numerical code for 1D situation. Settlement predictions
are presented in Figure 4.38 and Figure 4.39 for Samples S1 and S3, respectively.
Referring to Figure 4.38 and Figure 4.39, numerical predictions and soil laboratory
measurement are in good agreement, thus the determined model parameters are
reasonable.
4.2.3 Preparation of large Rowe cell and initial sample

Large Rowe cell apparatus was prepared for the consolidation test by
conducting the following steps: (i) applying a vacuum pressure to the water tank for
the de-airing process, (ii) connecting the pore pressure transducers, pressure lines,
drainage and de-airing pipes, and data transfer cables according to the illustrated
diagram in Figure 4.4, (iii) running the software to check the functionality of
pressure controllers, infinite volume controllers, and data loggers, (iv) de-airing
process of the pore pressure transducers, and (v) levelling the main body of the Rowe
cell.
Following the initial preparation of the Rowe cell, two thin PVC and brass
pipes with diameters of 66 mm and 22 mm (‫ݎ‬௦ Ȁ‫ݎ‬௪ ൌ ͵), respectively, were located at
the centre of the cell at the base to act as the reduced permeability zone and vertical
drain boundaries, respectively. The pipe for the vertical drain was covered with a
filter paper to prevent the intact zone material from mixing with the sand used in the
vertical drain. The pipes and a cross sectional view of the cell are shown in
Figure 4.40.
The area between the circumference of the cell and the boundary of the
reduced permeability zone was filled with a mixture of 70% kaolinite, 15% bentonite
and 15% sand, and a water content of 120% (sample S1 from Table 4.3). The area
between the two pipes (the reduced permeability zone) was filled with slurry that was
prepared previously, based on the mixture and design of the sample S3 from
Table 4.3. Geotextiles were used to cover both areas after being levelled. To stabilise
them and minimise any chance of sliding, extra blocks were placed on top of the
pipes and then steel rings were located on the surfaces of intact and reduced
137
permeability zones. The sample then was left in this condition for 24 hours for
stabilisation (Figure 4.41).
Inner pipe Outer pipe (Boundary of

Filter (Boundary of vertical drain) reduced permeability zone)
(a) (b)
Cell circumference
Disturbed zone Outer pipe

Inner pipe
Intact zone
Vertical drain
11mm
33mm
125mm
(c)
Figure 4.40. Placing of PVC and brass pipes as the reduced permeability zone
boundary and the vertical drain border, (a) top view, (b) side view and (c) a typical
cross section of the Rowe cell
138
(a) (b)
Figure 4.41. Sample placement, (a) filling the intact area (intact zone) with the
prepared soil and (b) the setup after placing PVC and Brass pipes as the reduced
permeability zone boundary and vertical drain border
4.3 PRE-CONSOLIDATION PROCESS AND PREPARATION

OF THE FINAL SAMPLE W
To stabilise the intact and reduced permeability zones, an initial pre-

consolidation pressure of 20 kPa was applied before installing the drain.
Preconsolidation pressure was applied by placing a number of manufactured 20 mm
thick steel rings on top of each zone. Each day one ring (1.8 kPa) was added to
obtain the required preconsolidation pressure. To allow water to drain from the top
surface during preconsoldiation, the first ring of each set was designed with some
radial grooves. To keep the sample saturated, the level of water was checked
continuously. The pre-consolidation process is shown in Figure 4.42.
139
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)

Figure 4.42. Rig set up, (a) geotextile filters, (b) pre-consolidation loading rings, (c)
the first two loading rings with drainage grooves and holes, (d) placing of the first
loading ring and (e) full loading condition
After completion of the preconsolidation process, to prepare the sample for

the main consolidation test, the following steps were carried out: (i) all but the first
loading ring was removed, (ii) sand was poured into the inner pipe to act as a vertical
drain and to compact the sand (Figure 4.43a), (iii) the outer pipe was removed
(Figure 4.43b), (iv) the inner pipe was removed and an extra part of the filter paper
was cut (Figures 4.44a and 4.44b), (v) the top surface was levelled (Figure 4.45a),
(vi) a geotextile filter and a porous metal plate were placed on the top surface
(Figure 4.45b), (vii) the cell was filled with water (Figure 4.46a), (viii) a porous
stone was placed at the centre of the cell to allow water to drain through the
settlement rod, (ix) the top of the cell, and the diaphragm and settlement rod were
140
placed in position (Figure 4.46b), and (x) the top part of the cell was bolted to the
body.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.43. Testing procedures, (a) Pouring the vertical drain material and (b)
Pulling out the outer pipe
(a) (b)
Figure 4.44. Testing procedures, (a) pulling out the inner pipe and (b) cutting the
extra part of the filter paper
141
(a) (b)
Figure 4.45. Testing procedures, (a) levelling the top surface and (b) placing the
geotextile on top surface
(a) (b)
Figure 4.46. Testing procedures, (a) filling the cell with water and (b) placing the cell
top
4.3.1 Initial drainage and de-airing of the Rowe cell system

To fill the geo-membrane diaphragm with de-aired water and carrying out a
de-airing process based on the diagram, shown in Figure 4.47, the cell and back
pressures were set at 110 kPa and 100 kPa, respectively. Water was pumped into the
geo-membrane diaphragm through the valve V1 to increase the volume of the
diaphragm by applying 110 kPa of pressure. Simultaneously, the de-airing screw on
142
top of the cell allows the trapped air in the diaphragm to escape, after which the bolts
were tightened again.
Water Tank
P/V C
P/V C
P/V C
P/V C
IVC V4 V5
IVC
De-airing valve A F De-airing valve
Cell pressure
Back pressure
1.0m
G
Settlement rod Cell top
V2
De-airing
O
V3
V1
B screw E
Diaphragm
D C
Porous plate Drainage &

Watter
de-airing valve
Drainage &
de-airing valve Cell body
Figure 4.47. Schematic diagram of the de-airing process (after Parsa-Pajouh 2014)
By increasing the volume of the diaphragm during filling, the air trapped
between the diaphragm and the body of the cell was drained out from value V2. By
closing valve V2 and opening valves V1 and V3, the trapped air escaped through the
outlet point O, passing the path DEO (i.e. connecting points D, E, and O). By
opening valve V4, water in the tank was discharged through the connecting points A,
B, C, D, E, and O. In this way, the air trapped in the pipe between points B and C
was drained from the outlet point O. Valves V3 and V4 were closed after this stage
was completed.
The de-airing valves installed on the infinite volume controller (IVC) were
used to drain the trapped air in the pressure lines and controller devices. By closing
valves V1 and V2 and opening V4 and V5, water flows from the tank to the path and
143
pushes the trapped air through the de-airing valves. This procedure was repeated
numerous times to ensure that the system was totally de-aired. It should be
mentioned that any remaining air bubbles may cause errors in settlement and pore
water pressure measurements.
4.3.2 Vertical drain assisted consolidation test procedure

Although it was presumed that the soil sample was fully saturated as slurry
with a moisture content well above the liquid limit was used, a pressure of 110 kPa
and a back pressure of 100 kPa were applied for 24 hours to ensure full saturation.
The criterion for a fully saturated condition and obtaining a pore pressure coefficient
ο௎
(ߚ ൌ ) of more than 95%, was reached. In this study, five loading, one unloading,
οఙ
and three reloading stages were applied to carry out the vertical drain assisted
consolidation tests. The cell and back pressures applied in each stage of loading are
tabulated in Table 4.12. The large Rowe cell setup is shown in Figure 4.5.
Table 4.12. Details of consolidation loading stages
Loading
Applied effective Cell pressure Back pressure
Loading stage duration
pressure (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
(day)
1 25 225 200 5
2 50 250 200 14
3 100 300 200 28
4 200 400 200 65
5 400 600 200 72
6 50 250 200 85
7 100 300 200 4
8 200 400 200 3.5
9 400 600 200 4.5
The loads mentioned above were applied instantaneously and then maintained for the
duration mentioned in Table 4.12, before moving on to the next stage.
144
4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As expressed earlier, the large Rowe cell was filled with the reconstituted
soil samples (Table 4.3) to evaluate the intact region and the reduced permeability
zone with a circular sand drain at the centre. A consolidation test was carried out
following the pre-consolidation process (i.e. 20 kPa). The water pressure inside the
membrane diaphragm that had been placed on top of the preconsolidated sample was
used to apply the consolidation surcharges. The time dependent vertical
displacements of the sample were captured using GDSLab software, with an LVDT
(Linear Variable Differential Transformer) transducer. To monitor the dissipation of
excess pore water pressure during consolidation, a number of pore pressure
transducers were used.
Figure 4.48 shows the instrumentation plan for the 250 mm Rowe cell.
Figure 4.49 to 4.52 show the comparison of the excess pore water pressure
predictions and laboratory measurement at PWPT B2 to B5, respectively. According
to Figures 4.49 to 4.52, the excess pore water pressure measurements and numerical
predictions are in a good agreement. It was observed that the excess pore water
pressure increased almost instantly after increasing the surcharge, but this rise in the
excess pore water pressure was slightly less than the increase in the applied pressure.
During the dissipation process, the further the distance of PWPT is from the vertical
drain, the higher the value of excess pore water pressure. For example, one day after
increasing the surcharge from 200 kPa to 400 kPa, soil laboratory measurements
show 58.04 kPa, 88.50 kPa, 115.04 kPa, and 117.98 kPa for PWPT B2 to B5,
respectively. While, numerical analysis predicted 43.02 kPa, 68.55 kPa, 83.01 kPa,
and 95.05 kPa for PWPT B2 to B5, respectively. In other words, PWPT B2 with the
shortest distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ʹ͹݉݉) from vertical drain, one day after increasing surcharge
from 200 kPa to 400 kPa, shows 51% and 55% less excess pore water pressure in
comparison with PWPT B5 with the longest distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉) from vertical
drain for laboratory measurements and numerical predictions, respectively.
145
LVDT 1
PWP A4
PWP A3
PWP A2
90mm
18mm
PWP A1
64mm
40mm
PWP B5
PWP B4 PWP B1
PWP B2 PWP B3
(a)
Disturbed zone boundary
Vertical drain boundary
PWPT B2
102mm
PWPT B5
27
m
m
75mm
mm
52 PWPT B1
PWPT B3
PWPT B4
(b)
Figure 4.48. Schematic diagram of the instrumentation plan, (a) the cross section of
bottom of the Rowe cell and (b) plan view of the body of Rowe cell (after Parsa-
Pajouh 2014)
146
450 450
Prediction
400 400
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) Soil laboratory measurement
350 350
(PWPT B2)
300 300
Surcharge (kPa)
Surcharge (kPa)
250 250
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ʹ͹݉݉
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
Figure 4.49. Comparison of the excess pore water pressure predictions and laboratory
measurement versus time throughout loading at PWPT B2
450 450
Prediction
400 400
Soil laboratory measurement
350 (PWPT B3) 350
Surcharge (kPa)
300 Surcharge (kPa) 300
250 250
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͷʹ݉݉
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
147
450 450
Prediction
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) 400 400
350 (PWPT B4) 350
Surcharge (kPa)
Surcharge (kPa)
300 300
250 ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͹ͷ݉݉ 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
450 450
Prediction
400 400
soil laboratory measurement
350 350
(PWPT B5)
Surcharge (kPa)
250 250
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
148
Figures 4.53 to 4.56 depict the comparison of the predicted excess pore
water pressure (adopting the developed finite difference code) and laboratory
measurement throughout unloading and reloading at PWPT B2 to B5, respectively.
Referring to Figure 4.53 to Figure 4.56, the excess pore water pressure laboratory
measurements and numerical predictions are in a good agreement. As it was
observed, the excess pore water pressure dropped almost instantly after decreasing
the surcharge from 400 kPa to 50 kPa. Throughout the excess pore water pressure
dissipation, larger distance of PWPT from the vertical drain results in the lower value
of excess pore water pressure after unloading. For instance, the developed code
predicted -24.98 kPa, -37.96 kPa, -45.05 kPa, and -57.56 kPa and soil laboratory
measurements show -11.45 kPa, -13.61 kPa, -18.75 kPa, and -19.18 kPa for PWPT
B2 to B5 one day after decreasing the surcharge from 400 kPa to 50 kPa. In other
words, PWPT B2 with the shortest distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ʹ͹݉݉) from vertical drain shows
40% and 57% less excess pore water pressure in comparison with PWPT B5 with the
longest distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉) from vertical drain for laboratory measurements and
numerical predictions, respectively. Referring to Figure 4.53 to Figure 4.56, there are
some disparities in excess pore water pressure predictions and measurements which
may be due to Mandel-Cryer effect. Mandel-Cryer effect has been proposed to
explain this delayed excess pore water pressure dissipation response. Schiffman et al.
(1969) expressed Mandel-Cryer effect as the increase in total stress, which is caused
by the volumetric strain compatibility.
149
450 450
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ʹ͹݉݉
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
-150 Prediction -150

Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT B2)
-250 -250
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
measurement versus time throughout unloading and reloading at PWPT B2
450 450
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͷʹ݉݉
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
Prediction
-150 -150
-250 -250
surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
150
450 450
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͹ͷ݉݉
350 350
250 250
surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
Prediction
-150 -150
-250 -250
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
450 450
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
Prediction
-150 -150
soil laboratory measurement (PWPT B5)
-250 -250
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
151
450 450
Prediction

400 400
350 (PWPT A1) 350
Surcharge (kPa)
Surcharge (kPa)
300 300
250 ݄ ൌ ͳͺ݉݉ 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
measurement versus time throughout loading at PWPT A1
Figures 4.57 to 4.60 show the comparison of the excess pore water pressure
predictions and laboratory measurement versus time throughout loading for PWPT
A1 to A4, respectively. Excess pore water pressure increases rapidly at the beginning
of each stage due to applied surcharge. According to Figures 4.57 to 4.60, excess
pore water pressure values predicted by developed code are in good agreement with
measured values in laboratory. Obviously, the higher the position of PWPT (Closer
to the geotextile on top surface), the lower the values of excess pore water pressure.
For instance, one day after applying the surcharge from 200 kPa of 400 kPa the
values of excess pore water pressure reached 152.52 kPa, 112.06 kPa, and 65.46 kPa
in laboratory measurements and 163.41 kPa, 89.96 kPa, and 59.94 kPa in numerical
predictions for PWPT A1 to A3, respectively. That is, PWPT A3 with the highest
position (݄ ൌ ͸Ͷ݉݉) shows 57% and 63% less values of excess pore water pressure
in comparison with PWPT A1 with lowest position (݄ ൌ ͳͺ݉݉) for laboratory
measurement and numerical predictions, respectively. Referring to Figure 4.60,
PWPT A4 did not capture any value of excess pore water pressure for the last two
stages since soil settled enough to leave the PWPT out of soil sample.
152
450 450
Prediction

400 400
350 (PWPT A2) 350
Surcharge (kPa)
Surcharge (kPa)
300 300
250 ݄ ൌ ͶͲ݉݉ 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
450 450
Prediction
400 400
350 (PWPT A3) 350
Surcharge (kPa)
Surcharge (kPa)
300 300
250 ݄ ൌ ͸Ͷ݉݉ 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 50 100 150
Time (day)
153
120 120
Prediction
80 80
Surcharge (kPa)
60 (PWPT A4) 60
Surcharge (kPa)
40 40
݄ ൌ ͻͲ݉݉
20 20
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (day)
Figures 4.61 to 4.63 present the comparison of the excess pore water
pressure values predicted by developed code and measured in soil laboratory
throughout unloading and reloading for PWPT A1 to A3, respectively. Excess pore
water pressure drops and increases rapidly due to unloading and reloading,
respectively, at each stage. Referring to Figures 4.61 to 4.63, numerical predictions
and soil laboratory measurements are in good agreement. As expected, larger
distance from drain (the geotextile on top surface) results in larger value of excess
pore water pressure. For example, one day after decreasing the surcharge from 400
kPa to 50 kPa, soil laboratory measurements showed -20.1 kPa, -13.4 kPa, and -7.84
kPa and developed code predicted -49.64 kPa, -35.9 kPa, and -25.05 kPa for PWPT
A1 to A3, respectively.
Figures 4.64 to 4.67 depict the measurement of the excess pore water
pressure variations at the base and different heights of large Rowe cell. As observed,
the maximum increase of the excess pore water pressure at the base and in different
heights are lower than the applied stress increment. Considering the fact that the soil
has high initial water content and was stored in water before testing, the observed
pore water pressure responses may not be explained by the degree of saturation. The
issue may be induced by the stiffness of the pore water pressure measurement device
(Robinson 1999 and Whitman et al. 1961). A partial drainage of pore water from the
154
base of the soil sample may be allowed by the stiffness of the pore water pressure
measurement system. As discussed by Charlie (2000), throughout the consolidation
test, water may flow from soil into or out the measurement system which induce the
change of the drainage condition of the impervious base of the soil sample.
450 450
݄ ൌ ͳͺ݉݉
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 Prediction -50
-150 Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT -150

A1)
-250 Surcharge (kPa) -250
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
measurement versus time at PWPT A1
450 450
350 ݄ ൌ ͶͲ݉݉ 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
Prediction
-150 Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT -150
A2)
-250 Surcharge (kPa) -250
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
155
450 450
݄ ൌ ͸Ͷ݉݉

350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 -50
Prediction
-150 -150
Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT A3)
-250 -250
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
450 450
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT B2) -50

-150 -150
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
Figure 4.64. Measured excess pore water pressure at transducers located on the
bottom of the cell (loading)
156
450 450
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50

-150 -150
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
Figure 4.65. Measured excess pore water pressure at transducers located on the
bottom of the cell (unloading and reloading)
450 450
350 350
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50
-50 Soil laboratory measurement (PWPT A1) -50

-150 -150
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Time (day)
Figure 4.66. Measured excess pore water pressures from transducers located on the
sides of the cell (loading)
157
450 450
250 250
Surcharge (kPa)
150 150
50 50

-150 -150
Surcharge (kPa)
-350 -350
175 200 225 250 275
Time (day)
Figure 4.67. Measured excess pore water pressures from transducers located on the
sides of the cell (unloading and reloading)
Figure 4.68 and Figure 4.69 show the variations of excess pore water
pressures with vertical distance from the bottom of the impermeable boundary and
the radial distance from the centre of the drain, respectively. Figure 4.68 shows that
the excess pore water pressure changed inversely with the vertical distance from the
impermeable base, i.e., the excess pore water pressure increased when the distance
from the impervious bottom boundary decreased. The longer vertical distance from
the top drainage boundary resulted in a higher remaining excess pore water pressure.
For instance, the excess pore water pressure measurement at PWPT A1 (݄ ൌ ͳͺ݉݉)
was 140.2 kPa after 105 days of consolidation, but it was reduced by 77% to 32.2
kPa at PWPT A3 (݄ ൌ ͸Ͷ݉݉). It should be mentioned that predicted excess pore
water pressure value reduced by 64% from 128.13 kPa to 46.34 kPa.
Figure 4.69 shows that the excess pore water pressure followed an
incremental trend when the radial distance from the drain increased. For example,
105 days after consolidation, increasing the radial distance from 27 mm (PWPT B2)
to 102 mm (PWPT B5) resulted in 164% rise in the excess pore water pressure
corresponding to change from 44.07 kPa to 116.02 kPa. This increase is 127% and a
change from 34.28 kPa to 77.88 kPa for numerical predictions. According to Figures
158
4.68 and 4.69, there are some disparities between measured and calculated values for
excess pore water pressure. As mentioned by Robinson (1999), the pore water
pressure measured throughout consolidation tests reaches its maximum value (equal
to pressure increment) not immediately after the pressure application but after some
finite time. Moreover, the maximum value is usually less than the applied pressure
increment. It has been shown that these effects can be related to the relationship
between volumetric compliance of the pore pressure measuring system and the
volume compressibility of the soil skeleton.
70
impermeable boundary of the cell (mm)
Consolidation time=105days (measurement)

Vertical distance from the bottom
60 Consolidation time=109days (measurement)

Consolidation time=105days (Prediction)
50 Consolidation time=107days (Prediction)
40
30
20
10
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Figure 4.68. Variations of excess pore water pressures with the vertical distance from
the bottom of the impermeable boundary
159
140
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) Consolidation time=107days (measurement)
120 Consolidation time=109days (measurement)
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Radial distance from drain (mm)
Figure 4.69. Variations of excess pore water pressures with the radial distance from
the centre of the drain
Figure 4.70 depicts creep coefficient (߰Τ‫ ) ݒ‬variation with time at the
location of PWPT B5 (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉ሻ. Evidently, the creep coefficient changes with
both time and vertical effective stress. In other words, lower effective vertical
stresses (or higher excess pore water pressures) result in higher creep coefficients.
For instant, the creep coefficient drops from ͳ͵Ǥͳ͸ ൈ ͳͲିଷ to ͳʹǤ͸ʹ ൈ ͳͲିଷ (4%
reduction) throughout loading from 100 kPa to 200 kPa or the creep coefficient
increased by 4% throughout unloading from 400 kPa to 50 kPa. Although the creep
coefficient (߰Τ‫ ) ݒ‬changes slightly after dissipation of excess pore water pressure,
significant change in the creep coefficient occurs during excess pore water pressure
dissipation. Figure 4.71 shows the creep strain limit prediction at the location of
PWPT B5 (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉ሻ. Similar to the creep coefficient, the creep strain limit is
also inversely related to the effective vertical stress. As a result, the more the
effective stress the lower the creep strain limit. For example, the creep strain limit
drops from 0.25 to 0.18 (28% reduction) throughout loading from 100 kPa to 200
kPa or the creep strain limit increased by 244% throughout unloading from 400 kPa
to 50 kPa. Referring to Figure 4.71, although creep strain limit a function of effective
160
stress and time the significant part of creep strain limit variations occurs during
excess pore water pressure dissipation.
0.016 450
Creep coefficient
400
Creep coefficient (߰Τ‫) ݒ‬
Surcharge (kPa)
350
0
0.015
Surcharge (kPa)
300
250
0.014
200
150
0.013
100
50
0.012 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (days)
Figure 4.70. Predicted creep coefficient (ɗΤ) values versus time
0.7 450
Creep limit 400
0.6
0.
)
Surcharge (kPa) 350

௟௜௠௜௧
0.5
0.
Creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥
Surcharge (kPa)
300
0.4 250
0.3 200
150
0.2
100
0.1
50
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (days)
Figure 4.71. Creep strain limit values predictions versus time
161
Figures 4.72 and 4.73 present the comparison between the predicted time
dependent settlements and the laboratory measurements throughout loading and
unloading/reloading, respectively. As mentioned earlier, to capture the reported
laboratory settlement values, the GDSLab software, with an LVDT (Linear Variable
Differential Transformer) transducer was used. Referring to Figures 4.72 and 4.73,
laboratory measurements and numerical predictions are in good agreement. It should
be mentioned that there are some disparities between soil laboratory measurement
and numerical predictions on early stages of the test which can be the result of
disturbance caused by the removal of the pipes surrounding vertical drain and
reduced permeability zone.
To avoid the infinity compression of the soil, the nonlinear creep function
ట
was proposed by Yin (1999). Consequently, the creep coefficient ( ) in the nonlinear
௩
ట
creep function is calculated based on the initial creep coefficient ( ௩బ ) and creep strain
௟௜௠௜௧
limit (ߝ௖௥ ) and the equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ ) (Equation (3.7)). Even though the initial
ట
creep coefficient ( బ ) remains constant after the completion of excess pore water
௩
ట
dissipation, the creep coefficient ( ௩ ) continuously decreases with time. The creep
strain rate gradually decreases when the maximum effective stress is almost
established by completion of the dissipation of the excess pore water pressure. After
the completion of excess pore water dissipation the compression is allowed to
continue under the constant effective stress. As a result, the equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ )
increases and the equivalent time line moves toward the limit time line.
Consequently, the associated creep strain rate and creep coefficient decrease which
explain the variations of the corresponding creep strain rate and creep coefficient in
Figures 4.70 and 4.71. Thus, it can be observed in the settlement curves (Figures 4.72
and 4.73) that the slope of settlement keeps decreasing after the completion of the
excess pore water pressure dissipation.
162
Time (day)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
0 450
Prediction 400
10
Soil laboratory measurement 350
Settlement (mm)
Surcharge (kPa)
250
30
200
40 150
100
50
50
60 0

measurements (loading)
Time (day)
175 200 225 250 275
54 450
400
55
350
Settlement (mm)
Surcharge (kPa)
56 300
Prediction
250
57
Soil laboratory 200
measurement
58 150
100
59
50
60 0

measurements (unloading and reloading)
163
4.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, the measured results of a fully instrumented large scale

Rowe cell rig as well as a small Rowe cell apparatus were used to verify the
developed numerical code. Staged uniform loads were applied to the sample using a
water pressure system acting on a convoluted rubber jack. To monitor the variations
of settlement and excess pore pressure dissipation during consolidation, an LVDT
and pore pressure transducers were used, respectively. To conduct oedometer tests to
select the proper mixtures to be used in the Rowe cell, a number of samples were
prepared by mixing various percentages of Q38 kaolinite, ActiveBond23 bentonite,
and uniformly graded sand (SP). According to the results of the oedometer tests, two
samples, meeting the criteria of ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ൌ Ͷǡ were selected as the intact (sample S1)
and reduced permeability (sample S3) zones materials. Two sets of tests were carried
out on the selected intact and reduced permeability zones samples with the small
Rowe cell to calculate the soil properties. To verify the calculated soil parameters,
small Rowe cell test were simulated with the developed code.
Following the Rowe cell preparation, to simulate the reduced permeability
zone and vertical drain boundaries, 66 mm and 22 mm diameter pipes (‫ݎ‬ௗ Τ‫ݎ‬௪ ൌ ͵),
respectively, were placed in the centre of the cell at the base. The area between the
boundary of the vertical drain and reduced permeability zones was filled with the
prepared slurry for this zone (sample S3). While, the area between the circumference
of the cell and the boundary of the reduced permeability zone was filled with the
slurry that was prepared on the selected mix design for this zone (sample S1). The
reconstituted sample was then pre-consolidated under a 20 kPa load by placing a
number of 20 mm thick steel rings on top of each other. After completion of
preconsolidation process, fine sand was poured inside the central pipe to form the
vertical drain and then both pipes were pulled out. To provide a one-way drainage
condition, a geotextile filter and a porous metal plate were located on the top surface
of the sample while no drainage was allowed from the base. The whole system was
de-aired as the final stage of the sample preparation process. Five loading, one
unloading, and three reloading stages were applied to conduct the PVD assisted
consolidation tests.
164
Two small Rowe cell test results have been used to calculate soil
parameters. As explained earlier, the creep strain limit is calculated by applying
Equation (3.3). The initial creep coefficient is calculated by substituting Equation
(3.3) in Equation (4.3). As presented, the creep strain limit and the creep coefficient
are reversely related to vertical effective stress and time. Consequently, the creep
strain limit and the creep coefficient will be lower if the time or the vertical effective
stress are greater.
The developed numerical code was used to simulate the consolidation test.
Laboratory measurements were applied to evaluate the validity of the developed
numerical model. The numerical results show that the proposed finite difference
procedure incorporating the elastic visco-plastic soil behaviour is appropriate for the
consolidation analysis of preloading with vertical drains. Referring to Figures 4.72
and 4.73, the laboratory settlement measurements and the numerical predictions are
in a good agreement. As observed in the settlement curves (Figures 4.72 and 4.73),
the slope of settlement keeps reducing after the completion of the excess pore water
pressure dissipation. This is due to the fact that after completion of excess pore water
pressure dissipation and continuation of the compression under the constant effective
stress the equivalent time (‫ݐ‬௘ ) increases and the equivalent time line moves toward
the limit time line. Consequently, the corresponding creep strain rate and creep
coefficient decrease (Figures 4.70 and 4.71).
As presented in Figures 4.49 to 4.63, the excess pore water pressure
measurements and predictions are reasonably in a good agreement. There are some
disparities between measured and calculated values for excess pore water pressures.
The disparities can be due to Mandel-Cryer effect, which has been proposed to
explain this delayed excess pore water pressure dissipation response. Schiffman et al.
(1969) expressed the Mandel-Cryer effect as the increase in total stress, which is
caused by the volumetric strain compatibility. Furthermore, as mentioned by
Robinson (1999), the maximum value of excess pore water pressure value is usually
less than the applied pressure increment, which can be related to the relationship
between volumetric compliance of the pore pressure measuring system and the
volume compressibility of the soil skeleton.
165
CHAPTER FIVE
5 EFFECTS OF SOIL DISTURBANCE DUE TO PVD

INSTALLATION ON LONG TERM GROUND
BEHAVIOUR
5.1 GENERAL
The installation of PVDs speeds up the dissipation of excess pore pressure

generated throughout preloading by means of reducing the drainage path within the
ground. Drainage path reduction hastens the consolidation process thus increases the
strength and stiffness of soft clayey soils. However, the installation of prefabricated
vertical drains (PVDs) disturbs the soil around the drain, which results in a zone of
reduced hydraulic conductivity and shear strength. This reduction in hydraulic
conductivity and shear strength induced by soil disturbance can remarkably affect the
excess pore water pressure dissipation rate and the creep coefficient. The extent of
the soil shear strength and hydraulic conductivity changes in the disturbed zone
versus the distance from the vertical drain has not been identified with certainty and
so far there is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring these
characteristics. Although some efforts have been made to simulate a gradual
variation of the hydraulic conductivity with radius (Madlav et al. 1993, Chai et al.
1997, Hawlader et al. 2002), it has never been a straight forward task to quantify the
disturbing effects.
In this chapter, two case studies of vertical drains assisted preloading were
numerically simulated to investigate the effects of soil disturbance induced by the
installation of vertical drains. Different variations of the overconsolidation ratio and
the hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone in combination with time dependant
behaviour of soft soils are considered. The effects of overconsolidation ratio and the
hydraulic conductivity profiles on the settlement, the excess pore water pressure
166
dissipation rate, the visco-plastic strain rate, and the creep strain limit are
investigated and discussed.
5.2 VÄSBY TEST FILL CASE STUDY
The Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) designed and built Väsby test fill
in 1945 near Uplands Väsby village, 30km north of Stockholm on the east coast of
Sweden to study the long-term behaviour of Swedish clays and the suitability of the
site for construction of an airport. Three test fills including one with vertical drains
and two without vertical drains were built in the Väsby test field as shown in
Figure 5.1. The Test Areas I and II were constructed without paper drains by placing
fill to a height of 2.5 m and 0.3 m, respectively. Test Area III consisted of installing
paper drains in the clay soils and placing fill to a height of 2.5 m. The test Area III
with vertical drains has been selected to be discussed in this study.
As reported by Chang (1969 and 1981), work on the Test Area III, which
measured 30×30m, was begun in 1945. The clay layer (Väsby post glacial clay)
underlying this area was nearly 10 m thick. Prefabricated vertical drains installation
depth and spacing were 5 m and 0.7 m, respectively. Referring to Figure 5.2,
Settlement monitoring devices were established at the surface of the scraped ground
and at depths of 3.8 m and 5 m. The gravel fill, with the unit weight of 17kN/m3, was
located to the height of 2.5 m on the top of the soft clay. A 0.8-m layer of gravel fill
was removed half a year later (i.e. 182 days) after completion of the surcharge
placement.
Eight consolidometer tests using conventional oedometer cells were carried
out on undisturbed specimens of the Väsby post glacial clay deposit by Chang (1969)
(Figure 5.3) for the applied stresses in the range of 5 kPa to 160 kPa. The required
soil properties can be calculated adopting the developed procedure explained by Yin
(1999) employing laboratory test results, and the adopted soil parameters are
reported in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.4 to 5.8. Referring to Figure 5.5, in this case
టబ
study, the ratio of can be calculated as a function of the vertical effective stress for
௩
టబ
Väsby post glacial clay deposit ( ൌ െͲǤͲͳͷͷ ൈ ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ሻ ൅ ͲǤͲ͸ͺͺ).
௩
167
Area I
No Drain
an
gsban
or
a rnb
Stj
Area II
No Drain
Area III
Paper Drain
ananb
Salna
Scale 0 10 20 30m
Figure 5.1. Väsby test field (after Chang 1981)
168
30 m
South North
+2.5 (before surcharge removal)

+1.7 (after surcharge removal)
0.0 Fill material (ߛ ൌ ͳ͹ ݇ܰ Τ݉ଷ ) 0.0

SP1
SP2 -3.8
PVDs
SP3
-5.0
Väsby post glacial clay

‫ ܮܮ‬ൌ ͻͲ െ ͳʹͷΨ
ܲ‫ ܮ‬ൌ ʹͷ െ ͶͷΨ -9.8
-11.2 -12.2
Glacial varved clay
-14.2
Bedrock Data obtained from Chang (1969) and (1981)
Scale
0 10 m
Figure 5.2. Soil profile beneath the Väsby test fill
Time (s)
10 100 1000 10000 100000
0
10
20
Vertical strain (%)
0 to 5 kPa
30 5 to 10 kPa
10 to 20 kPa
20 to 30 kPa
30 to 45 kPa
45 to 67.5 kPa
40 67.5 to 105 kPa
105 to 160 kPa
50
Data obtained from oedometer tests on undisturbed Väsby

post glacial clay samples reported by Chang (1969)
60
70
Figure 5.3. Consolidation test results on Väsby post glacial clay samples for vertical
stresses between 5 kPa and 160 kPa
169
Stress (kPa)
1 10 ߪԢ௭଴ ൌ ͵ͷ݇ܲܽ 100 1,000
0 ߢ Τ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲʹͺͳ
20 ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤ͵ͺͺ

௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
Vertical strain (%)
40
Limit time line
௘௣ ߣ ߪԢ௭ ݁௥௘௙
ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ݈݊ ቆ ቇ൅ ௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
‫ݒ‬ ߪԢ௭଴ ͳ ൅ ݁଴
60
80
100
Figure 5.4. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for Väsby post glacial
clay
0.06
0.05
0.04
߰Ͳ Τ‫ݒ‬
0.03 ܸ¡‫ݕ݈ܽܥ݈݈ܽ݅ܿܽܩݐݏ݋݌ݕܾݏ‬
టబ
ൌ ܽǤ ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ሻ ൅ ܾ
௩
0.02 ቐ ܽ ൌ െͲǤͲͳͷͷ
ܾ ൌ ͲǤͲ͸ͺͺ
0.01
0
10 100
Vertical effective stress (σz') (kPa)
Figure 5.5. Changes of ߰଴ Τ‫ ݒ‬versus vertical effective stress
170
Table 5.1. Adopted soil properties for Väsby post glacial clay
ߢΤ‫ݒ‬ ߣΤ‫ݒ‬ ‫ݐ‬଴ ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ ߪԢ௭଴ ሺ݇ܲܽሻ ‫ܥ‬௞ ݇௥଴ (m/s) ݁଴ ߛ (kN/m3)
0.0281 0.388 12000 35 0.785 ͹Ǥʹ ൈ ͳͲିଵ଴ 2.95 13.1 - 14.5
3.5
3.0 ܸ¡‫ݕ݈ܽܥ݈݈ܽ݅ܿܽܩݐݏ݋݌ ݕܾݏ‬

‫ ܮܮ‬ൌ ͻͲ െ ͳʹͷΨ
2.5 ܲ‫ ܮ‬ൌ ʹͷ െ ͶͷΨ
Void ratio (e)
2.0
1.5
1.0 ‫ܥ‬௞ ൌ ͲǤ͹ͺͷ

0.5
0.0
1E-11 1E-10 1E-09 1E-08
Permeability (k) (m/s)
Figure 5.6. Permeability changes versus void ratio
Figure 5.8 illustrates variation of the permeability coefficient with the void
ratio for the undisturbed sample of Väsby Post glacial clay deposit adopted in this
study applying ݇௥଴ ൌ ܿ௩ ݉௩ ߛ௪ . ܿ௩ is calculated using Casagrande method
(Casagrande and Fendum 1940). To investigate the influence of the permeability
variation pattern in the disturbed zone on the numerical predictions, all permeability
profiles, reported in Figure 5.7, have been considered. Various available permeability
variation equations are tabulated in Table 5.2. Table 5.3 and Figure 5.8 summarise
the adopted parameters and pattern to simulate different permeability profiles in the
disturbed zone.
171
Smear Zone
Intact Zone Intact Zone Vertical
Drain
Transition Zone
Smear Zone
‫ݎ‬௦
݇௥ ‫ݎ‬௪ ݇Ԣ௥ ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥
݇௭ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ݇Ԣ௭ ݇௭ ‫ݎ‬௪ ݇Ԣ௭
‫ݎ‬ௗ
R
R
Vertical
Drain
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥

1 1
Case A Case D
ߙ ߙ
ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥
1 1
Case B ߚଵ
Case E
ߙ ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥

1 1
Case C Case F ߚଶ
ߙ
ߙ
‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬
‫ݎ‬ௗ ‫ݎ‬௦ ‫ݎ‬௣ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
(a) (b)
Figure 5.7. Cross section of the disturbed zone surrounding a vertical drain, (a) two
zones hypothesis, (b) three zones hypothesis
Soil deformation during consolidation greatly depends on the initial state

(‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ) and boundary conditions. The thickness of the simulated soil deposit, which
has overconsolidation ratios of 1.22 to 1.27, with both radial and vertical drainage
systems is 5m with a drainage blanket on top (refer to Equation (3.41) and
Figure 3.8). Time steps are assumed to be one tenth of a day with a total of 75,000
steps, representing 20 years. Initial values of the excess pore water pressures (‫ݑ‬௜ ),
vertical effective stresses (ߪԢ௭௜ ), and vertical strains (ߝ௭௜ ) are assumed to be 0,
ሺߛ௦௔௧ െ ߛ௪ ሻ‫ݖ‬, and 0, respectively.
172
Table 5.2. Various available permeability variation equations
Case Suggested equations for permeability in disturbed zone Reference
Case A ݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ݇௛ Barron (1948)

Holtz and Holm
(1973)
Case B ଵିఈ Rujikiatkamjorn

݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቀߙ ൅ ቀ ቁ ‫ݎ‬ቁ
௥೏
and Indraratna
(2009)
Case C ଵିఈ ଶ ଵିఈ Walker and

݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቆቀሺ௥ మቁ ‫ݎ‬ ൅ ʹቀ ቁ ‫ ݎ‬൅ ߙቇ
೏ሻ ௥೏
Indraratna (2006)
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ݇௥ Ͳ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௦
Case D Madhav et al.
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቀߙ ൅

ଵିఈ
ቁ ‫ݎݎ‬௦ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬ௗ (1993)
௥೏
ఉభ ିఈ
Case E ݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቀߙ ൅ ቀ ቁ ‫ݎ‬ቁ Ͳ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௦ Onoue et al.
௥೏
(1991)
ଵିఉభ
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቆߚଵ ൅ ቀ௥ ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௦ ሻቇ‫ݎ‬௦ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
೏ ି௥ೞ
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ݇௥ Ͳ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௦

Case F Basu et al. (2006)
ఉమ ିఈ
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቆߙ ൅ ൬ ൰ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௦ ሻቇ‫ݎ‬௦ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௣
௥೛ ି௥ೞ
ଵିఉమ
݇Ԣ௥ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇Ԣ௭ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ݇௥ ቆߚଶ ൅ ൬ ൰ ൫‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௣ ൯ቇ‫ݎ‬௣ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
௥೏ ି௥೛
Table 5.3. Fitting parameters for disturbed zone permeability profile for Cases A-F
ߙ ߚଵ ߚଶ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሺ݉ሻ ‫ݎ‬௦ ሺ݉ሻ ‫ݎ‬௣ ሺ݉ሻ
0.25 0.6 0.75 0.15 0.05 0.1
173
1.00
Case A
Case B
Case C
0.75 Case D
Case E
݇Ԣ௥ Case F

݇௥ 0 0.50 Disturbed zone boundary
0.25
Vertical drain location ஼ ா ஻ ி ஽ ஺
݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Radial distance (mm)
Figure 5.8. Variations of initial permeability profile for Cases A to F
5.2.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5.9 shows the excess pore water pressure predictions at the depth of
2.6m and in the middle of two vertical drains for different soil hydraulic conductivity
profiles including Cases A to F. Comparing Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9, it is evident
that a lower average permeability in the disturbed zone results in a slower excess
pore water pressure dissipation rate. For example, Cases A and C with the lowest and
஼ ா ஻ ி ஽
highest average disturbed zone permeability (݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐ ݇௔௩௘ ൐
஺
݇௔௩௘ ), result in the highest and lowest remaining excess pore water pressures during
the consolidation process, respectively. In addition, Cases D and F with comparable
disturbed zone permeability values (Figure 5.8) demonstrate similar pattern of excess
pore water pressure dissipation. As shown in Figure 5.9, while the test embankment
is being built, the excess pore water pressure keeps increasing and reaches its
maximum value after 25 days, irrespective of the choice of the disturbed zone
permeability profile. However, it can be observed that the maximum excess pore
water pressure significantly depends on the choice of the permeability variation in
the disturbed zone.
As expected, the higher the average disturbed zone permeability is, the
lower the maximum values of excess pore water pressure in the soil profile will be.
174
For example, the maximum predicted excess pore water pressure values for Cases A
to F, occurring at the end of fill placement period, are 36.5 kPa, 32.1 kPa, 27.9 kPa,
35.2 kPa, 30.7 kPa, and 34.9 kPa, respectively. In other words, Case A with constant
initial disturbed zone permeability overestimates the maximum excess pore water
pressure by 31% in comparison to Case C. In addition, as illustrated in Figure 5.9,
there is a rapid decrease in the excess pore water pressure induced by the partial
removal of the fill material. This immediate reduction in the excess pore water
pressure is approximately 13.5 kPa equal to the removal of 0.8m of the gravel fill
material with the unit weight of 17 kN/m3. Since the remaining excess pore water
pressures in the soil deposit at the time of partial removal of the embankment were
less than the removed fill material, negative excess pore water pressures were
generated. Soon after completion of the unloading, the excess pore water pressures
increased aiming to reach the equilibrium followed by dissipation.
40 3.5
Case A
Case B Depth = 2.6m
35
In the middle of two 3.0

Case C
vertical drains
30 Case D
Embankment height (m)

Case E 2.5
25 Case F
Embankment height
20 2.0
15 1.5
10
1.0
5
0.5
0
-5 0.0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (days)
Figure 5.9. Excess pore water pressure values predicted by developed code versus
time for Cases A to F
Figure 5.10 shows the variations of excess pore water pressure with time for
Case A. Obviously; excess pore water pressure is inversely related to radius. As
explained earlier, during the construction of the embankment, excess pore water
175
pressure increases and reaches its maximum value (i.e. 25 days) and then starts
decreasing. Figure 5.11 shows the comparison between excess pore water pressure
values just before unloading for Cases A to F at the depth of 2.6m. Obviously, excess
pore water pressure is directly related to the distance from the vertical drain. In
addition, the lower the average disturbed zone permeability is the higher the value of
excess pore water pressure value in the soil profile will be. For example, Case A with
lower initial average permeability shows 43% less excess pore water pressure in
comparison to Case C, which has the highest initial average permeability.
Figure 5.12 depicts the creep coefficient (߰Τ‫ ) ݒ‬variation with time at depth
of 2.6m in the middle of two vertical drains. Evidently, the creep coefficient changes
with both time and choice of the disturbed zone permeability profile. For instant, the
creep coefficient drops from 0.0505 to 0.0423 (16.2% reduction) between 10 days
and 100 days, respectively (Case A). Since the creep coefficient (߰Τ‫ ) ݒ‬is inversely
related to the effective vertical stress (ɐԢ୸ ) as shown in Figure 5.5, lower effective
vertical stresses (or higher excess pore water pressures) cause higher creep
coefficients. For example, as reported in Figure 5.12, Case A (the lowest averaged
permeability in the disturbed zone) and Case C (the highest average permeability in
the disturbed zone) (Figure 5.8), result in the highest and the lowest creep
coefficients (߰Τ‫) ݒ‬, respectively. As shown in Figure 5.12, for the reported cases,
influence of time on the creep coefficient is more pronounced than the effect of
choice of disturbed zone permeability profile. Moreover, as observed in Figure 5.12,
there is a slight increase in the creep coefficient due to the partial removal of the fill
material followed by a marginal increase with time, similar to the excess pore water
pressure dissipation pattern reported in Figure 5.9.
176
40
Depth = 2.6m
35
30
25
20
15
Initial (0 day)
10 After 10 days (during embankment construction)
After 25 days (full embankment construction)
5 After 50 days
After 182 days (just before unloading)
0
-5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 5.10. Variations of excess pore water pressure with time for Case A
14
Excess pore water pressure just
12
before unloading (kPa)
10
6 Case A
Case B
4 Case C
Case D
Depth = 2.6m
2 ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ͳͺʹ݀ܽ‫ݏݕ‬ Case E
Case F
0
0 100 200 300 400
Figure 5.11. Variations of the excess pore water pressure values just before
unloading ( ൌ ͳͺʹ) for Cases A to F
177
Full embankment constructed
0.050 Case A
Case B
Creep coefficient (ɗΤ)
Case C
0
0.048
Case D
Case E
0.046 Case F
0.044
Partial embankment removal
0.042 Depth = 2.6m

In the middle of two vertical drains
0.040
0.1 1 10
Time (days) 100 1000 10000
Figure 5.12. Predicted creep coefficient (߰Τ‫ ) ݒ‬values versus time for Cases A to F
Figure 5.13 shows variations of the predicted creep strain limit with time
and choice of the disturbed zone permeability profile. Evidently, variations of the
creep strain limit with time are more notable than with the permeability profile. For
example, there is 67% reduction in the creep strain limit (from 2.33 to 0.77) from 10
days to 100 days (Case A), while this reduction is only up to 7.7% due to the choice
of the permeability profile. Since, similar to the creep coefficient, the creep strain
limit is also inversely related to the effective vertical stress (see Equations (3.3) and
(3.4)), the lower equivalent permeability in the disturbed zone (resulting in a higher
excess pore water pressures) leads to higher creep strain limit at any given time. In
addition, unloading due to the partial removal of the embankment contributes to a
slight increase in the creep strain limit followed by a gradual decrease similar to the
creep coefficient variations.
Referring to Figure 5.9, due to the simultaneous and professional increase in
the total stresses and excess pore water pressures keep in the early stages of loading,
the effective vertical stresses remain nearly unchanged. Thus, the creep strain limit
and the creep coefficient (Figures 5.12 and 5.13), which are inversely proportional to
the effective vertical stresses, remain unchanged in the early stages of loading.
178
2.45
Case A
2.25
2.
)
Case B
௟௜௠௜௧
Case C
Creep limit strain (ߝ௖௥
2.05
2.
Case D
1.85 Case E
Case F
1.65
Depth = 2.6m
1.45
In the middle of two vertical drains
1.25
1.05 Partial embankment removal
0.85
0.65
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (days)
Figure 5.13. Creep strain limit values predicted by the developed code versus time
for Cases A to F
Figures 5.14 and 5.15 present the comparison between the predicted time
dependent settlement and the field measurements for depths of 5m and 3.8m,
respectively. To calculate the reported field settlement values, the in situ settlement
records at the settlement plate SP1 (located at the ground surface) and settlement
plate SP2 (located at the depth of 5m) were subtracted from the settlement records
SP3 located 5m deep (see Figure 5.2). Numerical results show although settlement
predictions converge after a very long time (infinity), there are significant differences
due to the choice of permeability variations in the disturbed zone. The predicted
ground surface settlements just before the partial removal of the embankment for
Cases A to F are 501 mm, 618 mm, 733 mm, 541 mm, 659 mm, and 552 mm,
respectively, while, the in situ measurement is 545 mm. In other words, there is up to
46% difference in the predicted settlement after 182 days (just before unloading) due
to the variation in the permeability profile in the disturbed zone. This difference for
the settlement at depth 3.8 m (SP2-SP3) is 55%.
179
Time (days)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0
0.1
0.2
Settlement (m)
0.3
0.4 Partial embankment removal

Case A
0.5 Case B
Case C
0.6 Case D
Case E
0.7 Case F
Field Measurement after Chang (1969)
0.8
Figure 5.14. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to F and the field
measurements at the ground surface
Time (days)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.00
0.05
Partial embankment removal

Settlement (m)
0.10
Case A
0.15 Case B
Case C
Case D
0.20 Case E
Case F
Field Measurement after Chang (1969)
0.25
Figure 5.15. Comparison between the settlement predictions for Cases A to F and the
field measurements at 3.8 m depth
180
Based on the settlement predictions and measurements reported in
Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15, although the settlement rate decreases significantly after
unloading, settlement continues increasing due to visco-plastic deformation of the
soil while insignificant excess pore water pressures are remaining. Comparing the
measurements and predictions reported in Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15 for this
particular case study, numerical analysis predictions adopting Cases E and B with
bilinear or linear variation profile of the initial permeability in the disturbed zone
with radius, are in a reasonable agreement with the field measurements particularly
after unloading.
Time (days)
1 10 100 1000 10000
0.00
Post construction settlement (m)
0.05
0.10
Case A
Case B
0.15
Case C
Case D
0.20 Case E
Case F
0.25
Figure 5.16. Comparison between post construction settlement prediction for Cases
A to F and the field measurement at the ground surface
Assuming the post construction settlement being the settlement occurring

after the partial removal of the embankment, Figure 5.16 shows the post construction
settlement for 20 years. Evidently, the post construction settlement, which is mainly
due to the viscous creep deformation, is influenced significantly by the permeability
variations in the disturbed zone. Figure 5.17 shows the required time to achieve 500
m of the ground surface settlement for all cases. Evidently, numerical results show
that Case C with the highest average initial disturbed zone permeability needs 61%
less time to achieve 500mm settlement compared to Case A with the lowest average
initial disturbed zone permeability. Consequently, selecting the permeability profile
affects the decision of the proper time to remove the embankment considerably.
181
200
180
Time to achieve 500mm of settlement
160
140
120
(days)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Case A Case B Case C Case D Case E Case F
Figure 5.17. The required time to achieve 500 mm of settlement for Cases A to F at
the ground surface
7E-10
Horizontal permeability (m/s)
Vertical drain location

6E-10
5E-10
4E-10
Initial (0 day)
3E-10 10 days
Depth = 2.6m 50 days
100 days
2E-10
500 days
1000 days
1E-10 2000 days
5000 days
0
0 100 200 300 400
Vertical distance (mm)
Figure 5.18. Variations of permeability profile versus time for Case A
182
0.25
0.23
0.21 Disturbed zone boundary
0.19 Vertical drain location

݇Ԣ௥

݇௥ 0.17
0.15
0.13 Initial (0 day)

10 days
50 days
0.11 100 days
500 days
0.09 1000 days
Depth = 2.6m 2000 days
5000 days
0.07
0 50 100 150
Figure 5.19. Variations of permeability ratio with time in disturbed zone for Case A
Figures 5.18 and 5.19 show the variations of the permeability profile with
time adopting Case A as the initial permeability profile. It can be concluded that the
௞ᇱ
permeability coefficient, the permeability ratio ( ௞ ೝ ) and the permeability variation
ೝ
pattern change with time. Obviously, while the excess pore water pressure in
dissipating, the excess pore water pressure dissipation rate and consequently the void
ratio reduction rate decrease with the radius (distance from the vertical drain).
Therefore, the permeability decreases with time, but increases with radius. Thus, the
pattern of the soil hydraulic conductivity variations does not keep similar to the
initial pattern, in the process of consolidation and continuous ground settlement. For
example, as Figures 5.18 and 5.19 illustrate, although the uniform initial permeability
coefficient and ratio were assumed for the disturbed zone, non-uniform/nonlinear
variation exists during the consolidation process. According to Figure 5.19, within
the disturbed zone, while the excess pore water pressure is dissipating, the
permeability ratio is decreasing following a direct relationship with radius. After
excess pore water pressure dissipation, the void ratio reduction rate slows down
(Figure 5.12) and consequently, the permeability ratio starts increasing (Figure 5.19).
183
5.3 SKÅ-EDEBY TEST FILL CASE STUDY
Skå-Edeby is located on an island about 25 kilometres west of Stockholm.

According to Hansbo (1960), four circular test fills were built to study the
consolidation of soft clays and the effect of vertical drains on the rate of
consolidation (Figure 5.20). In 1972 another circular test fill was built to investigate
the field performance of vertical drains. Test Area I was divided into three
subsections with vertical drains spacing of 0.9 m, 1.5 m, and 2.2 m. Test Areas II, III
and IV are 35 m in diameter while Test Area V is 31 m in diameter. In Test Area II
and III the sand drains spacing was 1.5 whereas in Area V Geodrains were installed
at 0.9 m spacing. No drains were installed in Area IV. Geodrains were installed using
sounding rods. The sand drains were of displacement type and were 0.18 m in
diameter. All vertical drains were installed in triangular patterns with an average
length of 12 m. In this study, the subsection A of Test Area I with 1.5 m as vertical
drains spacing is selected for investigation (Figure 5.20).
The clean sandy gravel fill was placed in three successive lifts at a unit
weight of 18 kN/m3 to the height of 1.5 m. The clay deposit (glacial clay) underlying
this area was approximately 10 m thick. Settlement monitoring devices were
established at the surface of the scraped ground and at the depth of 5 m, 7.5 m and 10
m. The piezometers were placed at the centre of triangles at the depth of 2.5 m, 5 m
and 9 m (Figure 5.21). As reported by Lo (1991), Figures 5.22 and 5.23 show in-situ
measurement of the initial void ratio profile versus time and preconsolidation
pressure versus depth, respectively.
184
N
B
C Area I
A (Sand Drain)
Sampling Site
Holm and Holtz (1977)
Area II
(Sand Drain)
Area III
(Sand Drain)
A: 0.9 m Drain Spacing

B: 1.5 m Drain Spacing
C: 2.2 m Drain Spacing Area IV
(No Drain)
Area V
Scale (Geodrain)
0 50 100m
Figure 5.20. Skå-Edeby test field (After Hansbo 1960)
+1.5
1.5m
ߛ ൌ ͳͺ݇ܰȀ݉ଷ 0.0
SP1
SP2 -2.5
10m
-5.0 Glacial clay
SP3
‫ ݓ‬ൌ ͹ͻΨሺ‫ݐ݊݁ݐ݊݋ܿݎ݁ݐܽݓݑݐ݅ݏ݊ܫ‬ሻ
‫ݓ‬௅ ൌ ͸͵Ψሺ‫ݐ݈݅݉݅݀݅ݑݍ݅ܮ‬ሻ
‫ݓ‬௉ ൌ ʹͶΨሺ݈ܲܽ‫ݐ݈݅݉݅ܿ݅ݐݏ‬ሻ
ߛ ൌ ͳͷǤͶ݇ܰȀ݉ଷ
-10.0
SP4
Figure 5.21. Soil profile beneath the Skå-Edeby test fill
185
Initial void ratio
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
2
Depth (m)
10
Figure 5.22. Initial void ratio profile versus depth
Preconsolidation pressure (kPa)

0 20 40 60 80 100
0
2 ߪ௣ ൌ ͸ǤͶ͵͹͸‫ ݖ‬൅ ͳǤͷͷͷ͸ሺ݇ܲܽሻ

ߪ௣ : Preconsolidation pressure
4 z: depth (m)
Depth (m)
10
12 Data obtained from Hansbo (1960)

14
Figure 5.23. Preconsolidation pressure profile versus depth
As reported by Hansbo (1960), 27 incremental loading oedometer tests were

conducted in 1957 for all Test Areas applying specimens 60.5 mm in diameter and
20 mm in height. Samples were taken at 2, 5, 8m below the ground surface and rarely
at 10 m depths by SGI IV sampler (SGI IV sampler was easy to handle but made
some disturbance). According to Hansbo (1960), adequate time was allowed for
186
primary consolidation to complete (initially a time allowance of 3 days, occasionally
even more was applied).
Hansbo (1960) reported four additional consolidation test results on samples
taken by SGI VIII, which provides better samples, at depths of 3, 4, 6, and 7 m with
the test durations of 24 hours. Consequently, the effects of sample disturbance due to
coring were reduced. Additionally, the sensitivity was obtained by the field vane
shear test (FVST) and unconfined compression tests, and fall cone tests (FCT). The
sensitivity, the ratio between the undrained shear strengths of the undisturbed and
remoulded states of the soil, is considered to estimate the strength loss, as the
disturbance of the soil increases (Mitchell and Houston 1969). For the soil profile at
Skå-Edeby, the sensitivity increases from 5 in the upper layers to 15 in the lower
layers near the bottom. There were minor differences of the sensitivity obtained by
the FVST and FCT except at the top 1 m.
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0
10
Vertical Strain (%)
15
20
25
30 0 - 21.6kPa
21.6 - 41.2kPa
35 41.2 - 80.4kPa Data obtained from oedometer tests on undisturbed Skå -
80.4 - 166.7kPa
Edeby glacial clay samples reported by Hansbo (1960)
166.7 - 338.3kPa
40
Figure 5.24. Consolidation tests results on Skå-Edeby glacial clay samples for
vertical stresses between 21.6 kPa and 338.3 kPa
187
Figure 5.24 shows five consolidometer test results carried out on
undisturbed specimens of the clay deposit, which were taken by SGI VIII, reported
by Hansbo (1960) in the stress range of 21.6 kPa to 338.3 kPa. The required soil
properties can be calculated adopting developed procedure explained by Yin (1999)
employing laboratory test results, and the adopted soil parameters are reported in
ఒ
Table 5.4 and Figure 5.25 to Figure 5.27. According to Yin (1990), parameter ௩
is
೎ఒ ஼ ೎ ஼ ఑
related to the conventional compression index (௩ ൌ ௩௟௡ଵ଴ or ߣ ൌ ௟௡ଵ଴ ) and ௩ is related
఑ ஼ೝ
to the conventional recompression index (unloading and reloading data) ( ௩
ൌ ௩௟௡ଵ଴
஼ೝ
or ߢ ൌ ௟௡ଵ଴). As Yin and Graham (1989) stated, ‫ݐ‬଴ can be considered as the time
corresponding to the end of excess pore water pressure dissipation process (i.e.
conventional end of primary consolidation time ‫ݐ‬ாை௉ ) for the small laboratory
sample. Once ‫ݐ‬଴ is selected, then ߪ ᇱ ௭଴ would be the corresponding stress on the
టబ
reference time line, when ߝ௭ ൌ Ͳ. Parameter is the initial creep coefficient
௩
corresponding to time ‫ݐ‬଴ when the excess pore water pressure has been dissipated
ట ஼ ஼
( ௩బ ൌ ௩௟௡ଵ଴
ഀ೔ ഀ೔
or ߰଴ ൌ ௟௡ଵ଴ where ‫ܥ‬ఈ௜ is the tangential secondary compression index
టబ
when ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݐ‬଴ for the laboratory sample). It should be noted that is highly
௩
dependent on the level of the applied effective stress, thus it changes during the
excess pore water pressure dissipation process.
Table 5.4. Adopted soil properties for Skå-Edeby glacial clay
ߢΤ‫ݒ‬ ߣΤ‫ݒ‬ ‫ݐ‬଴ ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ ߪԢ௭଴ ሺ݇ܲܽሻ ‫ܥ‬௞ ݁଴ ߛ (kN/m3)
0.0233 0.1179 36500 25 0.9085 2.02 15.1
188
Stress (kPa)
( )
1 10 ߪԢ௭଴ ൌ ʹͷ݇ܲܽ 100 1,000
0
ߢ Τ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͲʹ͵͵
10
20
ߣΤ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ͲǤͳͳ͹ͻ
30
Vertical strain (%)
40 ௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
Limit time line
50 ௟௜௠௜௧
ߝ௖௥
௘௣ ߣ ߪԢ௭ ݁௥௘௙
ߝ௭௟௜௠௜௧ ൌ ߝ௭଴ ൅ ݈݊ ቆ ቇ൅
60 ‫ݒ‬ ߪԢ௭଴ ͳ ൅ ݁଴
70
80
90
100
Figure 5.25. Time dependant stress-vertical strain relationship for Skå-Edeby glacial
clay
0.0140
0.0130
0.0120
߰Ͳ Τ‫ݒ‬
0.0110
0.0100
Skå-Edeby glacial clay sample
0.0090
టబ
ൌ ܽǤ ሺߪ ᇱ ௭ ሻ ൅ ܾ
0.0080 ௩
ቐ ܽ ൌ െͲǤͲͲʹͶ
0.0070 ܾ ൌ ͲǤͲͳͷͷ
0.0060
10 100 1000
Vertical effective stress (σz') (kPa)
Figure 5.26. Changes of ߰଴ Τ‫ ݒ‬versus vertical effective stress
189
2.50
ܵ݇ܽ െ ‫ݕ݈ܽܥ݈݈ܽ݅ܿܽܩݕܾ݁݀ܧ‬
2.00 ‫ ܮܮ‬ൌ ͸͵Ψ
ܲ‫ ܮ‬ൌ ʹͶΨ
Void ratio (e)
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09
Permeability (k) (m/s)
Figure 5.27. Permeability changes versus void ratio
As stated earlier, the mechanical installation of vertical drains in the ground

inevitably causes disturbance of the surrounding soil due to induced shear strains. As
stated by Baligh (1985) and Whittle and Aubeny (1993), the induced shear strain is a
function of the radial distance and the diameter of the mandrel. Shear strains caused
by vertical drains installation contribute to the reduction of the shear strength and as
a result the overconsolidation ratio of the soil. For example, as reported by
Massarsch (1976) and Bozozuk et al. (1978), the disturbance due to installation of
vertical drains can cause up to 40% and 35% drop in the shear strength of Swedish
clay near Gothenburg and sensitive marine clay in eastern Canada, respectively. The
extent of the soil overconsolidation ratio changes in the disturbed zone versus the
distance from the vertical drain has not been identified with certainty and so far there
is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring these characteristics.
190
Disturbed zone
Intact Zone Vertical
Drain
Transition Zone
‫ݎ‬ௗ
‫ݎ‬௪
‫ݎ‬௧௥
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬
Case A
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬
Case B
ߙ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬
Case C
ߙ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬
Case D
ߙ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬
Case E ߚ
ߙ
‫ݎ‬ௗ ‫ݎ‬௧௥ ‫ݎ‬
Figure 5.28. Cross section of the disturbed and transition zones surrounding a
vertical drain
191
In general, similar to possible permeability ratio variation patterns proposed
by Barron (1948), Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna (2009), Madhav et al. (1993),
Onoue et al. (1991), and Basu et al. (2006), two broad concepts are suggested to
define the characteristics of the soil surrounding the drain: (i) two zones hypothesis,
consisting of the intact zone surrounding the disturbed zone adjacent to the vertical
drain and (ii) three zones hypothesis, comprised of the undisturbed zone surrounding
the transition zone and the disturbed zone in the immediate vicinity of the vertical
drain. In this research, various patterns capturing the variations of the initial
overconsolidation ratio and the shear strength of soil in the disturbed region as
illustrated in Figure 5.28 and Table 5.5 have been adopted in the numerical analysis
and for comparison and discussion. Table 5.6 and Figure 5.30 summarise the adopted
parameters and pattern to simulate different OCR profiles in the disturbed zone.
Moreover, Figure 5.29 illustrates variation of the permeability coefficient with the
void ratio for the undisturbed sample of Skå-Edeby glacial clay deposit adopted in
this study.
Table 5.5. Various overconsolidation ratio and normalized shear strength variation
equations
Case OCR variation Normalized shear strength Radius

variation
ഉ
Case A ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ
ൌ ሺܱ‫ܴܥ‬ሻሺଵିഊሻ ‫ݎ‬௪ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௧௥
ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴
ഉ
Case B ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ
ൌ ሺߙሻሺଵିഊሻ ‫ݎ‬௪ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௧௥
ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴
ை஼ோିఈ ഉ
Case C ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ ൅ ቀ ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻ
ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ
ൌ ሺߙ ൅ ቀ
ை஼ோିఈ
ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻሻሺଵିഊሻ ‫ݎ‬௪ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௧௥
௥೟ೝ ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴ ௥೟ೝ
ഉ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ
ൌ ሺߙሻሺଵିഊሻ ‫ݎ‬௪ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
Case D ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴
ை஼ோିఈ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௧௥
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ ൅ ቀ ௥ ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሻ ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ ை஼ோିఈ ሺଵି ሻ
ഉ
೟ೝ ି௥೏
ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴
ൌ ሺߙ ൅ ቀ
௥೟ೝ ି௥೏
ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሻሻ ഊ
ఉିఈ ഉ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߙ ൅ ቀ ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻ
ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ
ൌ ሺߙ ൅ ቀ
ఉିఈ
ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሻሻሺଵିഊሻ ‫ݎ‬௪ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬ௗ
Case E ௥೏ ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴ ௥೏
ை஼ோିఉ ഉ
‫ݎ‬ௗ ൏ ‫ ݎ‬൏ ‫ݎ‬௧௥
ௌೠ ሺ௥ሻ ை஼ோିఉ
ܱ‫ܴܥ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ൌ ߚ ൅ ቀ
௥೟ೝ ି௥೏
ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሻ
ሺௌೠ ሻಿ಴
ൌ ሺߚ ൅ ቀ ௥ ቁ ሺ‫ ݎ‬െ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሻሻሺଵିഊሻ
೟ೝ ି௥೏
*ሺܵ௨ ሻே஼ ൌ ଵଶ ߪ ᇱ௭ ‫߮݊݅ݏ‬Ԣ
192
1.0
0.9 Vertical drain location
0.8
0.7
݇Ԣ௥ 0
0.6
݇௥
0.5
Disturbed and transition zones boundary
0.4
0.3
0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Radial distance from drain (mm)
Figure 5.29. Permeability profile in the disturbed and transition zones for all cases
1.35
1.30
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
1.25
1.20
Case A
1.15 Case B
Case C
1.10 Case D
Case E
1.05
1.00
Vertical drain location Disturbed and transition zone boundary
0.95
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 5.30. Variations of overconsolidation ratio profile for Cases A to E at depth of

2.5m
193
Table 5.6. Fitting parameters for disturbed zone overconsolidation ratio profile for
Cases A to E
ߙ ߚ ‫ݎ‬௪ ሺ݉ሻ ‫ݎ‬ௗ ሺ݉ሻ ‫ݎ‬௧௥ ሺ݉ሻ
1 0.75OCR 0.09 0.12 0.18
Soil deformation during consolidation greatly depends on the initial state

(‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ) and boundary conditions. The thickness of the simulated soil deposit is 10m
with a drainage blanket on top (refer to Equation (3.41) and Figure 3.8). Initial values
of vertical strains (ߝ௭௜ ) have been calculated applying Equation (3.40). Time steps are
assumed to be one tenth of a day with a total of 24000 steps, representing 6.5 years.
Initial values of the excess pore water pressures (‫ݑ‬௜ ), and vertical effective stresses
(ߪԢ௭௜ ) are assumed to be 0, and ሺߛ௦௔௧ െ ߛ௪ ሻ‫ݖ‬, respectively.
5.3.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figures 5.31 to 5.33 show the comparison between the excess pore water
pressure predictions and the field measurements in the middle of two vertical drains
and at the depth of 2.5 m, 5 m and 9 m, respectively, for different soil
overconsolidation ratio profiles including Cases A to E (Figure 5.28 and Table 5.5).
According to Figures 5.31 to 5.33, the excess pore water pressure field measurements
and prediction patterns are in a good agreement. While the test embankment is being
built, the excess pore water pressure keeps increasing and reaches its maximum value
after 62 days, irrespective of the choice of the disturbed and transition zones
overconsolidation ratio profiles. However, it can be observed that the maximum
excess pore water pressure notably depends on the choice of the OCR variation in the
disturbed and transition zones.
194
25 3.5
Case A (Predictions)
Depth = 2.5 m
Excess pore water pressure (kPa) In the middle of
Case B (Predictions)
Case C (Predictions) 3.0
20 two vertical drains
Embankment height (m)

Case D (Predictions)
Case E (Predictions) 2.5
Field measurement after Hansbo (1960)
15 Embankment height
2.0
1.5
10
1.0
5
0.5
0 0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (days)
Figure 5.31. Comparison of the developed code excess pore water pressure
predictions for cases A to E and the field measurements at depth of 2.5m
22
20 Depth = 5 m
In the middle of Case B (Predictions)
18 two vertical drains Case C (Predictions)
16 Case D (Predictions)
Case E (Predictions)
14 Field measurement after Hansbo (1960)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (days)
predictions for cases A to E and the field measurements at depth of 5m
195
20

18 Case B (Predictions)
16 Case C (Predictions)
Case D (Predictions)
14 Case E (Predictions)
12
10
8 Depth = 9m
6 In the middle of
two vertical drains
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (days)
predictions for cases A to E and the field measurements at depth of 9m
As expected, the higher the average disturbed and transition zones OCR and
shear strength are, the lower the maximum values of excess pore water pressure in
the soil profile will be. For example, the maximum predicted excess pore water
pressure values at the depth of 2.5m for Cases A to E, occurring at the end of fill
placement period, are 15.99 kPa, 18.39 kPa, 16.84 kPa, 17.60 kPa, and 16.16 kPa,
respectively (Figure 5.31). In other words, Case B with constant initial disturbed and
transition zones overconsolidation ratio overestimates the maximum excess pore
water pressure by 15% in comparison to Case A. This difference for the excess pore
water pressure at the depth of 5m and 9m (Figure 5.32 and Figure 5.33) are 12.5%
and 10.4%, respectively. Referring to Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.33, since the initial
overconsolidation ratio values are higher near the ground surface, excess pore water
pressure difference caused by the soil disturbance (OCR reduction) decreases by
depth (i.e. reduced from 15% at the depth of 2.5 m to 10.4% at the depth of 9m).
As observed in Figures 5.31 to 5.33, there are some discrepancies between
the field measurements and predictions at the end of loading which may be the result
of the assumed initial stress state, adopted soil constitutive models, and soil
anisotropy. It should be mentioned that many field measurements show that the
excess pore pressure values do not decrease immediately at the end of loading or
196
construction as expected which may be due to the increase in total stress, caused by
the volumetric strain compatibility (Seah and Koslanant 2003; Leoni et al. 2008;
Fatahi et al. 2013). This delayed dissipation significantly contributes to the observed
disparities between the measured and predicted values (Crook et al. 1984; Conlin and
Maddox 1985; Kabbaj et al. 1988; Rowe and Li 2002). Mandel-Cryer effect has been
proposed to explain this delayed excess pore water pressure dissipation response.
Schiffman et al. (1969) expressed Mandel-Cryer effect as the increase in total stress,
which is caused by the volumetric strain compatibility. As mentioned earlier, soil
disturbance causes a lower shear strength and overconsolidation ratio, which results
in a lower initial strain in the soil profile. Obviously, the disturbed zone with lower
shear strength and lower initial strain values settles more under the same loading.
18
Depth = 2.5 m
16
14
Initial (0 day)
12
After 10 days (during embankment construction)
10 Ater 62 days (full embankment construction)
After 200 days
8
After 365 days
6
0
-2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 5.34. Variations of excess pore water pressure with time for Case B
Figure 5.34 shows the variations of the excess pore water pressure with time
for Case B assuming normally consolidated soil in the disturbed zone. Obviously, the
excess pore water pressure dissipation rate is inversely related to the radial distance
from the drain. As explained earlier, during the construction of the embankment, the
197
excess pore water pressure increases and reaches to its maximum value after 62 days
(end of embankment construction) and then starts decreasing.
Figure 5.35 shows the comparison between the excess pore water pressure
values at the end of loading stage for Cases A to E at the depth of 2.5m. Obviously,
the excess pore water pressure is directly related to the distance from the vertical
drain. In addition, less disturbance (i.e. a higher average OCR) results in lower
values of the excess pore water pressure in the soil profile. For example, Case A
with lowest average disturbance shows 15.9% less excess pore water pressure in
comparison to Case B, representing the highest disturbance.
18
Excess pore water pressure at the end
16 Vertical drain location
14
of loading (kPa)
12
10 Case A
Case B
8
Case C
6
Case D
4 Case E
Depth = 2.5 m
2 t = 62 days
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 5.35. Variations of the excess pore water pressure values at the end of loading
( ൌ ͸ʹ) for Cases A to E
According to Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.35, the excess pore water pressure in
the disturbed zone decreases (the effective stress increases) by time throughout the
consolidation process, while effective stress changes are slightly different for Cases
A to E. As a result, since soil strength is a function of the effective stress, the shear
strength gradually increases by time during consolidation. Additionally, the void
ratio decreases further due to viscous effects (creep), which causes an increase in
preconsolidation pressure. Consequently, referring to Table 5.5, soil strength
increases due to reduction of void ratio over time during consolidation. By and
198
large, although strength gain with time during consolidation, caused by the excess
pore water pressure and void ratio reduction, has been captured, other possible
effects contributing to strength gain with time such as thixotropy, and natural
cementation due to ground water and soil chemistry have not been included in the
analysis.
0.76
)
0.74
0
௟௜௠௜௧

Creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥
0.72
0.70 Case A
Case B
0.68 Case C
Case D
0.66 Case E
Depth = 2.5 m
0.64
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
௟௜௠௜௧
Figure 5.36. Predicted creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥ ) values versus radial distance at the
end of loading ( ൌ ͸ʹ) for Cases A to E
௟௜௠௜௧
Figures 5.36 and 5.37 depict predicted creep strain limit (ߝ௖௥ ) values and
predicted visoc-plastic strain rates (݃), respectively, versus radial distance at the end
of loading (i.e. 62 days) for Cases A to E at the depth of 2.5m. Comparing
Figure 5.35 and Figure 5.36, higher rate of visco-plastic strain rate (݃) due to
reduced overconsolidation ratio results in lower creep strain limit. As observed, Case
B with the highest degree of disturbance (i.e. lowest OCR) shows up to 85.7% higher
visco-plastic strain rate than Case A, which has the lowest degree of disturbance
(highest average OCR). Soil profile with a lower initial strain and similar horizontal
permeability settles more, which induces a lower creep strain limit (i.e. Case A with
lower degree of disturbance shows the highest value of creep strain limit in vicinity
of drain and the lowest value of creep strain limit at further distance from vertical
199
drains) (Figures 5.36 and 5.37). Referring to Figure 5.37, at the end of loading when
insignificant excess pore water pressure dissipation has occurred, outside the
disturbed and transition zones, stress-strain situation of soil is equal or close to limit
time line which results in small values of visco-plastic strain rate (Equation (3.10)).
Figure 5.38 shows visco-plastic strain rate (݃) values versus radial distance
at 200 days for cases A to E. As expected, visco-plastic strain rate is inversely related
to the distance from the vertical drain. Furthermore, the less the disturbance (i.e.
higher average OCR) is, the lower the value of visco-plastic strain rate. For example,
Case A with lower degree of disturbance shows 12% less visco-plastic strain rate in
comparison to Case B, which has the highest degree of disturbance. Referring to
Figures 5.38 to 5.41, lower values of visco-pastic strain rate results in lower values of
settlement.
3.5E-03
Depth = 2.5 m
3.0E-03
Visco-Plastic settlement rate (ࢍ)
2.5E-03 Case A
Case B
2.0E-03
Case C
1.5E-03 Case D
Case E
1.0E-03
5.0E-04

0.0E+00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 5.37. Predicted visco-plastic strain rate (݃) values versus radial distance at the
end of loading ( ൌ ͸ʹ) for Cases A to E
200
1.5E-04
1.4E-04
Visco-Plastic settlement rate (ࢍ) Vertical drain location
1.3E-04
1.2E-04
1.1E-04
Case A
1.0E-04
Case B
9.0E-05
Case C
8.0E-05
Case D
7.0E-05 Depth = 2.5 m Case E
6.0E-05
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 5.38. Predicted visco-plastic strain rate (݃) values versus radial distance at
200 days for Cases A to E
Time (days)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
Full embankment
0.1 constructed Case A (Predictions)
0.2 Case B (Predictions)
0.3 Case C (Predictions)
Settlement (m)
0.4 Case D (Predictions)
0.5 Case E (Predictions)

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Figure 5.39. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the field
measurements at the ground surface
201
Figures 5.39 to 5.41 present the comparison between the predicted time
dependent settlement and the field measurements for ground surface and depths of
2.5 m and 5 m, respectively. To calculate the reported field measurement values, the
in situ settlement records at the settlement plate SP1 (located at the ground surface),
settlement plate SP2 (located at the depth of 2.5 m), and settlement plate SP3
(located at the depth of 5 m) were subtracted from the settlement records of SP4
located 10m deep (Figure 5.21).
Numerical results show that there are notable differences in the settlement
predictions due to the choice of overconsolidation ratio variations in the disturbed
and transition zones. The predicted ground surface settlements after 1000 days for
Cases A to E are 838 mm, 925 mm, 884 mm, 905 mm, 864 mm, respectively, while,
the in situ measurement is 908.6 mm. In other words, there is up to 10.4% difference
in the predicted settlement after 1000 days due to the variation in the
overconsolidation ratio profile in the disturbed and transition zones. This difference
for the settlement at depth 2.5 m (SP2-SP4) and 5m (SP3-SP4) are 8.1% and 6%,
respectively. Referring to Figures 5.39 to 5.41, since the initial overconsolidation
ratio values are higher closer to the ground surface, settlement difference induced by
the soil disturbance (OCR reduction) decreases by depth (i.e. reduced from 10.4% for
ground surface to 6% for the depth of 5 m).
It is worthy of note that settlement including creep of normally consolidated
soft soil is more than settlement of the same soil but being overconsolidated or
heavily overconsolidated (Feng 1991; Mesri and Feng 1991; Yin 2006).
Furthermore, referring to Figures 5.39 to 5.41, as time increases effects of
overconsolidation ratio variations are more notable due to the fact that the
contribution of the time dependant viscous deformation of the soil becomes more
pronounced.
It should be mentioned that in this research a vertical drain in an
axisymmetric condition at the centre of the embankment was simulated. Thus, the
consolidation equation is 1D, and only vertical deformation at the centre of the
embankment can be captured. Obviously, long term settlement induced by creep and
lateral deformation of soft soil can influence the behaviour of the embankment. To
capture lateral deformation, the actual embankment should be simulated. As stated
by Fatahi et al. (2013), the soil settlement, excess pore water pressure and lateral
202
deformations under the embankment increase when the soil creep rate (e.g., creep
ratio) increases. Although the soil creep causes higher settlement of the ground, as a
result of the increased pore water pressure, the factor of safety against instability of
the embankment decreases, while the creep ratio increases. In addition, it was
reported that during consolidation, the factor of safety against embankment
instability increases unless during fill placement, which decreases. Furthermore,
Fatahi et al. (2013) concluded that the rate of increase in factor of safety with time
after end of construction decrease with the creep coefficient.
Time (days)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
Full embankment
0.1 constructed Case A (Predictions)
0.2 Case B (Predictions)
0.3 Case C (Predictions)

Settlement (m)
0.4 Case D (Predictions)

0.5 Case E (Predictions)
0.6
Field measurement After Hansbo (1960)
0.7
0.8
0.9 Depth = 2.5 m
1.0
Figure 5.40. Comparison of the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the field
measurements at 2.5m depth
203
Figure 5.41. Comparison between the settlement predictions for Cases A to E and the
field measurements at 5m depth
5.4 SUMMARY
In this chapter, two vertical drain assisted preloading case studies were
explained in detail. The numerical finite difference solution adopting an elastic
visco-plastic model with nonlinear creep function incorporated in the consolidation
equations was used to simulate the selected case studies investigating the effects of
soil disturbance on time dependant behaviour of soft soils. Installation of vertical
drains induces soil disturbance decreasing the in situ shear strength and horizontal
hydraulic conductivity in the vicinity of drains. The soil disturbance causes a slower
rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation and a higher rate of deformation than
what would be expected in the absence of the disturbance. Assessing the degree of
change in the shear strength and the hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone to
be used in the design procedure is a challenging task.
Väsby test fill located 30 km north of Stockholm on the east coast of
Sweden was the first case study to investigate the effect of soil disturbance on the
hydraulic conductivity reduction and consequently the excess pore water pressure
dissipation and the deformation rate. According to available literature, six possible
profiles of the initial hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone (Cases A, B, C, D,
204
E, F) have been considered in this study. Different initial hydraulic conductivity
profiles in the disturbed zone result in various values of excess pore water pressure
and effective vertical stresses at any given time in the soil profile. Consequently, the
induced changes in the vertical effective stresses not only influence the consolidation
process but also influence the creep coefficient and the creep strain limit resulting in
different settlement rates at any given time. Consequently, the initial hydraulic
conductivity selection in the disturbed zone has a significant effect on selecting
unloading time and therefore on the post construction settlement. It is noted that
since permeability is a function of void ratio, the assumed initial hydraulic
conductivity profile does not remain the same during the consolidation process. In
other words, the permeability ratio and its variation pattern in the disturbed zone is
significantly time dependant. It is worthy of note that the creep coefficient and the
creep strain limit, regardless of the initial hydraulic conductivity selection, change
during loading and unloading and also during excess pore water pressure dissipation.
The creep coefficient and the creep strain limit are functions of the effective vertical
stress and time. Consequently, during loading and unloading and during the excess
pore water pressure dissipation period, the effective vertical stress changes result in
creep coefficient and creep strain limit variations.
Skå-Edeby test fill located on an island about 25 km west of Stockholm was
the first case study to investigate the effect of soil disturbance on shear strength, as a
function of overconsolidation ratio, reduction and consequently excess pore water
pressure dissipation and deformation rate. Five possible profiles of the
overconsolidation ratio in the disturbed and transition zones (Cases A, B, C, D, E)
have been considered. Reported laboratory and field measurements data, taken from
Skå-Edeby, a test fill in Sweden, containing soft soil deposit improved with
prefabricated vertical drains and preloading with staged loading and unloading
process, have been discussed and compared with the numerical predictions in this
study. Different OCR profiles in the disturbed and transition zones result in various
visco-plastic strain rates and creep strain limits. Consequently, the induced changes
in visco-plastic strain rate and creep strain limit influence the settlement at any given
time. Effects of reduced shear strength in the disturbed zone on the predicted
settlements are more evident in long-term due to more creep contribution as time
increases. Therefore, the selection of the OCR profile in the disturbed and transition
205
zones has important effects on determining the unloading time and thus the post
construction settlement. It can be noted that although permeability variations have
more effects on the settlement in comparison to shear strength variation, shear
strength variations still have notable effects.
The numerical results show that the proposed finite difference procedure
incorporating elastic visco-plastic soil behaviour is appropriate for the consolidation
analysis of preloading with vertical drains. The proposed solution can readily be used
for layered soil deposits, time dependent loading and unloading, while considering
combined effects of soil disturbance effects and visco-plastic behaviour.
206
CHAPTER SIX
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS
6.1 SUMMARY
After brief introduction in Chapter 1, an introduction and literature review

of time dependant behaviour of soft soils improved with vertical drain assisted
preloading were presented in Chapter 2. This chapter reviewed the creep mechanisms
and constitutive models proposed to simulate the behaviour of soils. Furthermore,
two broad concepts proposed by researchers to estimate the time dependant
deformation of soft soils namely Hypotheses A and B have been presented. One of
the main settlement calculation approaches supported by Hypothesis A, the creep
ratio concept, has been discussed. In addition, the constitutive models based on
Hypothesis B presented in literature have been divided into three categories namely
empirical models, rheological models, and general stress-strain-time models and
explained. Moreover, preloading assisted vertical drains as one of the most common
methods of improving soil properties have been explained in details. Furthermore,
the analytical and numerical methods presented in literature to study the long term
settlement (creep) of soft soils improved with preloading and vertical drains were
reviewed. In Chapter 3, the numerical solution incorporating the elastic visco-plastic
model with nonlinear creep function in combination with the consolidation equations
were presented. Chapter 4 presented an experimental investigation where a large
Rowe cell was used to simulate the combined vertical and radial consolidation
processes (with vertical drain) by introducing a zone of reduced permeability
surrounding the vertical drain. The laboratory results were used to validate the
developed numerical solution by comparing the measured and predicted settlement
and excess pore water pressures. In Chapter 5, two case studies were used to
investigate the effects of various shear strength and permeability profiles on time
dependant behaviour of soft soils. Skå-Edeby test fill was used to study the effects of
207
shear strength reduction induced by installation of vertical drains on time dependant
settlement (creep) of soft soils. Different variations of permeability profile in
disturbed zone have been applied to Väsby test fill for the purpose of studying the
effects of disturbance on time dependant settlement of soft soils.
6.2 CONCLUSIONS
To speed up consolidation rate and improve the strength of soft soil, vertical
drains assisted preloading system has been largely applied as a ground improvement
technique for road and railway projects. The installation of vertical drains disturbs
the soil near the drains, reduces the permeability and shear strength of the smear
zone, and retards the rate of consolidation quite significantly. Numerous methods are
presented in literature to study the long term settlement of soft soils capturing the
visco-plastic behaviours of soils. However, the combined effects of disturbed zone
and the visco-plastic behaviour of the soil have not been addressed in the literature.
In this research, to investigate the effects of soil disturbance induced by the
installation of vertical drains on time dependant performance of soft soil deposits, the
elastic visco-plastic model consisting of a nonlinear creep function and creep strain
limit, developed by Yin and Graham (1990) and Yin (1999), has been incorporated in
the consolidation equation. The assumptions to obtain the governing equations are:
(i) the soil is fully saturated, (ii) water and soil particles are incompressible, (iii)
Darcy’s law is valid and (iv) strains are small. Evidently, when the soil comprises of
horizontal layers with thickness (or the length of vertical drains) much less than the
dimensions of the preloading area, or for the points located at the centre of the
embankment, the average strain or deformation of the soil can be calculated using 1D
(vertical) deformation assumption reasonably accurate. As expressed in the literature,
regardless of the pressure, the void ratio for a particular soil can reach to a minimum
value. Thus, the compression may end under the final effective stress when the
ultimate equilibrium inside the soil structure is reached or when almost no void exists
inside the clay mass. Since it is not feasible to carry out the tests for a very long
duration approaching infinity, creep strain limit measurement is not an easy task.
Consequently, it can be assumed that the limit strain can be reached when the volume
of voids within the soil approaches zero under the applied stress at the infinity time.
208
Yin et al. (2002) proposed that the creep strain limit may be estimated based on the
௟௜௠௜௧ ௘ ௘బ
initial void ratio (ߝ௖௥ ൌ ଵା௘బ ). However, the author believes that is an
బ ଵା௘బ
overestimation of the creep strain limit since it consists of the conventional

consolidation volume change induced by hydrodynamic excess pore water pressure
dissipation as well as the creep. Thus, the soil void ratio at a certain effective stress
on the reference time line should be used to define the creep strain limit for a
௟௜௠௜௧ ௘
ೝ೐೑
particular applied effective stress (ߝ௖௥ ൌ ଵା௘ ).
బ
For the finite difference solution, Crank-Nicolson method has been applied
to solve the 2-D axisymmetric consolidation equations incorporating the elastic
viscopleastic behaviour of soils. In this method, two steps have been used in partial
differentials of pore water pressure over distance to stabilise the process quicker.
Furthermore, in order to ensure stability and convergence in the explicit method, the
time step function (Equation (3.23)) must be less than 0.5. However, the implicit
Crank-Nicolson method has no such limitation. The finite difference solution has
been developed as a MATLAB code. The developed code can be run on micro-
computers and it is capable of: (i) calculating initial vertical effective stress with
depth, (ii) estimating the initial void ratio with depth, (iii) considering variations of
permeability with radius, depth, and void ratio, (iv) considering variations of
overconsolidated ratio with depth and radius, (v) simulating layered soil, (vi)
considering different set of elastic visco-plastic model and soil parameters for each
set of finite difference, and (vii) considering elastic visco-plastic model and soil
parameters as functions of time.
To verify the developed numerical code, a fully instrumented large Rowe
cell apparatus was used. To select the proper mixtures to be used in the Rowe cell, a
number of samples were prepared by mixing various percentages of Q38 kaolinite,
ActiveBond23 bentonite, and uniformly graded sand (SP). Oedometer tests were
carried out to select the samples, meeting the criteria of ݇Ԣ௥ Τ݇௥ ൌ Ͷ for the intact
(sample S1) and reduced permeability (sample S3) zones materials. Two small Rowe
cell test results were used to calculate soil parameters. To calculate soil parameters
curve fitting procedure proposed by Yin (1999) was applied. The creep strain limit
and the creep coefficient are reversely correlated to the vertical effective stress and
209
time. Accordingly, the more the time or the vertical effective stress is, the lower the
creep strain limit and creep coefficient will be.
Comparison of numerical predictions with laboratory measurements has
revealed that the proposed finite difference solution incorporating elastic visco-
plastic soil behaviour is appropriate for the consolidation analysis of preloading with
vertical drains. Comparison of the results indicated that the laboratory measurements
and the predictions for settlement were in a good agreement. It should be mentioned
that there have been some disparities between soil laboratory measurement and
predictions on early stages of the test, which may be the result of disturbance induced
by the removal of the pipes surrounding vertical drain and the reduced permeability
zone. Moreover, the excess pore water pressure measurements and the numerical
predictions have been in a reasonable agreement. As expected, during the dissipation
process, the further the distance of the pore water pressure transducers (PWPT) is
from the vertical drain, the higher the value of excess pore water pressure. For
instance, one day after increasing the surcharge from 200 kPa to 400 kPa, PWPT B2
with the shortest distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ʹ͹݉݉) from the vertical drain showed 51% and 55%
less excess pore water pressure in comparison with PWPT B5 with the longest
distance (‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳͲʹ݉݉) from vertical drain based on laboratory measurement and
numerical predictions, respectively. Evidently, the higher the position of PWPT
(closer to the drainage layer on top surface), the lower the values of excess pore
water pressure. For instance, one day after increasing the surcharge from 200 kPa to
400 kPa, PWPT A3 at the highest position (݄ ൌ ͸Ͷ݉݉) measured 57% and 63% less
values of excess pore water pressure in comparison with PWPT A1 with lowest
position (݄ ൌ ͳͺ݉݉) for laboratory measurement and numerical predictions,
respectively.
According to Figures 4.70 and 4.71, the creep coefficient and creep strain
limit vary with both time and vertical effective stress. In other words, lower vertical
effective stresses (or higher excess pore water pressures) induce higher creep
coefficients and creep strain limit. For example, during loading stage from 100 kPa
to 200 kPa, which was carried out using the large Rowe cell, the creep coefficient
and the creep strain limit dropped by 4% and 28%, respectively. On the other hand,
the creep coefficient and the creep strain limit increased by 4% and 224%,
respectively, during unloading from 400 kPa to 50 kPa.
210
To investigate the effect of soil disturbance and hydraulic conductivity
reduction on the excess pore water pressure dissipation and the deformation rate,
Väsby test fill was selected as the first case study. Väsby test fill was located 30km
north of Stockholm on the east cost of Sweden. In this study, six possible profiles of
the initial hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone (Cases A, B, C, D, E, F in
Figure 5.7) have been considered. Various initial hydraulic conductivity profiles in
the disturbed zone induce different values of excess pore water pressures and
effective vertical stresses at any given time in the soil profile. Consequently, not only
the consolidation process but also the creep coefficient and the creep strain limit are
influenced by the induced changes in the vertical effective stresses. As a result,
different settlement rates are observed corresponding to various permeability profiles
in the disturbed zone at any given time. Accordingly, the initial hydraulic
conductivity selection in the disturbed zone has a significant effect on selecting
unloading time and therefore on the post construction settlement.
It is noted that since permeability is a function of void ratio, the hydraulic
conductivity profile does not remain the same during the consolidation process.
Obviously, permeability ratio and its variation pattern in the disturbed zone is
considerably time dependant. It should be mentioned that regardless of the initial
hydraulic conductivity selection, the creep coefficient and creep strain limit vary
throughout loading and unloading processes while the excess pore water pressure
variation occurs.
To study the effects of the reduced shear strength in the disturbed zone on
the ground settlement and excess pore water pressure response, Skå-Edeby test fill
case study was used. Skå-Edeby test fill was located on an island about 25 kilometres
west of Stockholm. Skå-Edeby test fill contained soft soil deposit improved with
prefabricated vertical drains and preloading. Five possible profiles of the
overconsolidation ratio (shear strength) in the disturbed and transition zones (Cases
A, B, C, D, E in Figure 5.28) have been considered. In this study, reported laboratory
and field measurements and staged loading and unloading processes have been
discussed and compared with the numerical predictions.
Various OCR profiles in the disturbed and transition zones cause different
visco-plastic strain rates and creep strain limits. Therefore, the induced variations in
the visco-plastic strain rate and the creep strain limit affect the deformation. As time
211
increases, reduced shear strength has more evident effects on the predicted
settlements in the disturbed zone due to more creep contribution. Consequently, the
unloading time and also the post construction settlement are considerably influenced
by the selection of OCR profile in the disturbed and transition zones. It should be
noted that even though permeability variations have more effects on deformation
compare to shear strength variations; shear strength variations, still have notable
effects.
Installation of prefabricated vertical drains disturbs the surrounding soil,
which results in hydraulic conductivity and shear strength reduction. Different
variations of the hydraulic conductivity and the shear strength profiles in the
disturbed zone result in varying excess pore water pressure dissipation rate and
consequently varying the effective vertical stresses in the soil profile. Thus, the creep
coefficient and the creep strain limit are notably influenced inducing significant
changes in the predicted settlement rate.
Soil settlement may end under the final effective stress when the ultimate
equilibrium inside the soil structure is reached or when almost no void exists inside
the clay mass. As a result, assuming the creep coefficient to be constant may not be
ట
realistic. Consequently, the creep coefficient ( ௩ ) and visco-plastic settlement rate (݃)
should be considered to decrease with time (Figures 4.70, 5.12, 5.37, and 5.38). In
other words, an appropriate visco-plastic model should introduce a limit to settlement
with time dependant creep coefficient to predict the long term settlement accurately.
It is recommended that practicing engineers consider the effects of soil
disturbance (shear strength and permeability reduction) in the vicinity of vertical
drains combined with soil creep by applying a nonlinear elastic visco-plastic
constitutive model, while investigating the long term performance of embankments
built on the soft soil improved with prefabricated vertical drains assisted preloading.
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This research may be further expanded by conducting the following studies:
x Considering 3D consolidation equations allowing the stress distribution with

depth and horizontal distance as well as three dimensional deformations in the
212
numerical solution which results in more accurate calculation of excess pore
water pressure values and total settlement.
x Carrying out a large Rowe cell test with the reduction in the over consolidation
ratio (OCR) inside the disturbed zone. Large Rowe cell can be divided into two
parts of disturbed and intact zones. The artificial disturbed zone can be
preloaded (preconsolidated) to a lower pressure in comparison to the intact zone.
The developed numerical model can be further verified against the test results.
x Including well resistance and discharge capacity combined with soil creep to
investigate the long term performance of improved clay considering the delayed
excess pore water pressure dissipation influencing the soil creep. The deep
installation of vertical drains will increase well resistance. The well resistance
factor is generally less significant than the drain spacing and the smear effects.
However, the well resistance of long PVDs is reasonably substantial and affects
the excess pore pressure distribution and induces clogging in the drainage
system.
x Including the nonlinear creep function as a subroutine in well-established
numerical software (e.g. FISH in FLAC and UMAT in ABAQUS) so the model
will be more versatile for different and more complex geometries.
x Conducting further laboratory tests with several vertical drains to investigate the
optimum prefabricated vertical drains spacing.
x Simulating the actual embankment using finite element method or finite
difference method to conduct a quantitative evaluation of the influence of creep
effects on embankment behaviour. It should be noted that lateral deformations
are more critical than vertical deformations near the toe of the embankment.
x Considering the effects of overlapping disturbed zones to investigate the changes
in soil parameters (e.g. permeability and shear strength). Overlapping disturbed
zones might changes the soil parameters further than one individual disturbed
zone.
x Conducting field and laboratory tests to establish the real variation of the
overconsolidation ratio in the disturbed zone.
x Conducting numerical analysis considering large strain formulations resulting in
more accurate settlement predictions incorporating creep.
213
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228
APPENDIX A
DEVELOPED MATLAB CODE FOR 2D

AXISYMMETRIC EQUATION
229
clc, clear all
%
% generating mesh and calculating time steps
%
deltaz = z / (n - 1);
%
for i=1:m-1
if i < m-1
%
deltar(i) = 0.01;
%
elseif i == m-1
%
deltar(i) = 0.011;
%
end
end
%
%
for i=1:m-1
%
if i == 1
%
dist(i) = 0.0011;
%
elseif i > 1
%
dist(i) = dist(i - 1) + deltar(i);
%
end
end
%
time(1) = 0;
%
%
for t = 1:q-1
%
deltat(t) = 1e-3;
%
time(t + 1) = time(t) + deltat(t);
end
%
%
for t = 1:q
if t <= 100
%
deltats(t) = (400000 / 100) * t;
%
elseif t > 100 && t <= 72999
%
deltats(t) = 400000;
%
elseif t > 72999 && t <= 73100
%
deltats(t) = 400000 - (350000 / 100) * (t - 72999);
%
elseif t > 73100 && t <= 157999
%
deltats(t) = 50000;
%
230
elseif t > 157999 && t <= 159050
%
deltats(t) = 50000 + (50000 / 50) * (t - 157999);
%
elseif t > 159050 && t <= 161999
%
%
elseif t > 161999 && t <= 162050
%
deltats(t) = 100000 + (100000 / 50) * (t - 161999);
%
elseif t > 162050 && t <= 165499
%
%
elseif t > 165499 && t <= 165550
%
deltats(t) = 200000 + (200000 / 50) * (t - 165499);
%
elseif t > 165550
%
%
end
end
%
%
for t = 1:q
%
if t == 1
%
deltau(t) = deltats(t);
%
else
%
deltau(t) = deltats(t) - deltats(t-1);
end
end
%
%
for j = 2:n-1
for i = 2:m-1
A(i,j) = (i-1) + (j-2) * (m-2);
end
end
%
%
for j = 1:n
eszi(j) = (j - 0.5) * (gssat - gw) * deltaz;
end
%
%
% calculating initial values
%
for t = 1:q-1
%
%
%
if t == 1
231
pwp(1,1:n,2) = 0;
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
ei = 1.55;
%
et(i,j,2) = ei;
%
ez(i,j,1) = 0.0;
%
end
%
end
%
%
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
pwp(i,j,1) = deltau(t);
%
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
ezref(i,j) = lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(i,j,1)) / esz0);
%
eref(i,j) = - (1 + (ei / (ez(i,j,1) - ezref(i,j))))
/ ...
(1 - 1 / (ez(i,j,1) - ezref(i,j)));
%
crli(i,j) = eref(i,j) / (1 + ei);
%
end
end
%
%
for i = (rsmear + 1):m
for j = 1:n
%
kpr(i,j,2) = 10 ^ ((ei - kcon) / ck) * 86400;
%
kpz(i,j,2) = 0.1 * kpr(i,j,2);
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:rsmear
for j = 1:n
%
kpr(i,j,2) = kpr((rsmear + 1),j,2) / ksmear;
%
kpz(i,j,2) = kpr(i,j,2);
232
end
end
%
%
elseif t > 1
%
pwp(1,1:n,1:2) = 0;
%
pwp(1:m,1,1:2) = 0;
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
pwp(i,j,1) = pwp(i,j,1) + deltau(t);
%
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
et(i,j,1) = et(i,j,2);
et(i,j,2) = 0;
end
end
%
% calculating pore water pressure on each time step
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
ezref(i,j) = lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(i,j,1)) / esz0);
%
et(i,j,2) = et(i,j,1) - (ez(i,j,2) - ez(i,j,1)) * (1
+ ei);
%
%
eref(i,j) = - (1 + (et(i,j) / (ez(i,j,2) -
ezref(i,j)))) / ...
(1 - 1 / (ez(i,j,2) - ezref(i,j)));
%
crli(i,j) = eref(i,j) / (1 + ei);
%
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
ez(i,j,1) = ez(i,j,2);
ez(i,j,2) = 0;
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
233
kpr(i,j,1) = kpr(i,j,2);
kpr(i,j,2) = 0;
end
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
%
kpr(i,j,2) = kpr(i,j,1) * 10 ^ ((et(i,j,2) -
et(i,j,1)) / ck);
%
if i <= (rsmear)
%
kpz(i,j,2) = kpr(i,j,2);
%
elseif i > (rsmear)
%
kpz(i,j,2) = 0.1 * kpr(i,j,2);
%
end
end
end
end
%
%
%
%
for j = 1:n
mv(1,j) = kov / ((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) - pwp(1,j,1));
%
%
%
if (lov * (log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) - pwp(1,j,1)) /
esz0)) +...
(eref(1,j) / (1 + ei)))...
< ...
ez(1,j,1)
%
%
%
saayov(1,j) = 0;
%
ezlvp(1,j) = 0;
%
g(1,j) = 0;
%
else
saayov(1,j) = -0.002 * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(1,j,1)) / 1000)...
+ 0.0166;
%
ezlvp(1,j) = (eref(1,j) / (1 + ei));
%
g(1,j) = (saayov(1,j) / t0) * ...
((1 + ((ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(1,j,1))...
/ esz0) - ez(1,j,1)) / ezlvp(1,j))) ^ 2) * ...
(exp((1 / saayov(1,j)) * ...
234
((ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(1,j,1)) / esz0)...
- ez(1,j,1))) / ...
(1 + (ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(1,j,1))...
/ esz0) - ez(1,j,1)) / ezlvp(1,j))));
%
end
%
ez(1,j,2) = ez(1,j,1) - mv(1,j) * pwp(1,j,2) + mv(1,j) *...
pwp(1,j,1) + g(1,j) * deltat(t);
end
%
%
for j = 2:n-1
for i = 2:m-1
%
mv(i,j) = kov / ((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) - pwp(i,j,1));
%
%
if (lov * (log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) - pwp(i,j,1)) /
esz0)) +...
(eref(i,j) / (1 + ei)))...
< ...
ez(i,j,1)
%
g(i,j) = 0;
%
saayov(i,j) = 0;
%
ezlvp(i,j) = 0;
%
else
saayov(i,j) = - 0.002 * log10(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
pwp(i,j,1)) / 1000)...
+ 0.0166;
%
ezlvp(i,j) = (eref(i,j) / (1 + ei));
%
g(i,j) = (saayov(i,j) / t0) * ...
((1 + ((ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) -
...
pwp(i,j,1))...
/ esz0) - ez(i,j,1)) / ezlvp(i,j))) ^ 2) * ...
(exp((1 / saayov(i,j)) * ...
((ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t)) - ...
pwp(i,j,1)) / esz0)...
- ez(i,j,1)) / ...
(1 + (ez0ep + lov * log(((eszi(j) + deltats(t))...
- pwp(i,j,1))...
/ esz0) - ez(i,j,1)) / ezlvp(i,j)))));
%
end
%
if i < m-1 && j < n-1
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j)) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / (gw * (deltar(i) ^ 2))) + ...
(kpz(i,j,2) / (gw * (deltaz ^ 2))) + (mv(i,j) /
deltat(t));
235
%
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i+1,j)) = ...
- ((kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (2 * (deltar(i) ^
2))) + (1 / (4 * ...
dist(i) * deltar(i)))));
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j+1)) = ...
- (kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * (1 / (2 * (deltaz ^ 2)));
%
elseif i == m-1 && j < n-1
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j)) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / (gw * (deltar(i) ^ 2))) + ...
deltat(t))...
- ((kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (2 * (deltar(i) ^
2))) + (1 / (4 * ...
dist(i) * deltar(i)))));
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j+1)) = ...
- (kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * (1 / (2 * (deltaz ^ 2)));
%
elseif i < m-1 && j == n-1
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j)) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / (gw * (deltar(i) ^ 2))) + ...
deltat(t));
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i+1,j)) = ...
- ((kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (2 * (deltar(i) ^
2))) + (1 / (4 * ...
dist(i) * deltar(i)))))...
- (kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * (1 / (2 * (deltaz ^ 2)));
%
elseif i == m-1 && j == n-1
%
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j)) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / (gw * (deltar(i) ^ 2))) + ...
deltat(t))...
- ((kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (2 * (deltar(i) ^
2))) + (1 / (4 * ...
dist(i) * deltar(i)))))...
- (kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * (1 / (2 * (deltaz ^ 2)));
end
%
if (i-1) > 1
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i-1,j)) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (4 * dist(i) *
deltar(i))) - (1 / ...
(2 * (deltar(i) ^ 2))));
end
%
if (j-1) > 1
B(((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1)),A(i,j-1)) = ...
- (kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * (1 / (2 * (deltaz ^ 2)));
end
%
236
%
C((j-2)*(m-2)+(i-1),1) = ...
(kpr(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (deltar(i) ^ 2)) * (pwp(i-
1,j,1) - ...
2 * pwp(i,j,1) + pwp(i+1,j,1)) + (1 / (4 * dist(i) *
...
deltar(i))) * (pwp(i+1,j,1) - pwp(i-1,j,1))) + ...
(kpz(i,j,2) / gw) * ((1 / (2 * deltaz ^ 2)) *
(pwp(i,j-1,1) -...
2 * pwp(i,j,1) + pwp(i,j+1,1))) + (mv(i,j) /
deltat(t)) ...
* pwp(i,j,1) + g(i,j);
%
%
end
end
%
% calculating settlement on each time step
%
B1 = inv(B);
D = B1 * C;
%
for y = 1:(n-2)
for x = 1:(m-2)
pwp(x+1,y+1,2) = D((m-2)*(y-1)+x);
end
end
%
for j = 1:n
pwp(m,j,2) = pwp(m-1,j,2);
end
%
for i = 1:m
pwp(i,n,2) = pwp(i,n-1,2);
end
%
for j = 2:n-1
for i = 2:m-1
ez(i,j,2) = ez(i,j,1) - mv(i,j) * pwp(i,j,2) ...
+ mv(i,j) * pwp(i,j,1) + g(i,j) * deltat(t);
end
end
%
%
for i = 2:m-1
ez(i,1,2) = ez(i,2,2);
end
%
%
for i = 1:m
ez(i,n,2) = ez(i,n-1,2);
end
%
%
for j = 1:n
ez(m,j,2) = ez(m-1,j,2);
end
%
clear mv
%
237
clear g
%
%
if t == 1
pwpd = 0;
else
load(['pwpd' '.mat'],(['pwpd']))
end
%
if (t - 1) / 50 - floor((t -1) / 50) == 0
pwpd = 0;
end
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
pwpd(i,j,(t-(floor((t-1)/50)*50))) = pwp(i,j,1);
end
end
%
save(['hpwp' num2str(1+(floor((t-1)/50))) '.mat'],(['pwpd']))
save(['pwpd' '.mat'],(['pwpd']))
clear(['pwpd' '.mat'],(['pwpd']))
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
pwp(i,j,1) = pwp(i,j,2);
pwp(i,j,2) = 0;
end
end
%
%
if t == 1
ezd = 0;
else
load(['ezd' '.mat'],(['ezd']))
end
%
if (t - 1) / 50 - floor((t -1) / 50) == 0
ezd = 0;
end
%
for i = 1:m
for j = 1:n
ezd(i,j,(t-(floor((t-1)/50)*50))) = ez(i,j,1);
end
end
%
save(['hez' num2str(1+(floor((t-1)/50))) '.mat'],(['ezd']))
save(['ezd' '.mat'],(['ezd']))
clear(['ezd' '.mat'],(['ezd']))
%
%
if t == 1
saayovd = 0;
else
load(['saayovd' '.mat'],(['saayovd']))
end
%
if (t - 1) / 50 - floor((t -1) / 50) == 0
saayovd = 0;
238
end
%
for i = 1:m-1
for j = 1:n-1
saayovd(i,j,(t-(floor((t-1)/50)*50))) = saayov(i,j);
end
end
%
save(['hsaayov'num2str(1+(floor((t-1)/50)))
'.mat'],(['saayovd']))
save(['saayovd' '.mat'],(['saayovd']))
clear(['saayovd' '.mat'],(['saayovd']))
clear saayov
%
if t == 1
crlid = 0;
else
load(['crlid' '.mat'],(['crlid']))
end
%
if (t - 1) / 50 - floor((t -1) / 50) == 0
crlid = 0;
end
%
for i = 1:m-1
for j = 1:n-1
crlid(i,j,(t-(floor((t-1)/50)*50))) = crli(i,j);
end
end
%
save(['hcrli' num2str(1+(floor((t-1)/50))) '.mat'],(['crlid']))
save(['crlid' '.mat'],(['crlid']))
clear(['crlid' '.mat'],(['crlid']))
clear crli
%
clear ezlvp
%
%
clear kz
clear kr
clear eref
clear e
end
239

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Behaviour of Soft Soil Improved with Vertical Drain

Accelerated Preloading Incorporating Visco-Plastic

A thesis in fulfilment of the requirement

University of Technology, Sydney

Babak Azari, BSc Eng, MSc Eng

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Creep also known as time dependant viscous behaviour of soil is a

I gratefully acknowledge the funding received towards my PhD from Australian

My appreciation is likewise extended to UTS laboratory and workshop staff in

My gratitude also goes to my friends and fellow students at the University of

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ III

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................X

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... XVI

1.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 1

1.2 CLAY COMPRESSION............................................................................................... 2

1.2.1 Preloading and vertical drains ......................................................................... 3

1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY ................................................... 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 9

2.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 9

3 FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION FOR 2D AXISYMMETRIC CONSOLIDATION

3.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 86

4 LABORATORY EXPERIMANTS AND VERIFICATION OF THE NUMERICAL

4.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................... 106

5 EFFECTS OF SOIL DISTURBANCE DUE TO PVD INSTALLATION ON LONG TERM

5.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................... 166

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS ................................................................. 207

6.1 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 207

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 214

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................... 229

‫ݒ‬ specific volume (ͳ ൅ ݁)

As a result of increasing and continuous social and infrastructural growth,

1.2 CLAY COMPRESSION

Figure 1.1. Typical oedometer test results

1.2.1 Preloading and vertical drains

Preloading is applied prior to building of structures to improve areas with

Embankment Vertical drains

Figure 1.2. Typical cross section of vertical drain assisted preloading

1.3 HYPOTHESES TO ESTIMATE SOIL CREEP

Numerous approaches have been presented to simulate the time dependant

1.4 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

In Chapter 1, a brief introduction is presented where the aim and scope of

Following Terzaghi’s (1923) outstanding one dimensional consolidation

Log time (t)

Figure 2.1. General effect of sample thickness on the amount of primary

Because the post-construction settlement of soils such as clays, silts, and

2.2 MECHANISMS OF CREEP DEFORMATION

Unlike other materials such as metal or glass, soil is considered to be a

2.2.1 The breakdown of interparticle bonds

2.2.2 Jumping bonds

2.2.3 Sliding between particles

2.2.4 Double porosity

2.2.5 Structural viscosity

In Hypothesis A, even though creep occurs during primary consolidation

2.3.1 Creep ratio concept

2.3.1.1 Primary consolidation

ߪ௩ᇱ , due to the passage of time.

Vertical effective stress (logσ'v)

‫ݐ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ Time (t)

Primary consolidation stage Secondary compression stage

Figure 2.3. Consolidation stages due to one load increment

2.3.1.3 Deformation prediction of clays

‫݈݁݊݅݊݋݅ݏݏ݁ݎ݌݉݋ܿݐ݊ܽݐݏ݄݊݅݁ݐܱ݊ ۔‬ሺ‫ʹ ݋ݐݎ݂݁݁ݎ‬Ǥͳ͸ሻ (2.29)