A) FORCES IN REDUNDANT TRUSS

1.0) Introduction

A truss is a structure made of two force members all pin connected to each other.

This method uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to determine the forces in
each member. For example, in the above structure we have 5 joints each having a free body
diagram as follows

Note how Newton’s third law controls how one introduces FAB on the joints A and on the joint

B. For each joint one can write two equations ( 

Fx  0,  Fy  0
). The moment equation is
trivially satisfied since all forces on a joint pass through the joint. For example, for the above
truss we have 5 joints, therefore we can write 10 equations of equilibrium (two for each joint).
In the above example there are seven unknown member forces (FAB, FBC, FCD, FED, FEC, FBE,
FAE) plus three unknown support reactions (A, Dx, Dy), giving a total of 10 unknowns to solve
for using the 10 equations obtained from equilibrium.

1
 This method uses free-body-diagrams of sections of the truss to obtain unknown forces.
For example, if one needs only to find the force in BC, it is possible to do this by only writing
two equations. First, draw the free body diagram of the full truss and solve for the reaction at
A by taking moments about D. Next draw the free body diagram of the section shown and take
moments about E to find the force in BC.

In the method of sections one can write three equations for each free-body-diagram (two
components of force and one moment equation).

Sometimes a joint is redundant. For example, in the following free-body-diagram the load is
directly transmitted from each member to the one opposite it without any interaction.

2
 By summing forces along the y-direction one will get F2=F4, and by summing forces
along the Y‑direction one will get F1=F3.

Sometimes a structure contains one or more redundant members. These members must be
removed from the truss; otherwise one will have an insufficient number of equations to solve
for the unknown member forces. Slender members are not very useful in compression since
they buckle and, as a result, lose their load carrying capability. For example, in the following
truss one of the two members AC or BD is redundant. To solve the problem, we remove
member BD which will go into compression as a result of the applied loading (i.e., the diagonal
AC will have to increase in length and the diagonal BD will have to decease in length for the
structure to bend to the right). If we did not remove this member we would have 9 unknowns
(five member loads and four support reactions) and only 8 equations (two for each joint).

3
2.0) Principles

A structure (Figure 1) may contain one or more redundant members depending on the
degree of indeterminacy. These members must be removed from the truss; otherwise one will
have an insufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown member forces. Once the
truss is statically determine and stable, the internal member forces can be calculated by using
the method of virtual work as shown in figure below.

No joint, b d
members
just cross

Figure 1: Indeterminate/redundant Truss

b d

11 1a12

Figure 2: Virtual work method by applying 1 unit load

4
3.0) Objectives

 To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded redundant truss
experimentally and theoretically.
 The effect of redundant member in a structure is observed and the method of analyzing
type of this structure is understood.

4.0) Apparatus

 Structures test frame

 Redundant truss with strain gages
 Ruler / measuring tape
 Load cell
 Digital indicator force display

5
5.0) Procedures

• The dimension of the truss were measured and tabulated in Table 1.

1

• The load cell was connected to the digital indicator.

2

• The indicator was switched on. It was switched on 10 minutes before any
3 reading were taken to ensure the stability of the readings.

• The indicator reading on Channel 1 were taken note. The tare button was
4 pressed if it is not zero.

• Force display of the indicator were pressed to take the initial readings of all
5 other channel.

• The load was applied at end C, by turning the load cell lever, W to give a
reading of 5N and the loaded readings of each members of the truss were
6 recorded as diaplayed on the indicator.

• The load was increased gradually by 5N each time until the maximum load
of 20N by turning the load cell lever. The readings were recorded in Table
7 2a. The positive and negative readings displayed on indicator were
recorded.

• The load was then decreased by turning the load cell l lever in the reverse
8 direction and all the readings were recorded.

• The forces in the members experimentally for all loading condition were
9 obtained by subtracting the initial reading from the loaded readings.
• The theoritical values of the forces in the members were calculated and the
final results were tabulated in Table 3.
10

6
 6.0) Results

Frame Dimension (mm)

L1 500

L2 500

H 500

Table 1: Truss Dimension

Member Initial reading Increasing W Decreasing W

0 5 10 15 20 15 10 5

BC 4.6 1.7 8.8 15.7 22.0 15.7 8.8 1.5

DC 137.0 131.7 124.4 116.9 112.9 117.6 125.0 134.2

BD -45.3 -45.0 -40.0 -33.3 -29.6 -33.6 -38.5 -43.0

BE 384.0 377.3 363.1 347.0 335.4 347.5 361.4 374.7

AD 165.6 164.5 156.4 146.9 142.0 147.6 155.1 162.3

ED 42.9 38.6 37.1 36.3 35.9 36.7 38.5 42.4

Table 2a: Measured Readings of Forces in Truss

7
 Member Increasing W Decreasing W

5 10 15 20 15 10 5

BC -2.9 4.2 11.1 17.4 11.1 4.2 -3.1

DC -5.3 -12.6 -20.1 -24.1 -19.4 -12.0 -2.8

BD 0.3 5.3 12.0 15.7 11.7 6.8 2.3

BE -6.7 -20.9 -37.0 -48.6 -36.5 -22.6 -9.3

AD -1.1 -9.2 -18.7 -23.6 -18.0 -10.5 -3.3

ED -4.3 -5.8 -6.6 -7.0 -6.2 -4.4 -0.5

Table 2b: Measured Forces in Truss

Table 3: Calculated Forces in Truss

Percentage error
Member Length (mm) Experimental (N) Theory (N)
(%)
705 17.4 28.28
BC 38.47
500 -24.1 -20.0
DC 20.5
500 15.7 -20.0
BD 21.5
705 -48.6 0
BE 0
710 -23.6 -28.28
AD 16.55
500 -7.0 -40.0
ED 82.5
*experimental value used for calculation is W=20N

8
 7.0) Calculations
AY

A B
AX

0.5m

EX
E D C
0.50m 0.50m

20N

Calculated for support reaction

+ Σ ME = 0
20(1) + AX (0.5) = 0
AX = -40 N

+ Σ FX = 0
EX - 40N= 0
EX= 40 N

+ Σ FY = 0
Ay - 20N= 0
Ay = 20 N

At joint C:
FCB

45o

FCD

+ Σ Fy =0
20N
-20+ FCB sin 45° = 0
20
FCB = sin 45°
FCB = 28.28N

+ Σ FX =0
-FCD -FCB cos45° = 0
-FCD -28.28cos 45° = 0
FCD = -20.0N

9
At joint E:

+ Σ Fy = 0
+ Σ FX = 0
FEA = 0
FED + 40N = 0
FED = - 40 N

At joint A:

+ΣFy=0
20N – FAE – FAD sin 45 ° = 0
20N- FAD sin 45 ° = 0
FAD sin 45 °= 20N
20
FAD =
sin 45°
FAD = 28.28N

+ Σ FX = 0
-40 + FAB + FAD cos45° = 0
-40 + FAB + 28.28cos 45° =0
-40 +FAB +20 = 0
F AB = 20N

10
At joint B:

+ ΣFy =0

-FBD – 28.28sin 45°= 0

FBD= -20.0N

8.0) Discussion

 Determinacy of the truss.

When the member of EB has been removed, the truss becomes statically determinate.
b=7 r=3 j=5
Number of Redundant, D = b + r – 2j
D = 7 +3 – 2(5)
D=0
 Percentage of error

11
 Percentage error
Member Length (mm) Experimental (N) Theory (N)
(%)
705 17.4 28.28
BC 38.47
500 -24.1 -20.0
DC 20.5
500 15.7 -20.0
BD 21.5
705 -48.6 0
BE 0
710 -23.6 -28.28
AD 16.55
500 -7.0 -40.0
ED 82.5
From the percentage of error, the accuracy of the experiment was obtained. This
inaccuracy may occur because of some errors that is due to the apparatus, internal or
environment factor.

 Comparison of results obtained.

From the result, we can see that the experiment has a high percentage of error. The
value of experiment obtained is not consistent at all.

 Cause and error during experiment.

There are many types of cause and error during experiment. The error may due to the
environment factor, human factor or the apparatus itself. The apparatus may not control
perfectly as the sensitivity is too high. A little vibration of apparatus leads to the change
of real reading of the indicator. The error while taking the reading from indicator also
the cause that affected the accuracy.

 Precautions step that has to be taken in this experiment.

Reduce the mistake by avoided touching the member or supporter around the
experiment take place. Next, make sure the apparatus is in a good condition and take
the reading while the reading indicator was stable.

9.0) Conclusion

12
 From the experiment we can conclude that the experiment is not acceptable as the
percentage of error was too high due to some of cause. Although the experiment is not achieve,
but we had achieve the objective of this experiment which is to investigate the relationship
between the measured forces in a loaded redundant truss experimentally and theoretically.

The percentages of error of the experiment for BC is 38.47%, for DC is 20.5%, for BD
is 21.5%, for BE is 0%, for AD is 16.55% and for ED is 82.5%.

To improve the experimental results, the accurate value must obtain. The reading of the
indicator should be avoided taken when the value is not stable. This experiment helps the
engineers to preventing the structures fail due to small affect. The application of this
experiment is to construct a roof, bridges and other building structures.

10.0) References

 http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105109/pdf/m2l10.pdf
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/27381814/Truss-Full-Report
 https://blog.udemy.com/truss-analysis/
 http://best.umd.edu/projects/Ohio%20Bridge%20Top%20Chord%20Buckling%20
Analysis%20and%20Redundancy%20Analysis_briefing.htm
 Civil Engineering Laboratory Manual (2nd Edition)

13
11.0) Appendixes

14
15
16
 B) FORCES IN TRUSS

1.0 Introduction

Trusses are often used to stiffen structures, and most people are familiar with the often
very elaborate systems of cross-bracing used in bridges. The truss bracing used to stiffen the
towers of suspension bridges against buckling are hard to miss, but not everyone notices the
vertical truss panels on most such bridges that serve to stiffen the deck against textural and
tensional deformation.

This bridge was built using relatively short I-beams for deck stiffening rather than truss
panels, reportedly for aesthetic reasons; bridge designs of the period favored increasingly
slender and graceful-appearing structures. Even during construction, the bridge became well
known for its alarming tendency to sway in the wind, earning it the local nickname \Galloping
Gertie." Truss stiffeners were used when the bridge was rebuilt in 1950, and the new bridge
was free of the oscillations that led to the collapse of its predecessor. This is a good example
of one important use of trusses, but it is probably an even better example of the value of caution
and humility in engineering.

The glib answers often given for the original collapse | resonant wind gusts, von
Karman vortices, etc are not really satisfactory beyond the obvious statement that the deck was
not stiff enough. Even today, knowledgeable engineers argue about the very complicated
structural dynamics involved. Ultimately, many uncertainties exist even in designs completed
using very modern and elaborate techniques. A wise designer will never fully trust a theoretical
result, computer-generated or not, and will take as much advantage of experience and intuition
as possible.

17
Figure 1 Layout Of Experimental Warren Girde

Figure 2 DTI Mounting Arm Assembly

18
2.0 Principles

The truss that will be investigated in this experiment is a statically determinate planar
truss which the loads are applied only at the joints. Thus, the truss member end forces must be
collinear and opposite for equilibrium.

A planar determinate truss can have only three unknown reaction forces. The forces in
the truss members can be obtained by using the method of joints. In this method, each joint of
the truss is isolated in a free body diagram and the unknown member forces are determined
from equilibrium of of ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0. For an example, the force FAB at joint A can be
determined as be shown in Figure 3.

A
D F
60°

B C

W 140mm

Figure 3

FAB

Joint FAC

RAy = 100 N

Figure 4 : Method of joint in truss

19
When involving with the truss analysis, some assumptions must be considered such as:

1. Loads are applied only at the joints

2. Weight of each member is small compared with the applied load
3. Loads are carried axially by members
4. Geometry is known

By using method of joint, must be strictly known that only two unknown member forces can
be solved for at the time. The remaining joints of the trusses can be isolated and the unknown
member of forces can be determined.

The most practical way for determining the forces in the truss member by experimentally is by
using the strain gage. Since this strain gage measures strain, some conversion must be
performed to obtain the forces in the member.

Hook’s Law is using to calculate stress (σ) by converting the measured strain (ξ). For the case
where the tensile stress is uniformly distributed over the cross sectional area it has the following
form:

E=σ
ɛ

Where E is the modulus of elasticity of the truss member and it depended to the material that
has been used. Since for this experiment, steel has been used, therefore the value of E is:

E= 210GN/m2

Once the stress in the member is determined, it can be converted into force (F) by multiplying
the axial stress by the cross sectional area (A):

σ=F
A

20
3.0 Objective

a) To investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss.

b) To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded frame truss
experimentally and theoretically.

c) To check linearity of the measured strain versus the applied load.

4.0 Apparatus

a) Structures test frame

b) Digital force display
c) Digital strain display
d) Screwdriver
e) Two power supplies for the digital force display and the load cell

21
5.0 Procedures

The dimension of the truss is measured and tabulated in table 1.

The load cell is connected to the digital indicator.

The indicator is switched on for 10 minutes before the reading is taken to stabilize the reading.

The indicator reading is noted on channel 1 and pressed the tare button if the reading is not
zero.

The initial readings of all other channel are taken.

The digital load cell recorder is used. The load is applied at end C by turning the load cell
lever, W, to give a reading 100N and the loaded reading of each member of the truss is
recorded.

The reading of digital joint deflection to be taken in every load and put in table 4

The load cell lever 100N increments are turned by increasing the load gradually each time,
and the reading is recorded until the maximum load 500N into table

The load is decreased by turning the load cell in the reverse direction gradually and the
reading is recorded again.

The forces are obtained in the members experimentally form graphs for 500N loading.

The theoretical values of the forces in the members are calculated for the load of 500N and the
final results is tabulated in Table 3.

22
6.0 Results

LOAD
AD AE AF BD CF DE EF
(N)
0 -8 -11 42 0 6 11 3
100 -15 -4 35 8 3 4 11
200 23 -5 27 15 12 17 24
300 -32 -15 17 21 18 29 36
400 -47 -24 8 27 25 42 48
500 -51 -33 0 33 31 52 59

Table 1 Member Strains (µɛ)

LOAD
AD AE AF BD CF DE EF
(N)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100 -7 7 -7 8 -3 -7 8
200 31 6 -15 15 6 6 21
300 -24 -4 -25 21 12 18 33
400 -39 -13 -34 27 19 31 45
500 -43 -22 -43 33 25 41 56
Table 2 True Member Strains (µɛ)

Calculate the equivalent member forces at 500N to complete the table.

Young’s is the ratio of stress to strain, that is;

E=σ
ɛ
Where:
E = Young’s modules (Nmˉ²)
σ = stress in the member (Nmˉ²)
ɛ = displayed strain

And

23
 σ=F
A

Where
A = Cross-sectional area of member
F = Force in member
Equivalent member forces at 500N

Rod diameter = 5.98mm and E steel = 210 GNmˉ²

Percentage
Member Experiment Force (N) Theoretical Force (N)
Error (%)
AD -43 -54 20.37
AE -22 -28 21.34
AF -43 -54 20.37
BD 33 41 19.51
CF 25 31 19.35
DE 41 51 19.61
EF 56 70 20.00

Table 3 Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Forces

Load (N) Joint Deflection (Mm)

0 0
100 0.072
200 0.120
300 0.140
400 0.164
500 0.185

Table 4 Joint Deflection

24
 Graph Load VS Joint Reflection
Joint Reflection (mm)
0.200
0.180 0.185

0.160 0.164

0.140 0.140
0.120 0.120
0.100
0.080
0.072
0.060
0.040
0.020
Load (N)
0.000
100 200 300 400 500

Graph Load VS Joint Reflection

Calculate the equivalent member forces at 500N

Young’s is the ratio of stress to strain, that is;

E = σ σ=Exɛ
ɛ

Stress in the member (Nmˉ²)

σ = F F=σxA
A

Rod diameter = 5.98mm

E steel = 210 GNmˉ²

25
7.0 Calculation

Member AD Member AF

σ = E xɛ σ = E xɛ
= 210 x -43 = 210 x -43
= -9030 Nmˉ² = -9030 Nmˉ²

F = σ xA F = σ xA
= -9030 x 5.98 = -9030 x 5.98
= -54N = -54N

Member AE Member BD

σ = E xɛ σ = E xɛ
= 210 x -22 = 210 x 33
= -4620 Nmˉ² = 6930 Nmˉ²

F = σ xA F = σ xA
= -4620 x 5.98 = 6930 x 5.98
= -28N = 41N

Member CF Member EF

σ = E xɛ σ = E xɛ
= 210 x 25 = 210 x56
= 5250 Nmˉ² = 11760 Nmˉ²

F = σ xA F = σ xA
= 5250 x 5.98 = 11760 x 5.98
= 31N = 70N

Member DE

σ = E xɛ
= 210 x 41
= 8610 Nmˉ²

F = σ xA
= 8610 x 5.98
= 51N

26
Percentage Error

Error = Theoretical Force – Experiment Force

X 100%
Theoretical Force

Member AD

Percentage Error = - 54 – (-43) X 100%

-54

= 20.37%

Member AE

Percentage Error = - 28 – (-22) X 100%

-28

= 21.43%

Member BD

Percentage Error = 41– (33) X 100%

41

= 19.51%

Average = Total Error

7

= 20.37 + 21.43 + 20.37 + 19.51 + 19.35 + 19.61 + 20

7

= 20.09

27
8.0 DISCUSSION

1. What is the relationship between the experimental and theoretical value obtained?

The differences represent the inaccuracy of the result due to some errors made during
the experiment. One of error can be easily made when conducting the experiment is parallax
error due to wrong eye position when measure the distance of frame .Besides, zero error
could be happened if the indicator does not set in zero position initially. Others than that,
the experimental instruments are sensitive which mean that small forces or vibration can
causes the reading to deviate or sensitivity of the digital force display which is very high
and caused change in values when it detected slightest or the smallest movement, so the
accuracy of the experimental values that obtained is decreased. In addition, if the device
was not well maintenance or the equipment has not fully function correctly, it can also
cause the result getting from the experimental became inaccurate. Then, these forces or
vibration are due to human mistakes or environment factors in the laboratory can also lead
to some error during the experiment.

2. Will there be any changes to the angle of the frame with the loading?

When conducting the experiment, there are changes to the angles of the frame with
the loading. The angle of the frame will be increased when the load is increased. However,
the angle could not be seen or detected from naked eyes due to the changes are very small.
It is because the loads applied are small so cannot to make obvious changes. There are also
positive and negative forces with tension and compression at the member.

3. What are the precautions that should be taken in this experiment to ensure its
accuracy?

Precaution of the experiment that should be taken to ensure the accuracy

a. The digital force display also gives inconsistent .The indicator must be set to zero before
the experiment start to avoid zero error.
b. The digital force display is sensitive .The indicator must be adjustment on for few
minutes before taking any readings to make sure the constancy of the indicator.

28
c. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values in order to get more
accurate results.
d. The vibration on the instrument must be avoided during the experiment to avoid any
deviation of the readings.
e. Besides that, make sure the values shown by the indicator are constant or stable before
taking the readings to reduce the parallax error. Always alert with the positive and
negative values

29
9.0 Conclusion

As a conclusion, the objective of the experiment is determined. From the experiment

that has been carried out, we are success to investigate the relationship between the measured
forces in a loaded frame truss experimentally and theoretically, to check linearity of the
measured strain versus the applied load, to apply the knowledge that we had learned in
mechanics of material and to investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss. The calculation
to evaluate of structural safety can only be done mathematically and the experimental force
data that we collected from digital reading than be compared with the theoretical force value
that be done manually. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only
at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces.
However, there are differences between experimental value and theoretical value.

From the table, it is clearly show that some of the experimental value deviates from the
theoretical value. This is due to some error made when conducting the experiment such as
parallax error happen when measure the dimension of the truss, sensitivity of the digital force
display, environmental factor and so on. However , the parallax error can be reduced by take
the average of the readings or repeat the experiment for several times to get more accurate
results. Besides that, make sure no external force and do not touch the structure when
conducting the experiment. In order to improve the result obtained and also to reduce the errors,
we should ensure that the instruments and the apparatus that we used is well maintenance and
fully function correctly. The result experimental and theory in experiment have error to
every member, and average the error is 20.09.

It would be impractical, uneconomical and unsafe for the structural engineer to evaluate
a bridge design by building a full-size. When a structure is built, it must be stiff enough to carry
its prescribed loads and fully corrected when reading the value.

10.0 References

a. Engineering laboratory manual

b. Structural analysis, 8th Ed., Pearson
c. http://www.tecquipment.com/Datasheets/STR17_0412.pdf

30
11.0 Appendix

Figure 11.0(a): Full frame of force in truss

Figure 11.0(b): The example of force in truss

31