Final Lab Report (Soft Copy)

CE 5740 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
M. Tech 2011-13
Structural Engineering
Report submitted by
CE11M107 RAMMURTHY ARKALA

CE11M108 REENU ANNA CHACKO
CE11M109 SAGADEVAN R
CE11M110 SHARAN B K
CE11M111 SURYA PRAKASH SARMA P
CE11M112 VIVEK D
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING LABBORATORY

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
IIT MADRAS
CONTENTS
Exp. Page
No. Date Name of the Experiment No.
1 01.08.2011 Study of Various Equipment and Instruments 01
2 08.08.2011 Casting of RC Beams for Studying Flexural, Shear and 13

Columns along with Standard Specimens such as Cylinders,
Cubes and Flexure Beams
3 24.10.2011 Demonstration of Dynamic Tests 19
4 12.09.2011 Testing of Different Reinforcement Bars Using Mechanical, 21

Electrical and Acoustical Strain Gauges
5 05.09.2011 Flexural Tests on RC Beams (Over Reinforced and Under 37

Reinforced)
6 29.08.2011 Study on Rolled Steel Joist 54
7 22.08.2011 Buckling of Steel Columns Made of Angles 66
8 10.10.2011 Test on RC Short Columns 76
9 03.10.2011 Pull-Out Bond Test on Reinforcing Bar 83
10 26.09.2011 Test on RC Beam Under Torsional Moment 92
11 19.09.2011 Shear Test on RC Beams 97
12 24.10.2011 Model Test on Plates with Different Boundary Conditions 104
13 24.10.2011 Determination of ‘E’ and ‘µ’ by Bending Test on Acrylic Flat 138
Using Electrical Strain Gauges
EXPERIMENT 1
STUDY OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

In general we have five types of measuring devices
1. Strain measurement
2. Deformation measurement
3. Slope measurement
4. Crack width measurement
5. Load measurement
1.1 Strain measurement

Strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. The most common
type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil
pattern.
Principle of strain gauge: Generate an electrical measure of strain in specimen. As
the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This
resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the
quantity known as the gauge factor which can be expressed as
R = ρL/A
We can classify strain gauges into three types
1. One element type
2. Two element type
3. Three element type
1.1.1 One Element Type

These strain gauges are also known as uniaxial strain gauges or linear strain gauges,
used to measure strains in members subjected to uniaxial force. We can also use them if
interested to calculate strain in only one direction. They are available with wide range of
resistance scale. For general purposes 120Ω strain gauges are used. We can find strains with
sensitivity 1µm/1µm.
Fig. 1.1 Single Element Strain Gauges
1
1.1.2 Two Element Type
One element strain gauges are generally used in uniaxial members whereas for
measuring strains in biaxial stress cases or the cases accomplished with shear, two element
type strain gauges are used. For calculation of biaxial strains, 60mm strain gauges with two
elements arranged in 1800 and for calculation of shear, they will be arranged in right angle, as
shown in Fig. 1.2 We can find strains with sensitivity 1µm/1µm.
Fig. 1.2 Two Element Strain Gauge

1.1.3 Three Element Type (Rosettes)
When the direction of principal stress is unknown, strain gauge rosettes are useful. These
employ multiple gages on the same film backing, oriented in different directions. The
rectangular three-gage rosette shown in Fig. 1.3 uses two gages oriented perpendicularly, and
a third gage oriented at 45˚ to the first two. We can find strains with sensitivity 1µm/1µm.
Fig. 1.3 Strain Rosette
1.2 Deformation Measurement
Deformations are of two types:

1. Lateral deformations, called as deflections
2. Longitudinal deformations, called as contraction or elongation.
2
1.2.1 Deflection Measurement
Dial gauges are generally used devices to measure lateral linear deformations. It is a
gauge consisting of a circular graduated dial and a pointer actuated by a member that contact
with the part being calibrated
Working principle: The Dial gauge indicator measures displacement at an angle of a
lever or plunger perpendicular to the axis of the indicator. A regular dial indicator measures
linear displacement along that axis.
1.2.2 Needle Types Dial Gauges

These are the type of dial gauges in which the indicator is a needle which points
reading on graduated dial. Sensitivity of these type dial gauges varies from 0.01mm to
0.001mm. The range of these type dial gauges varies from 50-100mm. these dial gauges can
be mounted either vertical or horizontal, depending on the type of measurement we are
interested.
Fig. 1.4 Needle Type Dial Gauges
1.2.3 Digital Dial Gauges

Works based on linearly variable differential transformers (LVD). The range of these
dial gauges is 25mm. can be mounted vertically or horizontally depending on the type of
measurement we are interested. Sensitivity of these dial gauges varies between 0.01mm to
0.001mm.
Fig. 1.5 Digital Dial Gauge
3
1.2.4 Circular Dial Gauge
This is a type of dial gauge, used to measure large deformations such as deformations
in tensile test of steel using UTM. Range of this dial gauge is 1 meter in linear deformations
and 0.7 meter in torsion deformation. Its sensitivity is 1mm.
Fig. 1.6 Circular Dial Gauge
1.3 Longitudinal Deformation

1.3.1 Extensometer
An extensometer is a device that is used to measure small/big changes in the length of
an object. It is useful for stress-strain measurements and tensile tests. Its name comes from
"extension-meter". It was invented by Dr. Charles Huston.
Principle of Extensometer
The electronic extensometers made according to resistance strain principle, and have
YYU, YYJ two series. It has good stability and easy to operate. It have became the essential
sensor for strain automatic testing and been widely used in various academies, scientific
research institutes, factories, laboratories. There are many different models, but the principle
depends on measuring differential movement.
Types of Extensometer
Based on the type and application, it is classified into various types. In our laboratory, we
have two types:
1. Lateral Extensometer
2. Vertical Extensometer
1. Lateral Extensometer
The electrical lateral extensometer serves for measuring of changes of thickness. It is
used in connection with a normal strain-gauge bridge. The devices consist of four strain
gauges which are place in the middle of the bar of inner frame, two on top and two on
bottom. They are wired to a full bridge. Their leads are connected with a connector that is
placed on the outer shell.
4
Fig. 1.7 lateral extensometer
1.4 Vertical Extensometer

The vertical extensometer is used for measuring of deflection in general. Typical
extensometers mount directly on the test sample, and will record elongation which is more
than enough to accurately determine the yield point and modulus of the material. If the test
sample has not failed by the time maximum elongation of the extensometer is reached, the
extensometer is removed and the machine uses crosshead movement to continue calculating
elongation.
1.4.1 Compressometer
The Compressometer is used for evaluating deformation and strain characteristics of
concrete cylinders while undergoing compression testing. The Compressometer consists of
two frames for clamping to thespecimens by means of three tightening screws with a
hardened and tapered end. These are screwed to bottom frame at an angle of 120o.
The Compressometer utilizes a calibrated spring and two indicators to effect the
measurement. The upper indicator measures the stretch of the spring and directly related to
the force applied to the spring and the lower indicator measures the changes in thickness of
the material being sampled.
Fig. 1.8 Compressometer

1.5 Inclination Measurement
Inclinometers are basically used to get the slope details of inclined surfaces.
Inclinometers are also called clinometers, tilt meters. The applications of inclinometer in
structural engineering are the performance of structures under loads, such as curvature of
beams and plates, the effects of excavation and tunnelling on existing structures, the rotation
of dams, piles, retaining walls, struts, anchors, pipelines and road grading and paving.
5
1.5.1 Optical
It is a bubble usage instrument. Optical inclinometer ranges from 0 to 360 degrees.
Readings are static and only one reading can be measured. L.C. is 0.2”
Fig. 1.9 Inclinometer
1.6 Crack Width Measurement

1.6.1 Crack-Width Microscope
Crack width measuring microscope offered by us allows image to be focused by
turning the knob at side of microscope with eyepiece graticule rotated through 360º to align
with direction of the crack under examination. The 4mm range of measurement has lower
scale divided into 0.2mm divisions. These 0.2mm divisions are further sub - divided into
0.02mm divisions.
Fig. 1.10 Crack Width Microscope

1.6.2 Features
The instrument is a microscope that has calibrated graticule (scale), When instrument
is focused on concrete surface, graticule can be seen through eyepiece (it looks as if scale is
on crack that allows user to accurately measure width of the crack), Current Codes of
practice, state that calculated maximum crack widths should not exceed certain values. This
value of 0.3 mm is 15 divisions on graticule and Microscope is very easy to use & comes
with simple instructions in wooden carrying box.
6
1.6.3 Description
Microscope is high quality product designed for measuring crack widths, both in
concrete as well as other materials. British made, this high definition microscope is connected
to adjustable light source that provides a well - illuminated image under all working
conditions
1.6.4 Specifications
Magnification x 40
Measuring range: 4 mm
Divisions: 0.02 mm
1.7 Load-Measuring Instruments and Devices

Load-measuring instruments and devices are, with few exceptions, based on the
deformation of an elastic body—a bar or a ring—and its deformation is converted by
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or optical means into a deflection of a needle or an index-
finger.
1.7.1 Hydraulic Load Cells
Fig. 1.11 Hydraulic Load Cells
Hydraulic load cells are force -balance devices, measuring weight as a change in
pressure of the internal filling fluid. In a rolling diaphragm type hydraulic load cell, a load or
force acting on a loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn compresses a filling fluid
confined within an elastomeric diaphragm chamber. As force increases, the pressure of the
7
hydraulic fluid rises. This pressure can be locally indicated or transmitted for remote
indication or control. Output is linear and relatively unaffected by the amount of the filling
fluid or by its temperature. Because this sensor has no electric components, it is ideal for use
in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and hopper
weighing. For maximum accuracy, the weight of the tank should be obtained by locating one
load cell at each point of support and summing their outputs.
1.7.2 Electric Load Cells
Fig 1.12 Electric Load Cells

The advanced technique of electrical resistance strain gauges is easily applied to load
measurements by attaching the strain gauges to a tension, bending, or torque bar. Electric
force transducers reflect state of the art sensor technology. At the same time they are easy to
use and capable of complying with a wide range of customer specifications. The measuring
procedure is based on the elongation of high quality foil strain gauges. The change of tension
resulting from the applied strain is recorded and indicated on a display unit as a force in
Newton. Besides their practical use for industrial applications, these force transducers are
also ideal for use in many areas of research, development and calibration. They can be
implemented for measuring or monitoring either static or dynamic forces. Force transducers
of this type are also particularly suitable wherever force profiles need to be documented.
Force transducers combine excellent measuring results with robustness and ease of
installation and are extremely versatile.
1.7.3 Proving Ring

A proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring in which
the deflection of the ring when loaded along a diameter is measured by means of a
micrometer screw and a vibrating reed. Proving rings come in a variety of sizes. They are
made of a steel alloy. Manufacturing consists of rough machining from annealed forgings,
heat treatment, and precision grinding to final size and finish. Proving rings can be designed
to measure either compression or tension forces. Some are designed to measure both.
The basic operation of the proving ring in tension is the same as in compression.
However, tension rings are provided with threaded bosses and supplied with pulling rods
which are screwed onto the bosses. The proving ring consists of two main elements, the ring
itself and the diameter-measuring system, shown on the right in the exploded view of a
proving ring. Forces are applied to the ring through the external bosses. The resulting change
in diameter, referred to as the deflection of the ring, is measured with a micrometer screw and
the vibrating reed mounted diametrically within the ring. The micrometer screw and the
vibrating reed are attached to the internal bosses of the ring. In modern rings, the upper and
8
lower internal and external bosses are machined as an integral part of the ring to avoid
mechanical interferences during the application of the force.To read the diameter of the ring,
the vibrating reed is set in motion by gently tapping it with a pencil. As the reed is vibrating,
the micrometer screw on the spindle is adjusted until the button on the spindle just contacts
the vibrating reed, dampening out its vibrations. When this occurs a characteristic buzzing
sound is produced. At this point a reading of the micrometer dial indicates the diameter of the
ring. The number of divisions on the micrometer dial and the graduation of the vernier index
vary by type of proving ring.
Fig. 1.13 Proving Ring
1.8 Concrete Non-Destructive Test Equipment

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science
and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing
damage. The non-destructive testing of concrete in hardened state is carried out to test the in-
situ strength of concrete structures. When construction is in progress, tests are carried out if
there are doubts on the quality of works. It is also useful in determining the strength before
false work could be removed safely or in avoiding premature loading. One clear advantages
of this method is that it can be perform without completely destroying the structures in order
to measure concrete properties. The non-destructive testing of concrete may be used during
service for instance in rehabilitation and repair works where obvious signs of structural
failures like cracks, deflection, rusting of steel bars were detected. These tests are based on
indirect measurement of concrete strength through measurement of surface hardness and
dynamic modulus of elasticity. Calibration curves relating these properties with the strength
of concrete are available. Two common NDT equipments are the following:
1.8.1 Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer

The rebound hammer is one of the commonly used equipments for measuring surface
hardness.
9
1.8.2 Fundamental Principle
The Schmidt hammer test is usually used for measuring the uniformity and relative
quality of concrete in the structure. It means that the rebound hammer is principally a surface
hardness tester. It works on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the
hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. There is little apparent theoretical
relationship between the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer.
However, within limits, empirical correlations have been established between strength
properties and the rebound number.
1.8.3 Equipment
The rebound hammer consists of a spring control hammer that slides on a plunger within a
tubular housing. When the plunger is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the mass
rebound from the plunger. It retracts against the force of the spring. The hammer impacts
against the concrete and the spring control mass rebounds, taking the rider with it along the
guide scale. By pushing a button, the rider can be held in position to allow the reading to be
taken. The distance travelled by the mass, is called the rebound number. It is indicated by the
rider moving along a graduated scale.
1.8.4 Application of Rebound Hammer

The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically- upwards or onwards or at any intermediate
angle. At each angle the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will
require separate calibration chart. Investigations have shown that there is a correlation
between the compressive strength of concrete and rebound number. But there is a wide
degree of disagreement among various research workers regarding the accuracy of estimation
of strength from rebound readings. Although the rebound hammer does provide a quick,
inexpensive method of checking the uniformity of concrete, it has some serious limitations.
The results are affected by:
1. Smoothness of the test surface
2. Size, shape and rigidity of the specimen
3. Age of the specimen
4. Surface and internal moisture conditions of concrete
5. Type of coarse aggregate
6. Type of cement
7. Carbonation of the concrete surface
1.9 Ultrasonic Concrete Testing

This category comprises the range of instruments that use sound or stress waves in
order to determine the properties of concrete and other materials non-destructively.
Ultrasonic concrete testing is based on the pulse velocity method to provide information on
the uniformity of concrete, cavities, cracks and defects. The pulse velocity in a material
depends on its density and its elastic properties which in turn are related to the quality and the
compressive strength of the concrete. It is therefore possible to obtain information about the
properties of components by sonic investigations.
10
1.10 Pulse Velocity Test
1.10.1 Fundamental Principle
A pulse of longitudinal vibrations is produced by an electro-acoustical transducer,
which is held in contact with one surface of the concrete under test. When the pulse generated
is transmitted into the concrete from the transducer using a liquid coupling material such as
grease or cellulose paste, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different
material phases within the concrete. A complex system of stress waves develops, which
include both longitudinal and shear waves, and propagates through the concrete. The first
waves to reach the receiving transducer are the longitudinal waves, which are converted into
an electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic timing circuits enable the transit time T
of the pulse to be measured.
Longitudinal pulse velocity (in km/s or m/s) is given by:
V=
Where v is the longitudinal pulse velocity, L is the path length, T is the time taken by the
pulse to traverse that length.
1.10.2 Equipment for Pulse Velocity Test

The equipment consists essentially of an electrical pulse generator, a pair of
transducers, an amplifier and an electronic timing device for measuring the time interval
between the initiation of a pulse generated at the transmitting transducer and its arrival at the
receiving transducer. Two forms of electronic timing apparatus and display are available, one
of which uses a cathode ray tube on which the received pulse is displayed in relation to a
suitable time scale, the other uses an interval timer with a direct reading digital display. The
equipment should have the following characteristics. It should be capable of measuring
transit time over path lengths ranging from about 100 mm to the maximum thickness to be
inspected to an accuracy of ±1%. Generally the transducers used should be in the range of 20
to 150 kHz although frequencies as low as 10 kHz may be used for very long concrete path
lengths and as high as 1 MHz for mortars and grouts or for short path lengths. High frequency
pulses have a well-defined onset but, as they pass through the concrete, become attenuated
more rapidly than pulses of lower frequency. It is therefore preferable to use high frequency
transducers for short path lengths and low frequency transducers for long path lengths.
Transducers with a frequency of 50 kHz to 60 kHz are suitable for most common
applications.
1.10.3 Applications
Measurement of the velocity of ultrasonic pulses of longitudinal vibrations passing
through concrete may be used for the following applications:
1. Determination of the uniformity of concrete in and between members
2. Measurement of changes occurring with time in the properties of concrete
3. Correlation of pulse velocity and strength as a measure of concrete quality.
4. Determination of the modulus of elasticity and dynamic Poisson's ratio of the
concrete.
11
The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse is influenced by those properties of concrete which
determine its elastic stiffness and mechanical strength. The variations obtained in a set of
pulse velocity measurements made along different paths in a structure reflect a corresponding
variation in the state of the concrete. When a region of low compaction, voids or damaged
material is present in the concrete under test, a corresponding reduction in the calculated
pulse velocity occurs and this enables the approximate extent of the imperfections to be
determined. As concrete matures or deteriorates, the changes, which occur with time in its
structure, are reflected in either an increase or a decrease, respectively, in the pulse velocity.
This enables changes to be monitored by making tests at appropriate intervals of time. Pulse
velocity measurements made on concrete structures may be used for quality control purposes.
In comparison with mechanical tests on control samples such as cubes or cylinders, pulse
velocity measurements have the advantage that they relate directly to the concrete in the
structure rather than to samples, which may not be always truly representative of the concrete
in situ. Ideally, pulse velocity should be related to the results of tests on structural
components and, if a correlation can be established with the strength or other required
properties of these components, it is desirable to make use of it. Such correlations can often
be readily established directly for pre-cast units and can also be found for in situ work.
Empirical relationships may be established between the pulse velocity and both the dynamic
and static elastic moduli and the strength of concrete. The latter relationship is influenced by
a number of factors including the type of cement, cement content, admixtures, type and size
of the aggregate, curing conditions and age of concrete. Caution should be exercised when
attempting to express the results of pulse velocity tests in terms of strengths or elastic
properties, especially at strengths exceeding 60 MPa.
1.10.4 Transducer Arrangement

The receiving transducer detects the arrival of that component of the pulse, which
arrives earliest. This is generally the leading edge of the longitudinal vibration. Although the
direction in which the maximum energy is propagated is at right angles to the face of the
transmitting transducer, it is possible to detect pulses, which have travelled through the
concrete in some other direction. It is possible, therefore, to make measurements of pulse
velocity by placing the two transducers on either:
1. Opposite faces (direct transmission)
2. Adjacent faces (semi-direct transmission) or
3. The same face (indirect or surface transmission).
1.10.5 Factors Influencing Pulse Velocity Measurements

1. Moisture content
2. Temperature of the concrete
3. Path length
4. Shape and size of specimen
5. Presence of reinforcing bars
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EXPERIMENT 2
CASTING OF RC BEAMS FOR STUDYING FLEXURAL, SHEAR AND COLUMNS

ALONG WITH STANDARD SPECIMENS SUCH AS CYLINDERS, CUBES AND
FLEXURE BEAMS
2.1 Objective
The main objective of this experiment is to cast different reinforced cement concrete
beams for flexural, shear and torsion tests and reinforced cement concrete column and cubes for
pull-out test and compressive test.
2.2 Materials
Cement (53grade), Sand, Coarse aggregate, Water and Reinforced bars (Fe250 & Fe415).
2.3 Equipment
Rotary Mixer machine (250 liters capacity), Needle vibrator, Weighing machine, Tape or
Scale, Spade and trowel, Trolley and Steel and wooden shuttering
2.4 Description of Work Carried Out at the Laboratory

Concrete mix proportions = 1: 2.25: 4.5
Water / cement ratio = 0.55
The various specimen sizes and the number of specimen cast are given in the following
table. The volume of concrete required for the casting of different specimen is also given. The
unit weight of reinforced concrete is taken as 2500kg/m3. The reinforcing detailing of all the
members is shown in the following figures.
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Table2.1 Details of RCC and PCC Members
Sl. No. Description Nos. Dimensions (m) Volume (m3)
1 Under reinforced beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060
2 Over reinforced beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060
3 Shear beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060
4 Torsion beam 1 2.20 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.066
5 Column 1 1.40 x 0.15 x 0.15 0.0385
6 Cubes 8 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 0.027
Total volume = 0.3115 m3

Add 15% weight for shrinkage & wastage = 0.0467 m3
Total final volume = 0.358m3
Concrete mix ratio = 1: 2.25: 4.5

Total weight of concrete for the calculated volume = 2500 x 0.358
= 895.56 kg
Total weight of cement =895.56/(1+2.25+4.5+0.55)
= 107.9 kg.
Quantities of material used are obtained as follows:

Weight of cement used for the mix = 107.9 kg
Weight of sand (Fine aggregate) used for the mix = 2.25 x 107.9 = 242.8 kg
Weight of coarse aggregate used for the mix = 4.5 x 107.9= 485.5 kg
Weight of water used for the mix = 59.34 litres
14
2-6mmφ (Hanger)
2L-6mmφ @ 80mm bars)
c/c
200mm
650mm
700mm
650mm
150mm
2L-6mmφ @ 120mm 2-10mmφ
Fig. 2.1 Under Reinforced Beam
2-6mmφ (Hanger)
2L-6mmφ @ 80mm
c/c
200mm
150mm
650mm 700mm 650mm
2-20mmφ
2L-6mmφ @ 120mm
Fig. 2.2 Over Reinforced Beam
2L-6mmφ
2L-6mmφ 2-10mmφ
125 mm c/c
90 mm c/c
200mm
150mm
3-16mmφ
No Stirrups for 600 mm 700 mm
700mm
Fig. 2.3 Shear Beam

15
6mmφ
6mmφ
150 mm c/c
80 mm c/c 200mmx200m
m
4-12mm dia 150mmx150mm

275 mm 950 mm 275 mm
Fig. 2.3 Reinforced Cement Concrete Column
Plain bar TMT bar
150 mm
150 mm
Cube (P.C.C)
150mmx150mmx150mm
Fig. 2.4 Pull Out Test
16
2.5 Experimental Procedure
The mould for the given sketch is prepared and the surface of mould is oiled. The
fabricated reinforcement as per details given is placed inside the mould. The Mix is prepared in
two batches since the capacity of mixer is only 250litres. It is well mixed in the mixer machine
for two to three minutes. Then the well mixed concrete has to be poured in each specimen
formwork and is compacted with needle vibrator adequately. After the compaction of concrete,
the surface is imparted with a smooth finish and left undisturbed for 24 hrs. After 24 hrs, the
formwork has shall be removed and the specimen is to be cured for 28 days.
Fig. 2.5 Shear Reinforcement and Cube Setup
17
Fig. 2.6 Pull-Out Test Reinforcement Setup
2.6 Result
Reinforced cement concrete beams, columns, standard concrete cubes and flexural beams
have been cast.
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EXPERIMENT 3
DEMONSTRATION OF DYNAMIC TESTS
3.1 Objective
This is a demonstration of dynamic test. The process by which the vibration

diminishes in amplitude is called damping. In damping, the energy of the vibrating
system is dissipated by various mechanisms, and often more than one mechanism may
be present at the same time.
3.2 Apparatus
Crystal type accelerometer, Inductance type accelerometer, Oscilloscope and

Clamping devices.
3.3 Theory
The characteristics of wave generated are recorded using the crystal type
accelerometer and inductance type accelerometer. When a vibrating load is applied
the response in terms of displacements, acceleration and velocity varies with time.
Dynamic test was done on a steel cantilever beam. Vibration was given to a cantilever
steel beam. It vibrates with maximum amplitude initially. Due to damping the
amplitude slowly diminishes. Impulse load was applied using hammer. Hammer was
given an impact by forcing against a hard surface & the characteristics of the wave
generated were observed.
Critical damping coefficient of a system is given by

C r = 2mω n
ω n = Natural frequency of the system
m = mass of the system
Equation of equilibrium of the system can be written in terms of damping ration as,
u&& + 2ζω n + ω n u = p(t ),
2
where,
u&& = accleration of the system
ζ = damping ratio of the system
u = displacement
ω n = natural frequency of the system
p(t) = external force
c
ζ = ,
cr
c = damping constant is a measure of the energy dissipated in a cycle of free vibration

or force harmonic vibration, but damping ratio of the system depends on its mass and
stiffness. The damping ratio of the system can be found out by using method of
logarithmic decrement.
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Logarithmic decrement is given by
 ui  2πζ
δ = ln  =
 u i +1  1−ζ 2
Where, u i , u i +1are two sucessive peak values
since 1 − ζ 2 is avery small, δ = 2π ,
if over n cycles th amplitude reduces from u i to u n +1 then dampinf ratio is given by
1  u 
ζ = ln  1 
2nπ  u n +1 
The amplitudes can be substituted in terms of voltage output i.e., v1 and v2
Sample out put taken from the oscilloscope for a vibrating beam is depicted and
damping ratio is calculated as below:
3.4 Observation
Damping Measurement in Cantilever Steel Beam

Difference in Potential at Potential at Difference No. of Natural
st th
Time Interval 1 Amplitude n Amplitude in potential Cycles Frequency
∇t (s) v1 (mv) v2 (mv) ∇v(mv) (n) =n*1/∇t(mHz)
12.60 68 8 60 6 479.82
Damping Ratio =0.0560=5.6%
3.5 Result
The damping ratio for steel as calculated is 5.6%.
3.6 Conclusion
According to IS:1893-2002, the damping ratio varies between 2 to 5% for
steel. We experimentally obtained the damping ratio for steel as 5.6% which is
comparable.
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EXPERIMENT 4
TESTING OF DIFFERENT REINFORCEMENT BARS USING

MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND ACOUSTICAL STRAIN GAUGES
4.1 Objective
The aim of the experiment is to determine the Modulus of Elasticity and

Poisson’s Ratio of steel used in reinforcement bars. The effectiveness of various strain
gauges: Mechanical, Electrical and Acoustical in strain measurement is also studied.
4.2 Apparatus
Losenhausen Universal Testing Machine of 40 ton capacity, Mechanical Strain

Gauge (Huggenberger Extensometer) , Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges,
Acoustical Strain Gauge
4.3 Specimens
High tensile steel rod of 25mm diameter, HYSD steel rods of 10mm, 12mm
and 16mm diameter, Mild steel rod of 6mm diameter
4.4 Theory
4.4.1 Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity is the mathematical description of an object or

substance's tendency to be deformed elastically or non-permanently when a force is
applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress-
strain curve in the elastic deformation region.
Axial Stress
Elastic Modulus (E) =
Axial Strain
Stress is the force causing the deformation divided by the area to which the
force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change caused by the stress to the
original state of the object.
4.4.2 Poisson's Ratio
Poisson's ratio (µ) is the ratio of the relative contraction strain, or transverse
strain, normal to the applied load, divided by the relative extension strain, or axial
strain in the direction of the applied load. When the material is compressed or
elongated along the axial direction:
Lateral strain
Poisson's ratio (µ) =
Axial strain
21
4.4.3 Strain Gauges
Strain gauges are used to measure strains at a point. The principles involved in
strain gauge construction can be used as a basis for classifying the gauges into
following groups:
1. Mechanical strain gauge

2. Electrical strain gauge
3. Acoustical strain gauge
4. Optical Strain Gauge
1. Mechanical Strain Gauge
The gage size for a mechanical strain gage is characterized by the distance
between the two knife edges in contact with the specimen (the gage length) and by the
width of the movable knife edge (the gage width). Huggenberger extensometer is the
most popular and one of the most accurate mechanical strain gages in use today. An
extensometer is equipped with knife edges and a wire spring that forces the knife
edges into tension. Elongation or compression of the specimen causes movement of
arms. As the arms move, they bend a flexural member, which is the sensing element,
also provides good stability and requires low actuating forces.
The extensometer provides an accurate response to specimen strain with
maximum non-linearity of 0.3 percent of range and maximum hysteretic of only 0.1
percent of range. This strain gauge measures strain under static or gradually varying
loading conditions. Care should also be exercised in keeping the instrument in
calibration.
In this experiment extensometers have been used, which gives the extensions
in mm (up to a least count of 0.01mm) and from which strains were calculated by
dividing the extension by inter-distance of jaws.
2. Electrical Strain Gauge
The electrical strain gauges are more accurate, lower in cost, and easier to use.
The most important electrical strain gauge is resistance type(ERSG). Two less
commonly employed electrical strain gauges are capacitance type and the inductance
type.
The principle of electrical strain gauge is based on the measurement of
changes in resistance, capacitance or inductance that is proportional to the strain
transferred from the specimen to the basic gauge element. The electrical resistance
strain gauge approaches the requirements for an optimum system. It exhibits the ideal
characteristics for range, sensitivity, gauge length and precision. Electrical-resistance
strain gages are widely used in stress-analysis work. ERSG are also widely used as
sensors in transducers to measure strain, displacement, load, torque, pressure and
acceleration. Resistance of the wire changes as a function of the strain. Resistance of a
wire increases with increasing strain and decreases with decreasing strain. Different
materials have different sensitivities. Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure the
resistance changes accurately. Bonded-foil gauge monitored with a wheat stone
bridge has become a highly perfected measure system.
For the capacitor gauge, the sensitivity and accuracy are quite sufficient for
application to the general problem of determining strain distributions. The primary
22
disadvantage is its relatively large size and its mechanical attachment through knife
edges. The differential transformer system is a type of inductance strain gauge. It is
mechanically simple and is a rather rugged electrical pickup. Its use in strain gauge
work has been limited because of the mechanical attachment problem. Its operation
can be severely affected by the presence of metal masses in the vicinity and by stray
magnetic fields.
3. Acoustical Strain Gauge
These have been largely supplemented by the electrical strain gauge. They are
unique among all forms of strain gauges in view of their long-term stability and
freedom from drift over extended time periods.
The strain measuring system is based on the use of two identical gauges
identified as a test gauge and reference gauge. It has a common knife-edge mounting
provision. One knife-edge is fixed, mounted to the main body, while the second knife-
edge is mounted in a bearing suspension. One end of a steel wire is attached to the
movable knife-edge while the other end of the wire passes through a small hole in a
fixed knife-edge and is attached to a tension screw. The movable knife-edge is
connected to a second tension screw by a leaf spring. This design permits to adjust
the initial tension in the wire.The wire passes between the pole pieces of two small
electromagnets. One of the magnets is used to maintain the wire vibrating at its
natural frequency; other one is employed to pick up the frequency of the system.
Electrically both the magnets operate together in that the signal from the pick up
magnet is amplified and fed back into the driving magnet to keep the string excited in
its natural frequency.
The reference gage is identical to the test gage except that the knife-edges are
removed and a micrometer is used to tension the wire. A helical spring is employed in
series with the wire to permit larger rotation of the micrometer head for small changes
of stress in the wire. Test gage is mounted and adjusted along with reference gage.
Both gages are energized. The wires emit musical notes. If the frequency in two gages
is not the same, beats will occur. The micrometer setting is varied on the reference
gage until the beat frequency decreases to zero. The reading on the micrometer is then
taken and the strain is applied to the test gage. The change in tension in the wire of the
test gage produces a change in frequencies, and it is necessary to adjust the reference
gage until the beats are eliminated. The new micrometer reading is proportional to
the strain.
The sensitivity of this instrument is very high with possible determinations of
displacements of the order of 0.1and the gauge is temperature-sensitive unless the
thermal coefficients of expansion of the base and wire are closely matched over the
temperature range encountered during the test. The force required to drive the
transducer is relatively large ,and it should therefore not be employed in systems
where the large driving force will be detrimental.
4. Optical Strain Gauge

Optical strain gages are very similar to mechanical strain gages in that they
incorporate knife edge attachments – one fixed and one which moves & rotates. The
chief difference between the two gages is in the lever system, where the optical gage
substitutes light rays for the mechanical levers. This substitution decreases the size
and inertia of the device appreciably and permits the optical gages to be employed at
low frequencies in dynamic applications. One of the most reliable and widely
23
employed optical strain gages is the Tuckerman model. It employs a three mirror
system. Its sensitivity is 2µin/in and the accuracy is quoted at 0.1% of full scale
deflections. The range varies from 0.0002 to 0.08. The applications of the optical
strain gages involve continuous lifetime health monitoring of bridges, dams,
buildings, tunnels, ships, aircraft, trains, and other complex structures, measurement
of strain on a structure’s surface and experimental mechanics evaluations requiring
many sensors.
4.5 Procedure
4.5.1 HYSD Rod
Find the weight and length of the rod and using the density value calculate
diameter of the bar. The deflections are measured using mechanical strain gauge. The
specimen has been fixed in the UTM by using proper grips. After fixing the specimen
in UTM the extensometer is fixed to the specimen. Load is applied at an interval of
0.5tons for 16mm diameter rod and 0.25tons for 10mm diameter rod. Extensometer
readings were noted down for every increment in load value until failure of the
specimen. Sometimes the starting time of yielding can be identified by jerks while
loading. The same process is repeated for all HYSD steel rods.
4.5.2 Mild Steel Rod 6mm Diameter
Find the weight and length of the rod and using the density value calculate
diameter of the bar. The rod is tested using UTM and strains are measured with a
mechanical strain gauge. The specimen is fixed in the UTM by using proper grips.
After fixing the specimen in UTM the extensometer is fixed to the specimen. Load is
applied at an interval of 0.1tons. Extensometer readings are noted down for every
increment of load value until failure of the specimen. The data is tabulated.
24
4.6 Observations and Calculations
Table 4.1 Test Data for 25mm dia High Tensile Steel Rod
Electrical Strain Gauge Mean Mean Longitudinal Lateral

Load Load Stress
Readings Of Of Strain Strain
(T) (N) (Mpa)
1 and 3 2 and 4 (µm/m) (µm/m)
1 2 3 4
0 0 0.0000 -88 25.1 28.5 -11.6 -29.75 6.75 0 0
0.5 4905 9.9924 -43.5 16.8 76.5 -22 16.5 -2.6 46.25 9.35
1 9810 19.9848 2 6.4 130.8 -34.1 66.4 -13.85 96.15 20.6
1.5 14715 29.9772 52 -2.9 181.7 -44.7 116.85 -23.8 146.6 30.55
2 19620 39.9696 100.6 -13.8 232.8 -57.3 166.7 -35.55 196.45 42.3
2.5 24525 49.9620 148.4 -24.9 284.9 -70.4 216.65 -47.65 246.4 54.4
3 29430 59.9543 198.3 -34.6 336.6 -82.2 267.45 -58.4 297.2 65.15
3.5 34335 69.9467 242.2 -44.8 385.6 -95.7 313.9 -70.25 343.65 77
4 39240 79.9391 288.6 -57 440.5 -109.5 364.55 -83.25 394.3 90
4.5 44145 89.9315 336.8 -67.1 493.2 -122.2 415 -94.65 444.75 101.4
5 49050 99.9239 384.1 -78.4 543.2 -135.9 463.65 -107.15 493.4 113.9
4.5 44145 89.9315 326.8 -68.8 484.6 -122.4 405.7 -95.6 445.95 102.35
4 39240 79.9391 277.7 -53 430.2 -106.2 353.95 -79.6 394.2 86.35
3.5 34335 69.9467 227.3 -40.3 383.6 -92.5 305.45 -66.4 345.7 73.15
3 29430 59.9543 180.5 -29.3 340.5 -80.5 260.5 -54.9 300.75 61.65
2.5 24525 49.9620 132.5 -18.4 288.6 -68.8 210.55 -43.6 250.8 50.35
2 19620 39.9696 81.3 -5.3 239.7 -53.63 160.5 -29.465 200.75 36.215
1.5 14715 29.9772 33.5 5.9 191.7 -40.5 112.6 -17.3 152.85 24.05
1 9810 19.9848 -13.5 18.5 145.5 -27.5 66 -4.5 106.25 11.25
0.5 4905 9.9924 -60.6 30.06 92.9 -13.8 16.15 8.13 56.4 7.65
0 0 0.0000 -101 16.7 20.5 -3.5 -40.25 6.6 0 0
25
Fig. 4.3 Stress-Strain Curve For 25 mm Rod
Fig. 4.4 Lateral Strain Vs Longitudinal Strain Curve For 25 mm Rod
26
Table 4.2 Actual Diameter of Steel Rods
Nominal diameter (mm) 10 12 16 20

Weight (kg) 0.171 0.648 1.074 1.752
Length (mm) 705 705 700 700
Actual diameter (mm) 6.28 12.22 15.8 20.2
Table 4.3 Test Data for 6 mm dia MS rod
Extensometer
Load (ton) Load (N) Stress (MPa) Reading Extension Strain
0 0 0.00 734 0 0
0.1 981 31.67 778 44 0.00022
0.2 1962 63.33 780 46 0.00023
0.3 2943 95.00 794 60 0.0003
0.4 3924 126.66 814 80 0.0004
0.5 4905 158.33 842 108 0.00054
0.6 5886 189.99 862 128 0.00064
0.7 6867 221.66 890 156 0.00078
0.8 7848 253.32 912 178 0.00089
0.9 8829 284.99 938 204 0.00102
1 9810 316.66 957 223 0.001115
Yield stress, fy = 322.86 N/mm2

Ultimate stress,fu = 462.14 N/mm2
Table 4.4 Elongation Measurement for 6 mm dia MS rod
Gauge Length(mm) Elongated Length(mm) %Elongation

20 28 40
30 40.76 35.867
40 53.24 33.1
50 65.96 31.92
60 76.68 27.8
70 87.64 25.2
80 101.02 26.275
27
Fig. 4.5 Stress Strain Curve for 6mm dia MS Rod
Fig. 4.6 %Elongation Vs Gauge Length Curve for 6mm dia MS Rod
28
Table 4.5 Test Data for 12 mm dia HYSD rod
Extensometer
Load (ton) Load (N) Stress (Mpa) Reading Extension Strain
0 0 0.00 -569 0 0
0.2 1962 16.73 -544 25 0.000125
0.4 3924 33.46 -524 45 0.000225
0.6 5886 50.19 -514 55 0.000275
0.8 7848 66.92 -502 67 0.000335
1 9810 83.65 -488 81 0.000405
1.2 11772 100.38 -478 91 0.000455
1.4 13734 117.10 -464 105 0.000525
1.6 15696 133.83 -455 114 0.00057
1.8 17658 150.56 -444 125 0.000625
2 19620 167.29 -431 138 0.00069
2.2 21582 184.02 -415 154 0.00077
2.4 23544 200.75 -409 160 0.0008
2.6 25506 217.48 -395 174 0.00087
2.8 27468 234.21 -381 188 0.00094
3 29430 250.94 -374 195 0.000975
3.2 31392 267.67 -362 207 0.001035
3.4 33354 284.40 -354 215 0.001075
3.6 35316 301.13 -342 227 0.001135
3.8 37278 317.85 -330 239 0.001195
4 39240 334.58 -320 249 0.001245
4.2 41202 351.31 -308 261 0.001305
4.4 43164 368.04 -299 270 0.00135
4.6 45126 384.77 -290 279 0.001395
4.8 47088 401.50 -285 284 0.00142
5 49050 418.23 -277 292 0.00146
5.2 51012 434.96 -271 298 0.00149
5.4 52974 451.69 -252 317 0.001585
5.6 54936 468.42 -240 329 0.001645
5.8 56898 485.15 -231 338 0.00169
Yield stress, fy = 501.88 N/mm2

Ultimate stress,fu = 600.58 N/mm2
29
Table 4.6 Elongation Measurement for 12 mm dia HYSD Rod

20 29.9 49.5
40 50.2 25.5
60 71.4 19
80 92.36 15.45
100 114.4 14.4
Fig. 4.7 Stress Strain Curve for 12mm dia HYSD Rod
30
Fig. 4.8 %Elongation vs Gauge Length Curve for 12mm dia HYSD Rod
Table 4.7 Test Data for 16 mm dia HYSD Rod
Extensometer
Load (ton) Load (N) Stress (Mpa) Reading Extension Strain
0 0 0.00 -374 0 0
0.5 4905 25.02 -344 30 0.00015
1 9810 50.03 -314 60 0.0003
1.5 14715 75.05 -302 72 0.00036
2 19620 100.07 -285 89 0.000445
2.5 24525 125.08 -275 99 0.000495
3 29430 150.10 -254 120 0.0006
3.5 34335 175.12 -241 133 0.000665
4 39240 200.13 -224 150 0.00075
4.5 44145 225.15 -209 165 0.000825
5 49050 250.17 -191 183 0.000915
5.5 53955 275.18 -174 200 0.001
6 58860 300.20 -164 210 0.00105
6.5 63765 325.22 -144 230 0.00115
7 68670 350.23 -121 253 0.001265
7.5 73575 375.25 -111 263 0.001315
8 78480 400.27 -90 284 0.00142
8.5 83385 425.28 -74 300 0.0015
9 88290 450.30 -58 316 0.00158
9.5 93195 475.31 -49 325 0.001625
31
Yield stress, fy =470.31MPa
Ultimate stress,fu =575.38MPa

20 30.52 52.6
40 53.72 34.3
60 78.2 30.333
80 100.62 25.775
100 124.18 24.18
32
Table 4.9 Test Data for 20 mm dia HYSD Rod
Stress Extensometer
Load (ton) Load (N) (Mpa) Reading Extension Strain
0 0 0.00 -604 0 0
1 9810 316.53 -580 24 0.00012
2 19620 633.07 -552 52 0.00026
3 29430 949.60 -535 69 0.00035
4 39240 1266.13 -512 92 0.00046
5 49050 1582.67 -488 116 0.00058
6 58860 1899.20 -465 139 0.0007
7 68670 2215.73 -444 160 0.0008
8 78480 2532.27 -422 182 0.00091
9 88290 2848.80 -393 211 0.00106
10 98100 3165.33 -375 229 0.00115
11 107910 3481.87 -351 253 0.00127
12 117720 3798.40 -328 276 0.00138
13 127530 4114.93 -318 286 0.00143
14 137340 4431.47 -285 319 0.0016
15 147150 4748.00 -269 335 0.00168
16 156960 5064.53 -238 366 0.00183
17 166770 5381.07 -199 405 0.00203
18 176580 5697.60 -144 460 0.0023
19 186390 6014.13 -84 520 0.0026
33
Yield stress, fy = 287.75MPa
Ultimate stress,fu = 352.03MPa
20 28.02 40.1
40 50.38 25.95
60 71.6 19.33
80 92.9 16.125
100 113.22 13.22
34
Table 4.11 Percentage of Elongation from the Graph of %Elongation vs Gauge Length
Initial gauge length,

Bar Diameter (mm) 5.65x (mm) % Elongation
6-MS 31.5 35
12-HYSD 61.2 18
16-HYSD 79.1 26
20-HYSD 100 13
4.7 Results
Modulus of elasticity of 25 mm dia high tensile steel rod

From acoustical gauge = 1.0x105 N/mm2
From electrical gauge = 2.03x105 N/mm2
Poisson Ration of 25 mm dia high tensile steel rod = 0.234
Modulus of elasticity of 20 mm dia HYSD steel rod = 2.61x105 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity of 6 mm dia MS steel rod = 2.77x105 N/mm2
35
4.8 Inference
The modulus of elasticity calculated using electrical resistance gauge confirms closely
to the actual value 2 x105 MPa. This shows that the electrical resistance strain gauge is more
efficient than other gauges like acoustical gauge. The erroneous results for the HYSD bars
could be due to jerking of the fixity conditions of the testing machine. Percentage of
elongation is decreases when diameter of the bars increases.
36
EXPERIMENT 5
FLEXURAL TESTS ON RC BEAMS
(OVER REINFORCED AND UNDER REINFORCED)
5.1 Objective
To study the flexural behaviour of under and over-reinforced RC beams

subjected to pure bending moment under four points loading.
5.2 Apparatus
Dial gauge (3 nos.), DEMECH gauges, Microscope (to measure crack width),
Meter scale and Loading frame.
5.3 Theory
The general behaviour of reinforced concrete beam sections under flexure is

studied in the experiment. The behaviour of the section at various stages of loading is
studied – from the initial uncracked phase to the final (ultimate) condition at collapse
(due to the flexural resistance capacity of the section being exceeded). When we
consider a simply supported beam subjected to gradually increasing load through two
point loading system, the central segment of the beam is subjected to pure flexure. In
the early stages of loading, the applied moment is less than the cracking moment Mcr
and the maximum tensile stress fct in the concrete is less than its flexural tensile
strength fcr. This phase is the uncracked phase, wherein the entire section is effective
in resisting the moment and is under stress. As the applied moment exceeds Mcr, the
maximum tensile in concrete exceeds the flexural tensile strength of concrete and the
section begins to crack on the tension side. The cracks are initiated in the bottom
(tensile) fibres of the beam, and with increasing loading, widen and propagate
gradually towards the neutral axis.
5.3.1 Flexural Behaviour of Under-Reinforced Section
An ‘under-reinforced section’ is the one in which the area of tension steel is such that
as the ultimate limit state is approached, the yield strain in steel is reached before the
37
ultimate compressive strain is reached in the extreme fibre of concrete. On further
increasing the load, the strain in steel increases much faster than the strain in concrete.
As the stress in steel remains nearly constant, the neutral axis shifts upwards in order
to maintain equilibrium. So the strain in concrete increases slowly. Finally failure
occurs when concrete reaches its maximum strain limit. Therefore excessive
deflection and wider cracks are produced before failure. Under reinforced section is
always desirable as it gives sufficient warning before failure. Fig. 5.1 shows a typical
moment curvature relation for under reinforced beam.
Moment (M)
Secondary compression
failure
Mu
My Yield of tension steel
Mc First crack
Curvature (φ)
Fig. 5.1 Moment – Curvature Relation for Under-Reinforced Beam
5.3.2 Flexural Behaviour of Over-Reinforced Section

In over reinforced section the reinforcement provided is such that at the ultimate limit
state the concrete reaches its ultimate compressive strain before the steel reaches its
yield strain. On increasing the load, the strain in steel increases much rapid than the
strain in concrete. So in order to maintain equilibrium the neutral axis shifts
downwards increasing the compression area. So when the concrete reaches its
ultimate strain, the steel is well within the elastic limit and the failure occurs by
crushing of concrete in the compression zone. Such a failure is known as compression
38
failure. The deflections will be less as the steel does not yield. The crack width is also
very small. The failure occurs suddenly without warning. Hence over reinforced
sections are avoided in practice. Fig. 5.2 shows a typical moment curvature relation
for over-reinforced beam
Moment (M)
Compression Failure
Mu
First crack
Mcr
Curvature (φ)
Fig. 5.2 Moment – Curvature Relation for Over-Reinforced Beam
5.4 Experimental Procedure

The experimental setup is as shown in fig 3.The load is applied in the interval
of 250 kg for under reinforced section. Deflections are measured with the help of dial
gauges at the centre and under load points. After the cracking, the load is applied at
the interval of 500kg. Strains are measured with the help of DEMEC (demountable
mechanical strain gauge) strain gauges. The crack width is measured with the help of
a microscope. The results are shown in tabulated form. For the over reinforced beam,
the load increment is in the range of 500kg upto cracking. After that the load
increment is 1000kg. The procedure is continued till the beams fail under the applied
load. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5.3.
39
1
2 Test specimen
3
4 DEMEC Points
5
Dial gauges 1,2 & 3
Fig. 5.3 Experimental Setup
5.5 Calculations
5.5.1 Cube Strength Calculation
Failure Load Compressive

Specimen Size (mm) Area (mm2)
(tonnes) Strength (N/mm2)
Cube1 150x150 22500 82 35.75
37.06
Cube2 150x150 22500 85
Avg. Comp. Strength fck=36.405N/mm2
5.5.2 Calculation of Cracking Moment

Modulus of rupture = 0.7 x √fck
= 0.7 x √ 36.405
fcr = 4.22 N/mm2.
Cross sectional dimensions of the beams are 150mm x 200mm
Cracking moment Mcr = fcr x I / y
40
= 4.22x 150x2003/12/(200/2)
Mcr = 4.22 kNm
Theoretical load corresponding to first crack= Mcr / a = 4.22/0.6
= 7.04 kN
Total load (2P) = 2 x 7.04
= 14.08 kN = 1.435 tonnes
5.5.3 Calculation of Ultimate Moment of Resistance

Taking effective depth as 175mm.
Neutral axis depth for balanced section,
xu,lim = 0.0035*175/(0.0055+0.87*fy/E)
= 83.844mm
For Under Reinforced Section

Equating total compressive force and tensile force,
0.54 fck b xu = fy Ast
0.54*36.405*150*xu = 415*(π/4)*102*2
Solving for xu, we get xu =22.106 mm
This xu is lesser than xu,lim. Hence the section is under reinforced.
Ultimate moment of resistance, Mu = 415*(π/4)*102*2*(175-0.42*22.106)
=10.8 kNm
Single load (P) = Mcr/a = 10.92/0.6 = 18.005 kN
Total theoretical ultimate load (2P) = 18.005*2 = 36.009 kN
=3.67 tonnes.
Experimental ultimate load (2P) = 5.1tonnes.
For Over Reinforced Section

Equating total compressive force and tensile force,
0.54 fck b xu = fy Ast
0.54*36.405*150*xu = 415*(π/4)*202*2
Solving for xu, we get xu = 88.43 mm
This xu is greater than xu,lim. Hence the section is over reinforced.
Ultimate moment of resistance,
Mu = 0.54*36.405*150*88.43*(175-0.42*88.43)
41
= 35.95 kNm
Single load (P) = Mcr/a = 35.95/0.6 = 59.91kN
Total theoretical ultimate load (2P) = 59.91*2 = 119.83 kN
=12.214tonnes.
Experimental ultimate load (2P) = 12.7tonnes.
To calculate the curvature,
εcu
εst
Curvature, φ = (εcu+ εst)/depth of beam
5.6 Observations
5.6.1 Under Reinforced Section
Table 5.1 Dial Gauge Readings for Under Reinforced Section
Dial Gauge Reading Deflection (mm)

Load Left (L/3) Centre(L/2) Right(L/3) Left (L/3) Centre(L/2) Right(L/3)
0 916 643 1812 0 0 0
250 929 658 1826 0.13 0.15 0.14
500 939 669 1835 0.23 0.26 0.23
750 958 690 1855 0.42 0.47 0.43
1000 980 712 1875 0.64 0.69 0.63
1250 1023 758 1914 1.07 1.15 1.02
1500 1064 810 1950 1.48 1.67 1.38
1750 1125 880 2011 2.09 2.37 1.99
2000 1177 935 2060 2.61 2.92 2.48
2500 1260 1030 2155 3.44 3.87 3.43
3000 1350 1138 2255 4.34 4.95 4.43
3500 1458 1250 2348 5.42 6.07 5.36
4000 1548 1354 2428 6.32 7.11 6.16
42
Table 5.2 DEMEC Gauge Readings for Under Reinforced Section
Strain Gauge Reading (at Depth of Beam)

Load (kg) 100 mm (1) 50 mm (2) 0 mm (3) -50mm (4) -100 mm (5)
0 1842 1842 1827 1737 1848
250 1844 1847 1828 1736 1847
500 1846 1844 1827 1734 1843
750 1853 1847 1825 1725 1831
1000 1861 1850 1818 1713 1811
1250 1874 1850 1806 1685 1769
1500 1881 1852 1797 1661 1636
1750 1896 1858 1775 1623 1685
2000 1904 1860 1762 1592 1644
2500 1925 1865 1736 1537 1563
3000 1941 1866 1697 1577 1586
3500 1959 1867 1666 1419 1406
4000 1975 1869 1642 1364 1335
Table 5.3 Strain and Curvature Values for Under Reinforced Section
Load Strain (at Depth of Beam) Depth of N.A. Moment Curvature

(kg) 100 50 0 -50 -100 (mm) (N-m) (Φ)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00000
250 -0.001 -0.003 -0.001 0.001 0.001 123.78 735.75 0.00001
500 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.002 0.003 93.72 1471.50 0.00002
750 -0.006 -0.003 0.001 0.007 0.009 81.56 2207.25 0.00008
1000 -0.010 -0.004 0.005 0.014 0.020 73.04 2943.00 0.00015
1250 -0.017 -0.004 0.011 0.030 0.043 62.59 3678.75 0.00030
1500 -0.021 -0.005 0.016 0.044 0.115 58.33 4414.50 0.00068
1750 -0.029 -0.009 0.028 0.066 0.088 60.38 5150.25 0.00059
2000 -0.034 -0.010 0.036 0.083 0.110 59.08 5886.00 0.00072
2500 -0.045 -0.012 0.050 0.115 0.154 58.27 7357.50 0.00100
3000 -0.054 -0.013 0.071 0.092 0.142 59.50 8829.00 0.00098
3500 -0.064 -0.014 0.088 0.183 0.239 55.14 10300.50 0.00151
4000 -0.072 -0.015 0.101 0.215 0.278 54.68 11772.00 0.00175
43
Table 5.4 Load vs Crack Width for Under Reinforced Section
Load (kg) Crack Width (div) Crack Width (mm)

0 0 0
1500 2 0.05
2000 3 0.075
3000 5 0.125
Fig. 5.4 Load vs Deflection Curve for Under Reinforced Section
44
3500
3000
2500
2000
Load (kg)
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Crack Width (mm)
Fig. 5.5 Load vs Crack Width Curve for Under Reinforced Section
Fig. 5.6 Moment vs Curvature Relationship for Under Reinforced Section
45
Fig. 5.7 Depth vs Strain Relationship for Under Reinforced Section
at Various Load
5.6.2 Over Reinforced Section
Table 5.5 Dial Gauge Readings for Over Reinforced Section
Load Dial Gauge Deflection (mm)

(kg) Left (L/3) Centre (L/2) Right (L/3) Left (L/3) Centre (L/2) Right (L/3) Average
0 917 906 806 0 0 0 0
500 942 936 832 0.25 0.3 0.26 0.275
1000 982 982 872 0.65 0.76 0.66 0.705
1500 1017 1022 910 1 1.16 1.04 1.08
2000 1062 1067 961 1.45 1.61 1.55 1.53
2500 1100 1105 1000 1.83 1.99 1.94 1.91
3000 1135 1145 1042 2.18 2.39 2.36 2.285
3500 1177 1188 1087 2.6 2.82 2.81 2.71
4000 1225 1243 1139 3.08 3.37 3.33 3.225
4500 1262 1290 1185 3.45 3.84 3.79 3.645
5000 1300 1330 1220 3.83 4.24 4.14 4.035
5500 1400 1441 1315 4.83 5.35 5.09 5.09
6000 1486 1535 1371 5.69 6.29 5.65 5.99
7000 1550 1610 1416 6.33 7.04 6.1 6.685
8000 1616 1700 1501 6.99 7.94 6.95 7.465
9000 1710 1800 1649 7.93 8.94 8.43 8.435
10000 1845 1950 1770 9.28 10.44 9.64 9.86
46
Table 5.6 DEMEC Gauge Readings for Over Reinforced Section
Strain Gauge Reading(at Depth of Beam)

Load (kg) 100mm 50mm 0mm -50mm -100mm
0 1880 1778 1874 1871 1721
500 1885 1779 1873 1863 1719
1000 1900 1792 1872 1857 1698
1500 1912 1802 1872 1843 1674
2000 1923 1807 1866 1828 1650
2500 1932 1805 1858 1803 1620
3000 1946 1811 1859 1799 1601
3500 1956 1812 1853 1781 1573
4000 1973 1822 1849 1760 1539
4500 1991 1832 1849 1749 1514
5000 2004 1839 1842 1735 1493
6000 2040 1855 1831 1705 1434
6500 2061 1868 1835 1690 1404
7000 2089 1876 1832 1675 1371
8000 2120 1899 1832 1659 1325
9000 2170 1925 1829 1625 1256
10000 2250 1970 1831 1595 1186
Table 5.7 Strain and Curvature Values for Over Reinforced Section
Load Strain (at Depth of Beam) Depth of N.A. Moment Curvature

kg 100 50 0 -50 -100 (mm) (N-m) (Φ)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.00000
500 -0.003 -0.001 0.001 0.004 0.001 92.16 1471.50 0.00002
1000 -0.011 -0.008 0.001 0.007 0.013 94.65 2943.00 0.00012
1500 -0.017 -0.013 0.001 0.015 0.027 90.18 4414.50 0.00022
2000 -0.023 -0.016 0.004 0.023 0.041 84.16 5886.00 0.00032
2500 -0.028 -0.015 0.009 0.036 0.059 75.18 7357.50 0.00043
3000 -0.035 -0.019 0.008 0.038 0.070 78.15 8829.00 0.00052
3500 -0.040 -0.019 0.011 0.048 0.086 74.64 10300.50 0.00063
4000 -0.049 -0.025 0.013 0.059 0.106 75.22 11772.00 0.00078
4500 -0.059 -0.030 0.013 0.065 0.120 77.46 13243.50 0.00090
5000 -0.066 -0.034 0.017 0.073 0.132 77.31 14715.00 0.00099
6000 -0.085 -0.043 0.023 0.089 0.167 77.69 17658.00 0.00126
6500 -0.096 -0.051 0.021 0.097 0.184 79.48 19129.50 0.00140
7000 -0.111 -0.055 0.022 0.105 0.203 80.24 20601.00 0.00157
8000 -0.128 -0.068 0.022 0.113 0.230 82.17 23544.00 0.00179
9000 -0.154 -0.083 0.024 0.131 0.270 83.35 26487.00 0.00212
10000 -0.197 -0.108 0.023 0.148 0.311 87.01 29430.00 0.00254
47
Table 5.8 Load vs Crack Width for Over Reinforced Section
Load (kg) Crack Width (div) Crack Width (mm)
5000 2 0.05
6000 3 0.075
7000 4 0.1
Fig. 5.8 Load vs Deflection Curve for Over Reinforced Section
48
8000
7000
Load (kg)
6000
5000
4000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Crack Width (mm)
Fig. 5.9 Load vs Crack Width Curve for Over Reinforced Section
Fig. 5.10 Moment vs Curvature Relationship for Over Reinforced Section
49
Fig. 5.11 Depth vs Strain Relationship for Over Reinforced Section
at Various Loads
5.7 Results
For Under Reinforced Section
Total theoretical ultimate load = 3.67tonnes.
Experimental ultimate load = 5.1 tonnes.
For Over Reinforced Section

Total theoretical ultimate load = 12.214 tonnes.
Experimental ultimate load = 12.7 tonnes.
50
Fig. 5.12 Crack Pattern in Under Reinforced Beam Section
Fig. 5.13 Crack Pattern in Over Reinforced Beam Section
51
Fig. 5.14 Under Reinforced Section at Failure
Fig. 5.15 Over Reinforced Section at Failure
52
5.8 Conclusion
The tensile strain is more for under reinforced compare to over reinforced,
even though the ultimate load is less for under reinforced section. It shows that the
steel yielded before collapse condition. For Under Reinforced Beam Section, the
beam experienced excessive deflection before failure. The yielding of the steel occurs
before failure, but ultimate failure is caused by crushing of concrete in the
compressive zone. Thus under reinforced beam section failure is a ductile mode of
failure. From the experiment we conclude that failure of under reinforced concrete
beam gave ample warning before failure.
The failure of the Over Reinforced Concrete Beam is due to the crushing of
the concrete in the outer most compression fiber. Over reinforced concrete beam did
not give any warning before failure, as it is due to crushing of concrete while steel is
within elastic limit (gradual cracking is absent). As from Load vs Crack width graphs,
the rate of growth of crack (or crack width) is more for over reinforced section as load
increases.
Observed number of cracks in the under reinforced section was 11 and the
average crack spacing was 5.7 cm while in over reinforced section the average crack
spacing was 10.1 cm and only 5 cracks were formed. It is inferred that in the under
reinforced section, the number of cracks are more compared to over reinforced section
because of bond failure between steel and concrete due to yielding of steel rod. From
a study of strain–depth graph, we can conclude that the assumption ‘At any cross-
section, Plane Sections before bending remain Plane after bending’ is justified.
53
EXPERIMENT 6
STUDY ON ROLLED STEEL JOIST
6.1 Objective
To study the flexure behavior of rolled steel joist beam under four point
loading and to determine the modulus of elasticity.
6.2 Apparatus
Hydraulic mechanism for loading, Electrical resistance strain gauges,

Mechanical dial gauges-(L.C. = 0.01 mm), Vernier calipers, Meter scale and Load
cell.
6.3 Theory
6.3.1 Basic Assumptions of Flexure Theory
1. Plane section remains plane before bending and after bending.

2. Material should follow Hook’s law within elastic limit.
3. Material should be homogeneous, isotropic, and free from residual stresses.
4. Compression flange is laterally restrained.
5. Load is applied gradually.
6.3.2 Flexure Formula

M f E
= =
I y R
εc
εt
B
Fig. 6.1 Strain Variation along the Cross Section
6.3.3 Moment versus Curvature Relationship
M 1 2ε
= =φ =
EI R d
ε = strain in extreme fiber.
54
W W
L/3 L/3 L/3
Fig. 6.2 Simply Supported Beam with Two Point Load
6.3.4 Deflection and Rotation of Simply Supported Beam
5Wl 3
1. Deflection at 1/3 rd length, δ=
324 EI
23Wl 3
2. Deflection at middle of beam, δ =
1296 EI
Wl 2
θ=
3. Rotation at support, 9 EI
6.3.5 Principal Stress and Maximum and Minimum Shear Stress
σy
τxy
σx θ σx
τyx
σy
Fig. 6.3 Stress Distribution along the Section
1. Maximum and Minimum Principal Stresses

σ x +σ y 1
(σ − σ y ) + τ xy 2
2
σ1 = + x
2 2
σx +σ y 1
(σ − σ y ) + τ xy 2
2
σ2 = − x
2 2
55
2. Maximum and Minimum Shear Stress
(σ −σ y )
2
τ max = + + τ xy 2
x
(σ −σ y )
2
τ min = − + τ xy 2
x
2
3. Direction of Principal Stress θP
tan (2θP) = 2τXy/(σY-σX)
4. Direction of Maximum Shear Stress θS

tan (2θS) = (σY-σX)/(2τXy)
5. Strain Rosettes
θ A = θ8 = 0o ,θ B = θ 7 = 45o , θC = θ 6 = 90o
ε A = ε x cos 2 θ A + ε y sin 2 θ A + γ xy cos θ A sin θ A
ε B = ε x cos 2 θ B + ε y sin 2 θ B + γ xy cos θ B sin θ B

ε C = ε x cos2 θC + ε y sin 2 θC + γ xy cos θC sin θC
εx +εy
ε max =
1
(ε x − ε y )2 + γ xy 2
+
2 2
εx +εy 1
ε min = − (ε x − ε y )2 + γ xy 2
2 2
1  γ xy 
θ= tan −1  
2 ε −ε 
 x y 
E
σ max = (ε max + νε min )
1 −ν 2
E
σ min = (ε min + νε max )
1 −ν 2
6.4 Experimental Setup
An ISMB200 joist is supported on two points which are L= 2.02 m apart. The
Support condition is achieved by providing rods as supports. Out of two rods one is
welded and the other is kept free, so that welded rod acts as hinged end and other acts
as roller ends.
This is a simply supported beam loaded at middle third points of the beam.
The load is applied by hydraulic jack. It is a push –pull hydraulic jack through which
a compressive force up to 2tonnes is applied. Totally 3 gauges are used. The
56
positions of the gauges are, one at mid-point, two at one third points of span. Eight
electrical resistance strain gauges are placed as shown in figure. The five strain
gauges are to find the strain distribution across the depth at the mid span section. 6, 7
and 8 strain gauges called strain rosettes are arranged as shown in figure. From these
rosette strains, principal stress at the point can be determined.
S= strain gauge, DG=dial gauge

6.5 Procedure
The specimen (ISMB200) is placed on the supports with reaction frame in

place. The span of the beam and the distance between the loading points is measured.
The inclinometer is leveled on the specimen using spirit level and the corresponding
reading is noted. Load was applied at middle third points at an increment of 250kg. It
was loaded up to 2000kg. For every load interval readings are noted.
57
6.6 Observation and Calculation
Table 6.1 Dial Gauge Readings
Dial Gauge Readings Deflections (mm)

Dial Dial Dial
Dial Dial Dial
Gauge 1 Gauge 2 Gauge 3
Gauge 1 Gauge 2 Gauge 3
Load at L/3 at L/2 at 2L/3
at L/3 at L/2 at 2L/3
(kg)
0 19.71 13.48 29.01 0 0 0
250 19.91 13.69 29.15 0.02 0.021 0.014
500 20.08 13.85 29.28 0.037 0.037 0.027
Loading
750 20.25 13.98 29.39 0.054 0.05 0.038

1000 20.34 14.09 29.49 0.063 0.061 0.048
1250 20.43 14.18 29.58 0.072 0.07 0.057
1500 20.53 14.27 29.66 0.082 0.079 0.065
1750 20.62 14.36 29.74 0.091 0.088 0.073
2000 20.72 14.45 29.83 0.101 0.097 0.082
1750 20.66 14.38 29.76 0.095 0.089 0.075
1500 20.57 14.30 29.68 0.086 0.081 0.067
1250 20.48 14.20 29.59 0.077 0.071 0.058
Unloading
1000 20.38 14.11 29.51 0.067 0.062 0.05

750 20.27 14.01 29.41 0.056 0.052 0.04
500 20.12 13.88 29.31 0.041 0.039 0.03
250 19.94 13.71 29.17 0.023 0.022 0.016
0 19.71 13.49 29.01 0 0 0
58
Table 6.2 Deflection Calculation
Deflection ( Loading) Deflection ( Unloading) Deflection Deflection Theoretical Theoretical

Load Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
(kg) 1 2 3 1 2 3 Avg: L/2 Avg: L/3 Value: L/2 Value: L/3
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 0.02 0.021 0.014 0.023 0.022 0.016 0.0215 0.01825 0.07788 0.067723
500 0.037 0.037 0.027 0.041 0.039 0.03 0.038 0.03375 0.15576 0.135447
750 0.054 0.05 0.038 0.056 0.052 0.04 0.051 0.047 0.23365 0.20317
1000 0.063 0.061 0.048 0.067 0.062 0.05 0.0615 0.057 0.31153 0.270894
1250 0.072 0.07 0.057 0.077 0.071 0.058 0.0705 0.066 0.38941 0.338617
1500 0.082 0.079 0.065 0.086 0.081 0.067 0.08 0.075 0.46729 0.40634
1750 0.091 0.088 0.073 0.095 0.089 0.075 0.0885 0.0835 0.54517 0.474064
2000 0.101 0.097 0.082 0.101 0.097 0.082 0.097 0.0915 0.62305 0.541787
Table 6.3 Strain Gauge Readings during Loading and Unloading

along Depth of Beam
Readings From Strain Gauges (mm/m)

Load
(kg) 1 2 3 4 5
L UL L UL L UL L UL L UL
0 -10.605 -10.595 2.103 2.116 0.866 0.866 0.139 0.208 2.715 2.721
250 -10.61 -10.605 2.18 2.22 0.866 0.866 0.146 0.205 2.73 2.73
500 -10.62 -10.616 2.196 2.22 0.867 0.867 0.16 0.202 2.734 2.736
750 -10.625 -10.622 2.196 2.209 0.867 0.867 0.168 0.205 2.742 2.745
1000 -10.635 -10.632 2.188 2.205 0.867 0.867 0.173 0.205 2.754 2.754
1250 -10.637 -10.636 2.176 2.206 0.87 0.87 0.178 0.205 2.763 2.763
1500 -10.645 -10.645 2.171 2.2 0.87 0.87 0.183 0.206 2.771 2.771
1750 -10.65 -10.65 2.179 2.201 0.87 0.87 0.19 0.203 2.78 2.778
2000 -10.66 -10.66 2.176 2.199 0.87 0.87 0.195 0.204 2.789 2.789
59
Table 6.4 Strain Calculation
Average Strain (mm/m) Cumulative Strain Values (µ/m)

Load
(kg) -
100 50 0 -50 -100 100 50 0 -50
100
0 -10.6 2.1095 0.866 0.1735 2.718 0 0 0 0 0
250 -10.6075 2.2 0.866 0.1755 2.73 -7.5 -3.75 0 3.45 7.65
500 -10.618 2.208 0.867 0.181 2.735 -18 -7.75 1 7.5 17
750 -10.6235 2.2025 0.867 0.1865 2.7435 -23.5 -11.75 1 13 25.5
1000 -10.6335 2.1965 0.867 0.189 2.754 -33.5 -16.275 1 15.5 36
1250 -10.6365 2.191 0.87 0.1915 2.763 -36.5 -18.25 3 18 45
1500 -10.645 2.1855 0.87 0.1945 2.771 -45 -22 3 21 53
1750 -10.65 2.19 0.87 0.1965 2.779 -50 -24.25 3 23 56
2000 -10.66 2.1875 0.87 0.1995 2.789 -60 -32 3 26 64
Table 6.5 Stain Gauge Reading for Calculation of Principle Stresses and Strains
Strain Gauge Strain

Load (kg)
6 7 8 6 7 8
L UL L UL L UL Avg
0 6515 6425 -10 -9 40 33 0 0 0

250 6505 6425 -13 -12 39 31 10 3 1
500 6490 6420 -17 -16 38 29 25 7 2
750 6475 6425 -18 -17 37 30 40 8 3
1000 6475 6420 -19 -19 37 28 40 9 3
1250 6490 6420 -18 -19 34 28 25 8 6
1500 6485 6420 -18 -18 33 28 30 8 7
1750 6480 6420 -17 -17 31 32 35 7 9
2000 6470 6420 -17 -17 31 32 45 7 9
60
Table 6.6 Principle Stress Strain and Angle for Various Loadings
εx εy γxy εmax εmin smax s min

Load
θ
(kg) -6 -6 -6 -6 –6 N/
x10 x10 x10 x10 x10 N / mm2
mm2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 10 1 5 10.6478 0.3521 2.41589 0.86766 0.25355
500 25 2 13 26.7098 0.2901 6.01628 2.04339 0.25723
750 40 3 27 44.4019 -1.4019 9.86181 2.97402 0.3152
1000 40 3 25 43.8271 -0.8271 9.77537 3.06045 0.29711
1250 25 6 15 27.6037 3.3962 6.44696 2.80674 0.33414
1500 30 7 21 34.0724 2.9275 7.86409 3.18065 0.36999
1750 35 9 30 41.8494 2.1505 9.55203 3.58227 0.42835
2000 45 9 40 53.9072 0.0927 12.1059 4.01348 0.41899
61
Fig. 6.5 Load vs Deflection Relationship at L/2
Fig. 6.6 Load vs Deflection Relationship at L/3
62
Table 6.7 Moment-Curvature Calculations
Load (kg) Moment (N-m) Deflection S1 * 10-5 S5 * 10-5 Curvature

0 0 0.0000 0.000 0.000 0
250 817.5 0.0215 -0.750 0.765 0.00071
500 1635 0.0380 -1.800 1.700 0.00092

750 2452.5 0.0510 -2.400 2.550 0.00096
1000 3270 0.0615 -3.400 3.600 0.00113
1250 4087.5 0.0705 -3.700 4.500 0.00116
1500 4905 0.0800 -4.500 5.300 0.00123
1750 5722.5 0.0885 -5.000 5.600 0.00124
2000 6540 0.0970 -6.000 6.400 0.00128
Fig. 6.7 Strain Variation along the Depth
63
Fig. 6.8 Moment vs Curvature Plot
Slope of moment-curvature plot (EI) = 2.64*106 and I=2230*104 mm4

E = 118.5 GPa.
64
Fig. 6.10 Position of Strain and Dial Gauges
6.7 Inference
Strain compatibility graph shows that strain is varying linearly from N.A. and
attains maximum at top and bottom fibers. So plane section remains plane for small
stress. From load vs. deflection curve it is clear that the relationship is linear.
Experimental value of E obtained from moment-curvature graph is 1.185x105 N/mm2.
65
EXPERIMENT 7
BUCKLING OF STEEL COLUMNS MADE OF ANGLES
7.1 Objective:
To study the buckling behavior of steel columns made up of single and double angle
sections.
7.2 Apparatus:
Single and double angle column specimens (20mmx20mmx3mm), Steel scale,

Dial gauges (L.C= 0.01mm), Vernier calipers (L.C= 0.02mm), Two hemi-spheres, Plumb
bob, Plate with circular groove.
7.3 Theory:
Column is known as a structural member which is subjected to axial compression

load. Columns and struts are termed long or short depending on their tendency to buckling. If
the strut is short the applied forces will cause a compressive strain, which results in the
shortening of the strut in the direction of the applied forces. Under incremental loading
similar axial shortening is observed only at the initial stages of incremental loading.
Thereafter as the applied forces are increased in magnitude, the strut becomes unstable and
develops a deformation in direction normal to the loading axis. This is called buckling state.
Buckling behavior is thus characterized by deformations developed in a plane normal
to that of the loading that produces it. Structural steel has high yield strength and ultimate
strength compared with other construction materials. Hence compression members made of
steel tend to be slender. Thus, buckling is of particular interest while employing steel
members, which tend to be slender, compared with reinforced concrete or pre-stressed
concrete compression members.
To begin with we will consider the elastic behavior of an idealized, pin-ended uniform
strut. The classical Euler analysis of this problem makes the following assumptions
The material of which the strut is made is homogenous and linearly elastic (i.e. it obeys
Hooke’s law). The strut is perfectly straight and there are no initial imperfections. The
loading is applied at the centroid of the cross section at the ends.
The Euler’s buckling equation is satisfied for perfectly straight elastic column only
when
π 2 EI 4π 2 EI n 2π 2 EI
Pe = , ,...........,
L2 L2 L2
where n is any integer.
While there are several buckling modes corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3,….., the lowest
stable buckling mode corresponds to n = 1.
66
The lowest value of the critical load (i.e.; the load causing buckling in single
curvature) is given by
π 2 EI
Pe =
L2
where, Pe = buckling strength of elastic column
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia at the principal axis of the section at which the buckling
has taken place
l = effective length of the column
The stress corresponds to Euler’s buckling is σe
Pe π 2 E
σe = =
A L
r
2
( )
Column buckles at a certain load because the straight configuration becomes unstable
at that load. The load at which the straight configuration of column ceases is the load at
which neutral equilibrium is possible. This load is referred as critical load.
This is also known as Euler’s buckling load.
Critical ratio (l/r) is the ratio below, which the column fails due to yielding. It is
obtained as
π 2 EI
σy =
(L r )2
where σy = 250N/mm2
E = 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
So (l/r) ≥ 89
where r = radius of gyration
Buckling failure occur if l/r ≥ 89
A perfectly straight mild steel column buckles at the stress given by above equation
above for larger values of the l/r about the principal axis having the largest l/r and fails by
yielding at slenderness ratios lesser that 89. Note that even for perfect columns this will hold
good only for hot rolled sections.
In practice a loaded column may experience initial crookedness eccentricity of
loading residual stresses and lack of clearly defined yield point, strain-hardening effects etc.
Only strain hardening tends to raise the column strength values for all or part of the
slenderness ratio range.
The beneficial effect of strain hardening at low slenderness values is generally more
than adequate to provide compensation for any loss of strength due to small accidental
eccentricities in loading. Although the column strength can exceed the value obtained from
the yield strength for purposes of structural design, the column strength curve is generally
67
considered as having a cut off at yield strength to avoid large plastic compressive
deformation.
1 1 1
= +
σ an σ en σ yn
where σa = Actual strength of a real column, in N/mm2
σe = Euler’s buckling strength, in N/mm2
σy = Yield strength, in N/mm2
By varying the value of the constant power n, different curves can be obtained.
As per IS: 800 – 1984, n = 1.4.
7.4 Southwell’s Plot:
Southwell’s plot is a data reduction technique, which could be used to determine the
isolated-mode buckling load for an imperfect column. This technique is based on the
assumption that the plot P-δ acts as rectangular hyperbola, with the load axis and the
horizontal line P = Pc as asymptotes, with P the measured load, and δ the deformation.
As par this technique, we will plot a graph between δ/P and δ. For any combination of
initial curvature and eccentricity in the application of load, the critical load can be obtained as
the inverse slope of the straight line.
7.5 Modes of failure of long column:
Slender members will generally fail along their weak axis, along which member
comprises with least moment of inertia. We can classify the modes of failure as failure about
major axis, failure about minor axis and failure due to twisting of column.
7.6 Procedure:
The testing of the two individual specimens, one single angle and the other double
angle (back to back) was carried out as per the following steps.The dimensions of the
specimens were measured with the help of a vernier caliper. The dimensions were measured
at three different locations and the average was taken. The length of the specimens was
measured with the help of a scale. The columns were tested for hinged condition. The ideal
hinge condition is achieved by providing a hemispherical iron piece fitted in a grove at the
end plates of the columns. The vertical alignment of the test piece is checked with the help of
a plumb bob. At the mid height of the column two dial gauges are fixed at mutually
orthogonal directions to measure the deflection of the column, from its original position. The
load is then applied on the specimen with the help of hydraulic jack. The load is increased at
a uniform rate and corresponding deflections for each incremental load of100 kg (for single
angle) and 500 kg (for double angle) were noted with the help of the dial gauge. The load
increment is continued till the column failed in buckling. Out of plane deformation were
measured with the help of the dial gauges up to failure.
68
Screw Jack
Horizontal Beam of Self-Straining

Frame
Piston for Application of Vertical Load

Semi Hemispherical Iron Piece
Test Specimen
Dial Gauges (1 & 2)
End Plates
Concrete Pedestal
Test Floor
Fig. 7.1 Setup for Double Angle Compression

Member
69
7.7 Determination of Theoretical Failure Load:
7.7.1 Specimen - I: Single Angle Compression Member
Angle size is ISA 20×20×3

Area = 112 mm2
20 mm
Length = 450.00 mm
End condition is hinged at both ends
3mm
Effective length = 450.00 mm
Radius of gyration = 3.7 m
Moment of inertia, Imin = 2000 mm4.
Pcr = π2EImin/le2 20 mm
=π 2×2×105×2000/4502 Fig. 7.2 Single angle (20x20x3)
= 19.495 kN
Pcr = 1989.3 kg.
1 1 1
= +
σ an σ en σ yn
σe = 174.063 N/mm2
σy = 250 N/mm2
n = 1.4
σa = 129.2924 N/mm2
Rankine’s critical load,
PR = 14.48 kN
PR = 1476 kg.
7.7.2 Specimen - II : Double Angle(Back to Back) Compression Member
Angle size is ISA 20×20×3

Area = 2×112 6 mm
= 224mm2
Ixx = 2×0.4×104 20 mm
= 0.8 ×104
Iyy = 2(0.4×104 + 112× (5.9+5.8/2)2)
=2.5346x 104 mm4
20 mm 20 mm
Effective length = 420.00 mm
End condition is hinged at both ends
Effective length = 420 mm
Imin = 0.8x 104
Radius of gyration = 5.97 mm
Pcr =π 2 EI /le 2
= π2 × 2 × 105× 8000 /4202
= 89.52kN
The theoretical failure load is = 9125.4 kg.
70
1 1 1
= +
σ an σ en σ yn
σe = 399.64 N/mm2
σy = 250 N/mm2
n= 1.4
σa = 185.5 N/mm2
PR = 41.552 kN
PR = 4235.68 kg.
7.8Observations:
7.8.1 Single angle under uniaxial compression
Table 7.1: Calculation for Single Angle Strut

Load (P) Dial gauge readings Deflection (d) in mm d/P
in kg
Face1 Face2 Face1 Face2 Face1 Face2
0 453 693 0 0 - -
100 426 520 0.27 1.73 0.0027 0.0173
200 425 464 0.28 2.29 0.0014 0.01145
300 426 435 0.28 2.58 0.000933 0.0086
400 424 376 0.29 3.17 0.000725 0.007925
500 424 350 0.29 3.43 0.00058 0.00686
600 420 295 0.33 3.98 0.00055 0.006633
700 417 244 0.36 4.49 0.000514 0.006414
800 414 175 0.39 5.18 0.000488 0.006475
900 413 90 0.4 6.03 0.000444 0.0067
Dial gauge Reset at 670
1000 411 603 0.42 6.7 0.00042 0.0067
Experimental Failure Load (for single angle) = 1040kg

Experimental failure stress (for single angle) = 45.344 MPa
71
Fig 7.3. Load-Deflection Curve for Single Angle Strut
Fig 7.4. SOUTH WELL’S Plot for Single Angle
From graph (Fig2.4), by the line of best equation, the slope is found as 7142.85.
Failure load for the single angle strut is 7142.85kg.
72
7.8.2 Double Angle Buckling
Experimental Failure Load (for double angle) = 6540kg.
Table 7.2 Calculation for double angle strut
Load P in Dialgauge Reading Deflection in mm d/P
kg Face 1 Face 2 Face 1 Face 2 Face 1 Face 2
0 520 504 0 0 0 0
250 495 479 0.25 0.25 0.001 0.001
500 488 477 0.32 0.27 0.00064 0.00054
750 485 475 0.35 0.29 0.000467 0.000387
1000 480 471 0.4 0.33 0.0004 0.00033
1250 475 465 0.45 0.39 0.00036 0.000312
1500 468 449 0.52 0.55 0.000347 0.000367
1750 463 453 0.57 0.51 0.000326 0.000291
2000 456 446 0.64 0.58 0.00032 0.00029
2250 450 442 0.7 0.62 0.000311 0.000276
2500 444 436 0.76 0.68 0.000304 0.000272
2750 437 430 0.83 0.74 0.000302 0.000269
3000 431 423 0.89 0.81 0.000297 0.00027
3250 423 415 0.97 0.89 0.000298 0.000274
3500 411 406 1.09 0.98 0.000311 0.00028
3750 400 394 1.2 1.1 0.00032 0.000293
4000 390 384 1.3 1.2 0.000325 0.0003
4250 380 372 1.4 1.32 0.000329 0.000311
4500 370 360 1.5 1.44 0.000333 0.00032
4750 361 347 1.59 1.57 0.000335 0.000331
5000 351 323 1.69 1.81 0.000338 0.000362
5250 342 317 1.78 1.87 0.000339 0.000356
5500 331 300 1.89 2.04 0.000344 0.000371
5750 319 279 2.01 2.25 0.00035 0.000391
6000 309 260 2.11 2.44 0.000352 0.000407
6250 298 237 2.22 2.67 0.000355 0.000427
6500 281 206 2.39 2.98 0.000368 0.000458
6750 220 200 3 3.04 0.000444 0.00045
73
Fig. 7.5 Load-Deflection Curve for Double Angle Strut
Fig. 7.6 SOUTHWELL’S Plot for Double Angle
From graph (Fig7.6), by the line of best equation, the slope (y=mx+c) is found as
m=6935. Failure load for the double angle strut is 6935kg.
74
7.9 Results:
i.) For Single Angle Strut

Theoretical Critical Load (Pcr) = 1989.3kg = 19.499kN
Experimental Failure Load (Pu) = 1040kg = 10.203kN
Average Critical Load (Southwell’s Plot) = 7142.85kg = 70.071kN
Rankine’s critical load, PR = 1476 kg = 14.48 kN
ii.) For Double Angle Strut

Theoretical Critical Load (Pcr) = 9125.4kg = 89.52kN
Experimental Failure Load (Pu) = 6540 kg = 64.16kN
Average Critical Load (Southwell’s Plot) =11904.76kg= 116.785kN
Rankine’s critical load, PR = 42.35.68 kg = 41.55 kN
7.10 Conclusions:
In practical conditions long columns (Single angle) fails much below theoretical
failure load. The column buckles about its Imin axis (VV axis for single angle section and YY
axis for the double angle section used). Practically it is difficult to achieve concentric loading
condition. The failure load of double angle section connected back to back will be much more
than the combined failure load of two individual single angle columns. From the results, it is
inferred that Rankine’s formula is giving conservative values.
Fig. 7.7 Buckled Double Angle Fig. 7.8 Buckled Single Angle
75
EXPERIMENT 8
TEST ON REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE SHORT COLUMN
8.1 Objective
To examine the behaviour of tied R.C column under axial compression load
and to estimate the ultimate load carrying capacity of the column.
8.2 Apparatus
Column Testing Machine, Demountable Mechanical Strain Gauges and Metal

Scale.
8.3 Theory
A ‘compression member’ is a structural element, which is subjected

(predominantly) to axial compressive force. Compression member are most
commonly encountered in R. C. building frames as columns, forming part of the
‘vertical framing system’. The column is representative of all types of compression
members. As per IS 456-2000 clause 25.1.1,column is defined as a compression
member, whose effective length exceeds three times its least lateral dimension and
clause 26.5.3.1(h) mentions that the term ‘pedestal’ is used to describe a vertical
compression member whose effective length is less than three times least lateral
dimension.
One of the important geometric properties of a compression member is its

slenderness. Slenderness provides a measure of the vulnerability to failure in which
the slenderness ratio is computed. Column with low slenderness ratio will be
relatively short and stocky and they invariably fail under ultimate loads with the
material (concrete, steel) reaching the ultimate strength, and not by buckling. On the
other hand, columns with very high slenderness ratios are long and they are in danger
of buckling under relatively low compressive loads, and thereby failing suddenly. The
column with ratio of leff/b<12 are referred to as short columns with the ratio of
leff/b>12 are referred as long column.
Axial loading on a compression member is defined as the loading that

produces a uniform compressive strain distribution across the cross section. For a
symmetrically reinforced column, the line of action of load must coincide with the
longitudinal centroidal axis of the column section, in order to produce uniform strain
distribution. To satisfy equilibrium, the total compressive force (Cc+Cs) in the section
should be equal and opposite to the external load Po. Let fccand fsc represent the
stresses in concrete and the longitudinal steel respectively. Then,
Po = Cc +Cs
= fcc Ac + fscAsc
Po = fcc Ag + (fsc-fcc) Asc
Where,
Ag - Gross area of cross-section (Ac + Asc)
76
Asc - Area of longitudinal reinforcement
Ac - Net area of concrete in the section (Ag-Asc)
The theoretical failure load for RC column under uniaxial compression is given by
Pu =0.67fckAg + (fy-0.67fck)Asc
Where,
fck - Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
fy - Characteristic strength of compression reinforcement
8.4 Procedure
The overall dimensions of the column along with the reinforcement details are
given in Fig. 8.1 prior to the compression test on the column; the compressive
strength of concrete was found out by testing two numbers of cubes of same grade as
that of column specimen.Measure the dimensions of column.Estimate the theoretical
failure load.Fix the DEMEC points on each face of the column.Apply load on the
specimen at interval of 5 tones and measure strain corresponding to each interval of
loading on each face of the column.Finally, write down load corresponding to failure
of column. Compare the two results.
8.5 Calculations
8.5.1 Cube Strength Calculation
Failure load Compressive

(tonnes) strength (N/mm2)
Cube1 150x150 22500 87 39.41
Cube2 150x150 22500 80 36.24
Avg. Comp. Strength fck=37.83 N/mm2
8.5.2 Calculation of Failure Load
Column size b1×b2 = 150mm ×150mm
Cross-sectional area Ag = 22500mm2
Theoretical failure load Pu:

(Pu)th. =0.67fck Ag+(fy-0.67 fck) × Asc
=0.67×37.83×22500+(415 - 0.67x22.45)×4×π/4×144
=746.563kN
=76.102tonnes
Experimental failure load:
(Pu)Ex. = 64tonnes.
77
P
200
1500
A A'
200
200
150
150
4 nos. 12 Φ
SECTION A-A'
Fig. 8.1 Setup for Compression Test on R.C.C Column
78
8.6 Observations
Table 8.1 Strain Gauge Readings
Load On Face A On Face B On Face C On Face D

(t) A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3
0.00 2178 2000 2001 2020 2003 2016 1747 1720 1752 1722 1695 1705
5.00 2185 2005 2010 2025 2015 2031 1755 1721 1696 1738 1715 1718
10.00 2250 2023 2020 2030 2030 2040 1755 1731 1710 1758 1721 1724
15.00 2321 2031 2039 2036 2041 2050 1766 1748 1724 1772 1735 1741
20.00 2340 2052 2050 2044 2060 2075 1779 1761 1742 1789 1755 1758
25.00 2354 2069 2060 2055 2070 2083 1792 1779 1762 1805 1769 1770
30.00 2380 2085 2075 2079 2081 2090 1809 1797 1783 1842 1795 1799
35.00 2408 2109 2092 2100 2098 2114 1832 1821 1817 1862 1810 1818
40.00 2437 2130 2105 2130 2130 2147 1857 1856 1856 1887 1839 1836
45.00 2448 2143 2115 2179 2175 2190 1906 1910 1910 1915 1860 1870
50.00 2467 2165 2119 2232 2227 2233 1956 1960 1976 1954 1891 1898
55.00 2475 2182 2131 2251 2262 2275 2026 2030 2040 2038 1955 1955
Ultimate load = 64 T
8.7 Calculations
Table 8.2 Strain Calculations
Strain (Face A) Strain (Face B) Strain (Face C) Strain (Face D)

Load A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3
-3
(kg/cm²) *10
0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
22.22 0.035 0.025 0.045 0.025 0.060 0.075 0.040 0.005 -0.280 0.080 0.100 0.065
44.44 0.360 0.120 0.095 0.050 0.100 0.120 0.040 0.055 -0.210 0.180 0.130 0.095
66.67 0.720 0.160 0.190 0.080 0.200 0.170 0.095 0.140 -0.140 0.250 0.200 0.180
88.89 0.810 0.260 0.245 0.120 0.300 0.295 0.160 0.210 -0.050 0.340 0.300 0.265
111.11 0.880 0.350 0.295 0.175 0.300 0.335 0.230 0.300 0.050 0.420 0.370 0.325
133.33 1.010 0.430 0.370 0.295 0.400 0.370 0.310 0.390 0.155 0.600 0.500 0.470
155.56 1.150 0.550 0.455 0.400 0.500 0.490 0.430 0.510 0.325 0.700 0.580 0.565
177.78 1.300 0.650 0.520 0.550 0.600 0.655 0.550 0.680 0.520 0.830 0.720 0.655
200.00 1.350 0.720 0.570 0.795 0.900 0.870 0.800 0.950 0.790 0.970 0.830 0.825
222.22 1.450 0.830 0.590 1.060 1.100 1.085 1.050 1.200 1.120 1.160 0.980 0.965
244.44 1.490 0.910 0.650 1.155 1.300 1.295 1.400 1.550 1.440 1.580 1.300 1.250
Ultimate=284.444 kg/cm2
79
Fig. 8.2 Axial Stress vs Strain (Strain Face A)
Fig. 8.3 Axial Stress vs Strain (Strain Face B)
80
Fig. 8.4 Axial Stress vs Strain (Strain Face C)
Fig. 8.5 Axial Stress vs Strain (Strain Face D)
81
8.8 Results
The ultimate load carrying capacity of the column;

Theoretically (Pu)th = 76.102 T
Experimentally (Pu)ex = 64 T
8.9 Conclusions
The experimental ultimate axial load for the column was not matched with the
theoretical values. The experimental value is much lesser than theatrical values which
may be due to faults in loading setup of the equipment, platen restraint or due to non-
homogeneity of column end faces. The failure is not at the center. It is taken place at
0.34m above the center. It is inferred that it is the weak plane due to poor
compactness of the concrete. The failure taken place due to buckling of the
reinforcement bars between the stirrups.
Fig. 8.6 Column at Failure
82
EXPERIMENT 9
PULL - OUT BOND TEST ON REINFORCING BAR
9.1 Objective
To find the bond strength of concrete and to study the bond stress-slip
response of concrete based on pull-out test as per IS: 2770-1967.
9.2 Apparatus
Concrete cubes of 150x150x150mm size with reinforcing bars, Loading

frame, Dial gauges (3 nos.) and Anchorage system.
9.3 Theory
Bond in reinforced concrete refers to the adhesion between the reinforcing

steel and the surrounding concrete. Bond resistance is achieved by the development of
tangential stress along the interface between the reinforcing bar and the surrounding
concrete. The stress so developed at the interface is called bond stress and is
expressed in terms of tangential force per unit nominal surface area of the reinforcing
bar. There are two types of bonds:
1. Flexural bond
2. Anchorage bond
‘Flexural bond’ arises in flexural members due to shear or variation in bending

moment which causes variation in axial tension along the length of the bar.
‘Anchorage bond’ arises over the length of anchorage provided for a bar or near the
end of a reinforcing bar. This bond resists the pulling out of the bar if the element is in
tension or the pushing in of the bar if the element is in compression.
9.3.1 Bond Failure Mechanism
The mechanisms that initiate bond failure may be any one or combination of the
following:
Break-up of adhesion between the bar and the concrete, Longitudinal splitting
of the concrete around the bar, Crushing of the concrete in front of the bar ribs (in
deformed bars) and Shearing of the concrete keyed between the ribs along a
cylindrical surface surrounding the ribs (in deformed bars).
The most common type of bond failure mechanism is the pulling of the
reinforcement bar, following the longitudinal splitting of the concrete along the bar
embedment. Occasionally failure occurs with the bar pulling out of the concrete,
leaving a circular hole without causing extensive pulling of the concrete. Such a
failure may occur with plain smooth bars placed with large cover, and with very small
diameter deformed bars (wires) having large concrete cover. For the specimen if the
83
cover to bar diameter is kept below 3, it may result in splitting type of failure. For
typical pull out test specimen the cover to bar diameter ratio is kept above 3. So that
splitting of concrete can be avoided. Also spiral reinforcements are provided around
the bar to avoid the splitting of concrete.
In the case of ribbed bars, the bearing pressure between the rib and the
concrete is inclined to the bar axis as shown in Fig. 9.1. This introduces radial forces
in the concrete ‘wedging action’ causing circumferential tensile stresses in the
concrete surrounding the bar and tending to split the concrete along the weakest plane.
The direction of the splitting depends on the relative values of the bottom cover, side
cover and bar spacing.
Radial stress
Reaction
Bond stress
Fig. 9.1 Splitting Forces
9.3.2 Factors Influencing Bond Strength
Deformed bars are used instead of mile steel bars, smaller bar diameters are
used, higher grade of concrete is used, increased cover is provided around each bar,
increased length of embedment, bends and /or hooks are provided, Mechanical
anchorages are employed and any measure that will increase the confinement of the
concrete around the bar is employed.
In a typical ‘pull out test’, a bar embedded in a concrete cylinder or cube is

pulled until failure occurs by splitting, excessive slip or pull out. The nominal bond
strength is computed as P/πφL, where P is the pull at failure, φ is the bar diameter and
L the length of embedment. The concrete in the test specimen is subjected to a state of
compression and the friction at the bearing on the concrete offers some resistance
against splitting.
The slip at the loaded end shall be calculated as the average of the readings of
the two dial gauges, corrected for the elongation of the reinforcing bar in the distance
between the bearing surface of concrete block and the point on the reinforcing bar at
which the measuring device was attached. A typical bond strength vs slip graph is
shown in Fig. 9.2.
84
τ
τf = bond strength due
(τ/τmax)=(S/Smax)α to friction only
τmax where α = 0.4
τf
S3 (rib spacing)
Smax S2
(S1) Slip in mm
Fig. 9.2 Bond Stress v/s Slip Graph
9.4 Procedure
The test specimen should be mounted in a suitable testing machine in such

manner that the bar is pulled axially from the cube. The end of the bar at which the
pull is applied should be that which projects from the top fact of the cube as cast. In
assembling the testing apparatus on the specimen (Fig. 9.3) the distance between the
face of the concrete and the point on the loaded end of the reinforcing bar at which the
device for measuring slip is attached, should be carefully measured so that the
elongation of the bar over this distance may be calculated and deducted from the
measured slip.
The loading should be continued and readings of movements recorded at appropriate

intervals until:
The yield point of the reinforcing bars has been reached, the enclosing
concrete has failed (the type of failure should be noted) and A minimum slippage of
2.5 mm has occurred at the loaded end.
The following details should be recorded:
The crushing strength of the concrete cube at an age corresponding to the age
of the specimen at the time of making the pull-out tests, The age of specimen, The
load at a slip of 0.025 mm at the free end, The load at a slip of 0.25 mm at the free
end, The slips at free and loaded ends at regular intervals of loading and The
maximum load at failure and the type of failure.
85
Actuator
Reinforcing rod
Rod
Cube
Dial gauge 3
Cube
Dial gauge 1&2
Fig. 9.3 Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup
Reinforcing bar of 25 mm dia.
Confining reinforcement to
avoid splitting of concrete
Fig. 9.4 Specimen Preparation (With Confining Reinforcement)
86
9.5 Calculations
Bond stress (τ) = P / ( πφL)

where, P= Load in kN
φ= Diameter of reinforcing bar (20mm)
L= Length of embedment (150mm)
Table 9.1 Cube Strength Calculation
Failure
Size Area Compressive
Specimen Load
(mm) (mm2) Strength (N/mm2)
(tonnes)
Cube1 150x150 22500 88.0 39.86
Cube2 150x150 22500 83.5 37.83
Avg. target strength, ft = 38.83 N/mm2
Table 9.2 Observation Load and Slip for Mild Steel Bar
Loaded Avg.
Free
End Free Loaded End Loaded Bond
Load End
Reading End Slip (mm) End Stress
(kg) Slip
Slip (N/mm2)
(mm)
1 2 3 1 2 (mm)
0 510 529 3326 0 0 0 0 0
-
200 512 518 3326 0.02 0.11 0.045 0 0.20828
400 509 508 3326 0.01 0.21 0.11 0 0.41656
600 505 496 3326 0.05 0.33 0.19 0 0.62484
800 500 483 3326 0.1 0.46 0.28 0 0.83312
1000 498 470 3310 0.12 0.59 0.355 0.16 1.04140
1200 Slipping started
Ultimate Load = 1.2 Ton
87
Table 9.3 Observation Load and slip for HYSD Bar
Loaded End Free Loaded End Avg. Free

Bond
Load Reading End Slip (mm) Loaded End
Stress
(kg) End Slip Slip
(N/mm2)
1 2 3 1 2 (mm) (mm)
0 629 472 3564 0 0 0 0 0
500 616 465 3562 0.13 0.07 0.1 0.02 0.5207
1000 608 460 3558 0.21 0.12 0.165 0.06 1.0414
1500 606 455 3557 0.23 0.17 0.2 0.07 1.5621
2000 605 451 3556 0.24 0.21 0.225 0.08 2.0828
2500 604 443 3550 0.25 0.29 0.27 0.14 2.6035
3000 603 432 3535 0.26 0.4 0.33 0.29 3.1242
3500 601 422 3511 0.28 0.5 0.39 0.53 3.6449
4000 603 413 3500 0.26 0.59 0.425 0.64 4.1656
4500 601 399 3452 0.28 0.73 0.505 1.12 4.6863
5000 603 385 3427 0.26 0.87 0.565 1.37 5.2070
5500 606 369 3380 0.23 1.03 0.63 1.84 5.7277
6000 609 366 3334 0.2 1.06 0.63 2.3 6.2484
6500 611 340 3275 0.18 1.32 0.75 2.89 6.7691
7000 614 318 3200 0.15 1.54 0.845 3.64 7.2898
7500 616 280 3065 0.13 1.92 1.025 4.99 7.8105
8000 624 225 2840 0.05 2.47 1.26 7.24 8.3312
8500 628 140 2340 0.01 3.32 1.665 12.24 8.8519
9000 SLIPPING starts
Ultimate Load = 9.5 Ton
88
9.5.1 Mild Steel Bar
Fig 9.6 Variation of Bond Stress Corresponding to Loaded End
The Bond stress at the loaded end @ slip 0.25 mm is 0.765 Mpa.
Fig. 9.7 Variation of Bond Stress Corresponding to Free End Slip
The Bond stress at the free end @ slip 0.025 mm is 0.5145 Mpa
89
9.5.2 HYSD Bar
Fig. 9.8 Variation of Bond Stress Corresponding to Loaded End Slip
Fig. 9.9 Variation of Bond Stress Corresponding to Free End Slip
90
9.6 Results
9.6.1 Mild Steel Bar
Bond stress at a slip of 0.025 mm at the free end = 1.319 N/mm2.

Bond stress at a slip of 0.25 mm at the loaded end = 0.918 N/mm2
Ultimate bond stress = 3.643 N/mm2.
9.6.2 HYSD Bar
Bond stress at a slip of 0.025 mm at the free end = 3.9703 N/mm2.

Bond stress at a slip of 0.25 mm at the loaded end = 2.8749 N/mm2.
Ultimate bond stress = 10.929 N/mm2.
9.7 Conclusion
The type of failure occurred for both plain and deformed bar is splitting type
of failure (Longitudinal splitting of cube). As the specimens have spiral
reinforcement, there was proper confinement and thus, there was considerable
resistance to the propagation of continuous longitudinal splitting cracks. As expected,
the bond stress in deformed bar is more than that of mild steel bar. This is because of
the action of mechanical interlock due to the surface protrusions in deformed bar in
addition to the chemical adhesion and frictional resistance in mile steel bars. Ratio of
Ultimate bond stress to the bond stress corresponding Code Specifications is higher
for deformed bar than for mild steel bar.
91
EXPERIMENT 10
BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM UNDER TORSION
10.1 Objective:
To study the behavior of R.C beam under Torsion and to estimate the ultimate
torsional carrying capacity of the beam.
10.2 Apparatus:
Load cell, Dial Gauge (L.C 0.01mm), Support to allow free rotation of the
beam at the support, Setup for applying torsion (Jack and lever arm).
10.3 Theory:
Torsion occurs in many reinforced concrete structures in combination with

flexure and shear. There are two types of torsion:
(a) Equilibrium torsion

(b) Compatibility torsion
Equilibrium torsion occurs in beam where external loads resist only by torsion.
Equilibrium torsion occurs mainly due to eccentricity of the loading and does not
depend on the stiffness of the member. Equilibrium Torsion must be necessarily
considered in the design. The member has to be designed for the full torsion which is
transmitted by the member to the supports. Moreover the end of the member should
be suitably restrained to enable the member to resist effectively the torsion induced.
Equilibrium torsion will occur in beams supporting lateral overhanging projection and
curved beams.
Compatibility torsion occurs in members where the continuity requirements
have to be met. It is due to the flexural action of the secondary beam. In this the
torsion strength depends on the stiffness of the member.
10.4 Behaviour of concrete with torsional reinforcement
The torsional capacity of the plain concrete member depends on the cracking
moment capacity of the member and failure in torsion is caused by the torsional
cracking due to diagonal tensile stresses. Therefore reinforcement has to be provided
in the form of spirals or stirrups along the length of the member in addition to the
longitudinal reinforcement. The torque vs twist behavior of torsional reinforced
concrete member is similar to that of plain concrete beam until the formation of first
crack. Corresponding cracking torque is Tcr.
Torsional stiffness of concrete decreases after the cracking which implies that
angle of twist increases now strength and the behavior depends on the reinforcement
92
present in the beam which increases the torsional stiffness by between zero and 10
percent. For very small amount of torsional reinforcement no increase in torsional
strength beyond Tcr and failure occurs soon after the first crack. If more steel is
provided Tcr will increase only up to the yielding of the steel and beyond this any
increase in steel will not have any effect on Tcr and the member fails by crushing of
concrete.
10.5 Procedure:
The dimensions of the beam are measured. Grid lines are drawn to know the
crack pattern of the member. Two dial gages are fixed on each end of the beam using
which the rotation of the member can be found out by knowing deflection. The RC
beam is subjected to pure torsion with the aid of support. Load is applied
perpendicular to the axis of the beam at load interval of 50 kg, the deflection
corresponding to each interval of loading for all the dial gauge deflection is taken
Load corresponding to cracking torsion of the beam was noted. Load corresponding to
ultimate torsion of the beam was noted. Compare the values with theoretical values
BEAM
SPECIMEN
DIAL
GAUGE
LOAD
CELL
10.6 Observation and Calculation:
L - Lever arm = 1m
Length of the beam = 196.5 cm
93
10.6.1 Cube strength calculation
Failure load Compressive

(tonnes) strength (N/mm2)
Cube1 150x150 22500 94 41.0
Cube2 150x150 22500 109 47.5
Avg. Comp. Strength fck=44.25N/mm2

10.6.2 Calculations for torsional moment
Cracking torsional Moment (Torque)

b2 b
Tcr = τ t ,max ( D − )
2 3
τ t ,max = 0.2 f ck = 1.33 N/mm2
B = Width of the beam, mm
D = Depth of the beam, mm
f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete, N/mm2
= 44.25 N/mm2
Ultimate Torsional Moment (Torque)
 A f  Al f yl 
Tur = 2b1d1  t yt  
 sv   2(b1 + d1 ) 
At = Area of cross section of one leg stirrup
Al = Area of cross section of Longitudinal bar
b1 = Length of short leg stirrup
d1 = Length of Long leg stirrup
Theoretical Cracking torsion moment:

b2 b
Tcr = τ t ,max ( D − )
2 3
=2.244 kNm
Pcr = 2.244 kN (Since lever arm = 1.0m)
Ultimate torsion moment:

 A f  Al f yl 
Tur = 2b1d1  t yt  
 sv   2(b1 + d1 ) 
Tur = 3.684 kNm
Pur = 3.684 kN
94
Table 10.1: Experimental Observation on Torque vs. rotation
Dial Gauge Dail Guage

Load Torsion Angle of
Divisions Rteadings-1 Readings-2 Deflection
(kg) (KN-m) Twist(rad/mm)
(Free end) (Fixed end)
0 0 513 2487 0 0 0
10 50 584 2429 0.49 0.65 0.00158
20 100 644 2380 0.98 1.19 0.00292
30 150 718 2315 1.47 1.89 0.00462
40 200 802 2250 1.96 2.63 0.00645
50 250 905 2181 2.45 3.49 0.00855
60 300 1075 2040 2.94 5.05 0.01237
70 350 2250 1825 3.43 12.00 0.02940
80 390 Ultimate load at Failure of beam
First crack develops at 300 kg load i.e. at torque = 2.943 kNm

Failure load is 390 kg i.e. at torque = 3.826 kNm
Fig. 10.2 Torque vs Angle of twist
95
10.7 Comment:
The curve is linear depicting the classical pure Torsion theory of Strength of
materials.
10.8 Result:
Tcr (Theoretical) = 2.244 kN-m

Tcr (Experimental) = 2.943 kN-m.
Tur (Theoretical) = 3.684 kN-m
Tur (Experimental) = 3.826 kN-m
10.9 Conclusions:
The cracks developed all around the section and severe cracking is observed
on the mid faces of sides of the rectangular section (In acceptance with the Strength of
materials solution). It is also observed that beam resists only small amount of load
(torsion) beyond the development of first crack (at 2.9 kN-m), after cracking of
concrete showing that the failure (at 3.8 kN-m) of a beam in torsion is a brittle mode
of failure. The number of cracks formed is 5 with average crack spacing of 25cm.
Fig. 10.3 Crack Pattern
96
EXPERIMENT 11
SHEAR TEST ON REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
11.1 Objective:
To study the behavior of reinforced concrete beam with and without shear
reinforcement.
11.2 Apparatus:
Steel Scale, Dial Gauge (Least count = 0.01mm), Loading frame (Capacity =
20tonnes).
11.3 Theory:
The ultimate Limit State in flexural shear means shear associated with a
varying bending moment. Commonly, flexural shear is simply referred to as shear. In
the case of slabs, this type of shear is sometimes referred to as one-way shear and is
distinct from two-way shear (punching shear), which is associated with the possibility
of punching through a relatively thin slab by a concentrated column load. Another
type of shear that needs consideration is torsional shear (due to torsion), which occurs,
generally in combination with flexural shear.
In beams, flexure and shear combine to create a bi-axial state of stress. This
causes principal stresses. The principal stresses generated are compressive and tensile
in nature. In the case of RC beams cracks are formed when the principal stress
exceeds the tensile strength of concrete.
In the region of bending, cracks appear perpendicular to the axis of the
member (vertical cracks). In the region of high shear force, the principal stresses are
generated at approximately 45o to the axis of the member. This leads to diagonal
cracking.
11.3.1 Shear Transfer Mechanism
There are several mechanisms by which shear are transmitted between two
adjacent planes in a reinforced concrete beam. The transverse (external) shear force is
denoted as V (and has a maximum value near support, equal to the support reaction).
It is resisted by various mechanisms, the major ones being:
Shear resistance, Vcz of the uncracked portion of the concrete. Vertical

component, Vay of the interface shear (aggregate interlock) force, Va Dowel force, Vd
of the tension reinforcement (due to dowel action) Shear resistance, Vs carried by the
shear (transverse) reinforcement, if any.
97
C
Vcz
Vs
Va
T
Vd
Fig. 11.1. Shear Mechanism in R.C.C. beams
The interface shear Va is a tangential force transmitted along the inclined plane
of the crack, resulting from the friction against relative slip between the interlocking
surface of the crack. Its contribution can be significant, if the crack-width is limited.
The equilibrium of vertical forces in above figure results in the relation:
V = Vcz + Vay + Vd + Vs
11.3.2 Beams without Shear Reinforcement
In beams without shear reinforcement, the component Vs is absent altogether.

Moreover, in the absence of stirrups enclosing the longitudinal bars, there is little
restraint against splitting failure, and the dowel force Vd is small. Furthermore, the
crack propagation is unrestrained, and hence, fairly rapid, resulting in a fall in the
aggregate interface forces Va and also a reduction in the area of the un-cracked
concrete (in the limited compression zone) which contributes to Vcz. However, in
relatively deep beams, tied-arch action may develop following inclined cracking,
thereby transferring part of the load to the support, and so reducing the effective shear
force at the section.
Thus, in the beams without shear reinforcement, the breakdown of any of the
shear transfer mechanisms may cause immediate failure, as there is little scope for
redistribution. Further, owing to the uncertainties associated with all the above effects,
it is difficult to predict precisely the behavior and strength beyond the stage of
diagonal cracking in beams without shear reinforcement.
11.3.3 Beams with Shear Reinforcement
In beams with moderate amounts of shear reinforcement, shear resistance

continues to increase even after inclined cracking, until the shear reinforcement yields
in tension, and the force Vs cannot exceed its ultimate value Vus. Any additional shear
V has to be resisted by the increments in Vcz, Vd and Vay. With progressively
widening crack- width (now accelerated by the yielding of the shear reinforcement),
98
Vay, decreases (instead of increasing), thereby forcing Vcz and Vd to increase at a
faster rate until either a splitting (dowel) failure occurs or the concrete in the
compression zone gets crushed under the combined effects of flexural compressive
stress and shear stress.
Owing to the pronounced yielding of the shear reinforcement, the failure of
the shear-reinforced beams is gradual and ductile in nature unlike beams without
shear reinforcement, whose failure in shear is sudden and brittle in nature. However,
if excessive shear reinforcement is provided, it is likely that the ‘Shear-Compression’
mode of failure will occur first, and this is undesirable, as such failure will occur
suddenly, without warning.
11.3.4 Design Strength for RCC Beam without Shear Reinforcement
The magnitude of the design shear strength τc depends on various factors that
100 Ast
are related to the grade of concrete (fck) and the percentage tension steel, pt = .
bd
The value of τc given below
τc =
0.85 0.8 f ck ( )
(1 + 5β ) − 1
6β
where,
0.8 f ck
β= or 1 whichever is greater
6.89 pt
Shear strength Vc = τc × bd
11.3.5 Design Strength for RCC Beam with Shear Reinforcement:
Shear Strength V = Vc + Vs
where,
Vc = Shear Strength resisted by concrete
Vs = Shear Strength resisted by stirrups (Shear Reinforcement)
0.87 f y Asv d
Vs =
sv
99
TEST
SPECIMEN
SIMPLY
SUPPORTED
END
DIAL GAUGES
PLATFORM
Fig. 11.2. Experimental Setup
11.4 Procedure:
The experimental setup is as shown in Fig 9.2. The load is applied in the
interval of 500 kg for without shear reinforcement span. Deflections are measured
with the help of dial the centre gauges at and under load point. The results are shown
in tabulated form. For shear reinforced span, the load increment in the range of
1000kg.
11.5 Observation and Calculation:
Width, b = 150 mm
Overall depth, D = 200 mm
Clear cover, d’ = 20 mm
Effective depth, d = (200-20-16/2-6)
= 166 mm
3 × 16 2 × π
Ast = = 603.19 mm2
4
pt = ( Ast / bd ) x 100
= (603/150 x 166) x 100 = 2.423%
Compressive load taken by cubes = 97.334tonnes

Compressive strength of cubes = 45.83/mm2.
τc = 0.9615 MPa ( From IS 456-2000)
100
Shear strength of the concrete, V c = τc b d
= 0.9615x150x166
= 23.94 kN
Shear strength provided by Stirrups,
d
Vus = f y Asv
sv
= 250 x 0.7854 x 2 x 62 x166/90
= 26.075kN
Therefore shear strength of the beam without stirrups = Vc = 23.94 kN
Therefore shear strength of the beam with stirrups = Vc + Vs= 23.94 + 26.075
= 50.015 kN
Table 11.1: Load-Deflection variation in RC Beam without Shear Reinforcement
Dial gauge
Load (tonne) Load (kN) reading Deflection (mm)
0 0 879 0
0.5 4.905 890 0.11
1 9.81 901 0.22
1.5 14.715 912 0.33
2 19.62 924 0.45
2.5 24.525 934 0.55
3 29.43 944 0.65
3.5 34.335 954 0.75
4 39.24 963 0.84
4.5 44.145 975 0.96
5 49.05 989 1.1
6 58.86 1014 1.35
7 68.67 1036 1.57
8 78.48 1062 1.83
9 88.29 1096 2.17
10 98.1 Ultimate Load at collapse
Ultimate stress = 3.27 MPa
101
Table 11.2: Load-Deflection variation in RC Beam with Shear Reinforcement
Load (tonne) Load (kN) Dial gauge reading Deflection (mm)

0 0 662 0
1 9.81 682 0.2
2 19.62 715 0.53
3 29.43 748 0.86
4 39.24 775 1.13
5 49.05 800 1.38
6 58.86 830 1.68
7 68.67 859 1.97
8 78.48 880 2.18
9 88.29 905 2.43
10 98.1 937 2.75
11 107.91 970 3.08
12 117.72 1005 3.43
13 127.53 1035 3.73
14 137.34 Ultimate Load at collapse
Ultimate stress = 4.58 MPa
Fig. 11.3. Loads Vs Deflection in R.C. Beams With and Without Shear
Reinforcement
102
11.6 Result
Experimental Values:
Shear Strength of beam without shear reinforcement = 98.1 kN
Shear Strength of beam with shear reinforcement = 137.3 kN
Theoretical Values:
Shear Strength of beam without shear reinforcement = 23.94 kN
Shear Strength of beam with shear reinforcement = 50.01 kN
Fig. 11.4. Failure pattern for R.C.C beam without stirrups due to shear
11.7 Conclusion
It is observed from the test that crack formed in both the beams approximately
at 45o as per theoretical assumptions. The crack started at a distance of effective depth
from the face of the support. In the theoretical shear strength values (τc - taken from
IS 456-2000), partial safety factors are included. Hence we are getting higher
experimental values than theoretical values. Number of cracks formed in the beam
without shear reinforcement is 5, while that formed in the beam with shear
reinforcement is 9. But crack widths are larger in beam without shear reinforcement
scompared to with shear reinforcement.
103
EXPERIMENT 12
MODEL TEST ON PLATES WITH DIFFERENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
12.1 Objective
To study the behavior of square plate loaded at the center under different
support conditions like simply supported on edges (corners free), simply supported on
edges (corners restrained), simply supported on corners (corners free), simply
supported on corners (corners restrained)
12.2 Apparatus
Electrical strain gauges (4-strain rosettes), Strain measuring equipment, Dial

gauges (4 no.s), Weights (upto 10kgs)
12.3 Theory
Plates are straight, plane (flat, no curved) surface structures whose thickness is
slight compared to their other dimensions. Geometrically, they are bound either by
straight or curved lines. Statically plates have free simply supported and fixed
boundary conditions including elastic supports and elastic restraints, or in some cases
point supports. The static or dynamic loads carried by plates are predominantly
perpendicular to the plate surface.
Basic assumptions for small deflection plate theory are as follows. The
material of the plate is elastic, homogeneous and isotropic. The plate is initially flat.
The thickness of the plate is small compared to its other dimensions. The smallest
lateral dimension of the plate is at least ten times larger than its thickness. The
deflections are small compared to the plate thickness. A maximum deflection from
one tenth to one fifth of the thickness is considered as the limit for small deflection
theory. The deflection of the plate is produced by displacement of points of the
middle surface normal to the initial plane.
12.3.1 Strain Rosette for Strain Measurement
A wire strain gauge can effectively measure strain in only one direction. To
determine the three independent components of plane strain, three linearly
independent strain measures are needed, i.e., three strain gages positioned in a rosette-
like layout.
Consider a strain rosette attached on
the surface with an angle a from the x-axis.
The rosette itself contains three strain gages
with the internal angles b and g, as
illustrated on the right.
Suppose that the strain measured
from these three strain gages are εa, εb, and
εc, respectively.
The following coordinate
transformation equation is used to convert
104
the longitudinal strain from each strain gage into strain expressed in the x-y
coordinates,
Applying this equation to each of the three strain gages results in the following
system of equations,
These equations are then used to solve for the three unknowns, εx, εy, and εxy.
For our case

45º strain rosette aligned with the x-y axes, i.e., α= 0º, β= γ = 45º.
tan2θp= 2εxy/(εx -εy)
12.4 Procedure
The dimensions of the plate were measured. The plate was gradually loaded in
steps of 2kg up to 10kg and then unloaded in the same sequence. The strain and
deflection measurements were taken during loading and unloading. The test was
repeated for all the four boundary conditions.
1. Simply supported on edges (corners free)

2. Simply supported on edges (corners restrained)
3. Simply supported on corners (corners free)
4. Simply supported on corners (corners restrained)
105
D3 D2 D1
D5 D4
6
300
4 5
2 1
150
300
10
150
150
All dimensions in mm
W
106
12.5 Observations
Table 12.1 Dial Gauge Readings - Case1 - Plate Simply Supported On Edges (Corners Free)
Load Dial Gauge (1) Dial Gauge (2) Dial Gauge (3) Dial Gauge(4) Dial Gauge(5)
kg N L UL Avg. L UL Avg. L UL Avg. L UL Avg. L UL Avg.
0 0 322 315 318.5 300 295 297.5 849 844 846.5 230 224 227 480 471 475.5
2 19.6 259 248 253.5 254 246 250 816 807 811.5 170 157 163.5 408 390 399
4 39.2 217 212 214.5 220 215 217.5 787 783 785 117 112 114.5 342 335 338.5
6 58.9 197 192 194.5 200 196 198 777 773 775 96 92 94 308 302 305
8 78.5 178 175 176.5 182 179 180.5 767 767 767 76 74 75 272 270 271
10 98.1 159 159 159 164 164 164 756 756 756 57 57 57 240 240 240
Table 12.2 Dial Gauge Readings - Case2 - Plate Simply Supported On Edges (Corners Restrained)
0 0 299 289 294 283 289 286 822 818 820 187 179 183 452 435 443.5
2 19.6 248 238 243 245 238 241.5 797 793 795 141 135 138 385 370 377.5
4 39.2 219 212 215.5 222 212 217 785 781 783 118 113 115.5 345 332 338.5
6 58.9 198 194 196 204 194 199 775 771 773 98 94 96 310 298 304
8 78.5 179 176 177.5 185 176 180.5 764 762 763 79 76 77.5 275 265 270
10 98.1 161 161 161 169 169 169 755 755 755 62 62 62 241 241 241
107
Table 12.3 Dial Gauge Readings - Case3 - Plate Simply Supported On Corners (Corners Free)
0 0 389 378 383.5 303 301 302 548 537 542.5 398 389 393.5 735 727 731
2 19.6 316 300 308 225 219 222 476 467 471.5 320 307 313.5 631 608 619.5
4 39.2 241 225 233 147 142 144.5 412 401 406.5 244 229 236.5 535 510 522.5
6 58.9 166 153 159.5 65 64 64.5 350 335 342.5 141 154 147.5 435 418 426.5
8 78.5 93 83 88 1 1 1 290 277 283.5 91 83 87 342 331 336.5
10 98.1 23 23 23 1 1 1 231 231 231 22 22 22 260 260 260
Table 12.4 Dial Gauge Readings - Case4 - Plate Simply Supported On Corners (Corners Restrained)
0 0 374 360 367 313 298 305.5 552 538 545 401 386 393.5 714 641 677.5
2 19.62 325 302 313.5 260 239 249.5 508 487 497.5 349 326 337.5 642 575 608.5
4 39.24 267 245 256 299 179 239 440 538 489 291 268 279.5 562 525 543.5
6 58.86 205 184 194.5 238 115 176.5 408 386 397 231 209 220 480 432 456
8 78.48 142 129 135.5 70 58 64 354 343 348.5 170 158 164 400 372 386
10 98.1 79 79 79 8 8 8 300 306 303 114 114 114 320 320 320
L= Loading UL= Unloading Avg. =Average
108
Table 12.5 Deflection for Case-1 Plate Simply Supported on Edges
(Corners Free)
Load Deflection At The Gauge Points in mm
kg N 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.62 0.65 0.475 0.35 0.635 0.765
4 39.24 1.04 0.8 0.615 1.125 1.37
6 58.86 1.24 0.995 0.715 1.33 1.705
8 78.48 1.42 1.17 0.795 1.52 2.045
10 98.10 1.595 1.336 0.905 1.7 2.355
Table 12.6 Deflection for Case-2 Plate Simply Supported on Edges

(Corners Restrained)
kg N 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.62 0.51 0.445 0.25 0.45 0.66
4 39.24 0.785 0.69 0.37 0.67 1.05
6 58.86 0.98 0.87 0.47 0.87 1.395
8 78.48 1.165 1.055 0.57 1.055 1.735
10 98.10 1.33 1.17 0.65 1.21 2.025
109
Table 12.7 Deflection for Case-3 Plate Simply Supported on Corners
(Corners Free)
Kg N 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.62 0.755 0.8 0.71 0.8 1.115
4 39.24 1.505 1.575 1.36 1.57 2.085
6 58.86 2.24 2.375 2 2.46 3.045
8 78.48 2.955 3.01 2.59 3.065 3.945
10 98.10 3.605 3.01 3.115 3.715 4.71
Table 12.8 Deflection Calculations for Case-4 Plate Simply Supported on

Corners (Corners Restrained)
kg N 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0
2 19.62 0.535 0.56 0.475 0.56 0.69
4 39.24 1.11 0.665 0.56 1.14 1.34
6 58.86 1.725 1.29 1.48 1.735 2.215
8 78.48 2.315 2.415 1.965 2.295 2.915
10 98.10 2.88 2.975 2.42 2.795 3.575
110
Fig. 12.2 Load Vs Deflection for Case-1
(Supported On Edges & Corners Free)
Fig. 12.3 Load Vs Deflection for Case2

(Supported On Edges & Corners Restrained)
111
(Supported On Corners & Corners Free)

(Supported On Corners & Corners Restrained)
112
Fig. 12.6 Comparison between Different Cases at Dial Gauge 1
113
114
115
Table 12.9 Top Strain gauge readings - Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Free)
Top Strain Gage Reading
Loa
d in Strain 1 Strain 2 Strain 3 Strain 4 Strain 5 Strain 6
kg Loadin Unloadin Loadin Unloadin Unloadin Unloadin Loadin Unloadin Loadin Unloadin
Loading Loading
g g g g g g g g g g
0 20.1 9.6 36.1 32.9 13.4 21.3 318.8 327.6 27.8 15.8 36.3 32.8
2 -71..5 -93.5 -50.0 -55.2 -53.5 -52.6 117.1 108.3 -49.1 -64.1 35.5 37.7
4 -158.0 -164.0 -50.3 -48.1 -82.2 -81.0 -66.0 -60.0 -129.0 -142.5 40.5 35.5
6 -204.4 -210.5 -11.3 -4.0 -109.6 -111.6 -160.0 -153.7 -217.8 -225.5 6.6 4.5
8 -244.3 -245.1 36.3 41.3 -138.4 -130.1 -239.0 -234.5 -239.3 -297.8 -25 -23.6
10 -281.9 -281.9 82.3 82.3 -169 -169 -310.7 -310.7 365.8 365.8 -51.6 -51.6
Table 12.10 Top face Strains- Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Free)
Strain 1 Strain 2 Strain 3 Strain 4 Strain 5 Strain 6
Load Strain 1 Strain 2 Strain 3 Strain 4 Strain 5 Strain 6
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4
kg Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10-4
0 14.850 0.000 34.500 0.000 17.350 0.000 323.200 0.000 21.800 0.000 34.550 0.000
2 -82.500 0.974 -52.600 0.871 -53.050 0.704 112.700 2.195 -56.600 0.784 36.600 -0.021
4 -161.000 1.759 -49.200 0.837 -81.600 0.990 -63.000 3.952 -135.750 1.576 38.000 -0.035
6 -207.450 2.223 -7.650 0.422 -110.600 1.280 -156.850 4.891 -221.650 2.435 5.550 0.290
8 -244.700 2.596 38.800 -0.043 -134.250 1.516 -236.750 5.690 -268.550 2.904 -24.300 0.589
10 -281.900 2.968 82.300 -0.478 -169.000 1.864 -310.700 6.429 365.800 -3.440 -51.600 0.862
116
Table 12.11 Principal plane Angle - Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Free)
1st Rosette (Strain Gauges 1,2&3) 2nd Rosette (Strain Gauges 4,5&6)
Load
kg εx *10-4 εy *10-4 εxy *10-4 Angle εx *10-4 εy *10-4 εxy *10-4 Angle
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 0.974 0.704 0.032 6.733 2.195 -0.021 -0.303 -7.659
4 1.759 0.990 -0.537 -27.212 3.952 -0.035 -0.383 -5.445
6 2.223 1.280 -1.330 -35.251 4.891 0.290 -0.156 -1.938
8 2.596 1.516 -2.099 -37.808 5.690 0.589 -0.236 -2.639
10 2.968 1.864 -2.894 -39.620 6.429 0.862 -7.085 -34.293
Table 12.12 Top Strain gauge readings – Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Restrained)
Load
kg
Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Loading Unloading
0 27.3 16.4 31.0 25.4 9.4 23.3 282.2 271.2 48.7 54.5 82.1 107.0
2 -58.2 -70.4 -24.7 -29.2 -45.1 -32.4 116.6 107.0 -28.7 -34.2 74.0 68.64
4 -125.0 -128.5 -12.5 -4.9 -62.5 -61.2 15.7 15.0 -116.9 -119.4 44.8 53.0
6 -169.4 -117.9 34.9 38.2 -89.0 -94.1 -70 -75.2 -190.7 -200.9 23.3 22.5
8 -211.3 -211.6 77.1 81.5 -119.4 -124.1 -148.3 -159.2 -265.1 -272.2 -5.3 -3.5
10 -254.3 -254.3 119.8 119.8 153.3 153.3 -224.9 -224.9 -332.9 -332.9 -27.1 -27.1
117
Table 12.13 Top face Strains- Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Restrained)

kg Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 21.850 0.000 28.200 0.000 16.350 0.000 276.700 0.000 51.600 0.000 94.550 0.000
2 -64.300 0.862 -26.950 0.552 -38.750 0.551 111.800 1.649 -31.450 0.831 71.320 0.232
4 -126.750 1.486 -8.700 0.369 -61.850 0.782 15.350 2.614 -118.150 1.698 48.900 0.457
6 -143.650 1.655 36.550 -0.084 -91.550 1.079 -72.600 3.493 -195.800 2.474 22.900 0.717
8 -211.450 2.333 79.300 -0.511 -121.750 1.381 -153.750 4.305 -268.650 3.203 -4.400 0.990
10 -254.300 2.762 119.800 -0.916 153.300 -1.370 -224.900 5.016 -332.900 3.845 -27.100 1.217
Table 12.14 Principal plane Angle – Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners Restrained)
1st rosette (strain gauges 1,2&3) 2nd rosette (strain gauges 4,5&6)
Load
kg εx *10-4 εy *10-4 εxy *10-4 Angle εx *10-4 εy *10-4 εxy *10-4 Angle
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 0.862 0.551 -0.155 -22.465 1.649 0.232 -0.110 -4.422
4 1.486 0.782 -0.765 -32.662 2.614 0.457 0.163 4.286
6 1.655 1.079 -1.451 -39.405 3.493 0.717 0.369 7.451
8 2.333 1.381 -2.368 -39.337 4.305 0.990 0.556 9.269
10 2.762 -1.370 -1.612 -18.995 5.016 1.217 0.729 10.499
118
Table 12.15 Top Strain gauge readings – Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners Free)
Load
kg
0 48..5 47.7 33.4 41.10 23.5 24.8 387.5 386.1 19.1 10.4 56.7 54.2
2 -38.5 -47.1 -42.5 -32.9 -72.9 -71.9 192.5 196.3 -98.3 -105.7 5.0 14.2
4 -121.1 -124.4 -116.4 -99.4 -161.7 -164.1 8.1 14.4 -205.2 -20.4 -32.1 -24.2
6 -205.4 -210.5 -181.1 -172.5 -252.5 -250.0 -175.6 -172.0 -307.6 -317.8 -61.3 -57.1
8 -236.0 -237.9 -243.9 -231.6 -331.0 -342.6 -350.1 -345.6 -401.1 -411.5 -83.9 -81.0
10 -361.2 -361.2 -280.1 -280.1 -415.3 -415.3 -509.3 -509.3 -492.1 -492.1 -100.6 -100.6
Table 12.16 Top face Strains- Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners Free)
-4 -4 -4 -4
kg Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 48.100 0.000 37.250 0.000 24.150 0.000 386.800 0.000 14.750 0.000 55.450 0.000
2 -42.800 0.909 -37.700 0.750 -72.400 0.966 194.400 1.900 -102.000 1.200 9.600 0.459
4 -122.750 1.709 -107.900 1.500 -162.900 1.871 11.250 3.800 -112.800 1.300 -28.150 0.836
6 -207.950 2.561 -176.800 2.100 -251.250 2.754 -173.800 5.600 -312.700 3.300 -59.200 1.147
8 -236.950 2.851 -237.750 2.800 -336.800 3.610 -347.850 7.300 -406.300 4.200 -82.450 1.379
10 -361.200 4.093 -280.100 3.200 -415.300 4.395 -509.300 9.000 -492.100 5.100 -100.600 1.561
119
Table 12.17 Principal plane Angle – Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners free)
Load 1st Rosette (Strain Gauges 1,2&3) 2nd Rosette (Strain Gauges 4,5&6)
-4
kg εx*10 εy*10-4 εxy*10-4 Angle εx*10-4 εy*10-4 εxy*10-4 Angle
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 0.862 0.551 -0.155 -22.465 1.649 0.232 -0.110 -4.422
4 1.486 0.782 -0.765 -32.662 2.614 0.457 0.163 4.286
6 1.655 1.079 -1.451 -39.405 3.493 0.717 0.369 7.451
8 2.333 1.381 -2.368 -39.337 4.305 0.990 0.556 9.269
10 2.762 -1.370 -1.612 -18.995 5.016 1.217 0.729 10.499
Table 12.18 Top Strain gauge readings – Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)

Load
kg
0 -18.4 -12.6 -2.3 -26.3 35.1 18.5 423.3 376.9 64.5 34.1 72.0 61.4
2 -23.0 -81.7 -27.8 -15.4 -29.7 -62.2 268.9 202.6 -19.6 -53.7 51.4 58.2
4 -94.3 -146.9 -71.5 -112.7 -110.7 -142.0 108.7 44.0 -103.9 -137.8 34.9 23.0
6 -158.9 -205.5 -119.6 -158.3 -193.6 -230.5 -60.6 -122.0 -193.1 -229.6 18.0 -2.6
8 -241.1 -269.3 -161.4 -103 -269.8 -298 -229 -260.4 -284.5 -302.1 6.8 -3.8
10 -318.5 -318.5 -208.3 -208.3 -339.6 -339.6 -387.6 -387.6 -360.6 -360.6 -1.2 -1.2
120
Table 12.19 Top face Strains- Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)
Load Strain1 Strain2 Strain3 Strain4 Strain5 Strain6
-4 -4 -4 -4
kg Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 -15.5 0.000 -14.3 0.000 26.8 0.000 400.1 0.000 49.3 0.000 66.7 0.000
2 -52.35 0.369 -21.6 0.073 -45.95 0.728 235.75 1.600 -36.65 0.860 54.8 0.119
4 -120.6 1.051 -92.1 0.780 -126.35 1.532 76.35 3.200 -120.85 1.700 28.95 0.378
6 -182.2 1.667 -138.95 1.200 -212.05 2.389 -91.3 4.900 -211.35 2.600 7.7 0.590
8 -255.2 2.397 -132.2 1.200 -283.9 3.107 -244.7 6.400 -293.3 3.400 1.5 0.652
10 -318.5 3.030 -208.3 1.900 -339.6 3.664 -387.6 7.900 -360.6 4.100 -1.2 0.679
Table 12.20 Principal plane Angle – Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)
kg εx*10-4 εy*10-4 εxy*10-4 Angle εx*10-4 εy*10-4 εxy*10-4 Angle
0 0 0 0 90 0 0 0 90
2 0.369 0.728 -0.475 34.667 1.644 0.119 -0.022 -0.818
4 1.051 1.532 -0.513 32.474 3.238 0.378 -0.106 -2.121
6 1.667 2.389 -0.781 32.624 4.914 0.590 -0.146 -1.926
8 2.397 3.107 -1.573 38.661 6.448 0.652 -0.124 -1.226
10 3.030 3.664 -1.407 38.671 7.877 0.679 -0.179 -1.424
121
Fig. 12.11 Plot of Load Vs. Strain Curve for Strain Gage -1 Under Different
Boundary Conditions (For Top side)
122
Fig. 12.13 Plot of Load Vs. Strain Curve for Strain Gage-3 Under Different
123
124
Fig. 12.17 Principal plane angle Vs Load relationship for case-1 Plate Simply
Supported on Edges (Corners free) (For Top side)
Supported on Edges (Corners restrained) (For Top side)
125
Supported on Corners (Corners free) (For Top side)
Supported on Corners (Corners restrained) (For Top side)
126
Table 12.21 Bottom Strain gauge readings - Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners free)
Bottom Strain Gage Reading
Load
kg
0 43.7 37.4 42.9 37.8 25.6 16.0 59.5 49.1 29.2 19.1 23.3 22.8
2 149.6 132.5 144.2 130.7 83.3 72.1 276.5 240.6 130.5 117.4 30.5 34.0
4 220.0 211.2 154.4 150.5 117.3 104.2 437.9 424.6 235.6 216.6 46.2 36.4
6 254.1 244.3 125.3 121.7 150.2 137.3 529.7 521.6 349.3 335.5 91.4 81.0
8 277.1 275.5 95.7 94.6 180.3 173.7 603.4 599.4 449.1 437.6 132.8 127.1
10 304.2 304.2 70.9 70.9 208.9 208.9 673.8 673.8 -544.9 -544.9 176.2 176.2
Table 12.22 Bottom face Strains- Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners free)
in kg Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 40.55 0.000 40.35 0.000 20.8 0.000 54.3 0.000 24.15 0.000 23.05 0.000
2 141.05 -1.010 137.45 -1.000 77.7 -0.569 258.55 -2.000 123.95 -1.000 32.25 -0.092
4 215.6 -1.750 152.45 -1.000 110.75 -0.900 431.25 -4.000 226.1 -2.000 41.3 -0.183
6 249.2 -2.090 123.5 -0.800 143.75 -1.230 525.65 -5.000 342.4 -3.200 86.2 -0.632
8 276.3 -2.360 95.15 -0.500 177 -1.560 601.4 -5.000 443.35 -4.200 129.95 -1.069
10 304.2 -2.640 70.9 -0.300 208.9 -1.880 673.8 -6.000 -544.9 5.700 176.2 -1.532
127
Table 12.23 Principal plane Angle - Case1 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners free)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 -1.005 -0.600 -0.184 20.093 -2.000 -0.092 0.069 -2.032
4 -1.751 -0.900 0.204 -12.814 -4.000 -0.183 -0.044 0.695
6 -2.087 -1.000 0.827 -31.314 -5.000 -0.632 -0.510 7.018
8 -2.358 -2.000 1.412 -37.151 -5.000 -1.070 -0.922 11.370
10 -2.637 -2.000 1.953 -39.547 -6.000 -1.530 9.550 -38.161
Table 12.24 Bottom Strain gauge readings – Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners restrained)
Load
in kg
0 79.4 36.9 70.3 41.8 44.3 33.1 148.0 115.7 7.4 -4.6 -19.6 -16.7
2 155.0 120.9 125.7 105.3 88.4 78.9 300.5 279.7 120.8 100.5 1.5 -1.4
4 201.3 177.1 107.4 100.2 114.0 98.6 391.7 374.0 233.0 215.0 38.5 28.6
6 228.8 216.3 74.6 73.3 146.9 135.4 474.4 464.2 341.8 326.5 77.9 70.8
8 251.7 249.0 44.6 46.4 177.9 170.1 547.8 540.3 438.8 428.1 115.4 109.0
10 270 270 17.9 17.9 200.9 200.9 607.3 607.3 371.1 371.1 147.2 147.2
128
Table 12.25 Bottom face Strains- Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners restrained)

in kg Average *10-4 Average *10 -4
Average *10 -4
Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 58.150 0.000 56.050 0.000 38.700 0.000 131.850 0.000 1.400 0.000 -18.150 -0.182
2 137.950 -0.798 115.500 -0.600 83.650 -0.450 290.100 -2.000 110.650 -1.093 0.050 -0.517
4 189.200 -1.311 103.800 -0.500 106.300 -0.676 382.850 -3.000 224.000 -2.226 33.550 -0.925
6 222.550 -1.644 73.950 -0.200 141.150 -1.020 469.300 -3.000 334.150 -3.328 74.350 -1.304
8 250.350 -1.922 45.500 0.110 174.000 -1.350 544.050 -4.000 433.450 -4.321 112.200 -1.654
10 270.000 -2.119 17.900 0.380 200.900 -1.620 607.300 -5.000 371.100 -3.697 147.200 -0.182
Table 12.26 Principal plane Angle – Case2 - Plate Simply Supported on Edges (Corners restrained)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 -22.511 0.000 -0.182 0.091 22.511
2 -0.798 -0.400 0.029 -4.767 -2.000 -0.517 -0.043 2.295
4 -1.311 -0.700 0.516 -29.216 -3.000 -0.925 -0.509 16.351
6 -1.644 -1.000 1.155 -37.514 -3.000 -1.300 -0.989 21.846
8 -1.922 -1.000 1.743 -40.385 -4.000 -1.650 -1.430 24.641
10 -2.119 -2.000 2.252 -41.876 -5.000 -0.182 -1.230 14.136
129
Table 12.27 Bottom Strain gauge readings – Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners free)
Load
in kg
0 184.5 149.3 105.3 74.3 62.2 51.2 179.8 168.3 118.6 99.3 90.7 84.8
2 227.0 234.5 207.5 165.0 148.2 129.8 558.8 340.0 257.8 232.6 146.3 134.0
4 357.1 328.5 303.3 291.3 230.7 212.8 569.2 535.6 372.4 368 205.6 192
6 442.7 419.8 412.1 394.8 305.6 290.9 747.4 718.4 523.2 500.0 261.3 248.3
8 519.2 508.8 517.0 511.2 375.5 368.2 908.1 906.2 635.6 628.7 339.3 310.2
10 599.1 599.1 613.5 613.5 431.7 431.7 1061.6 1061.6 734.6 734.6 357.1 357.1
Table 12.28 Bottom face Strains- Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners free)
Load in Strain1 Strain2 Strain3 Strain4 Strain5 Strain6
kg Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 166.900 0.000 89.800 0.000 56.700 0.000 174.050 0.000 108.950 0.000 87.750 0.000
2 230.750 -0.639 186.250 -1.000 139.000 -0.823 449.400 -3.000 245.200 -1.363 140.150 -0.524
4 342.800 -1.759 297.300 -2.000 221.750 -1.650 552.400 -4.000 370.200 -2.613 198.800 -1.111
6 431.250 -2.644 403.450 -3.000 298.250 -2.420 732.900 -6.000 511.600 -4.027 254.800 -1.671
8 514.000 -3.471 514.100 -4.000 371.850 -3.150 907.150 -7.000 632.150 -5.232 324.750 -2.370
10 599.100 -4.322 613.500 -5.000 431.700 -3.750 1061.600 -9.000 734.600 -6.257 357.100 -2.694
130
Table 12.29 Principal plane Angle – Case3 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners free)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 -0.639 -0.800 -0.234 -34.249 -3.000 -0.524 0.276 -6.963
4 -1.759 -2.000 -0.370 40.853 -4.000 -1.110 -0.165 3.531
6 -2.644 -2.000 -0.607 39.702 -6.000 -1.670 -0.397 5.731
8 -3.471 -3.000 -0.932 40.156 -7.000 -2.370 -0.382 4.374
10 -4.322 -4.000 -1.201 38.322 -9.000 -2.690 -0.472 4.343
Table 12.30 Bottom Strain gauge readings – Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)

Load
in kg
0 262.1 206.8 146.9 149.3 34.7 44.3 115.9 136.2 86.4 81.6 64.2 73.9
2 330.3 289.1 205.3 194.9 105.3 107.0 328.0 290.1 193.7 186.7 96.6 102.5
4 390.7 328.5 272.3 285.3 182.8 181.5 480.8 471.3 299 293.3 121.5 135.0
6 458.0 401.7 347.2 337.2 254.6 256.7 652.6 638.4 410.1 400.6 168.7 171.1
8 515.0 478.7 423.9 416.2 320.8 317.9 740.4 317.4 506.9 507.2 200.7 203.7
10 855.1 855.1 504.9 504.9 374.9 374.9 931.6 931.6 606.0 606.0 241.7 241.7
131
Table 12.31 Bottom face Strains- Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)

Load in Strain1 Strain2 Strain3 Strain4 Strain5 Strain6
kg Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10 -4
Average *10-4 Average *10-4 Average *10-4
0 234.450 0.000 148.100 0.000 39.500 0.000 126.050 0.000 84.000 0.000 69.050 0.000
2 309.700 -0.753 200.100 -0.500 106.150 -0.667 309.050 -2.000 190.200 -1.062 99.550 -0.305
4 359.600 -1.252 278.800 -1.000 182.150 -1.430 476.050 -4.000 296.150 -2.122 128.250 -0.592
6 429.850 -1.954 342.200 -2.000 255.650 -2.160 645.500 -5.000 405.350 -3.214 169.900 -1.009
8 496.850 -2.624 420.050 -3.000 319.350 -2.800 528.900 -4.000 507.050 -4.231 202.200 -1.332
10 855.100 -6.207 504.900 -4.000 374.900 -3.350 931.600 -8.000 606.000 -5.220 241.700 -1.727
Table 12.32 Principal plane Angle – Case4 - Plate Simply Supported on Corners (Corners restrained)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 -22.511 0.000 0.000 0.000 90.000
2 -0.753 -0.700 0.190 -38.627 -2.000 -0.305 0.006 -0.207
4 -1.252 -1.000 0.032 10.049 -4.000 -0.592 -0.076 1.487
6 -1.954 -2.000 0.117 24.199 -5.000 -1.010 -0.112 1.532
8 -2.624 -3.000 -0.008 -2.702 -4.000 -1.330 -1.550 24.505
10 -6.207 -3.000 1.212 -20.192 -8.000 -1.730 -0.329 2.969
132
Boundary Conditions (For Bottom side)
133
134
135
Supported on Edges (Corners free) (For Bottom side)
Supported on Edges (Corners restrained) (For Bottom side)
136
Supported on Corners (Corners free) (For Bottom side)
Supported on Corners (Corners restrained) (For Bottom side)
12.6 Conclusion
From graphs it is observed that load deflection relationship is linear. The

deflection for the plates can be considerably lowered by restraining at the
supports. The deflection of the plate supported on edges is lesser then that for
plates supported on corners. The Orientation of Principal Planes is changing
with change in load.
137
EXPERIMENT 13
DETERMINATION OF ‘E’ AND ‘µ’ BY BENDING TEST ON ACRYLIC

FLAT USING ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGES
13.1 Objective
To find Modulus of Elasticity (E) and Poisson’s ratio (µ) of an acryllic flat
simply supported at its ends and subjected to four points loading on the beam.
13.2 Apparatus
Electrical strain Gauges, Dial Gauge(L.C 0.01mm), Multi Channel Digital

strain meter , Simply Supported beam with one end hinged other roller, Venire
calipers, Acrylic Flat
13.3 Theory
The basic assumptions of flexure theory are as follows. Plane section remains
plane before bending and after bending. Material should follow Hook’s law within
elastic limit. Material should be homogeneous, isotropic, and free from residual
stresses. Compression flange is laterally restrained. Load is applied gradually.
Flexure formula
M f E
= =
I y R
Moment versus curvature relationship
M 1
= =φ
EI R
Curvature, φ= (є1+ є2) / d;
Where ε = strain in extreme fiber.
W W
aL (1-2a)L aL
Deflection
Fig. 13.1 Simply supported beam with four point load
138
The deflection is given by,
a (3 − 4a 2 )WL3
∆=
24 EI
The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity can be calculated using the load
displacement graph. This value is compared with the value obtained from deflection
formulae. The Poisson’s ratio (µ) of the steel is calculated plotting graph between
lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
13.4 Procedure
The acrylic flat is supported with one side hinge and other side roller
condition. The dial gauges and strain gauges are fixed at the center of the flat. Two
steel hooks are placed on the beam at equal distance from center of the beam. The
beam is loaded by equal loads on the steel hooks. Readings on the gauges are taken
for loading and the procedure is repeated for unloading also. The steel hooks are
moved to new position towards the support by equal amount from center. Experiment
is repeated for three such different positions of application of loading. Load Vs
deflection and Lateral strain Vs Longitudinal strain graphs were plotted
13.5 Precautions
Take the dial gauge reading only when the loads are perfectly vertical without
oscillations. Take the strain gauge readings only when the readings get stabilized.
139
13.6 Observation and Calculation
Span between the supports of the beam = 66.7cm

Cross section of the beam = 50mm x 10mm
Table 13.1 Load-Deflection Variation

(Distance between the Supports = 33.33 cm)
Load Deflection
Loading Unloading Average
(kg) (mm)
0 0 2220 2184 2202
0.5 4.905 1810 1744 1777
1 9.81 1351 1351 1351
The slope given by the below graph are the ratio of W/∆, from those ratios using the
a(3 − 4a 2 )WL3
formula ∆= , we can calculate the modulus of elasticity.
24 EI
The value of modulus of elasticity E = 1.83 x105 N/mm2
Fig. 13.3 Load Vs Deflection Behaviour for Various Test Setup
140
Table 13.2 Strain Gauge Readings
Longitudinal Tensile Strain Lateral Strain

Poisson
Load Strain Gauge1 Strain Strain Gauge2 Strain Ratio
(kg) Readings Readings
Loading Unloading Average x10-6 Loading Unloading Average x10-6
0 65.2 -12.8 26.2 0 74.4 106.9 90.65 0 0
0.5 -504.4 -601.2 -552.8 0.0005528 276.6 317.4 297 0.000297 0.537265
1 -1161 -1161 -1161 0.001161 516.5 516.5 516.5 0.0005165 0.444875
Fig. 13.3 Lateral Strain v/s Longitudinal Strain
From the graph, the value of Poisson’s ratio = 0.461
141
13.7 Result
Average value of ‘µ’ measured from the strain gauges = 0.41

Average value of ‘E’ measured from the Dial gauges = 1.81 x105 N/mm2
13.8 Conclusions
Load is linearly varying with the deflections as the stress induced by the
applied load is still within the Proportionality limit. Even though we applied four
point load method for getting pure bending, it is not possible to get pure bending,
because the applied point load will affect the local region in terms of shear that makes
shear deformation across the section.
142

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CE 5740 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

CE11M107 RAMMURTHY ARKALA

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING LABBORATORY

1 01.08.2011 Study of Various Equipment and Instruments 01

2 08.08.2011 Casting of RC Beams for Studying Flexural, Shear and 13

4 12.09.2011 Testing of Different Reinforcement Bars Using Mechanical, 21

5 05.09.2011 Flexural Tests on RC Beams (Over Reinforced and Under 37

6 29.08.2011 Study on Rolled Steel Joist 54

7 22.08.2011 Buckling of Steel Columns Made of Angles 66

8 10.10.2011 Test on RC Short Columns 76

9 03.10.2011 Pull-Out Bond Test on Reinforcing Bar 83

10 26.09.2011 Test on RC Beam Under Torsional Moment 92

11 19.09.2011 Shear Test on RC Beams 97

12 24.10.2011 Model Test on Plates with Different Boundary Conditions 104

STUDY OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

1.1 Strain measurement

1.1.1 One Element Type

Fig. 1.1 Single Element Strain Gauges

Fig. 1.2 Two Element Strain Gauge

Fig. 1.3 Strain Rosette

1.2 Deformation Measurement

Deformations are of two types:

1.2.2 Needle Types Dial Gauges

Fig. 1.4 Needle Type Dial Gauges

1.2.3 Digital Dial Gauges

Fig. 1.5 Digital Dial Gauge

Fig. 1.6 Circular Dial Gauge

1.3 Longitudinal Deformation

1.4 Vertical Extensometer

Fig. 1.8 Compressometer

Fig. 1.9 Inclinometer

1.6 Crack Width Measurement

Fig. 1.10 Crack Width Microscope

1.7 Load-Measuring Instruments and Devices

1.7.1 Hydraulic Load Cells

Fig. 1.11 Hydraulic Load Cells

1.7.2 Electric Load Cells

Fig 1.12 Electric Load Cells

1.7.3 Proving Ring

Fig. 1.13 Proving Ring

1.8 Concrete Non-Destructive Test Equipment

1.8.1 Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer

1.8.4 Application of Rebound Hammer

1.9 Ultrasonic Concrete Testing

1.10.2 Equipment for Pulse Velocity Test

1.10.4 Transducer Arrangement

1.10.5 Factors Influencing Pulse Velocity Measurements

CASTING OF RC BEAMS FOR STUDYING FLEXURAL, SHEAR AND COLUMNS

2.4 Description of Work Carried Out at the Laboratory

Sl. No. Description Nos. Dimensions (m) Volume (m3)

1 Under reinforced beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060

2 Over reinforced beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060

3 Shear beam 1 2.00 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.060

4 Torsion beam 1 2.20 x 0.15 x 0.20 0.066

5 Column 1 1.40 x 0.15 x 0.15 0.0385

6 Cubes 8 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 0.027

Total volume = 0.3115 m3

Concrete mix ratio = 1: 2.25: 4.5

Quantities of material used are obtained as follows:

Fig. 2.1 Under Reinforced Beam

Fig. 2.3 Shear Beam

4-12mm dia 150mmx150mm

Fig. 2.3 Reinforced Cement Concrete Column