CHAPTER ONE NOTES FOR TEST

Anatomy- study of the STRUCTURE of body parts and relationship to one another.
Physiology- study of the FUNCTION of the body parts.

Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region

Right lumbar Umbilical region Left lumbar
Right iliac(inguinal) region Hypogastric region Left iliac(inguinal) region

Renal Physiology- Study of kidney function and urine production

---Body’s Organ Systems---

*Nervous System-Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves

*Integumentary System- Skin, Hair, and Nails
*Skeletal System- Joints and Bones
*Muscular System- Skeletal Muscles
*Endocrine System- Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland,
Ovaries, and Testis
*Cardiovascular System- Heart and Blood Vessels
*Lymphatic System- Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Muscles, Thoracic duct, Spleen, and Lymph
Nodes
*Urinary System- Kidneys, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra
*Respiratory System- Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Bronchus, Trachea, and Lung
*Digestive System-Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Large Intestine, Stomache, Small Intestine, Rectum,
and Anus
*Male Reproduction System- Penis, Testis, Scrotum, Prostate Gland, Ductus deferens
*Female Reproduction System- Mammary Glands(in breasts), Ovaries, Uterus, Vagina, and Uterine Tube

-----Homeostasis and Control Mechanisms------

Variable-What is being controlled

Parts of the Control Mechanism:

-Receptor: sensor; senses stimuli
-Control Center: evaluates stimuli
-Effector: responds—makes changes, ‘’feedback’’

Positive Feedback: The response enhances or exaggerates body stimulus

(i.e. 1. Oxytocin and childbirth 2.Blood Clotting)
-----Anatomical Positions and Directional Terms-----
Anatomical: Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms out, and thumbs facing away from the body.
Axial: Head, Neck, and Trunk
Appendicular: Arms and Legs

------Closed Body Cavities------

Ventral Cavity: 2 parts
1. Thoracic—Superior(above) diaphragm; divided into two parts

 Pleural Cavity- Lungs

 Mediastinum Cavity- Between Lungs(contains the pericardial cavity(heart)).

2. Abdoninopelvic—2 Parts

 Abdominal Cavity- Stomach, ect.

 Pelvic Cavity- Bladder, some reproductive organs, rectum

-----Membranes in Closed Cavities------

 Serosa (Serous Membrane)
-Parietal: Lines the walls of ventral cavity
-Visceral: Covers organs in ventral cavity
 Serous Fluid—between layers, reduces friction
 Named for specific Cavity and Organs they surround

Superior = toward head

Inferior = away from head
Medial = toward midline
Lateral = toward side
Intermediate = between medial and
lateral
Anterior = toward front (ventral
side)
Posterior = toward back (dorsal
 side)
Proximal = closer to the origin
Distal = farther from origin

CHAPTER TWO NOTES FOR TEST

------Atomic Structure-----
1) Electrons
a) equal in number of protons
b) # of protons = # of electrons in an atom
c) Electrons have a (-) negative charge
d) 1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)

-----Identifying Elements--------
Isotopes-- are structural variations of elements that differ in the # of neutrons they contain

------Solutions------
*Homogeneous Mixtures*

 2 Types of Soultions
-Solvents: Present in great amount, usually a liquid
-Solute: present in smaller amounts

--------Concentration of Solutions-----------
 Expressed as:
-Percent (%)
-Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
-Molarity, or moles per liter (M)
*1 Mole=the atomic weight of an element or molecular weight(sum of atomic weights) of a
compound in grams
*1 Mole of any substance contains 6.02X1023

------Colloids and Suspensions------

 Colloids(Emulsions):
-heterogeneous translucent mixtures
-Large solute particles that DO NOT settle out
-Undergo sol-gel transformations
 Suspensions:
-Heterogeneous Mixtures, e.g., blood
 -Large visible solutes tend to settle out

VALENCE SHELL…

Chemically Reactive Elements: when the outermost energy level is not fully
occupied by electrons
They tend to gain, lose, or share electrons(form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability
Examples:
Hydrogen(H) 1p⁺; 0n⁰; 1e⁻
Carbon(C) 6p⁺; 6n⁰; 6e⁻
Oxygen (O) 8p⁺; 8n⁰8e⁻
Sodium(Na) 11p⁺; 12n⁰; 11e⁻

Chemical Bonds occur so that outermost energy(valence) level of atom is full

 Ionic-electrons move from one atom to another; (⁺) attracts (⁻); salts form by ionic bonds
 Covalent- electrons are shared; stronger bonds that ionic; maybe polar (electrons not shared
evenly like in water) or nonpolar (equally like in carbon dioxide)
 Hydrogen-between H of one thing and (⁻) part of a second substance; very weak; easily broken;
help hold structures (proteins/DNA) in correct form

Ionic Bonds are formed by transfer of the valence shell electrons between
atoms
 Anions ( ⁻ charge) have gained one or more electrons
 Cations(⁺ charge) have lost one or more electrons
 Attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic bond
Example: Cl⁻, Na❑1⁺, Ca❑2⁺

Large numbers of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions associate to form salt (NaCl) crystals.

---Covalent Bonds---
 Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons
 Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time

-----Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions-----

 Decomposition reactions: Reactions in which fuel is broken down for energy
 Also called exchange reaction because electrons are exchanged or shared differently
-Electron donors—lose electrons and are oxidized
-Electron acceptors—receive electrons and become reduced

Chemical Reactions
--All Chemical reactions are either:

 Exergonic reactions—release energy

--Catabolic reactions
 Endergonic reactions—products contain more potential energy than did reactants; heat
absorbed
-Anabolic reactions

--All Chemical reactions are theoretically reversible

 A + B → AB
 AB→A + B
 Many biological reactions are essentially irreversible due to:
-Energy requirements
-Removal of products

Chemical Equilibrium—Double arrow establishes equilibrium: A+B ↔ C+ D

--Rate of Chemical Reactions—

 Rate of reaction is influenced by:

-↑Temperature →↑ rate
- ↓Particle Size→↑ rate
-↑Concentration of reactant →↑rate
 Catalyst: ↑rate without being chemically changed
-Enzymes are biologically catalysts

---Classes of Compounds---
 Inorganic Compounds
-Water, salts, and many acids and bases
-Do NOT contain carbon
 Organic Compounds
-Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids
-Contain carbon, usually large, and are covalently bonded

Water….
 60%-80% of the volume of living cells
 Most important inorganic compound in living organisms

---pH: Acid-Base Concentration---

 Acidic Solutions
-↑[H⁺], ↓pH
-Acidic pH: 0-6.99
-pH scale is logarithmic: a pH 5 solution has 1- times more H⁺ than a pH 6 solution
 Alkaline Solutions
 -↓[H⁺], ↑pH
-Alkaline (basic) pH: 7.01-14

Carbohydrates—Sugars
A. Monosaccharides—Simple sugars
1. Single chain or ring
2. Basic structure of 1C:H:1 oxy or CH₂O
e.g., Glucose, ribose, fructose
B. Disaccharides—Double Sugars
1. Two monosaccharides joined together
e.g., Lactose, Sucrose
Organic Compounds contain carbon(*EXCEPT Co₂ and Co, which are inorganic)
They include….
1.Carbs
2.Lipids
3.Protiens
4.Nucleic Acid

Carbohydrates….

 C. Polysaccharides—long chains of monosaccharides joined together

 Polymers
 Starch and cellulose are formed by plants; humans can breakdown starch but not cellulose
 Glycogen—used to store glucose in animals; found in liver

Protiens….

 Needed for structure(as in muscles) and aid cell functions(hemoglobin; enzymes)

 Made of C, H, O, and N atoms
 Made of subunits called amino acids
(1) 20 common amino acids
(2) Differ by their ‘’R’’ group
(3) Join together by peptide bond to form protein
(4) Sequence in protein establishes structure and function of protein

Stuctural Level of Proteins….

 Primary Structure-Sequence of Amino Acids forming a poly peptide chain
 Secondary Structure-the primary chains forms spirals (a-helices) and (b-sheets)
 Tertiary Structure- Superimposed on secondary structure. A-Helices and/ or B-Sheets are
folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds.
 Quaternary Structure-Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure,
combine to form a functional protein
Denaturation of Proteins
---Caused by changes in temperature, pH, salt concentration, and inhibitors

Nucleic Acids….

 DNA and RNA

-Largest molecule in the body
 Contain C, O, H, N, and P
 Building block—nucleotide, composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate
group

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

 Four Bases:
-adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine(T)
 Double-stranded helical molecule in the cell nucleus
 Provides instructions for protein synthesis
 Replicated before cell division, ensuring genetic continuity

Messenger RNA, transfer RNA and Ribosomal RNA

DNA vs. RNA…..

DNA:
 Deoxyribonucleic acid

 Found in nucleus

 Contains genetic material

 Replicates

 Provides basic instructions for building proteins

 Double strand held together by H bonds

 Helix shape

 Deoxyribose sugar

RNA:
 Ribonucleic acid
 Mainly located outside of nucleus in cytoplasm

 Carries DNA’s instructions to work sites for protein construction

 Single strand

 Thread-like shape or folded

 Ribose sugar