B1 and B2 Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals

Training Manual
PART 66 – Basic Training

Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
Electrical Fundamentals
Module 3 Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
Table of Contents
5.1.1 Primary Cell ............................................................................. 19

Table of Contents 5.1.2 Secondary Cells ...................................................................... 20
5.1.3 Lead Acid Batteries ................................................................. 20
1 Electron Theory ................................................................ 7 5.1.3.1 Construction .................................................................................. 20
Introduction....................................................................... 7 5.1.3.2 Electrolyte ..................................................................................... 20
1.1.1 The structure of matter.............................................................. 7 5.1.3.3 Capacity ........................................................................................ 21
1.1.1.1 Ions ................................................................................................ 9 5.1.3.4 Chemical Action ............................................................................ 21
5.1.3.5 Voltage and Specific Gravity Relation ........................................... 22
Electric current ............................................................... 10 5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries ..................................................................... 23
1.2.1 External Charge ...................................................................... 10 5.1.4.1 Semi Sealed .................................................................................. 23
Non metallic insulators .................................................. 11 5.1.4.2 Semi Open .................................................................................... 23
Semiconductors.............................................................. 11 5.1.4.4 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline .............................................................. 24
5.1.4.5 Chemical Reaction ........................................................................ 25
2 Static Electricity.............................................................. 12 5.1.5 Connection of Cells ................................................................. 25
2.1.1 Solid ........................................................................................ 12 5.1.5.1 Series ............................................................................................ 25
2.1.2 Liquid....................................................................................... 12 5.1.5.2 Parallel .......................................................................................... 26
2.1.3 Gases ...................................................................................... 12 5.1.5.3 Series/Parallel ............................................................................... 26
2.1.4 Vacuum ................................................................................... 13 5.1.5.4 EMF (Terminal Voltage) and internal Resistance .......................... 27
Coulomb .......................................................................... 13 Thermoelectricity Thermocouples ................................ 27
Electron Theory .............................................................. 14 5.2.1 Thermocouple Theory ............................................................. 28
2.3.1 Conventional Theory ............................................................... 14 5.2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples ........ 29
5.2.3 Thermocouple Construction .................................................... 29
3 Electrical terminology .................................................... 15 5.2.3.1 Sealed and Isolated from Sheath .................................................. 29
Potential Difference ........................................................ 15 5.2.3.2 Sealed and Grounded to Sheath ................................................... 30
5.2.3.3 Exposed Bead ............................................................................... 30
Electro-Motive Force ...................................................... 15 5.2.3.4 Exposed Fast Response ............................................................... 30
Voltage ............................................................................ 15 Photocells / Photovoltaic Cells ..................................... 30
Current ............................................................................ 15 5.3.1 Solar Cell Structure ................................................................. 30
Resistance....................................................................... 16 5.3.2 A Photon Causes the Photoelectric Effect .............................. 31
Specific Resistance ........................................................ 16 5.3.3 The pn-junction ........................................................................ 31
Conductance ................................................................... 16 6 DC circuits....................................................................... 33
Charge ............................................................................. 16
3.8.1 Conventional Current .............................................................. 16 Ohm´s Law...................................................................... 33
3.8.2 Electron Current ...................................................................... 17 6.1.1 What is Ohm´s Law? ............................................................... 33
6.1.2 Voltage..................................................................................... 34
4 Generation of electricity................................................. 18 6.1.2.1 Measurement ................................................................................ 35
6.1.2.2 Voltage Units ................................................................................. 35
5 DC Sources ..................................................................... 19
6.1.3 Resistance ............................................................................... 36
Batteries .......................................................................... 19 6.1.4 Measurement ........................................................................... 36
For Training Purposes Only Page 2 of 194

Table of Contents
6.1.4.1 Resistance Units .......................................................................... 37 Capacitance .................................................................... 60

6.1.4.2 Resistance Factors....................................................................... 37 Factors Affecting Capacitance ...................................... 62
6.1.4.3 Current (Amperes)........................................................................ 37
6.1.4.4 Measurement of Current .............................................................. 37 Time Constant ................................................................ 63
6.1.4.5 Amperage Unit’s ........................................................................... 38 Capacitors in Series and Parallel .................................. 65
6.1.4.6 Effects of Current Flow ................................................................. 38 9.4.1 Capacitors in Series ................................................................ 65
6.1.4.7 Multiples and Sub- Multiples......................................................... 38 9.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel ............................................................... 66
6.1.5 Kirchoff´s Laws ....................................................................... 39 9.4.3 Safe Working Voltage .............................................................. 67
6.1.5.1 Voltage Law.................................................................................. 39 Types of Capacitors ....................................................... 68
6.1.5.2 Current Law .................................................................................. 39 9.5.1 Electrolytic Capacitors Construction ........................................ 69
7 Resistors ......................................................................... 40 10 Magnetism.................................................................... 70
Circuit Symbol and identification .................................. 40 Introduktion .................................................................... 70
7.1.1.1 Wire Wound Resistor ................................................................... 40
7.1.1.2 Composite Resistor ...................................................................... 41
10.1.1 Artificial Magnets ................................................................. 70
7.1.1.3 Deposited Film Resistor ............................................................... 41 10.1.2 Permanent Magnets ............................................................ 70
7.1.2 Variable Resistors ................................................................... 42 10.1.3 Properties of Magnetic Fields .............................................. 71
7.1.2.1 The Potentiometer ........................................................................ 43 10.1.3.1 Resultant Field Patterns for 2 Bar Magnets .............................. 72
7.1.2.2 The Rheostat ................................................................................ 44 10.1.4 Magnetic Flux ...................................................................... 72
7.1.3 Current / Resistance Relationship .......................................... 44 10.1.5 The Magnetic Effect of Current ........................................... 74
7.1.4 Specific Resistance................................................................. 44 3.10.1.10 The Magnetic Field of a Coil ........................................... 76
7.1.5 Resistor Types and Identification ............................................ 45 10.1.6 Magnetic Characteristics ..................................................... 77
7.1.5.1 Colour Coding .............................................................................. 45 10.1.6.1 The Magnetic Circuit ................................................................ 77
7.1.5.2 Preferred Values .......................................................................... 46 10.1.6.2 The Magnetic Field Strength .................................................... 78
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance ......................... 47 10.1.6.3 Permeability ............................................................................. 78
10.1.6.4 Magnetic flux density ................................................................ 78
7.2.1 Thermistors (NTC) .................................................................. 48 10.1.6.5 Reluctance ............................................................................... 78
7.2.2 PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) ................................. 49 10.1.6.6 Magnetic Materials ................................................................... 79
Calculations of Resistances .......................................... 50 10.1.6.7 Magnetic Field Strength/Flux Density Curve (B-H Curve) ........ 79
7.3.1 Resistance in a Series Circuit ................................................. 50 10.1.6.8 Hysteresis ................................................................................ 81
7.3.2 Resistance in Parallel Circuits ................................................ 51 10.1.6.9 Retentivity and Remanence ..................................................... 82
Conductance (G) ............................................................. 52 10.1.6.10 Characteristics of Ferromagnetic Materials .............................. 83
10.1.6.11 Applications of Electromagnets ................................................ 85
Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel ......... 53
Wheatstone Bridge ......................................................... 54 11 Induction/Inductor ....................................................... 87
8 Electrical Power .............................................................. 55 Faraday’s Law ................................................................ 87
11.1.1 Rate of Change of Flux ....................................................... 89
The Maximum power transfer theorem ......................... 56 11.1.2 Direction of an Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law) ......................... 89
Electrical energy/ Electrical work .................................. 59 11.1.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
9 Capacitors and capacitance .......................................... 60 92
11.1.4 Back EMF and Inductance .................................................. 94
Table of Contents
11.1.4.1 Back EMF ................................................................................ 94 13 Alternating Current ................................................... 127

11.1.4.2 Inductance ............................................................................... 94
11.1.5 Time Constant .................................................................... 97 The Sine Wave .............................................................. 127
Inductance Circuits ...................................................... 100 13.1.1 Instantaneous Value ......................................................... 128
11.2.1 Inductances in Series ....................................................... 100 13.1.2 Period and Frequency ....................................................... 129
11.2.2 Inductances in Parallel ..................................................... 101 13.1.3 Peak / Peak to Peak Value ............................................... 130
13.1.3.1 Root-Mean-Square, or Effective Value ................................... 131
11.2.3 Inductor Losses ................................................................ 102
13.1.3.2 Phase ..................................................................................... 132
12 Direct Current Generators/Motors ........................... 103 13.1.4 Power in AC Circuits ......................................................... 133
13.1.4.1 Electrical Rating ..................................................................... 134
Theory ........................................................................... 103
13.1.5 Other waveforms ............................................................... 135
Production of Direct Curent ......................................... 103
Three - Phase AC ......................................................... 136
12.2.1 Construction and Purpose of Components in DC Generator
13.2.1 Symmetry and Balance ..................................................... 136
107
13.2.1.1 Symmetry ............................................................................... 136
12.2.1.1 Construction .......................................................................... 108
13.2.1.2 Balance .................................................................................. 136
12.2.2 Field Magnet System ........................................................ 109 13.2.1.3 Aircraft Installations ................................................................ 136
12.2.2.1 Field Assembly ...................................................................... 109 13.2.1.4 Phasor Representation – Voltage........................................... 136
12.2.2.2 The Brush Gear ..................................................................... 110
12.2.2.3 Film Forming Brushes ........................................................... 110
Three Phase Interconnections .................................... 137
12.2.2.4 Non Film Forming Brushes .................................................... 111 13.3.1.1 Phase Line ............................................................................. 137
13.3.1.2 Neutral Line ............................................................................ 137
12.2.3 The Armature .................................................................... 111
12.2.3.1 Wave Winding ....................................................................... 112 13.3.2 Star Connection................................................................. 138
12.2.3.2 Lap Winding........................................................................... 112 13.3.2.1 Star Point ............................................................................... 138
12.2.3.3 The Commutator.................................................................... 113 13.3.2.2 Balance Condition .................................................................. 139
12.2.3.4 Operations of and Factor Affecting Output and Direction of Curent 13.3.2.3 Line and Phase Voltages ....................................................... 139
Flow 113 13.3.2.4 Practical Values of Phase and Line Voltages ......................... 139
12.2.3.5 Electromagnetic Problems ..................................................... 113 13.3.3 Delta Connection ............................................................... 140
12.2.3.6 Armature Reaction/Reactive Sparking ................................... 113 13.3.3.1 Circuit Connections ................................................................ 140
13.3.3.2 Line Voltage ........................................................................... 141
DC Motor Principle of Operation ................................. 117
13.3.3.3 Summary ................................................................................ 141
12.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................... 117
12.3.2 Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field .............. 117 14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L) Circuits
12.3.3 Operation and Factors Affecting Motor Output Power Torque 142
120
R, C and L in AC Circuits ............................................. 142
. Series Wound, and Shunt Wound DC Machines ...... 121 14.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 142
12.4.1 Series DC Motor ............................................................... 121 Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in AC
12.4.2 DC Shunt Generator ......................................................... 122
12.4.3 Compound DC Motor ........................................................ 124
Circuits ..................................................................................... 145
14.2.1 Pure Resistance in AC Circuits ......................................... 145
12.4.4 Starter/Generator Construction ........................................ 125
12.4.4.1 Operation ............................................................................... 125 14.2.2 Pure Inductance in AC Circuits ......................................... 146
12.4.4.2 Starter/Generator Circuit........................................................ 126 14.2.3 Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits ....................................... 150

Table of Contents
Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase AC 16.2.1 Low-Pass Filters ................................................................ 172

Circuits ...................................................................................... 152 16.2.1.1 RC Low Pass Filter................................................................. 173
14.3.1 Series Connection of Resistance and Reactance ............ 152 16.2.1.2 RL Low Pass Filter ................................................................. 173
3.41.2.1 High- Pass .............................................................................. 174
14.3.2 Series Connection of Resistor and Capacitor .................. 152 16.2.1.3 RC High Pass Filter ................................................................ 174
14.3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages .................................................. 152
16.2.1.4 RL High Pass Filter ................................................................ 174
14.3.2.2 Mathematical Relationships between Voltages ..................... 154
14.3.2.3 Impedance Triangles ............................................................. 154
16.2.2 Band Pass Filters .............................................................. 175
16.2.2.1 RCL Series Band Pass Filter .................................................. 175
14.3.2.4 Mathematical Relationships between Impedances ................ 155
14.3.3 Series Connection of Resistor and Coil ............................ 155 16.2.3 Band- Stop Filters.............................................................. 176
3.41.2.4 Circuit Symbols ...................................................................... 177
14.3.3.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages .................................................. 155
14.3.3.2 Mathematical Relationships between Voltages ..................... 157 17 AC Generators ........................................................... 178
14.3.3.3 Impedance Triangles ............................................................. 157
14.3.3.4 Mathematical Relationships between Impedances ................ 158 Types of AC Generators .............................................. 178
Power in RC and RL Series Circuits ............................ 158 17.1.1 Principle of Operation ........................................................ 178
14.4.1 Power Triangle and Waveform Diagrams ........................ 158 17.1.2 AC Generators (Alternators) ............................................. 181
14.4.1.1 Mathematical Relationships between Powers ....................... 160 17.1.3 AC- Brushless Generators ................................................ 186
15 Transformers ............................................................. 162 18 AC Motors .................................................................. 187
Principle of Operation and Construction .................... 162 Types of AC Motors ..................................................... 187
15.1.1 Principle of Operation ....................................................... 162 18.1.1 Description of AC Motors .................................................. 187
15.1.2 Construction ..................................................................... 164 18.1.2 Induction Motor (Asynchronous Motor) ............................. 187
15.1.2.1 Transformer Core .................................................................. 164 18.1.3 Three-Phase Motor ........................................................... 187
15.1.2.2 Forms of Construction ........................................................... 166 18.1.3.1 Major Parts ............................................................................. 187
15.1.2.3 Application of Transformers ................................................... 166 18.1.3.2 Principle of Operation ............................................................. 188
Characteristics .............................................................. 167 18.1.4 Single-Phase Motor ........................................................... 190
15.2.1 Turns Ratio ....................................................................... 167 18.1.5 Shaded-Pole Motor ........................................................... 191
15.2.2 Losses and Efficiency ....................................................... 169 Synchronous Motor ..................................................... 191
15.2.2.1 Hysteresis Loss ..................................................................... 169 18.2.1 Three-Phase Motor ........................................................... 191
15.2.2.2 Core Saturation ..................................................................... 169 18.2.1.1 Single-Phase Motor ................................................................ 193
15.2.2.3 Eddy Currents........................................................................ 170 18.2.1.2 Universal Motor ...................................................................... 193
15.2.2.4 Copper Loss .......................................................................... 170 AC Motor Control ......................................................... 193
15.2.2.5 Efficiency ............................................................................... 170
15.2.3 The Autotransformer......................................................... 170 p
16 Filters ......................................................................... 172
16.1.1 Pass-band......................................................................... 172
16.1.2 Stop-band ......................................................................... 172
16.1.3 Cut-off Frequency ............................................................. 172
Types of Filter ............................................................... 172

Table of Contents

Module 3.1 Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
Electron Theory
When the structure of matter is looked at below the atomic level, it is

1 Electron Theory found that the atoms of all elements are made up of 3 main
components, protons, electrons and neutrons. All except hydrogen,
Introduction which does not contain a neutron. The characteristics of a particular
element are determined by the number of each of these components
To understand the nature of electricity and the basic electrical in its atom.
properties of materials the construction of matter has to be studied.
The simple structure of atoms and how they are linked gives the matter
electrical properties.
1.1.1 The structure of matter

All pure substances are made up from a relatively few basic
substances called elements, either separately or combined together to
form what is known as a compound. There are 92 such elements
occurring naturally.
The ultimate particle to which an element can be reduced to is called

the atom. However, many elements cannot exist in a stable form as
individual atoms, but only in groups of atoms. The smallest part of an
element or compound that normally exists in a free state is the
molecule. The molecule of an element may consist of one or more
atoms of that element. The molecule of a compound consists of 2 or
more atoms of different elements. For example, the molecule of the
element oxygen is made up of 2 oxygen atoms, whereas the
compound of water is made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom. In a pure compound each molecule contains the same number
of atoms of each element. It follows therefore that elements can only
combine to form compounds in certain fixed proportions.
Of course, not all substances are pure in the sense that every molecule Figure 1: Atomic Model
is identical. Many of the substances met in everyday life are simply
mixtures of elements or compounds.

Electron Theory
Every atom consists of a central nucleus around which one or more

electrons orbit. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge; the
protons situated in the nucleus have a positive charge. The third part
of atom is the neutron; this is also in the nucleus but has no charge.
Not a lot is known about the nature of these charges except that there
are 2 kinds and they are opposite to each other, and when we bring
them together, like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Under
normal conditions the number of electrons and protons in an atom are
equal, it is then said to be electrically neutral
The neutron has the same mass as the proton, so nearly all the weight
of an atom is contained in the nucleus. Electrons have a much smaller
mass and may be easily removed from their orbit around the nucleus.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in layers we call shells, and there is a
limit to the number of electrons which can be accommodated in each
shell. Working outwards from the nucleus, the K shell can have a
maximum of 2 electrons, the L shell can have eight, M shell eighteen
and so on. For example copper has twenty-nine protons and twenty-
nine electrons orbiting. The layers or shells are made up as 2 electrons
in the K shell 8 in the L shell, eighteen in the M shell leaving one to
orbit in the N shell. For the atoms to combine to form elements they
share the electrons in the outer shells, these electrons are called
valence- electrons.

Electron Theory
1.1.1.1 Ions
It is possible that atoms could lose or gain electrons from other atoms
and when this happens the atom is said to be positively or negatively
charged. From what we said about the charges on electrons and
protons, if an atom loses an electron then there would be more protons
than electrons. This would result in the atom taking up an overall
positive charge; we then call this atom a positive ion. If the exchange
of electrons resulted in the atom gaining electrons, then it would
become negatively charged (more electrons than protons), this we call
a negative ion.
Figure 2: Electron Shells
Figure 3: Positive and negative Ions

Electron Theory
Electric current temperature. The positive ions are also vibrating about their mean
position in the crystal lattice.
An electric current is a flow of electric charges. The current can flow In spite of all this intense activity within the interior of the metal, there
quite easily through some materials, called conductors, and finds it is no overall movement of electrons, and the piece of metal as a whole
nearly impossible to flow through others, termed insulators. is electrically neutral since the total number of negative charges is
equal to the positive charges.
Let us now think of how current flows through a conductor, most
conductors are metals such as copper, silver and gold (Refer to 1.2.1 External Charge
Figure 2). All metals have less than their full complement of electrons
in the outer shell, and those that are present are loosely bound to their If we now bring an external charge near that metal the electrons will be
parent atom. They can easily be detached from the atom and move forced into a flow either towards the charge or away from it depending
about in the space between atoms. For this reason they are called free on the type of external charge. If the external charge was a battery, we
electrons. know it has 2 terminals, a positive and negative. Therefore the
electrons of our metal would be attracted to the positive terminal and
you have an instantaneous current flow. You would also get a force of
attraction of the positive ions towards the negative terminal but as they
are held in the crystal lattice they cannot move. We will look at these 2
effects a little later.
Figure 4: Free Electrons
So if an electron leaves, remember it takes its negative charge with it,

leaving behind a positive ion. The interior of the metal under normal
conditions can now be visualized as a framework of positive ions in a
fixed regular pattern known as a crystal lattice, through which the free
electrons may move freely. At temperatures above absolute zero the
free electrons are in a constant state of motion that changes, with
Figure 5: External Charge

Electron Theory
Non metallic insulators Semiconductors

Non-metallic materials are normally materials that do not have many There is another type of material that falls in between both conductor
free electrons in their outer shell and the attraction between the and the insulator, we call it a semiconductor. It is this material that has
electrons and their parent atom is very strong. It therefore follows that given rise to the electronic age of computers. The special properties of
current flow through these materials would be virtually impossible, the semiconductor are such that under normal conditions it is an
these materials we call insulators. Typical insulators are rubber, insulator and does not pass current, but under certain conditions it can
ceramics, glass and PVC’s. be made to pass current, and then can be made to return to its normal
non conducting state again without any damage. This switching can be
done hundreds of thousands of times a second if required. Materials
commonly used are silicon and germanium. The force that is used to
switch semiconductors is voltage.
Figure 6: Insulators
Figure 7: Semiconductors

Static Electricity
We have already looked at how static electricity is formed, using this

2 Static Electricity principle and coulombs law it can be said that conduction of electricity
can occur across any medium examples of this are below:
Atoms are said to attract each other (remember like charges repel and
unlike charges attract). 2.1.1 Solid
It can be seen then that some sort of force has been created. This is
found in everyday life, if you unwrap a piece of polythene and try to put Electrical conduction through solids occurs when a potential difference
it down you find it sticks to your fingers, you call this static. A better is applied across the material, the free electrons in the material will be
way to describe static electricity is electricity that is standing still, or attracted/ repelled along the material to try and equalize their potential.
Voltage potential with no electron flow. It is actually the attraction of An example of this is a metal bar.
unlike charges.
We call it static electricity, demonstrated below, by rubbing a silk cloth 2.1.2 Liquid
over a glass rod which is a charge that is stationary or at rest.
If a liquid solution is to conduct electricity it is called an electrolyte, it is
achieved by immersing 2 electrodes into the solution and creating a
potential difference across them, the free electrons in the liquid will
then be attracted/repelled, towards/from the electrodes, an example of
this, is a cell. The liquid is being used as the medium by which the ions
flow through.
2.1.3 Gases
Normally most gases do not have free electrons from which conduction
can occur, therefore they are considered as a good insulator, or
Figure 8: Static Electricity dielectric, however if a high enough potential difference is applied
across the gas this will cause the electrons within the gas to break free
In theory we look at electrical charge as being point charges, this is and become mobile, and so conduction to their opposite polarity
because of Coulomb’s Law, which states that: charge will occur. A good example of this is a lightning strike, where
there is a huge potential difference between the cloud and earth the
The force between 2 point charges of a body is found to vary PD is so high that the electrons in the gas are freed up to produce a
inversely as the square of the distance between them, and directly charge.
with the magnitude of charge.

Static Electricity
2.1.4 Vacuum Coulomb

Since vacuums contain no charged particles, they are normally very We have seen that a current of electricity (I) is a flow of electrons but
good insulators, however a metal electrode present in the vacuum can the electron itself is too small to be of use as the unit of electrical
make it conductive, by adding charged particles in a cloud of free quantity and therefore a more practical unit consisting of many millions
electrons through a process known as thermoionic emission. External of electrons has been chosen. It is called the Coulomb (C) and is 6.28
to the vacuum the electrode is heated so that the electrons are x 1018 electrons.
released, these electrons are then free to move through the vacuum
towards their opposite charge. An example of this is a Cathode ray Note: This is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of current, but
tube. it is used to define the unit of electrical current the AMPERE
(A). When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, 1
coulomb of electrons pass any point in the conductor every
second. In other words the size of an electrical current is
dependent upon the rate of flow of electrons not a number of
electrons.
We can write this in equation form.
Q(Coulomb)
I (Current)  inAmperes( A)
t (time)
Thus1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is

equivalent to 3600 Coulombs and this is called an ampere-
hour.
Figure 9: Cathode Ray Tube
Now we have to look at what makes the electrons flow in a conductor
to form an electric current. Consider the diagram in which 2 bodies
with opposite charges on them are fixed in their position and not joined.

Static Electricity
Electron Theory 2.3.1 Conventional Theory
If the bodies were free to move they would be attracted to one another Conventional theory, also known as hole theory, states that current
so clearly there is potential mechanical energy between them. There flows from positive to negative. Protons or the lack of electrons (the
is also electrical potential energy between them since we know that if holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow direction in hole
a conductor joins them, electrons will flow from the negative body to theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.)
the positive body until the bodies are equally charged.
Figure 11: Conventional flow of current

Figure 10: Direction of electron flow
Therefore the oppositely charged bodies are producing the energy

required to move the electrons, i.e. to produce a current of electricity.
The oppositely charged bodies are said to have a potential difference
(PD) between them and the size of this PD is measured in the unit of
Volt (V).

Electrical terminology
3 Electrical terminology
Voltage
Having studied electricity at the atomic level we have met a number of
words, which need to be defined and explained before we move on. Is the expression generally used to indicate the value or quantity of the
PD or EMF.
The laws governing the behavior of the different units are dealt with in
the relevant section rather than including them in these definitions. Current
Potential Difference Is the flow, through a conductor of either charge or electrons. Its unit is
the Ampere (Amp), which is defined as the result of 1 coulomb of
Is the difference between charge values, which exists at the atomic charge (6.28 x 1018 electrons) passing a point in a circuit in 1 second.
level in materials with free electrons.
The symbol for charge in coulombs is Q, and the symbol for current in
The unit of potential difference (PD) is the Volt, which is defined as: amps is I.
‘The difference of potential across a 1 ohm resistor carrying a
current of 1 ampere.’ The current may flow in one direction (DC) or it may continuously
reverse direction (AC), depending on the method of generating the
Electro-Motive Force EMF, which drives it.
This is the ability to cause current to flow in a complete circuit.

The unit of EMF is the Volt (V).
Note: It should be noted that both EMF and PD are measured in the
same units, they are, in fact, both differences in charge potential.
However, it is important to realize that an EMF is the force to do work,
i.e. cause current to flow, whereas PD is the volts drop as a result of
the current flow. Another way to look at it is that the EMF is off- load,
the PD is on-load.

Conductance
Resistance A material with low resistance has high conductance, and a material
with high resistance has low conductance.
Is the measure of a materials ability to oppose current flow when an
EMF is applied to it. Practically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, that is,
The factors governing a materials resistance are: Conductance = 1/Resistance.
 Length - in meters (ℓ) Its unit is the Siemens, and the symbol is G.
 Cross section area - in millimeters2 (A).
  mm2 Charge
 Specific resistance of the material - in (ρ).
m Is the difference between atoms whose outer shells have gained or lost
It is calculated by the formula an electron. An atom missing an electron is said to be positively
  charged (positive ion), and an atom with an extra electron is said to be
R negatively charged (negative ion).
A
(specific resistance x length) / area ‘Charging’ a battery is a process in which chemical changes take
place due to the displacement of electrons.
Its unit is the Ohm and the symbol used is Ω (Omega) when describing
a quantity of resistance and R (as in the formula above) when 3.8.1 Conventional Current
describing resistance.
Before the electron was discovered, scientists studying electricity could
only observe positive and negative charges and consider them
Specific Resistance mathematically. Mathematical logic indicates that current must flow
from Positive to Negative, and this was the convention used.
The specific resistance is the resistance of a material which is defined
as the resistance of 1 meter of the material with a cross-section of 1
mm² at a temperature of 20°C.
  mm2
The unit is and the formula symbol is ρ (roh).
m

3.8.2 Electron Current

To create positive ions, electrons must flow in the opposite direction
to that which Current has been assumed by convention to flow. This
makes no practical difference as the same amount of work is done.
DC circuits in aircraft are considered with respect to conventional

current while electronic circuits may be considered in conventional or
electron current.

Generation of electricity
Light (Photovoltaic Cells)

4 Generation of electricity These devices utilize the energy from a light source to produce
electricity.
Electricity can be generated in 6 basic ways. These are by: These devices can be used power battery chargers when connected
as solar panels.
 Chemical Action.
 Friction. Heat (Thermocouple)
 Pressure. At the point of contact between 2 different metals there exists an
 Light. electrical potential difference, which depends on the temperature of the
 Heat. junction. When we complete the circuit with a second junction at a
 Magnetism and Motion. different temperature, a current flows in the circuit.
We shall look at these methods briefly. This thermoelectric effect is called the “Seebeck” effect after the man
who discovered it, and the junction is called a ‘thermocouple’. Either
Chemical Action (Cell) the net EMF in the circuit or the resulting current may be used to
This is by use of 2 different metals placed in a liquid called an measure temperature.
electrolyte. We call this a cell and by grouping these cells we produce
a battery. Magnetism and Motion (The Generator)
– See Chapter 10
Friction (Static Electricity)
When a comb is passed through hair it acquires an electrical charge.
If a piece of tissue paper is then held close to the comb it is attracted
towards it. These effects are due to static electricity (electrostatics).
Aircraft in flight build up large amounts of static electricity and acquire
a charge potential much greater than that of the atmosphere. This
charging of the aircraft is undesirable but unavoidable, although the
effects can be minimized.
Pressure (Crystal Controlled Oscillators)

Certain crystalline substances, notably quartz, exhibit a piezoelectric
effect which results in PD appearing between the opposite faces of the
crystal when it is mechanically deformed and vice versa. The Crystal
can be shown to have an ‘electrical’ equivalent circuit. A PD is only
produced in the piezo, when the pressure of the crystal is changed.

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reaction – known as polarization, manganese dioxide is added to the

5 DC Sources electrolyte during construction, Another problem that occurs in a dry
primary cell is that because the case is made of zinc this has a
There are 3 main sources of stable DC supplies there are: tendency to corrode rapidly, this leads to the case leaking the
electrolyte that it is holding, to prevent this the electrolyte is mixed with
1 Batteries. wheat flour so that it forms a thick paste and hence the term “dry” cell.
2 Thermocouples. The EMF of a dry cell is approximately 1.5 volts.
3 Photocells.
We shall look at each one of these in turn.
Batteries
There are 2 basic types of batteries these are categorized as:
1 Primary cells.
2 Secondary cells.
5.1.1 Primary Cell

Primary cells are called so, as the chemical reaction used to produce
the output voltage is extremely difficult, or impossible to reverse i.e.
they cannot be recharged, an example of this is the dry primary cell, a
standard type of dry primary cell is the Zinc carbon cell, these are
constructed by having 2 poles, one of them being a carbon rod which
is the + Ve (cathode) and the other pole being made of zinc, this being
the –Ve (anode) connected to a steel disc at the bottom of the cell to
aid connection to a circuit. In a dry cell the zinc pole also acts as the
container and surrounds the carbon rod, and also holds the electrolyte,
which is constructed from ammonium chloride (al-ammoniac). With this
basic arrangement there is a very distinct disadvantage in that as the Figure 12: Basic construction of a primary dry cell
cell is being discharged the chemical reaction that takes place
produces hydrogen bubbles which accumulate around the carbon rod
and effectively insulate it from the electrolyte. To overcome this

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5.1.2 Secondary Cells 5.1.3.2 Electrolyte
There are 2 types of secondary cells used in the formation of Lead acid batteries consist of cells with an electrolyte made of
secondary cells these are: sulphuric acid and water mixed to a specific gravity of 1.270 for a fully
charged battery, only distilled water is used in this mix, as the impurities
1 Lead acid. found in normal tap water will reduce the life and charge of the cells.
2 NiCd Alkaline.
As the cells are discharged and charged, the level of electrolyte will
Because these cells are classed as secondary this means that they decrease and so periodically the battery cells will require a “top up” of
have the ability to be recharged. One obvious difference between distilled water, if this action is required it is to be noted that the acid is
these cells to primary cells is that unlike the primary cell where the zinc always added to the water, as the reverse procedure is extremely
was used as the case and the –Ve electrode, secondary cells use dangerous, because the water will react violently with the acid and
different materials for the case and it has no acting part on the output literally explode when added.
of the cell.
A fully charged cell will have a voltage in excess of 2.5 volts after its
5.1.3 Lead Acid Batteries charge this will drop to 2.2 volts after an hour standing, during
discharge the cell voltage will drop to 2 volts and will remain at this
5.1.3.1 Construction level for the majority of the cell charge life after this time, which is
dependent on the load connected to the cell, the voltage of the cell will
These batteries use an impact and acid resistant case for each drop to 1.8volts and is considered to be discharged. Because the
individual cell, which is made from polystyrene compounds. Each cell voltage remains at a constant 2 volts for the vast majority of the time,
case is molded so that they provide outlets for the terminal posts so this is considered to be the cells nominal voltage value.
that each cell can be connected with ease to the adjoining cell, the
case also houses a vent valve, which whilst the battery is being
charged allows gases to escape but does not allow the electrolyte to
leak out, the method of connecting the cells varies dependent on the
required use of the battery, and will be discussed later.

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5.1.3.3 Capacity
The definition of capacity in terms of batteries is the quantity of

electricity that can be taken from a fully charged cell at a specified
discharged rate measured in amps, before the cells nominal voltage of
2 volts drops to a defined level of 1.8 volts. Battery capacity is therefore
measured in terms of current and time i.e. ampere-hours, and is
expressed as a percentage against the maximum available
amps/hours for that specific type of cell. The factors, which affect the
battery capacity, are the area and number of plates, strength of
electrolyte and temperature.
5.1.3.4 Chemical Action
To produce a voltage each cell has to create a chemical reaction

between its plates, this principle is best demonstrated by the table
following:
Battery State of Positive Negative

Electrolyte
type charge plate(Cathode) plate(anode)
H2SO4 –
Strong
Lead PbO2- Lead
Charged. Pb -(Lead) solution of
Acid dioxide.
sulphuric
acid.
Figure 13: Lead acid battery
H2SO4 –
PbSO2 – Lead PbSO4 – lead Weak
Discharged.
Sulphate. Sulphate. sulphuric
acid.

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5.1.3.5 Voltage and Specific Gravity Relation Charge/Discharge
1.3
Charge /Discharge
2.7 1.25
2.6
2.5
1.2
2.4
Specific Gravity
2.3 Charge
1.15
Discharge
2.2
Voltage
2.1
1.1
2
1.9
1.05
1.8
1.7
1
1.6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (hours)
1.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (hours) Figure 15: Charge / discharge gravity versus time
Charge Discharge
Figure 14: Charge / discharge voltage versus time It can be seen from this graph that the specific gravity of the electrolyte
produces an almost linear decrease/ increase in value for most of the
It can be seen that during the discharge the voltage of each individual time during discharge/recharge, because of this the specific gravity of
cell remains constant for a considerable time at approximately 2volts, the electrolyte is a very good indication of the charge held by the cell.
however this is only true if the load connected has a small current draw, An instrument called a Hydrometer can measure the amount of specific
If a larger current is drawn from the cell the discharge will become more gravity.
linear as the voltage drops more rapidly. What can also be determined
from the graph is that the voltage value cannot be used to determine
the amount of charge in the battery, consider this graph.

DC Sources
Due to the cells being allowed to gas during charge the recharge time
is considerably shorter than the semi sealed type however this has the
5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries disadvantage that the electrolyte requires “topping up” more often, the
frequency of this topping up will be determined by the aircraft manual.
There are several types of alkaline batteries, so to differentiate the The cells are fitted with the same type of vent as the lead acid battery
types, the metal used in the manufacture of the plates usually gives in that they allow the electrolyte gasses to escape but not the liquid.
them their name, for example the most common in use on aircraft is
the Nickel/Cadmium battery as it is these 2 metals that are used for the Negative
Battery State of Positive Plate Electro
plates. However in all alkaline batteries the electrolyte solution used is Plate(Anod
Type Charge (Cathode) lyte
Potassium Hydroxide which has a specific gravity of 1.24 to 1.30, e)
dependent on the size and material used for the metal plates this will NI2O2 and NI3 KOH –
Nickel Cd -
determine the value of EMF of the cell, with some cells being as low Charged and O3 – nickel Potassium
cadmium Cadmium
as 1.2 volts. oxides Hydroxide
Cd(OH)2 – KOH –
5.1.4.1 Semi Sealed Ni(OH)2 – Nickel
Discharged Cadmium Potassium
Hydroxide
Hydroxide Hydroxide
The cells in these batteries are arranged in steel containers and fitted
with safety valves, this is due to the fact that the cells can be charged
at a high rate, and so can be easily overcharged, this overcharge will
make the electrolyte “bubble” gas and create a large amount of heat,
which can if not dealt with cause the battery to go into a state of thermal
meltdown. Under normal conditions these batteries require very little
maintenance and only a periodic capacity check.
5.1.4.2 Semi Open
These type of batteries are constructed similar to the semi sealed type,
but when on charge they are deliberately allowed to “gas”, this gassing
is allowed to vent to atmosphere, this aids the temperature control of
the cells and indeed is used to monitor the battery charge by switching
the battery charger on or off dependent on the temperature reached by
the cell.

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5.1.4.4 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline
This is a common type of alkaline battery; the plates are formed on a

woven wire mesh by heating, the cathode plate is formed by using
Nickel salts and the anode by using Cadmium salts, a separator of
nylon cloth and a gas barrier of cellophane is used between them, the
electrolyte has a specific gravity of 1.3 and consists of Potassium
Hydroxide and distilled water.
Figure 16: Liquid NC Battery Plate
Figure 17: Typical Liquid NC Aircraft Battery

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5.1.4.5 Chemical Reaction
The chemical reaction of alkaline batteries works on the same principle 5.1.5.1 Series
as the lead acid battery:
In order to obtain a high voltage from any cell type it is necessary to
However as can be seen, the difference is that the electrolyte does not connect the cells in series. In this arrangement the voltage from each
change its specific gravity or chemical structure during cell is added for example 5 x 2 volt cells connected in series will give
charge/discharge, it is used purely as a medium in which the electrons an open circuit terminal voltage (EMF) of 10 volts. The disadvantage
can flow through between the plates. As the charge of the battery of a series arrangement will be that the internal resistance of each cell
cannot be determined from the electrolyte specific gravity as in the lead is also added, this results in a high EMF voltage but low current output,
acid type, the temperature of the cell has to be monitored to determine therefore an increase in current drawn from the cell will result in a drop
the charge state, for this reason, switching on or off the charge supply in the output voltage due to the high internal resistance.
to maintain the correct ampere/hour rating.
In this arrangement all the cells will be required to be of the same
ampere/ hour rating, as this type of connection will take the lowest
5.1.5 Connection of Cells ampere/hour rated cell as its output.
All cells contain an internal resistance caused by factors such as the

plate material and size etc. In primary cells this resistance is quite high,
with secondary cells due to the plates having a much larger cross
sectional area compared to primary cells the internal resistance is
considerably lower.
When cells and batteries are connected together the internal

resistance has to be taken into account so as to determine the output
characteristics, this is achieved in the following ways:
Figure 18: Series Connection of Cells

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5.1.5.2 Parallel 5.1.5.3 Series/Parallel
If cells are connected in parallel this will have the effect of the individual From the 2 methods of connection above, it would make sense to
cell voltage being the EMF voltage, due to the large surface area of the connect all cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this
all the cathode plates being connected together, and also all the anode would provide the battery with a high voltage and also a high current
plates being connected together, the internal resistance is greatly capacity with an overall lower internal resistance, in this arrangement
reduced. In this arrangement the current from each cell is added the power obtained from the battery would be at its maximum.
together, therefore the current capacity from a parallel connected
group of cells is greatly improved, and as the EMF voltage is the same
as the cell voltage it is considerable more stable when a load is
connected to it also.
In this arrangement the cells ampere/hour rating does not need to be

considered, however the voltage rating of each cell needs to be equal
as this type of connection will reflect the lowest voltage of cell as its
EMF voltage.
Figure 20: Series Parallel Connection of Cells

Figure 19: Parallel Connection of Cells

DC Sources
5.1.5.4 EMF (Terminal Voltage) and internal Thermoelectricity Thermocouples

Resistance
The thermocouple is one of the simplest of all sensors. It consists of 2
Internal resistance in batteries is mainly due to the resistance of the wires of dissimilar metals joined near the measurement point. The
electrolyte and the cross sectional area of the plates. The voltage that output is a small voltage measured between the 2 wires known as
is measured across the terminals of the battery when it is off load is thermoelectricity.
known as the EMF voltage. When a load is connected to a battery the
current flows through the internal resistance and causes a voltage drop
proportional to this resistance, if the internal resistance remains
constant then the fall in the terminal voltage will be proportional to the
load current.
With switch “s” open, the Voltmeter V reads EMF (off load voltage).
With switch “s” closed, the Voltmeter reads PD (the volt drop across
the load or on-load voltage).
Figure 22: Thermocouple Principle
The dissimilar metals used in thermocouples will really depend on the

application that the thermocouple will be used for; some of the most
common metals used in their construction are as follows;
Aluminium, Chromium, Copper, Magnesium, Molybdenum, Nickel,

Platinum, Rhenium, Rhodium, Silicon, Tungsten.
Figure 21: EMF / PD

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The ice bath is now considered impractical and is replaced by a

reference junction compensation arrangement. This can be
5.2.1 Thermocouple Theory accomplished by measuring the reference junction temperature with
an alternate temperature sensor (typically a thermistor) and applying a
A thermocouple circuit has at least 2 junctions: the measurement correcting voltage to the measured thermocouple voltage before
junction and a reference junction. Typically, the reference junction is scaling to temperature.
created where the 2 wires connect to the measuring device. It is the The correction can be done electrically in hardware or mathematically
point where the metals change - from the thermocouple metals to in software. The software method is preferred as it is universal to all
whatever metals are used in the measuring device - typically copper. thermocouple types (provided the characteristics are known) and it
The output voltage is related to the temperature difference between allows for the correction of the small non-linearity over the reference
the measurement and the reference junctions. temperature range.
The voltage generated by a thermocouple is a function of the
temperature difference between the measurement and reference
junctions. Traditionally the reference junction was held at 0°C by an ice
bath:
Figure 24: Thermocouple Correction
Figure 23: Thermocouple Measurement

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5.2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of

Thermocouples
Because of their physical characteristics, thermocouples are the
preferred method of temperature measurement in many applications.
They can be very rugged, are immune to shock and vibration, are
useful over a wide temperature range, are simple to manufacture,
require no excitation power, there is no self-heating and they can be
made very small. No other temperature sensor provides this degree of
versatility.
On the down side, the thermocouple produces a relatively low output

signal that is non-linear. These characteristics require a sensitive and
stable measuring device that is able provide reference junction
compensation and linearization. Also the low signal level demands that
a higher level of care be taken when installing to minimize potential
noise sources.
5.2.3 Thermocouple Construction Figure 25: Different Thermocouples
There are 4 common ways in which thermocouples are constructed, all

have a stainless steel or Inconel sheath and electrically insulated with
mineral oxides. Each of the methods has its advantages and
5.2.3.1 Sealed and Isolated from Sheath
disadvantages.
Good relatively trouble-free arrangement. The principal reason for not
using this arrangement for all applications is its sluggish response time
- the typical time constant is 75 seconds.

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5.2.3.2 Sealed and Grounded to Sheath Photocells / Photovoltaic Cells

Can cause ground loops and other noise injection, but provides a The photovoltaic cell (PV cell) offers a limitless and environmentally
reasonable time constant (40 seconds) and a sealed enclosure. friendly source of electricity. Also called a solar cell, the PV cell is able
to create electricity directly from photons derived from light.
5.2.3.3 Exposed Bead
Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks 5.3.1 Solar Cell Structure
mechanical and chemical protection, and electrical isolation from
material being measured. The porous insulating mineral oxides must
be sealed
5.2.3.4 Exposed Fast Response
Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with fine gauge
of junction wire the time constant can be 10-100 ms. In addition to
problems of the exposed bead type, the protruding and light
construction makes the thermocouple more prone to physical damage.
Figure 26: Solar Cell Structure
 a Encapsulate
 b Contact Grid
 c The Antireflective Coating (AR Coating)
 d N-Type Silicon
 e P-Type Silicon
After a photon makes its way through the encapsulate it encounters

the antireflective layer. The antireflective layer channels the photon
into the lower layers of the solar cell.

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Once the photon passes the AR coating, it will either hit the silicon An interesting interaction occurs at the pn-junction of a darkened
surface or the contact grid metallization. The metallization, being photovoltaic cell. Extra valance electrons in the n-type layer move into
opaque, lowers the number of photons reaching the silicon surface. the p-type layer filling the holes in the p-type layer forming what is
The contact grid must be large enough to collect electrons, yet cover called a depletion zone. The depletion zone does not contain any
as little of the solar cell’s surface as possible, allowing more photons mobile positive or negative charges. Moreover, this zone keeps other
to penetrate. charges from the p and n-type layers from moving across it.
5.3.2 A Photon Causes the Photoelectric Effect

The photon’s energy transfers to the valance electron of an atom in the N- TYPE
n-type silicon layer. That energy allows the valance electron to escape
its orbit leaving behind a hole. In the n-type silicon layer, the free
electrons are called majority carriers whereas the holes are called
minority carriers. As the term “carrier” implies, both are able to move
throughout the silicon layer, and so are said to be mobile. Inversely, in
the p-type silicon layer, electrons are termed minority carriers and P- TYPE
holes are termed majority carriers, and of course are also mobile.
5.3.3 The pn-junction Figure 27: Solar Cell P/N- Junction
The region in the solar cell where the n-type and p-type silicon layers
meet is called the pn-junction. When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with
As you may have already guessed, the p-type silicon layer contains holes on the p-type layer. The pn-junction, a one-way road, only allows
more positive charges, called holes, and the n-type silicon layer the electrons to move in one direction. If we provide an external
contains more negative charges, or electrons. When p-type and n-type conductive path, electrons will flow through this path to their original
materials are placed in contact with each other, current will flow readily (p-type) side to unite with holes.
in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased).

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The electron flow provides the current (I), and the cell’s electric field
causes a voltage (V). With both current and voltage, we have power
(P), which is just the product of the 2. Therefore, when an external load
(such as an electric bulb) is connected between the front and back
contacts, electricity flows in the cell, working for us along the way.
Figure 28: Solar Cell Electron Flow

DC Circuits
6 DC circuits V
I 
Ohm´s Law R
6.1.1 What is Ohm´s Law?
And
A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance V
in electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for R
fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and repair. I
The relationship between: If you have difficulty in remembering them in the correct positions you
may find it easier to use the triangle method. By arranging the symbols
Resistance (measured in ohms and symbol Ω omega). within the triangle as shown in the diagram the method of determining
Current (measured in Amps and symbol I). the value of an unknown quantity is shown when its symbol is covered.
Voltage (measured in Volts and symbol V).
Is known as Ohms law after George ohm the physicist who derived the
formula, the law allows the volt to be defined as:
The potential difference between 2 points in a circuit having

Resistance (R) of 1 ohm between them and carrying a current of
1 ampere, providing temperature remains constant.
This relationship leads to the electrical circuit equation:
V  I R Figure 29: VIR Triangle
This is called Ohm’s Law. This law is used extensively in electrical and As long as the V is at the top, i.e. next to the apex, it does not matter
electronic circuit analysis and we shall be using it continuously, so you where the other 2 symbols are placed.
must learn it thoroughly. The other 2 forms of it are:

DC Circuits
It must be remembered that when the symbols are given values in the 6.1.2 Voltage
solution of a problem, the values must be in the basic units i.e. V for
volts, I for amperes and R for ohms. Consider the following circuit in Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a
which a current of 10 amperes flows in a resistance of 5 ohms and we conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro
wish to find the potential difference (V) developed across it. Motive Force) that pushes electrons.
The higher the difference in electrical potential push (difference

between positive and negative), the higher the voltage force Potential.
Figure 30: Voltage applied to a conductor

Figure 2: Voltage Drop at a Resistor
The solution will be:
V  I  R(Volts)
i.e. V  10 A  5  50Volts
Although we commonly use the simple formula V = I*R as Ohms Law,

the law is a statement, usually worded as follows:
In a uniform a wire, at a constant temperature, the Current Flowing

will be Directly Proportional to the Voltage Applied and Inversely
Proportional to the Resistance.

DC Circuits
6.1.2.1 Measurement 6.1.2.2 Voltage Units
A Voltmeter measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the Voltage is measured in a unit called volt.
circuit. The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure Voltage measurements can use different value prefixes such as
difference between 2 points being measured. Voltage can exist millivolt, volt, Kilovolt, and Megavolt.
between 2 points without electron flow.
Less than Larger than
Voltage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Symbol mV V kV
Pronounced millivolt Volt Kilovolt
Multiplier 0.001 1 1,000
Figure 31: Voltage Measurement

DC Circuits
6.1.3 Resistance 6.1.4 Measurement

Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of electrons. It An Ohmmeter measures the resistance of an electrical circuit or
opposes voltage. component. No voltage can be applied while the ohmmeter is
connected, or damage to the meter will occur.
Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and lower
resistance will allow more electrons to flow. Example: Water flows through a garden hose, and someone steps on
the hose. The higher the pressure placed on the hose, the higher the
hose restriction and the less water flows.
Figure 32: Resistance of a Conductor
Figure 33: Ohmmeter measures current flow

DC Circuits
6.1.4.1 Resistance Units 6.1.4.3 Current (Amperes)
Resistance is measured in units called Ohms. Current is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point
Symbol Ω. within one second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps
for short. Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower
Resistance measurements can use different value prefixes, such as voltage will produce lower current flow.
Kilo ohm and Mega ohms.
More than More than

Amperage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Symbol K M
Pronounced Ohm Kiloohm Megaohm
Multiplier 1 1,000 1,000,000
Figure 34: Current flow in a conductor

6.1.4.2 Resistance Factors
6.1.4.4 Measurement of Current
Various factors can affect the resistance. These include:
An Ammeter measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are
 Length of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher placed in series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it.
the resistance.
 Diameter of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it.
higher the resistance.
 Temperature of the material. Depending on the material, most
will increase resistance as temperature increases.
 Physical condition (damage) to the material. Any damage will
increase resistance.
 Type of material used. Various materials have a wide range of
resistances.
Figure 35: Water Equivalent for Ammeter

DC Circuits
6.1.4.5 Amperage Unit’s When calculating values of current, voltage and resistance, it is quite
often that the values calculated will be very small or indeed very large,
Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or Amps. therefore multiples of a unit are used to express this, below is a table
Amperage measurements can use different value prefixes, such as of some of the common multiples used and their terms:
microamp, milliamp, and Amp.
6.1.4.7 Multiples and Sub- Multiples
Less than Less than
Amperage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Multiple Prefix Symbol
Symbol µA mA A
1,000 = 103 kilo k
Pronounced Microamp milliamp Amp 1,000,000 = 106 mega M
Multiplier 0.000001 0.001 1 1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 tera T
6.1.4.6 Effects of Current Flow 0,001 = 10-3 milli m
0.000,001 = 10-6 micro 
Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and 0.000,000,001 = 10-9 nano n
Electromagnetism. 0.000,000,000,001 = 10-12 pico P
Heat: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the
current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a Examples of Multiples and Sub- Multiples
light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow white
hot and illuminate to produce light. 1mA means 1 milliampere which is 0.001 of an ampere, therefore if a
problem is one in which the current is 35mA, when this is put in the
Electromagnetism: When current flows, a small magnetic field is Ohms Law equation it must be written as 35 x 10-3.
created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. A voltage of 5kV would be written as 5 x 103.
An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators,
ignition systems, and other electronic devices. A given power supply may well provide currents for many different
devices having various resistances and they may be connected in
series or parallel or a combination of both. What we are very much
concerned with is how much current is being taken from the supply. In
order to determine the total current being used we must know the total
resistance (RT) of the circuit, considering the equation I=V/R
.

DC Circuits
6.1.5 Kirchoff´s Laws 6.1.5.2 Current Law
When we discussed the 2 ways that resistors can be connected The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction will always be Zero.
together i.e. in series or in parallel, we noted that in the latter case the
sum of the individual currents flowing into the parallel network equaled
the total current and in the former case the applied voltage was equal
to the sum of the voltages developed across the resistors in series.
These 2 facts are expressed in 2 laws stated by Kirchoff and defined

as follows:
6.1.5.1 Voltage Law
The voltage drops in a Series circuit will always equal the voltage
applied i.e. the sum of the PDs equals the EMF.
Figure 37: Kirchoff´s first law

Figure 36: Kirchoff´s second law
In such a circuit the sum of all voltages with respect to their direction 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0
equals zero.

Resistors
There are 3 general kinds of fixed resistor in common use:

7 Resistors
 Wire wound.
Circuit Symbol and identification  Composite.
 Deposited film.
7.1.1.1 Wire Wound Resistor
Resistance wire is wound around a rod of insulating material, usually

porcelain. The whole is covered in an insulating material, e.g. epoxy
coating.
Wire Wound resistors are normally of low ohmic value and high power
rating. The ohmic value is usually printed on in numbers.
Their size depends on the heat to be dissipated and therefore the
power loading. It is not indicative of resistance value.
They are normally used for the control of large currents due to their
excellent heat dissipation abilities.
Figure 38: Resistor Symbols Figure 39: Wire- wound resistors

Resistors
7.1.1.2 Composite Resistor 7.1.1.3 Deposited Film Resistor
Consists of a mixture of granulated carbon and powdered resin binder A glass core has a resistive film sprayed onto it. The depth of coating
fused together. Altering the percentage of carbon in the mixture varies of the film, usually metal oxide or carbon determines the amount of
the ohmic resistance value. Wire fly leads are attached at each end. resistance.
Ohmic value is usually given by a color code. The watt-rating is The ohmic value is indicated by the color coding around the body of
indicated by the size of the body of the resistor. the resistor. The power rating is indicated by their size.
They are cheap and common in electronics due to their small size. They also are inexpensive and commonly used in electronic circuits.
They cover the range: <10Ω to > 20 MΩ. They have a low power They cover the range: 10Ω to 1MΩ and have a power range of 0.125W
dissipation and so are used in low current circuits. to 1W.
Figure 40: Composite resistor Figure 41: Deposited film resistor

Resistors
7.1.2 Variable Resistors

Circuit Symbol and identification:
Figure 42: Variable Resistor
Both wire wound and composite resistors come in a variable form. A

conductive arm is moved along the resistive element increasing or
decreasing the length of the resistance element. This in turn alters the
value of resistance of the unit.
Figure 43: Different kinds of variable resistors

Resistors
7.1.2.1 The Potentiometer
Circuit Symbol and identification
Figure 44: Potential Divider

Figure 45: Potentiometer Circuit
A Potentiometer uses all 3 terminals, so as one resistance increases
the other decreases and varies the voltage across a load.
Note: Four wires are connected to the 3 terminals. This component
will be of high resistance, taking a small current and therefore low
wattage.

Resistors
7.1.2.2 The Rheostat 7.1.4 Specific Resistance

A Rheostat only uses 2 terminals, reducing the flexibility of the unit to  The material of which the resistance is made, and different
an increase or decrease single action and varies the current through a materials have different resistances. This is called the Specific
load. Resistance or Resistivity (ρ) of the material and the value of
Note: Two wires are connected to 2 terminals. This component will be the resistance is directly proportional to ρ (rho).
of low resistance, taking the full circuit current and therefore of high  The length of the material ℓ and again the value of the
wattage, maybe needing cooling! resistance is directly proportional to ℓ.
 The cross sectional area (A) of the materials, but in this case
the resistance is inversely proportional to Current.
Putting them all together the resistance is given by:
 
R () .
A
To find the value of R, ℓ must be in meters, A in mm² and ρ found in
tables in physical text books, in ohm/ meters.
Consider the following problem. If the length of a piece of material is

doubled and its area is halved, what is the effect on its resistance?
Since ℓ is doubled and A is halved, the effect is to quadruple the value
of the resistance. This is all very well but what materials are we talking
about when used to make resistances? In the main, there are 2 types
of resistors, those which are made of a carbon composition or those
made of special resistance wire wound on a ceramic former. The wire
wound can be made physically larger than the carbon and are used in
7.1.3 Current / Resistance Relationship high current circuits, although it should be realized that the size does
not indicate resistance value but the size does depend upon the heat
It can be seen that the current in a circuit is not only dependent on the to be dissipated. For wire wound resistors the value of resistance is
voltage applied but also relies heavily on the resistance of the circuit, usually stenciled on the body but for carbon resistors a colour code is
factors which affect the resistance and hence the current are described used.
below:

Resistors
7.1.5 Resistor Types and Identification
7.1.5.1 Colour Coding
The most common method of resistor value identification is colour

coding whereby a series of colour bands around the resistor body
show:
 Value.
 Multiplier.
 Tolerance.
 Reliability (optional).
The table shows the colours used and their meaning in the
identification system
Figure 46: Resistor Colour Coding

Resistors
7.1.5.2 Preferred Values

Preferred values of resistors (First 2 significant figs.)
In order to reduce manufacturing costs, Standard resistors are made 20% (no band) 10% (silver band) 5% (gold band)
to a range of preferred values. 10 10 10
11
This means that a specific resistor may not be readily available, but 12 12
practically there is little problem as available resistors may be 13
combined, (by series, parallel or series/parallel connection), into an 15 15 15
Equivalent Value network. 16
18 18
Some resistors use 4 bands, others use 5 bands e.g.: 20
Yellow, Violet, Orange, Gold = 47 x 103, +/- 5% 22 22 22
Yellow, Violet, Black, Red, Gold = 470 x 102 +/- 5% 24
27 27
Table of preferred values: 30
It should be noted that an important advantage of resistor networks is 33 33 33
that very accurate resistances may be obtained in spite of the 36
manufacturing tolerances of individual resistors e.g.: 39 39
43
47 kΩ +/- 10% would have a maximum/minimum value of +/- 4,700Ω 47 47 47
giving 51,700 to 42,300Ω. 51
56 56
62
68 68 68
75
82 82
91
100 100 100

Resistors
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Rt= resistance at 0°C + increase of resistance
If the resistance of a coil of insulated copper wire is measured at = R0+R0•α0•t= R0•(1+ α0•t)
various temperatures up to, say, 200° C, it is found to vary as shown
in the diagram, the resistance at 0°C being, for convenience taken as = R0•(1+0,00426•t) for annealed copper.
1 Ω. The resistance increases uniformly with the increase of
temperature until it reaches 1.426 Ω at 100°C; i.e. the increase of
resistance is 0.426 Ω for an increase of 100°C in temperature, or
0.00426 Ω /°C rise of temperature
Figure 47: Variation of Resistance of Copper with Temperature
The ratio of the increase of resistance per degree Celsius rise of

temperature to the resistance at some definite temperature, adopted
as standard, is termed the temperature coefficient of resistance and
is represented by the Greek letter α (alpha).
In general, if a material has a resistance R0 at 0°C and a temperature

coefficient of resistance α0 at 0°C, the increase in resistance for 1°C
rise of temperature is R0 α0. If the temperature rises to t, the increase
of resistance is R0• α0•t. Hence, if Rt be the resistance at t.

Resistors
7.2.1 Thermistors (NTC)

These are semi-conductor devices whose resistance decreases as
temperature increases.
The change in resistance is not linear, so temperature indication is only

possible over small ranges. The device is highly sensitive however
which makes it ideal for switching applications such as over or under
temperature switching in air conditioning systems.
Typical NTC materials are the semiconductor materials like silicon and
germanium.
Figure 48: Thermistor Symbol (NTC)

Resistors
7.2.2 PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)

These are materials whose resistance decreases as temperature
decreases.
Typical materials which show this effect are all metals.
Figure 49: PTC Symbol

Resistors
Calculations of Resistances
7.3.1 Resistance in a Series Circuit
The total Resistance can be calculated with the following formula:
Rt  R1  R2  R3
So the total resistance is 10 Ω
The current is constant at any point in the circuit.
It  I1  I 2  I 3
Using Ohms law, knowing that the voltage applied is 10 V and that
the total resistance is 10Ω, we can find that the current of the circuit.
V 10V
It    1A
R 10 
If a current of 1 amps is flowing through each resistor the voltage
across to each resistor can be calculated separately. Figure 50: Series Connection of Resistors
Voltage across R1  I  R  1A  5  5V ,
Voltage across R 2  1A  3  3V ,
and voltage across R3  1A  2  2V .

Resistors
7.3.2 Resistance in Parallel Circuits Rt 

V 24V
  1 .
It 24 A
The applied voltage, is 24 volts, the same voltage or PD is felt across
each resistor. The current flow through each resistor can be found by
using ohms law.
V 24V
I1    4A,
R1 6
24V
I2   8 A and
3
24V
I3   12 A .
2
V
But, using ohms law on the whole circuit It 
.
Rt
The current flow from the applied voltage must equal the SUM of the
currents through each resistor.
Therefore
It  I1  I 2  I 3  24 A .
V V V V
Substitution:   
Rt R1 R 2 R3
1 1 1 1
Dividing by V:   
Rt R1 R 2 R3
This can be used to calculate the total resistance in the circuit.
Therefore Rt = 1 Ω
This can be confirmed by using ohms law on the whole circuit.

Resistors
Conductance (G)
Figure 51: Parallel connection of Resistors
Sometimes it is more convenient to think in terms of how well a material
conducts current, rather than to think in terms of how well it opposes
current. Because of this, the property called conductance is often used.
Conductance is the opposite, or more properly, the reciprocal of
resistance.
Conductance (G )= 1/R and is measured in Siemens.

Resistors
Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel

In the solution of such circuits, the most important fact to know is, which components are in series with each other and what parts of the circuit are
parallel branches. The series components must be in one current path without any other. If you take a look to point A, the current in R1 divides at
this point into its 2 component branches. Similarly, R5 is not in series with R3. A branch point such as point A or B is common to 2 or more current
paths. For instance, R1 and R6 are not in series with each other.
Figure 52: Resistor arrangements to calculate
To find the currents and voltages, first find RT (resistance total) in order to calculate the mainline current IT (current total) as VT/RT. In calculating
Rtot, start reducing the branch further from the source and work toward the applied voltage. The reason for following this order is that you cannot
tell how much resistance is in series with R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are reduced to their equivalent resistance.

Resistors
When the voltages are equal between the 2 legs there will be no
Wheatstone Bridge potential difference felt across the output, in this state the bridge is said
to be balanced.
The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the diagram
below is known as the Wheatstone Bridge. At this point the value of RX can be found from:
The wheatstone bridge consists of 2 potential dividers connected RX = (RA x RB)/RC. Or

between a potential and ground, one divider is formed from resistors
RB and RC, and the other is formed from RX and RA (unknown The ratio RX/RA = the ratio RB/RC
resistance) the voltage between each leg RB and RC and RA and RX
will vary dependent on their resistor values as shown in the diagram. The voltages are made equal by adjusting the variable resistor RC, e.g.
If RA =25kΩ, RB = 5kΩ, and RC = 20kΩ
Then RX = (25kΩ x 5kΩ) /20kΩ

= 100kΩ /20kΩ
RX = 5kΩ
Figure 53: Wheatstone Bridge

Electrical Power
8 Electrical Power
It is simpler to use the formula into which the information given readily
fits
Electrical power is the rate at which an electrical system can perform
work. The SI unit of power is the Watt, which is a rate of work of 1 joule
per second: V2 200V  200V
or P    1000W
R 40
 1 watt = 1 joule per second = 1 volt * 1 ampere
The symbol used for power is P:
i.e. Electrical Power (P) = voltage (V) x Current(I) in units of Watts(W)
By substituting V = IR in the above power formula, 2 other expressions

for electrical power are obtained:
V2
P  VI  I R  2
R
Example
Calculate the power dissipated in a 40Ω resistor connected to a 200 V

supply.
P = V•I 200•5 = 1000 W

or
P = I 2R = 5•5• 40= 1000 W
Note: That if current is not given, it must first be calculated using
V 200V
Ohm’s Law I    5A
R 40 

Electrical Power
The Maximum power transfer theorem

Earlier it was demonstrated the existence of internal resistance in the
power supply such as in a battery, and the effect that this resistance
has on the voltage supplied to the load was discussed.
The load voltage is the actual voltage given out by the power supply
after it has dropped a percentage of its EMF voltage across its internal
resistance.
How much voltage is dropped across the internal resistance depends

on the value of the internal resistance in relation to the value of the
load.
The relationship between the values of load resistance and internal

resistance is also important for another reason. Maximum power can
be developed in a load resistance only when the values of the load
resistance and the internal resistance of the source are equal.
This statement is known as the maximum power transfer theorem or
power matching.
Figure 54 shows a 12V EMF source of internal resistance 3 ohms

connected to a load resistance of 1 ohm. The total resistance in the
circuit is 4 ohms and the circuit current is therefore 3 amperes. The
power developed in the load (I2*R) is therefore 9 watts. Figure 54: Load Resistor less than internal Resistance

Electrical Power
Figure 55 shows the same source connected to a load resistance of 3 Figure 56 shows the effect of inserting a load of 9 ohms. The total
ohms. The total resistance is now 6 ohms and the current 2 amperes. resistance is now 12 ohms and the current 1 ampere. The power
The power developed in the load is now 12 watts. developed in the load is now 9 watts.
Figure 56: Load Resistor higher than internal Resistance
The above examples have used the power formula I2 * R, but any of
the other
2 formular, V2/R and I * V could be used.
Example ‘B’ using V2/R would give the same answer by measuring the
Figure 55: Load Resistor equal to internal Resistance volts drop across the load resistance and then dividing the square of
that by the actual load resistance. Try it, it works!

Electrical Power
The graph shows these and other results by plotting the power
developed in different values of load resistance. It shows that
maximum power is developed in the load only when the load resistance
is equal in value to the internal resistance of the source and, thus,
illustrates the maximum power transfer theorem.
In many circuits we are interested in transferring the maximum possible

amount of power to a load circuit.
To do this we must ‘match’ the load resistance to the internal resistance
of the source. Matching is very important in electronic circuits that
usually have a fairly high source resistance. A typical example is the
‘matching’ of an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker and we shall consider
this and many others later in the book.
Note however that batteries, generators and other power supply

systems cannot be operated under maximum power transfer
conditions. It can be seen from the previous Fig that to do so would
result in the same amount of power being dissipated in the source as
was supplied to the load. This is obviously extremely wasteful of
energy and power supply systems are always designed to have the Figure 57: Maximum Power Transfer
minimum possible internal resistance to minimize losses.

Electrical Power
Electrical energy/ Electrical work When energy is converted into work, some of it may be lost in the form
of heat. The energy and the amount of work done are equivalent; the
Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Energy has different heat losses are neglected.
forms. ’Electrical energy’ is one form, because electricity is capable of
performing work. But it is necessary to use some kind of electrical Electrical energy expressed in watt-seconds (Ws) or watt-hours (Wh)
components to convert electrical energy into some other forms of is found by multiplying the voltage times the current times the time:
energy to accomplish work.
For example, an electric motor is used to exert a vertical force on an Electrical energy = volts ⋅ amperes ⋅ time
elevator through a distance. Other examples of energy are heat and
light. W=V⋅I⋅t
One of the first types of energy was mechanical energy. Mechanical
energy exists in two forms:
 potential energy
 kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its position.
It took a certain amount of work to get the box on the table. A vertical
force had to be exerted through a distance to accomplish this.
Once the box rests on the table, it is capable of doing work simply
because of its position. In other words, it has potential energy.
If the box is knocked off the table, it will fall and strike the ground with
an impact. It is assumed that there is a nail resting under the box where
it strikes the floor. If the box is heavy enough, it can actually push the
nail into a wooden floor. Since this requires a force through a distance,
the box is capable of doing work.
Although the box resting on the table has potential energy, it will do no
work until this potential energy is converted into some other form of
energy. As the box is moving through space it has energy by virtue of
its motion. This is called ’kinetic energy’. Both kinetic and potential
energy are forms of energy which represent the capability to do work.

Capacitors and capacitance
9 Capacitors and capacitance

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:
Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store
charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored.
Capacitance is measured in farads, (symbol F). However 1F is very
large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the smaller values:
 µ (micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F.

 n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF.
 p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF.
In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in

completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical
energy, inside the battery; chemical reactions produce electrons on
one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal. A capacitor is
a much simpler device, and it cannot produce new electrons - it only Figure 59: Capacitor on a Battery
stores them.
Like a battery, a capacitor has 2 terminals. Inside the capacitor, the  The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal
terminals connect to 2 metal plates separated by a dielectric. The of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.
dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not  The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal
conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. of the battery loses electrons to the battery.
In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:
Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery
(1.5 volts on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small
capacitor, the capacity is small. But large capacitors can hold quite a
bit of charge.
Figure 58: Capacitor symbol

The unit of capacitance is a farad (symbol F). A 1-farad capacitor can

store one coulomb (Q) of charge at 1 volt (V). A 1-farad capacitor would
typically be pretty big. So you typically see capacitors measured in
microfarads (millionths of a farad).
These sub units are:

1
farads  1microfarad( F )10 6 F
1000000
also 10 9 F 1nano Farad
1
microfarads  1 picofarad ( pF ) 10 12 F
1000000
There is a direct relationship between the Voltage (V) placed across

Figure 60: Capacitive Circuit with Light Bulb in series
the plates of a capacitor and the charge (Q) held by them. If the voltage
is doubled the charge is doubled, if the charge is halved then the
Here you have a battery, a light bulb and a capacitor. If the capacitor voltage is halved etc. This tells us that the ratio of charge to voltage is
is pretty big, what you would notice is that, when you connected the constant and this is known as the capacitance (C) of the capacitor i.e.:
battery, the light bulb would light up as current flows from the battery
to the capacitor to charge it up. The bulb would get progressively Q
dimmer and finally go out once the capacitor reached its capacity. C
Then you could remove the battery and replace it with a wire. Current
would flow from one plate of the capacitor to the other. The light bulb
V
would light and then get dimmer and dimmer; finally going out once the
capacitor had completely discharged (the same number of electrons
on both plates).

Factors Affecting Capacitance Typical values are given below:
The factors to consider are:

Dielectric Dielectric Strength
Material
Capacitance increases as the total area (A) of the opposing surfaces Constant Ԑ V/Mil
of the plate’s increases, because a large plate area can hold a greater Air or vacuum 1 20
charge.
Capacitance increases as the distance (d) between the plates is
Aluminium oxide 7
decreased because the electric field then becomes more
concentrated.
Ceramics 80-1200 600-1250
Capacitance depends upon the material, often called dielectric,
between the plates and this is called the Dielectric constant (Ԑ). This
indicates the ability of an insulator to concentrate the electric flux. Its Glass 8 335-2000
numerical value is specified as the ratio of flux in the insulator
compared with air or a vacuum. Mica 3-8 600-1500
The dielectric constant is actually its relative permeability with the
symbol Ԑr. Oil 2-5 275
Various materials are used as dielectrics and they have their own Paper 2-6 1250
dielectric values. One material used is, waxed paper, when inserted
between the plates instead of air, the capacitance is multiplied by about Plastic film 2-3
3 and this is the dielectric constant for waxed paper.
Tantalum oxide 25
The relative rielectric constant of materials (Ԑr) is always given as a
multiplier of that of Air or Vacuum.
The formula from which the capacitance is found is:
A
C farads
d
C = Capacitance, Ԑ = Dielectric constant, A = area of plates, d =

distance between the plates

Time Constant When the switch is moved to position B this results in a high rate of
change of voltage across the plates of the capacitor (detail a)). At this
A change of voltage applied across the plates of a capacitor causes instant the current is maximum and only limited by the circuit resistance
the capacitor’s charge to change. This takes time, therefore voltage R. All the applied voltage is dropped across R.
changes are delayed in a capacitive circuit. As the charge builds up on the plates the voltage rises and the current
decreases (due to the opposition of the negative plate charge to the
electron flow).
At the time constant value of 1Ʈ = R * C (in seconds) the voltage across
the plates is 63.2 % of the applied voltage. The current has a maximum
of 36.8 %.
Therefore the voltage drop across R is 36.8 % of the applied voltage
(detail b)).
At five time constants 5Ʈ = 5 * R * C the capacitor is fully charged and
the current has reached its approximate final value of 0 amps.
This means, at 5 * R * C :
 5Ʈ = 5 * R * C
 the rate of change of charge is minimum
 the rate of change of voltage is minimum
 the current flow is minimum
 I R (voltage) drop across the resistor is minimum V the voltage
across the plates is maximum.
Figure 61: Charge a cpacitor

When the switch is in position A the opposite sequence of events is

caused (detail a)).
At the instant of switching to position A:

 the maximum rate of change of voltage occurs
 the charge and resulting voltage across the plates tries to
maintain the voltage in the circuit
 the discharge current flows in the direction opposite to the
charge current.
The capacitor voltage decreases at a certain rate determined by the

capacitance (C) and the resistance (R) (detail b)). When the current
has reached the time constant 1Ʈ = R * C the voltage across the plates
is 36.8 % of the maximum value.
The current is 36.8 % (with opposite polarity to charge) and causes a
voltage drop across the resistor (R) of -36.8 % of the maximum value.
Current flows into a capacitor when it charges, and flows out when it
discharges.
At five time constants 5Ʈ = 5 * R * C the capacitor voltage and current
are approximately zero. All of the energy stored in the electric field of
the plate charges has been discharged through the resistor.
A dielectric is a good insulator and practically no current leakage
occurs between the plates. So a capacitor can hold its charge for a
long time.
Therefore many circuits have discharge resistors connected across the
capacitor to slowly discharge the capacitor’s energy over a period of
approximately five minutes after the applied voltage has been switched
off.
Figure 62: Discharge a cpacitor

Capacitors in Series and Parallel charging process, the displacement of electrons from the positive plate
(+) of C1 to the negative plate (-) of C2 is exactly the same as that from
In the previous topic we saw what is meant by capacitance in electrical positive plate of C2 to the negative plate of C1. There is a movement
terms and how the capacitance of a capacitor is measured. Just as in of Q coulombs of electricity in each part of the circuit and when the
the case of resistors and inductors we now need to be able to calculate current ceases i.e. the capacitors are fully charged, the charge on each
the total capacitance of circuits with capacitors in series, parallel and capacitor is Q coulombs
combinations of series and parallel. If V1 and V2 represent the final voltages across the capacitors C1 and
C2 respectively then, from the general formula Q = CV, we get the
9.4.1 Capacitors in Series following expressions:
Consider the circuit shown in the diagram below in which 2 capacitors Q = C1 * V1 and Q = C2 * V2
C1 and C2 are joined in series.
To find the total capacitance of the circuit we can replace the 2
capacitors by one capacitor having a capacitance of C farads such that
it would have the same charge Q coulombs on it when the voltage
across it is the supply voltage V. This yields the following expression:
Q
V 
C
Now it can be seen from the circuit diagram that
V = V1 + V2
and by substituting the above values of V, V1 and V2 we get
Q Q Q
 
C C1 C 2
Figure 63: Capacitors in Series Divide each expression on each side of the equation by Q giving:
1 1 1
When the switch is closed the 2 ammeters A1 and A2 both start at a  
C C1 C 2
maximum value and then decrease simultaneously to zero. During the

These currents will fall exponentially to zero as the capacitors become

Note that the total capacitance is always less than the smallest of the charged. When the capacitors reach their maximum charges no
capacitors joined in series and that all the capacitor values must be in current flows in the circuit and the capacitors are again behaving as dc
the same units. blocking devices.
9.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel From the general formula Q = C*V
We now consider 2 capacitors having capacitance C1 and C2 farads Q1 = V*C1 and Q2 = V*C2
respectively joined in parallel with a supply voltage V placed across
them as shown below. It should be noticed that the voltage across each capacitor is the same
and this is the supply voltage V.
Suppose C1 and C2 are replaced by a single capacitor C so that the

same total charge Q1 + Q2 is produced by the same supply voltage V1
then:
(Q1 + Q2) = V*C

Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) we get:
V.* C1 + V *.C2 = V *.C
Since V has a constant value we can cancel it from each side of the
equation giving:
C = C1 + C2
This is the formula from which the total capacitance of any number of
capacitances connected in parallel is obtained.
Figure 64: Capacitors in Parallel
Let us now illustrate how to determine the total capacitance of
capacitors in parallel and the value of the charges of each of the
When the switch is closed in the above circuit and, assuming the capacitors.
capacitances of the capacitors are not equal, the currents in the 2
ammeters A1 and A2 will be initially at maximum but different values.

Example 9.4.3 Safe Working Voltage

Three capacitors of 8µF, 10µF and 2µF are connected in parallel. What The safe working voltage is the maximum dc voltage that can be
is the total capacitance of the circuit? applied to the capacitor without the dielectric breaking down. A large
value capacitor has a thin dielectric which is suitable only for low
Answer voltages. A high voltage, high value capacitor is usually very bulky.
Using the parallel formula and substituting the given values: Capacitor values are stated in capacitance and maximum working
voltage.
C = C1 + C2 + C3
C = 8µF + 10µF + 2µF = 20µF e.g. 1µF 750 dcw (dc working)
i.e. C = 20µF
This Voltage must not be exceeded.
When an electrolytic capacitor is of the polarized type it can only

be used in a DC circuit and must be connected with the correct
polarity.

Types of Capacitors
Figure 67: Ceramic Capacitor
Figure 65: Paper Capacitor
Figure 66: Mica Capacitor

Figure 68: Electrolytic Capacitor

9.5.1 Electrolytic Capacitors Construction
Figure 69: Capacitors Construction

Magnetism
10 Magnetism In general, materials that are easily magnetized also readily lose their
magnetism and make Temporary magnets. Conversely, materials,
which are difficult to magnetize, do not lose their magnetism easily and
Introduktion make Permanent magnets.
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known and used for much
10.1.2 Permanent Magnets
longer than any other property in the science of electricity. Magnetism
occurs naturally in some minerals, eg lodestone and has the property
A common form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet. We have
of attracting and picking up small pieces of iron or steel. A further
already seen that any magnet attracts pieces of iron and when it is in
property of these minerals is that if they are freely suspended they will
the shape of a bar the force of attraction is usually greatest in the
come to rest pointing in a north-south direction. This is because the
regions of the ends, which are called Poles and negligible in the middle
earth itself behaves like a huge natural magnet and its magnetism pulls
of its length. We also saw that if the bar is freely suspended it will take
the piece of mineral into line with it. This property forms the basis of
up a fixed position with one end pointing to the north, called the north
the magnetic compass and has been used by mariners for navigation
seeking pole (or more commonly just North Pole) and the other end
over many years.
pointing to the south called the South Pole.
10.1.1 Artificial Magnets Materials, which exhibit magnetic effects, are called Ferromagnetic
materials, eg iron, cobalt, and nickel.
The use of an irregular shaped piece of natural magnetic material is
not very satisfactory in practice. However, some other material such The 2 poles of any single magnet are always of equal strength and are
as iron or steel, made to the shape required, can be made into a complementary and cannot exist in isolation.
magnet. If a piece of iron is placed near to a natural magnet (or any
other magnet) it will exhibit magnetic properties and it is said to be The region around a magnet in which its forces can be detected is
magnetized by induction. A piece of un-magnetized iron can also be called its Magnetic Field and this can conveniently be imagined as
made into a magnet by stroking it with one end of a natural magnet. consisting of Lines of Force or Lines of Magnetic Flux.
We shall also see later that a piece of iron can be magnetized using
an electric current.
Any magnet formed by one of the above methods is called an artificial

magnet. Some materials are easily made magnetic, such as soft iron,
but others, such as hard iron (and steel) are much more difficult to
magnetize.

Magnetism
10.1.3 Properties of Magnetic Fields

These are as follows:
 Lines of force tend to contract to the shortest possible length
rather like an elastic band.
 Lines of force laterally repel one another.
 The direction of lines of force is from the North Pole to the South
Pole, external to the magnet. They form closed loops, which
are completed by the lines of force passing through the
magnet (from South Pole to North Pole).
 Lines of force never cross over each other.
It should be remembered that magnetic forces are present everywhere

in the field and do not only exist on the lines of force. Lines of force are
a concept to aid the understanding of magnetism. They have a definite
direction, representing strong magnetism where they are dense and
weak magnetism where they are spread out. The diagram shows how
lines of force can be used to illustrate the magnetic field surrounding a
bar magnet.
The lines of force shown in the diagram are referred to, collectively, as
Magnetic Flux given the symbol (the Greek letter phi) and its unit is the
Weber (Wb).
Figure 70: Lines of force around a bar magnet

Magnetism
10.1.3.1 Resultant Field Patterns for 2 Bar 10.1.4 Magnetic Flux

Magnets
The lines of force within a magnetic field form a magnetic flux (symbol
The diagrams below show the resultant field patterns, which occur - Greek letter phi). This term describes the total amount of magnetic
when like poles are adjacent and when unlike poles, are brought ’power’, which seems to ’flow’ out at one pole of the magnet.
together. The more powerful the magnet, the greater the amount of flux which is
It can be seen that when like poles are placed adjacent to each other generated. For some applications it is the concentration of flux or flux
the magnets are repelled from one another whilst when unlike poles density (symbol B) which is important, rather than the total amount of
are adjacent the magnets are attracted to each other. This can be flux generated by the magnet.
shortened to:
Unlike poles attract, Like poles repel.
Figure 71: Attraction and repulsion of magnets

Figure 72: Magnets with Keepers

Magnetism
If a permanent magnet is left for a long period without a keeper, or Where magnetic flux is undesirable (e.g. in the vicinity of a watch) a
means of completing the magnetic path for the flux, its magnetic magnetic screen of iron is used. This has the effect of concentrating
strength will soon decrease. A soft iron keeper for each pair of poles the flux within itself so that it does not penetrate the surrounding air
provides a closed magnetic path for the flux and the result is very little space.
loss of magnetism.
Bar magnets are generally arranged for storage in pairs so that Note: This concentrating effect is called ’permeability’. Soft iron has a
opposite poles face the same direction. The keepers are then placed high permeability and air has a low permeability.
across the poles at each end.
Conclusion
Magnetic flux is invisible and has no physical existence but forms a
convenient basis for explaining magnetic effects.
Each ’line of magnetic flux’ forms a closed loop from north to south
outside the magnet and from south to north inside the magnet.
’Lines of flux’ can never cross. They are infinitely elastic and cannot be
broken.
Nevertheless when looking at a pattern of iron filings around a magnet
lines of flux sometimes seem to end in the free space. The reason for
this is that the lines of flux become weaker the farther they are situated
from the magnetic pole. The process continues until the flux is too weak
to arrange the filings in a pattern.
Figure 73: Magnetic Screen

Magnetism
10.1.5 The Magnetic Effect of Current
Figure 75: Right Hand Rule
Figure 75 shows the ’right-hand rule’, whereby the thumb points in the
direction of the current through a conductor and the other fingers point
in the direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 74: Electromagnetic Field around a Conductor
Whenever a current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is

developed. There are two methods of determining the field direction:
 right-hand rule
 corkscrew rule.

Magnetism
Figure 76: Corkscrew Rule
Figure 76 shows the ’corkscrew rule’. When the current flows to the
paper the magnetic field is clockwise. When the current direction is
away from the paper the magnetic field is anti-clockwise.
Figure 77: Direction of Current
The direction of the current within a wire is indicated as follows:

 an arrow indicates the direction of current flow
 the cross represents the tail of the arrow pointing to the page
 the dot represents the head of the arrow pointing away from the
page.

Magnetism
By changing the shape of the conductor its magnetic properties can be

greatly improved. Figure 78 shows a view of a short piece of wire
3.10.1.10 The Magnetic Field of a Coil twisted into a loop. Simply forming the loop improves the magnetic
characteristics in three ways:
A coil carrying a current is surrounded by a magnetic field like a  this brings the flux lines together,
permanent magnet. One end of the coil acts like a south pole, the  concentrates the flux lines at the center and
opposite pole acts like a north pole. By reversing the current direction  creates north and south pole.
in the coil its magnetic poles are interchanged.
If a conductor is a straight piece of wire a weak magnetic field of little The flux lines enter at the south pole and emerge at the north pole.
practical use is developed around the wire. Although the magnetic flux Thus the loop of current-carrying wire has the characteristics of a
has direction the conductor has no north or south pole. magnet and is therefore called an ’electromagnet’.
Figure 79: North-South Direction of a Coil
The north pole of an electromagnet can be determined by the use of

the ’right-hand grasp rule’. The fingers of the right hand grasp the coil
and point in the current direction. The thumb points to north.
The flux density of an electromagnet depends on:

 the current in the coil
 the number of turns
 the core material, if arranged within the coil.
Figure 78: North and South Pole of a Coil

Magnetism
Iron within a coil concentrates the flux and thus increases the strength
of the magnet. The iron core makes the magnetic force stronger, so 10.1.6 Magnetic Characteristics
that heavy loads can be carried.
A comparison between coils with different numbers of turns shows that 10.1.6.1 The Magnetic Circuit
with a higher number of turns a smaller current is sufficient to bear a
load of equal weight. The flux lines or lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a
In addition to its high load bearing capacity, the electromagnet has a current-carrying solenoid are all continuous or completely closed. The
further advantage over a permanent magnet: its capacity can be varied magnetic circuit is formed by the closed path of magnetic flux. One of
within wide limits by varying the supply current. the simplest forms of magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 80 where part
of the magnetic circuit is in the iron and part is in the air gap.
Figure 80: Magnetic Circuit

Magnetism
Air and most materials (including most metals) have a multiplying

factor of approximately 1. Iron placed in a magnetic field causes the
10.1.6.2 The Magnetic Field Strength lines of flux to concentrate in it. In doing so the iron itself becomes
magnetized. The iron generates ’flux lines’ of its own, so more ’lines’
The magnetic field strength (symbol H) is the intensity of the magnetic are added to the original flux. Thus the presence of iron increases the
force that sets up the magnetic flux density (symbol B) in an flux density.
electromagnet (magnetic circuit). It can be compared with the EMF that
forces a current (I) through an electric circuit. The unit of magnetic field Multiplying factors range from 1 to some thousands, depending on the
strange is “Tesla”. The magnetic field strength is determined as: material.
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐻) =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡) 10.1.6.4 Magnetic flux density
The magnetic flux density has the symbol “B”. The unit of the magnetic
10.1.6.3 Permeability flux density is “weber”.
The magnetic flux density can be calculated with the formula:
𝐵 =µ×𝐻
So, the magnetic flux density is the magnetic field strength times the
permeability.
10.1.6.5 Reluctance
Reluctance (symbol S) is the opposition to magnetic flux and therefore

the opposite to or reciprocal of permeability. Reluctance can be
Figure 81: Effect of Iron in a magnetic Field compared to resistance in an electric circuit. A material, for example,
has a permeability of 2,700 (µ = 2,700) and a reluctance of:
Permeability or flux-multiplying factor (symbol µ) is a measure of how
easily a magnetic flux can be set up in a material. 1
𝑆= = 0.00037
2700

Magnetism
 the permeability (µ) of the magnetic circuit or core (multiplying

factor).
10.1.6.6 Magnetic Materials
Therefore:
Magnetic materials are divided into ferromagnetic materials and non-
magnetic materials.
𝐵 =µ×𝐻
Ferromagnetic materials are materials such as iron, cobalt and nickel.

Most of their alloys which can be magnetized have a high flux
concentrating power. Iron, for example, has a flux-multiplying factor of
approximately 5,000.
Non-magnetic materials are those that have no flux-multiplying factor.

Their permeability is around 1. Non-magnetic materials are copper,
aluminum, water and air. Air is a standard and has a permeability of 1.
10.1.6.7 Magnetic Field Strength/Flux Density

Curve (B-H Curve)
If a circuit is set up as so, that current can be varied by moving the

rheostat slider. Adjusting the current, changes the magnetic field
strength (H) because:
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐻=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
Figure 82: B-H Curve of Air
The formula shows that the number of turns and the length of the
magnetic circuit are fixed values. Only the current is variable. The B-H curve of air is linear (a straight line) because the permeability
of air is 1.
Increasing the magnetic field strength (H) means increase in the flux
density (B) because flux density (B) is proportional to:
 the magnetic field strength (H)

Magnetism
Increasing H further from 1 to 2 results in a large increase in B because

the ferromagnetic material itself magnetizes, multiplying this increase
in B due to H in air. The ferromagnetic material has a great effect on
the increase in B. Therefore the permeability of the ferromagnetic
material rapidly increases to a large value.
Increasing H still further from 2 to 3 results in a small increase in B. In

fact the slope of the graph (rate of increase) is about the same as that
from 0 to 1 because the ferromagnetic material is fully magnetized and
no flux-multiplying effects exist. The increase in B only exists due to
the air.
The ferromagnetic material has thus reached the saturation point, the
material cannot be magnetized any further and the permeability
decreases to a very low value.
Figure 83 B-H Curve of a typical ferromagnetic Material
Figure 83 shows a typical ferromagnetic B-H curve. Increasing H from

0 to 1 results in a small increase in B mostly due to H in air. The
ferromagnetic material has little effect, therefore the permeability of the
ferromagnetic material is very low here.

Magnetism
If the magnetic field strength is increased from zero in a positive

direction the flux density B rises as in a normal B-H curve.
10.1.6.8 Hysteresis
The B-H curve shows the magnetic characteristics of a material when

the magnetic field strength is increased to eventual saturation. If the
magnetizing force is removed some magnetism may remain with the
material. This effect is known as ’hysteresis’. Hysteresis thus is the lag
of flux density (B) behind the magnetic field strength (H).
Figure 85: Remanence or Residual Magnetism
On reduction of the magnetizing force H to zero again, the flux density

B does not follow its original path to zero but follows the path Q/R.
When the material has reached saturation for the first time the flux
density at R is called the ’remanence’ or ’residual magnetism’. If the
material has not reached saturation the flux density at R is called
’remanent flux density’.
Figure 84: B-H Curve

Magnetism
10.1.6.9 Retentivity and Remanence
’Retentivity’ is a measure of the magnetism retained by a material over

a long period of time. Retentivity must not be confused with remanence
since in some materials remanence is quickly reduced to zero under
normal conditions. The remanence is the magnetization left behind in
a ferromagnetic material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field
is removed.
Figure 86: Hysteresis Loop
The flux density B always lags behind the magnetic field strength H
because of the inertia required to change the magnetism in the
material.
Figure 87: Coercive Force
As shown in Figure 87, a negative value of magnetizing force H must

be applied to reduce the flux density B to zero (S).

Magnetism
The actual value of negative magnetizing force H necessary to do this

is known as the ’coercive force’.
If the material has reached saturation for the first time this value is 10.1.6.10 Characteristics of Ferromagnetic
termed the ’coercivity’ of the material. Materials
Figure 89 Hysteresis Loop of Magnetic Materials
Figure 88: Negative Saturation

Ferromagnetic materials are divided into soft or hard magnetic
materials. ’Soft’ and ’hard’ refer to how easily they magnetize and not
If the negative value of magnetizing force is increased past zero flux to whether they are mechanically hard or soft.
density B the material will eventually reach saturation T. This
relationship shows that for a permanent magnet, a material with a high
coercivity is required, i.e. the force required to ’remove’ the magnetism
must be very large.

Magnetism
Hard Magnetic Materials Steel alloys, such as permalloy or stalloy, are suitable for AC use. For
DC applications soft iron is used. Soft iron has a high permeability but
A high magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a hard also a relatively high hysteresis loss.
magnetic material and a high value of coercivity is required to remove As most of the core materials used in electronic equipment are
the remanence of the magnet (residual magnetism). Therefore a hard ferromagnetic it is important to compare the various characteristics
magnetic material has a good retentivity making it a good permanent exhibited by the most commonly used materials. The main
magnet. characteristics of ferromagnetic materials can be ascertained by a
study of their hysteresis loops as shown in Figure
Because a high magnetic field strength H is necessary to magnetize a
hard material, the area of the loop is large and, therefore, the energy
(H is proportional to current) to complete a full cycle or loop, is large.
Therefore a hard material has large hysteresis losses proportional to
the hysteresis loop area and frequency of the magnet field strength H.
A typical hard magnetic material is ’Alnico’ used for permanent
magnets. ’Alnico’ alloys consist of aluminium, cobalt, nickel and iron.
Soft Magnetic Materials
A low magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a soft magnetic

material and a low value of coercivity is required to remove the
remanence of the magnet (residual magnetism). Therefore a soft
magnetic material has a low retentivity making it unsuitable for the use
as a permanent magnet.
Because a low magnetic field strength is necessary to magnetize a soft

material, the area of the loop is small and the energy required to
complete a full cycle or loop is small.
A soft material usually has a low hysteresis loss. High permeability

values make it suitable for use when the magnetic field strength is
alternating (AC current), driving the flux density through a complete
hysteresis loop as in AC electric motors, generators and transformers.
Figure 90: Hysteresis Loop of Ferromagnetic Materials

Magnetism
10.1.6.11 Applications of Electromagnets When a current (control current) is fed to an electromagnet the lever-
like armature is attracted. Depending on the construction the result is
A typical applications of electromagnets is the relay. either:
 the contact closes (normally-open contact) and an external
The Relay circuit is closed (detail a)) or
 the contact opens (normally-closed contact) and an external
circuit is interrupted (detail b)).
When the control circuit is interrupted the armature returns to its initial
position through the restoring force of a spring. In circuit diagrams of
electric equipment it is necessary to identify individual relays and their
contacts by a numbering system. They are usually annotated as shown
in Figure 92.
Figure 91: Construction of a Relay

Magnetism
Figure 92: Circuit Symbol of a Relay
The relay number is RL 2 and the number below the line - 3 - Figure 93: Remote Switching using a Relay
documents the number of contacts associated with this relay.
By means of a relay, a heavy current can be switched on or off by a
By the use of a relay excessive voltage drop is prevented in the cables. weak control current, sometimes over long distances. A distinction can
The electrical equipment can be switched on/off from a remote point be made between relays according to the fields of application:
by the use of a relay.  heavy-current relays
When the switch at the remote point is switched on, relay RL 2  light-current relays or according to the duty:
becomes energized and contact RL 2/1 closes thereby connecting the  protective relays
equipment to the supply. There is now only a small voltage drop in the  indicating relays
connecting cable.  power relays
The current flowing through the relay is small.  telegraph relays.

Induction/Inductor
11 Induction/Inductor If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field the free

electrons in the conductor are forced to concentrate at the right-hand
Faraday’s Law side, thus producing a lack of electrons at the left-hand side of the
conductor. The result is that a potential difference (PD) is developed
Electrical energy is generated in a generator as a result of motion between the two ends of the conductor. This PD exists only while the
between the magnetic field and the conductor. conductor is cutting the magnetic flux lines of the magnet.
When the conductor moves out of the magnetic field the electrons
return to their original position and the PD disappears. The PD also
disappears if the motion of the conductor is stopped in the magnetic
field. Thus the conductor must move with respect to the field before a
PD is developed.
Motion or a rate of change is essential to electromagnetic induction.

Some external force must be applied to cause the conductor to move
through the magnetic field. This mechanical force is converted into
electromotive force (EMF) by electromagnetic induction.
The movement of the conductor in a magnetic field ’cuts’ the magnetic

flux or results in a rate of change of magnetic flux (Figure 94).
Figure 94: Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field

Induction/Inductor
Movement of a conductor in the same direction as the magnetic flux,

or movement of the magnetic flux in the same direction as the
conductor, generates no rate of change in flux, and therefore no EMF
is induced in circuit ’B’ (Figure 96).
Figure 95: Induction of an EMF
Instead of moving the conductor through a static magnetic field (as in

a generator) the magnetic field can move through a static conductor
(as in a transformer) if the switch in circuit ’A’ is closed and opened.
Both methods generate a rate of change of flux and therefore an EMF
is induced in the conductor of circuit ’B’.
Figure 97: Induction Principle
Increasing the angle of the conductor from zero to ninety degrees

results in an increase in the rate of change of flux. Therefore the
induced EMF increases from minimum at zero degrees to maximum at
ninety degrees. Figure 97 shows that an amount of EMF is induced in
circuit ’B’ when the switch in circuit ’A’ is closed or opened.
Figure 96: No Induction of an EMF

Induction/Inductor
11.1.1 Rate of Change of Flux 11.1.2 Direction of an Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)
The rate of change of flux and the magnitude of EMF induced in a The induced EMF in a closed circuit sets up a current in the conductor
conductor are determined by: which creates its own magnetic field.
 the speed of motion of the conductor through the field

 the length (proportional to number of turns) of the conductor in
the field
 the strength of the magnetic field
 the angle between conductor and field.
Faraday’s law summarizes these 4 points as follows:
 When a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic flux an EMF is

induced, which is proportional to the rate at which the flux is
cut.
 The induced EMF corresponds to the rate of change of flux
divided by the rate of change of time (speed).
 Furthermore the EMF corresponds to flux density (B) multiplied Figure 98: Conductor cutting a magnetic Field
by the length of conductor (l) and multiplied by the speed (v) of
the conductor through the field at ninety degrees.
The conductor’s magnetic field is:
 Expressed in a formula:
 strengthened in front of the conductor’s motion
 weakened behind the conductor’s motion.
EMF = B * I * v.
A mechanical force is therefore required in order to oppose the change
of flux (or ’cutting’ the magnetic field) by two interacting fields. The
direction of the opposing force or drag of the conductor’s magnetic field
opposes the change of flux caused by the motion.

Induction/Inductor
Lenz’s Law summarizes this as follows:
 The induced current always opposes the motion or change

generating it.
 In an open conductor circuit an EMF is induced but there is no
opposing force or drag because no current flows in the
conductor to create a magnetic field.
Lenz’s Law can therefore be used to determine the direction of an

induced current.
The direction of current can be determined as follows (Figure 6): V the

direction of conductor motion has to be noted
 the field direction of the conductor has to be determined

 the right-hand corkscrew rule should be used in reverse to
determine induced EMF and current direction.
Figure 99: Application of Lenz´s Law

Induction/Inductor
The right-hand generator rule is another method of determining the

direction of induced EMF current in a conductor moving in a magnetic
field (Figure 100).
The magnetic flux is from north to south. The lines penetrate the inside
of the hand and come out on the outside of the hand. The direction of
conductor movement is indicated by the thumb, and the fingers point
in current direction.
Figure 101: Field of Parallel Conductors
The magnetic field of parallel conductors carrying current interact with

each other to either attract or repel each other (Figure 101).
The magnetic field direction around the conductors is determined using
Figure 100: Right Hand Generator Rule the right-hand corkscrew rule. The result is:
V currents with same direction attract each other (detail a))
V currents with opposite direction repel each other (detail b)).

Induction/Inductor
A mechanical force moves the conductor from the strengthened field

11.1.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a to the weakened field. Electrical energy is thus converted into
Magnetic Field mechanical energy. The direction of force can be determined as
follows:
 the direction of the magnetic field (north to south) has to be
noted
 the current direction in the conductor has to be determined
 the right-hand corkscrew rule should be used to determine the
field direction of the conductor.
Figure 102: Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field an

interaction of two fields takes place. The current-carrying conductor’s
field is:
 strengthened on one side where the lines of force are all in the
same direction
 weakened on the other side where the lines of force of the two
fields oppose each other.

Induction/Inductor
Another method of determining the direction of force is the left-hand

motor rule. The magnetic flux is from north to south and the lines
penetrate inside of the hand and come out on the outside of the hand.
The fingers point in current direction and the thumb indicates the
direction of force.
The magnitude of this force is proportional to:

 the flux density of the magnetic field between the poles
 the conductor current (proportional to the current-carrying
conductor’s flux density)
 the length of the current-carrying conductor in the magnetic
field between the poles.
This can be expressed as:
force = flux density * current * length
F = B * I * L.
Figure 103: Left hand Motor Rule

Induction/Inductor
11.1.4 Back EMF and Inductance
11.1.4.1 Back EMF
As the current-carrying conductor moves through the magnetic field

between the two poles of a magnet (main field) it ’cuts’ the magnetic
lines of flux of the main field. The flux in the conductor changes or there
is a rate of change of flux. Therefore an EMF is induced in the current-
-carrying conductor which opposes the conductor current; and this, in
turn, opposes the motion of the conductor.
This EMF is called ’back EMF’ (-EMF) because it opposes the applied
voltage and reduces the effective voltage driving the current through
the conductor.
For the back EMF is also relevant:
-EMF = B * I * V.
11.1.4.2 Inductance
Figure 104: Magnetic Lines of Flux around a Loop
Inductance is the opposite of the change of current or change of flux.
Moving a bar magnet past a coil induces an EMF in the coil. The When the current is changed in the loop, the strength of magnetic lines
resulting current’s flux interacting with the bar magnet causes a drag of flux are also changed. This change of flux ’cuts’ the loop itself
which is opposite to the change of flux. The conductor thus has inducing a back EMF in the loop which opposes the change of applied
inductance. voltage.
Any circuit which has an EMF induced in it by a change of current When the loop’s applied voltage and current increase, a back EMF in
through that circuit possesses self-inductance (L). the loop is induced which opposes the applied voltage increase.
Likewise, decreasing the loop’s applied voltage and current induces a
back EMF in the loop which opposes the applied voltage decrease.

Induction/Inductor
In an inductance (inductive) circuit,

 the circuit stores energy in the magnetic field when current
increases
 the magnetic field gives off energy when current decreases.
The energy stored in a magnetic field depends on the inductance and

the coil current.
All conductors possess self-inductance. But a conductor wound in the

form of a coil has a much greater inductance because the turns ’cut’
each other. A coil is therefore called an ’inductor’.
Inductance (L) is measured in henrys (H). The unit henry is defined as

follows:
1𝑉 ∗ 1𝑠
1𝐻
1𝐴
1𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 ∗ 1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
1𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Figure 105: Induction of a Cored Coil
A circuit has an inductance of one henry when a change of one ampere
in one second causes a -EMF of one volt to be induced in the circuit.
Therefore: In an iron-cored coil, current increase results in relatively linear
increase in flux density (B), permeability and inductance until
−𝐸𝑀𝐹 (𝑉) saturation is reached. Upon saturation, current increase results in very
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
small increase in flux density (B), whereas permeability and inductance
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 decrease rapidly.

Induction/Inductor
In a non-magnetic core (air, copper or aluminium), current increase

results in very small increase in flux density (B) and permeability and
the core does not saturate.
Inductance, therefore, remains constant, independent of the value of
coil current.
Inductance is proportional to the back EMF. Back EMF is proportional

to the rate of change of flux or to the number of lines of magnetic force
which ’cut’ the conductor. This ’cutting’ depends on the following:
 number of turns (N) squared (more turns, more ’cutting’, and

more induced back EMF)
 cross-sectional area (A) of the core (the greater ’A’, the more Figure 106: Inductor Symboles
flux ’cuts’ the conductor)
 permeability () of the core (the greater ’’, the more flux ’cuts’ the Inductances or inductors are represented in circuit diagrams as shown
conductor and the greater the induced back EMF) in Figure 106.
 length (l) of the core.
Therefore, inductance (L) is expressed as a formula:
𝑁2 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ µ
𝐿= (𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦𝑠 (𝐻))
𝐼

Induction/Inductor
11.1.5 Time Constant

The back EMF is 36.8 %.
In an inductive circuit a change of current induces a back EMF which
is opposed to the rate of change of current.
Thus current changes are delayed in an inductive circuit. When the

switch is moved to position B as shown in Figure 107, detail a), a high
rate of change of circuit current results as illustrated by the slope of the
graph at time t = 0 (detail b)).
A high back EMF is induced in the inductor L which is opposed to the

rate of change of current flow. That means at the instant of closing the
switch to position B:
 the time is nearly zero (t = 0)

 the rate of change of current is maximum
 the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and nearly equal to
the applied voltage
 the I R (voltage) drop across the resistor R is minimum.
The current flow increases at a certain rate determined by inductance

(L) and resistance (R).
When the current has risen to 63.2 % of its final value the current has
reached its ’time constant’ value (Ʈ) as shown in detail b). The time
constant (Ʈ) is given in seconds and is calculated by:
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦)
Ʈ=
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
At the time constant value of 1 Ʈ the current is 63.2 % of the final

Figure 107: Charging of a Coil
current. Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 63.2 % of the
applied voltage.

Induction/Inductor
𝐿
At five time constants 5Ʈ = 5 ∗ 𝑅 , the current is approximately
The applied voltage after five tau is 0,
zero. All of the energy has been discharged by the resistor.
If the current were not discharged by a resistor the rate of change of
5Ʈ = 5 ∗ current would be much greater.
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
the current has reached its approximate maximum value (100%).
 5Ʈ = 5 ∗ 𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
 back EMF of inductor is minimum
 rate of change of current is minimum
 current flow is maximum
 I * R (voltage) drop across the resistor R is maximum (applied
voltage).
When the switch is moved to position A (Figure 108, detail a)) the
opposite sequence of events will result. At the instant of opening the
switch:
 the maximum rate of change of current occurs
 the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and tries to keep the
current flowing.
The current flow decreases at a certain rate determined by inductance

(L) and resistance (R). When the current has decreased by 63.2 % the
current has reached its time constant value of 1 Ʈ (detail b)).
𝐿
At the time constant value of 1Ʈ (Ʈ = ) the current is 36.8 % of
𝑅
its maximum value.
Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 36.8 % of the applied
voltage. The inductor back EMF is also 36.8 %.
Figure 108: Discharging of a Coil

Induction/Inductor
A much higher back EMF, which would be many times the applied
voltage, could release all the stored inductive energy in a destructive
arc across the opening switch contacts or even break down the
insulation. This high back EMF is also dangerous to servicing
personnel.
When the switch is being closed a back EMF not higher than the
applied voltage is induced, but when the switch is being opened a
dangerously high back EMF which is many times higher than the value
of the applied voltage can be induced.

Induction/Inductor
Inductances in series are calculated like resistors in series because

the total voltage:
Inductance Circuits
VT = V1 + V2 + V3.
11.2.1 Inductances in Series
The total inductance LT is therefore:
LT = L1 + L2 + L3.
Example: L1 = 1 H, L2 = 0.5 H, L3 = 0.3 H
LT = ?
LT = L1 + L2 + L3
LT = 1 H + 0.5 H + 0.3 H
LT = 1.8 H.
Figure 109: Inductors in Series

Induction/Inductor
Inductances in parallel are calculated like resistors in parallel because

the total current:
11.2.2 Inductances in Parallel
IT = I1 + I2 + I3.
According to Ohm’s Law:

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅 𝐿
Therefore:
𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
= + +
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
V is common to all inductances:
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
Figure 1110: Inductors in Parallel

Induction/Inductor
11.2.3 Inductor Losses

In AC circuits, however, the currents always change, the higher the
The rate of change of current in an inductor generates a back EMF in frequency, the higher the rate of change, the greater the back EMF and
opposition to the change of current. In DC circuits this occurs only the greater the opposition to the change of current.
when the supply switch is opened or closed.
The change of current induces a back EMF in the coil and also an EMF
in the inductor core. The core EMF causes a current to circulate in the
core, called ’eddy current’.
In solid iron core eddy currents can be very large (detail a)).
Eddy current losses are caused by:
 heat losses in the core

 reduction of main coil flux by the opposition and weakening
effect of the eddy current flux.
Eddy currents can be reduced by using many thin pieces of core

material instead of a solid core.
A core having the same magnetic characteristics can be formed of

several thin sheets, called ’laminations’ as shown in detail b). The
sheets are coated with an insulating varnish so that no current can flow
from one sheet to the other. Thus any eddy current generated is
restricted to its particular sheet of material.
An inductor with an iron core can be used in circuits with frequencies

up to 20 kHz (20 kilo cycles per second) in power electrics and in audio
frequency ranges.
Above 20 kHz, iron-core eddy current losses are too high, and iron-
dust-cored inductors are used. Above 60 kHz, the iron-core eddy
current losses are too high, and air-cored inductors are used.
Figure 111: Eddy Current

DC Generators/ Motors
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It does

12 Direct Current Generators/Motors this by producing relative motion between loops of wire and magnetic
flux so that an induced voltage is set up in the loops of wire.
Theory
A loop of wire rotated in a magnetic field has a continuously changing The simplest form of dc generator is shown and consists of a single
flux through it and so long as the rotation continues, an induced voltage loop of wire able to rotate freely between the poles of a permanent
will be maintained in the wire. The magnitude of this induced voltage magnet. Connection is made from the loop to the external circuit (or
depends on the rate at which the flux changes. This principle forms the ’load’) by carbon brushes pressing on a commutator, which is
basis of any rotating electrical generator, (AC or DC). The method by connected to the ends of the loop and rotates with it.
which the generator electricity is actually connected into the external
circuit will determine the ultimate generator function. This method will It should be noted that any generator in the first instance produces ac;
be Commutator (DC generator) and Slip Rings (AC generator), with however, it is the method in which the output is picked off that
‘collection’ provided by carbon brushes. determines whether it is ac or dc, (ie commutator or slip rings).
Production of Direct Curent

Direct current can be obtained in the external circuit by substituting a
form of automatic reversing switch, known as a ‘commutator’, for the
slip rings. The commutator automatically reverses the connection
between the loop and the external circuit as the voltage in the loop
reverses, thus maintaining the direction of current in the load, as
shown.
Figure 112: A Simple DC Generator

 As the loop rotates, an alternating voltage is induced in it, but,

because of the action of the commutator, a ‘rippled dc’ is
produced as opposed to a genuine ac waveform.
 Because the commutator rotates with the loop, the brushes bear
on opposite segments of it during each half cycle.
 This results in the left hand brush always being in contact with the
segment that is positive, with the change-over taking place at the
instant when the voltage induced in the loop is zero.
 The current in the external circuit is therefore always in the same

direction and is called a uni-directional current. It is also the first
step towards obtaining a true dc output such as we get from a
battery.
The voltage at the brushes, and therefore the current in the external
circuit of a simple example single loop dc generator, falls to zero twice
during each complete revolution. As has already been mentioned, this
variation of dc is called ‘ripple’ and can be reduced by the addition of
more loops as shown. Remember, an operational generator will not
return to zero after switch-on until it is switched ‘off’.
Figure 113: Production of DC by Commutator Action
Each end of the loop is connected to a segment of the commutator and

the load is connected to the loop by brushes on opposite sides of the
commutator.

It should also be noted that the number of segments on the commutator

is increased in direct proportion to the number of loops;
There are:
 Two segments for one loop.
 Four segments for two loops.
 Eight segments for four loops.
 The loops are not just loops of wire but are made up like coils and
so the construction of them can be a big determining factor in the
output obtained.
Figure 114: Multi-Loop DC Generator The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is quite small, and although
an increase in the number of loops does not increase the maximum
As the number of loops is increased, the variation between maximum value of generated voltage, an increase in the number of turns in each
and minimum values of voltage is reduced and the output voltage of loop will. Within narrow limits, the output voltage of a dc generator is
the generator approaches a steady dc value, as can be seen. determined by the product of the number of turns per loop, the total
flux pair of poles in the machine and the speed of rotation of the
armature.
Whether it is an ac or dc generator, they are identical as far as the

method of generating voltage in the rotating loop is concerned.
However, if the current is taken from the loop by slip rings, it is an
alternating current and if it is collected by a commutator, it is direct
current.
Figure 115: Output Waveform of a Multi-loop DC Generator

The variation in the output of a dc generator is reduced to a very small

amount by having a large number of loops and a commutator with a
correspondingly large number of segments. The construction is such
that each loop is connected between adjacent segments, the end of
one loop being connected to the same segment as the beginning of
the next loop, as shown.
With this arrangement, the emf induced in each loop will reach its
maximum value when the emf in the preceding loop is already
decreasing, and that in the succeeding loop is still increasing. Thus,
the emf in
 The voltage at the brushes equals the sum of the emf induced in
the loops connected in series between the brushes.
 The graph shows the resultant voltage between the brushes. Only
three loops need to be considered as the arrangement is
symmetrical and both branches (A, B and C and D, E and F) give
the same voltage at the instant shown. As the number of loops is
increased, the ripple in the brush voltage becomes smaller and the
magnitude of the dc output voltage increases
Figure 116: Connection of Multiple Loops with Commutator

Segments and Resultant Output

12.2.1 Construction and Purpose of Components

in DC Generator
In a practical dc generator we obtain high voltage outputs by:
 Using a large number of coils of many turns instead of single loops.

 Rotating the coils at high speed.
 Using electromagnets to provide a strong magnetic field and

mounting the coils in which the voltage is to be induced on a soft
iron core: the air gap between this core and the electromagnet pole
pieces is very small.
The electromagnets used to provide the magnetic field require a dc

voltage source to pass current through the winding. In small machines
such as those used in aircraft, the design of the machine is simplified
by using the output voltage of the generator itself to provide this
current.
Figure 117: DC Generator

The brushes ride on the commutator and carry the generated voltage
to the load. They are usually made of carbon and are held in brush
12.2.1.1 Construction holders in such a way that they can slide up and down against a spring
so as to follow the small irregularities in the surface of the commutator
A dc generator consists of two main assemblies: .
 The stator or fixed portion. This carries the field magnet

system, the brush gear and the bearings. The Brush Gear
Assembly and end frame may be considered as a separate
major sub assembly.
 The rotor or armature assembly. This carries the coils,
commutator and often cooling fan blades.
Since the generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,

mechanical energy must be supplied to the generator to turn it. The
‘prime mover’ used to drive aircraft generators is usually the engine.
The frame or yoke is the main chassis of the generator and it also
serves to complete the magnetic circuit between the pole pieces. The
pole pieces are laminated to reduce eddy current losses, and the field
coils or windings are mounted on the pole pieces. The end housings
contain the bearings for the armature which rotates at high speed, and
one of these housings also holds the brush gear.
The armature (the rotating part of the machine) is made up of shaft,

armature core, armature windings or coils, and commutator. The
armature core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses, and the
armature windings rest in slots cut in the core, but insulated from it.
The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each

other, and from the shaft. The ends of the armature windings are hard
soldered to their appropriate commutator segments.

almost sinusoidal wave form. Salient poles are the most common in
aircraft DC generators.
12.2.2 Field Magnet System
The salient pole piece may be laminated to prevent eddy current
heating, or it may be solid, with a laminated pole ‘shoe’ fitted to the
end.
It will be noted from the diagram that the yoke is an essential part of
the magnetic circuit, and must therefore combine permeability with
structural strength. It is normally of cast or rolled steel.
12.2.2.1 Field Assembly
The heavy iron or steel housing that supports the field poles is called
the field frame. It not only supports the field poles but also forms part
of the magnetic circuit of the field. Small generators usually have two
to four poles while larger generators can have as many as eight main
poles. The pole pieces are rectangular and in most instances are
laminated to prevent Eddy Current losses.
Figure 118: Field Magnet Systems
Except for very small machines in which permanent magnets are used,
the magnetic field is produced by electromagnets in such a way that
the armature conductors pass under North and South poles alternately.
The poles may be salient, in which case the armature emf wave form
has a flat top, or may be flush pole, low reluctance which gives an

12.2.2.2 The Brush Gear

Lack of lubrication of the brush-to-commutator contact surfaces at high
Brushes are made of specially treated carbon which is self lubricating; altitudes and the reduction of brush-contact resistance experienced at
therefore causing little commutator wear. They are carried in small increasing altitudes, are largely eliminated by using brushes which
open ended boxes called brush holders. Brush pressure is have been especially developed for high-altitude operation.
maintained on the commutator by springs. Connection to the external
circuit is made by copper braid. Two distinct categories of high-altitude brushes are in general use:
Electro-graphitic brushes of normal design, although generally reliable  Brushes which form a constant resistance semi-lubricating film on
in performance when used in ground equipment and low-altitude the commutator or slip-rings.
aircraft generators, tend to wear very rapidly at high altitudes. This
wear can be of the order of 12mm per hour and is because of the  Brushes which are self-lubricating and do not form a film.
following factors:
12.2.2.3 Film Forming Brushes
 At ground level and low altitudes the moisture content of the
atmosphere gives a substantial degree of lubrication between the The make-up of these brushes includes such chemicals as barium
contact surfaces of the brushes and the commutator or slip-rings fluoride which builds up, progressively, a constant-resistance semi-
on which the brushes are bearing. lubricating film on the surfaces of the commutator or slip-rings.
 At high altitudes the moisture content of atmospheric air is  Brushes of this category do not wear abnormally at altitudes of up
negligible, and with little or no lubrication at the ‘rubbing contacts’ to some 35,000 ft providing that generators to which such brushes
there is considerable friction. Rapid wear of the soft electro- are fitted are previously run at low altitude for some hours to allow
graphitic brushes is, in consequence, inevitable. the formation of the protective film.
Normally the contact resistance between brush-faces and commutator  This film, once it has been formed, is very dark in colour and to the
(or slip-ring) surfaces is fairly high because of the existence of a inexperienced eye it may well give the impression of a dirty
resistive film formed on the metallic surfaces by the electrolytic commutator or slip-rings.
decomposition of the moisture content of the atmosphere. At high
altitudes this film is removed by frictional wear, and cannot be made
good because of the dryness of the atmosphere. Hence the contact-
resistance between brush surfaces and metallic surfaces becomes
small. This reduction in contact resistance, in the case of a DC
generator, gives rise to heavy reactive sparking which, in turn,
accelerates brush erosion.

12.2.2.4 Non Film Forming Brushes 12.2.3 The Armature

Brushes in this category contain a lubricating ingredient such as The rotor or Armature Assembly consists of the shaft, the iron core, the
molybdenum disulphide: this lubricant is often packed in cores running output windings and the commutator, as shown.
longitudinally through the brush.
 The Iron Core provides a low reluctance path between the field pole
 Since the brush is itself self-lubricating there is no question of pieces giving increased flux density, ensuring that the largest emf
preliminary formation of film, hence there is no necessity for possible is induced into the output windings.
running generators fitted with these brushes at low altitude before
entering into high-altitude operation.  The core is constructed as a laminated soft iron drum with
longitudinal slots into which the output windings are fitted.
 Against this advantage of immediate availability for high-altitude
operation must be set the disadvantage of appreciably shorter life,  The core is laminated to reduce eddy currents and thus heat.
due to somewhat more rapid wear when compared with film-
forming brushes.  The Output Windings are placed in longitudinal slots in the iron core
to reduce the magnetic circuit air gap. The armature and coil
The following precautions MUST be observed when using high- windings are vacuum impregnated with silicone varnish to maintain
altitude brushes: insulation resistance under all conditions with the coils also
insulated with PTFE [Poly-tetra-fluor-ethane].
 Film-forming brushes must not be used at high altitudes until the
generator has been in operation for a specified period after fitting The windings are wedged into the slots with insulating material to
the brushes to a machine with a ‘Clean’ commutator or slip-rings prevent them from being thrown out by centrifugal force.
this period is essential to allow the film produced by brush action
on the commutator or slip-ring surface to attain a serviceable All coil connections are silver soldered to withstand local hot spot
thickness. temperatures.
 Under no circumstances should non-film forming brushes be run

on films created by film-forming brushes, nor should film forming
and non-film-forming brushes be used simultaneously in the same
machine. When changing from film-forming to non-film forming
brushes the existing film must be completely removed by cleaning
the commutator or slip-ring with a rag moistened in lead free
gasoline, or other approved cleaning agent.

12.2.3.2 Lap Winding
The other armature winding method is called lap winding and this
method is most useful when high output current is required.
 In lap winding, groups of series connected coils are connected in

parallel by the provision of additional brushes at points around the
commutator which are equal in potential.
 In a four pole machine this results in the provision of four parallel

current paths from the two positive brushes to the two negative
brushes.
 In a six pole machine there are six parallel current paths from the
three positive brushes to the three negative brushes.
The provision of additional parallel paths makes the lap wound

generator suitable for high output current.
Wave winding is used for DC generators of high output voltage.

Figure 119: A Typical Armature Assembly Lap winding is used for DC generators of high output current.
12.2.3.1 Wave Winding
Another feature of multi-pole machines is the manner in which the Coils

of the armature winding are connected together to provide the required
output conditions. One method, called wave winding, provides
increased output voltage by arranging for the voltages induced by each
pair of poles to be added in series.
 Therefore, the output voltage is twice (four pole) and three times
(six pole) that of the equivalent two pole machine. With wave
winding the output voltage may be obtained across one pair of
brushes.

12.2.3.5 Electromagnetic Problems
12.2.3.3 The Commutator In addition to the problems associated with actual collection, two
problems which are associated with the electromagnetic functions in
This is a cylinder mounted at one end of the armature and consists of the generator also exist. Though having similar effects, they are
a large number of copper segments. The segments are wedge-shaped created by different things, may be compensated for by different design
and a large number are assembled side by side to form a ring, each features and should therefore be understood as separate entities.
being insulated from the other by a mica insulating strip. These are:
Each segment forms the junction between two armature coils, the  Armature Reaction.
wires being soldered into risers at the ends of the segments.
 Reactive Sparking.
12.2.3.4 Operations of and Factor Affecting
Output and Direction of Curent Flow
The commutator and brush gear of a dc machine have two distinct 12.2.3.6 Armature Reaction/Reactive Sparking
functions:
Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a magnetic field is set
 Collection - the transference of current between the moving up in the armature whenever a current flows in the coils. This is called
armature and the fixed external circuit. the armature flux and its field is right angles to the generator field, (also
known as the field flux). This is called cross magnetisation of the
 Commutation - the periodic reversal of current during transfer armature. The effect of the armature flux is to distort the field flux and
between the armature and the external circuit to produce dc. shift the magnetic neutral axis as illustrated. This effect is known as
armature reaction and is proportional to the current flowing in the
 These two operations are independent, but faulty collection or armature coils.
incorrect commutation produce similar results, ie the formation of a
destructive spark or arc between the trailing edges of the brushes
and the commutator surface.

Figure 120: Resultant Magnetic Fields Due to Armature Reaction
 The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is the resultant of the armature

flux and the field flux interacting with one another.
 The Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) is the axis running through

opposite poles.
The brushes of a generator must be set in the MNA which means that
they must contact segments of the commutator that are connected to
armature coils having no induced emf. If the brushes were contacting
commutator segments outside the MNA, they would short-circuit ‘live’
coils and cause arcing and loss of power (reactive sparking).

In an ideal machine, the MNA will be equal to the GNA, which means
there would be no distortion of the field flux and so no shifting of the
MNA away from the brushes. This would result in no armature reaction
or reactive sparking. However, the ideal machine has never been
invented and armature reaction is something that has to be accepted
and compensated for, and there are three principle methods with which
it is overcome.
 The first method is to shift the position of the brushes so that they
are in the MNA when the generator is producing its normal load
current.
 The second method is by using special field poles, called

interpoles.
 The third is by the use of compensating windings, both of which

counteract the effect of armature reaction.
The brush-setting method is only satisfactory in installations in which

the generator operates under a fairly constant load.
If the load varies to a marked degree, the MNA will shift proportionally,
and the brushes will not be in the correct position at all times. This Figure 121: Generator Circuit with Interpoles
method is most commonly used in smaller generators (those producing
1kW or less) because it is less expensive. Larger generators require The use of interpoles is a very efficient way of maintaining a constant
the use of interpoles. MNA in a generator. The windings of the interpoles are in series with
the load, so the effects of the interpoles are proportional to the load.
The polarities of the interpoles are such that their effect is opposite to
that of the armature field; i.e. the interpoles are of the same polarity as
the next field pole in the direction of rotation. With this polarity, the
interpoles are said to pull the generator field back into the correct
position. A typical interpoles system is shown.

In many generators, compensating windings are used to overcome the In some machines, interpoles are used to minimize reactive sparking
problem of armature reaction. These are windings placed in slots in the and armature reaction. However, for more efficient reduction of both,
pole faces. interpoles and compensation windings would be used as shown. The
compensating windings are in series with the interpoles and increase
their effectiveness.
The spark-less commutation obtained by the use of interpoles and

compensating winding.
 Increases the life of the brushes and commutator.
 Reduces radio interference.
 Greatly improves the efficiency of the generator.
Figure 122: Use of Compensating Windings to Overcome

Armature Reaction
The current flowing in them travels in the opposite direction to that in

the armature conductors, and by connecting them in series with the
armature, the current in the windings is the same as that in the
armature. With this method, the armature flux is cancelled out by the
compensating flux under all conditions of load resulting in the MNA and
GNA being equal and commutation remains static. Figure 123: Generator with Interpoles and Compensating Winding

DC Motor Principle of Operation

12.3.1 Introduction
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Its function is the reverse of a generator. There is
little difference between the construction of a dc motor and a dc
generator. Both have essentially the same parts and they look alike. In
fact, in many cases, a dc machine can be used either as a motor or a
generator.
12.3.2 Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field
A current flowing through a wire placed in a magnetic field causes the
wire to move; a motor works on this principle. It is the reaction of two
magnetic fields that produces the motion that produces the torque that Figure 124: Effects of a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic
we see as the output of the motor. Field
The figures show the magnetic field between the poles of a magnet
The force with which the conductor moves is clearly dependent upon
and the magnetic field round a wire carrying a current. If the wire is
the strengths of the two interacting magnetic field. In turn this force
placed in the magnetic field the overlapping field pattern would seem
relates to the speed at which a motor containing the current carrying
to be as shown in (c). Of course, as we have seen earlier, lines of flux
conductor will turn.
cannot cross and this pattern cannot exist. The resultant field is as
shown in (d). The lines of flux reinforce each other in the space above
the conductor and oppose each other below it. Lines of flux act as if
they are pushing away from each other and also tend to straighten out.
In this way they apply a force to the conductor tending to move it
downwards.

It may therefore be appropriate to remember that the force is directly

proportional to the Flux Density (B) of the major field, the current (  ) in
the Conductor (producing the minor field), and the length of the
Conductor (L).
This is expressed as:
Force =Flux Density B   Current    Length of conductor L 

F  BIL
The direction in which the conductor moves depends on the direction

of the current in the wire and also on the direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of motion is given by Fleming’s left hand rule for motors:
‘The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the left hand
are held at right angles to each other’. With the first finger pointing
in the direction of the field (N to S) and the second finger in the direction
of conventional current, the thumb shows the direction of motion of the Figure 125: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
wire.
To change the direction of rotation of a motor having an electro-

magnetic field we need to reverse the direction of current in the
armature or the direction of the current in the field.
Changing the supply connections to the motor will not have any effect;
the current being reversed in direction in both the armature and the
field, the motor continues to run in the same direction.
Permanent magnetic motors are however, reversible by simply

changing over the supply connections.

The simplest form of motor has a single loop of wire able to rotate freely
between the poles of a permanent magnet. Connection is made from
the dc supply voltage to the loop by brushes bearing on a
commutator, the two segments of which are connected to the loop, as
shown.
Figure 127: Action of DC Motor
Figure 126: Simple DC Motor
The forces acting on the two sides of the loop combine to apply a force,
known as a torque, to turn the loop in an anticlockwise direction.

By applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule it can be clearly seen that when:
 The loop is in position (A), side ‘P’ of the loop tends to move 12.3.3 Operation and Factors Affecting Motor
downwards and side ‘Q’ upwards. Output Power Torque
 As the loop passes through the vertical position (B), the direction
The movement of a conductor in a magnetic field induces in it an emf,
of the current flow must be reversed to keep the loop rotating in the
which we know from Lenz’s Law, will oppose the motion producing it.
same direction, and it is the action of the commutator that does this.
That is to say, the induced voltage will oppose the supply voltage. This
is called back emf.
 Because the commutator is two halves of a ring separated by
insulation, the result of the loop rotating is such that as one half of
Back emf will never be as great as the supply input and the difference
the commutator leaves a brush, the other half comes into contact
between them is always such that current can flow in the conductor
with it.
and produce motion. The value of this current is dependent upon the
value of the voltage across the conductor. This voltage, often referred
 So now, at (C), when we apply Fleming’s Rule, side ‘Q’ will move
to as the effective voltage is equal to the difference between the
in a downward direction and side ‘P’ upward, keeping the rotation
applied voltage and the back emf.
of the loop in an anticlockwise direction.
Therefore:
 At position (D), the loop passes through the vertical and the current
Effective Voltage = Applied Emf – Back Emf
reverses direction again until we get to (E) where the loop is back
to where it was at the start (A) and the process goes on.
A single loop dc motor would not be able to turn heavy loads, so to

obtain a large smooth mechanical output; some improvements have to
be made. A laminated iron core carrying a number of armature coils is
used together with a corresponding number of commutator segments.
The magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet and its field coils,
with the spacing between the armature and the pole pieces kept as
small as possible.

In the series motor shown, the field windings, which consist of relatively
few turns of heavy wire, are connected in series with the armature
winding. The same current flowing through the field winding also flows
. Series Wound, and Shunt Wound DC through the armature winding. Therefore, any increase in current
Machines strengthens the magnetism of both the field and the armature.
There are three basic types of dc machines, namely series, shunt and  Because of the low resistance in the windings, the series motor
compound and they differ largely in the way in which their field and is able to draw a large current in starting.
armature coils are connected.
 This large starting current, when passing through the field and
armature windings, produces a high starting torque, which is
12.4.1 Series DC Motor this type of motor’s principal advantage.
The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any change
in load will result in a substantial change in speed, so it will run at high
speeds with light loads and low speeds with heavy loads. If the load is
removed entirely, the motor may operate at such a high speed that the
armature will break apart, so it must never be run under ‘no load’
conditions. So, if a high starting torque is required under heavy load
conditions, a series motor would be the best application.
Figure 128: Series Wound DC Motor

12.4.2 DC Shunt Generator
Figure 129: Characteristic Curve of a Series DC Motor
Looking at the characteristic curve of a series dc motor it can be seen

that when very little load is applied, the speed is very high and as the
load is increased the speed decreases.
Figure 130: Shunt Wound DC Motor

As shown in Figure 130, detail a), a shunt generator has its excitation The field windings of the DC shunt generator are connected in parallel
field connected in shunt, or parallel, with the armature. with the armature and receive the total armature voltage. Since the
load is also connected in parallel with the armature and also receives
A residual magnetism exists in the poles. The flux lines of this residual the entire armature voltage the voltage across the field windings will
magnetism are cut when the rotor of the shunt generator is turned. This decrease when the load increases.
produces an initial low voltage.
This process causes the excitation field to weaken and as a result the
Since the fields are connected across or in parallel with the armature, output voltage decreases again.
the initial voltage produced by the residual magnetism causes a current
to flow in the field windings. The shunt generator may be used for excitation supply of AC
generators or in other applications where the distance from the
This current flow, when it is in the proper direction, adds magnetism to generator to its load is short. It is also used for charging accumulators.
the residual magnetism in the poles, which further increases the
induced voltage.
The voltage continues to increase as the excitation field becomes

stronger, and the field becomes stronger as the voltage increases. This
process continues until the magnetic field in the poles reaches
saturation, i.e. the shunt generator has reached its maximum ’no-load’
or ’open circuit’ voltage.
If the DC shunt generator is loaded the output voltage will decrease as

shown in Figure 130, detail b). Therefore, the following statement is
justified:
The shunt generator does not maintain a constant voltage with

varying loads.

12.4.3 Compound DC Motor
Figure 132: Characteristic Curve of a Compound DC Motor
The characteristic curve of the compound dc motor clearly shows the

effect of load against speed, being somewhere between that of series
and shunt wound motors.
Figure 131: Compound Wound DC Motor
The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt motors.

There are both a shunt and a series winding in the field. A schematic
diagram of a compound motor is shown where the shunt winding is
composed of many turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with
the armature winding and the series winding consists of a few turns of
heavy wire and is connected in series with it. The starting torque is
higher than that of a shunt motor but lower than in the series motor and
any variation of speed with load is less than in a series motor but more
than in a shunt motor.

12.4.4 Starter/Generator Construction 12.4.4.1 Operation
Several types of aircraft are fitted with starter motors which will also  When start is selected the starter relay will be energized, supplying
function as generators. These units will provide the rotary power to turn power to the starter to operate it as a series wound motor. An
and start the engine. Instead of being disconnected when the engine electrical supply will also be connected to the ignition through the
is running the unit will be switched electrically and will then provide ignition cut-off switch.
electrical power. The units are light and less bulky than a separate
starter motor and separate generator. They will also require only one  When the engine is running and generator switched ‘on’ the starter
drive from the engine gearbox and will always remain directly relay will be de-energized. This will also de-energize the
connected to the engine. changeover relay disconnecting the series field and connecting the
armature to the voltage regulator.
The basic construction is similar to a compound wound motor but the
fields can be switched separately. As a starter it will operate as a series  The armature will also be connected to the bus bar through the
wound motor. When operating as a generator the series winding will Reverse Current Relay. The energized field relay will connect the
be disconnected and only the shunt winding will be energised and shunt field to the voltage regulator.
controlled by the voltage regulator.
 This will allow the unit to operate as a voltage regulated shunt
There are many different means of connections, circuits and operation wound generator. The Reverse Current Relay will operate when
and one simple circuit is illustrated. the generator output drops below a preset value. This will prevent
discharge of the battery through the generator which will also try to
motor the generator.
In some circuits the start selection will be spring loaded to generator

‘on’. Other circuits will lock in the start selection until a speed switch
will de-energise it when the engine reaches self-sustaining speed.

12.4.4.2 Starter/Generator Circuit
Figure 133: Starter/Generator Circuit

Alternating Current Theory
13 Alternating Current The voltage polarities at the ac source are, of course, constantly
changing in sympathy with the changing current direction. These
changing current and voltage waveforms take the form of a sine wave.
The Sine Wave
When a load is connected to a Direct Current (dc) source current (I)
always flows in one direction eg (the diagram is shown using electron
flow)
Figure 136: Sine Wave
Before we can study the behavior of components in AC circuits we

Figure 134: Direct Current must learn the terms used to describe a sine wave, and a few
mathematical rules which are necessary to understand the meaning of
‘phase’.
However if the dc source is replaced with an Alternating Current (ac)
source then for half of the time the current flows in one direction and
for the other half, it flows in the opposite direction ie
Figure 135: Alternating Current

13.1.1 Instantaneous Value

This is the term used to describe any spot value i.e. a value of voltage
or current at any one instant.
A sine wave can be obtained from a circle as shown in the diagram

below. A circle is drawn of radius 360° where 90° is the maximum
voltage reached by the sine wave. A horizontal line AO is drawn to the
right (by convention) through the center of the circle to act as the zero
or reference position. An extension of this line is then drawn to act as
the zero (X) axis of the sine wave and is graduated in degrees from 0° Figure 137: Sinewave Angular Diagram
to 360°.
Note: The SI unit of angular measure is the radian where 360° is equal
to 2π radians; the axis in the diagram is also marked in radians.
A radius AB is then drawn at an angle from the reference radius of the

circle, and a horizontal line is drawn to the right from B. A vertical line
is also drawn at the position (‘B’) on the sine wave axis, and the point
of intersection of these 2 lines is marked with a cross.

13.1.2 Period and Frequency

We can see from the diagram that an alternating voltage sine wave
passes through a definite sequence; it rises from zero to maximum in
one direction and falls to zero; it then reverses and rises to maximum
in the other direction and falls again to zero. This complete process is
called one cycle and it is repetitive.
A cycle can take a long time or a very short time, but in all cases the
time taken for one complete sequence is known as the period and is
given the symbol T.
The number of cycles which occur in one second is called the

frequency of the cycle and is given a symbol f. Frequency used to be
expressed in cycles/second but this unit is now called the Hertz (Hz).
The diagram below shows 2 waveforms of frequencies 1 Hz and 2 Hz
respectively.
Multiple units for frequency are often used, particularly in radio work:
1 kilohertz (kHz) = 103 Hz

1 megahertz (MHz) = 106 Hz
1 gigahertz (GHz) = 109 Hz
1 terahertz (THz) = 1012 Hz
When either the period or the frequency is known and the other has to
be calculated:
Period T= 1/f (seconds). Frequency f = 1/T (hertz.)

Figure 138: Frequency

13.1.3 Peak / Peak to Peak Value

This is the maximum value Vm or Im. For example, specifying that a sine
wave has a peak value of 340 V states the highest value the sine wave
reaches. All other values during the cycle follow a sine wave. The peak
value applies to either the positive or the negative peak.
In order to include both peak amplitudes, the peak-to-peak (p-p) value

may be specified. For the same example, the peak-to-peak value is
680V, double the peak value of 340V, since the positive and negative
peaks are symmetrical. It should be noted, though, that the 2 opposite
peak values cannot occur at the same time. Furthermore, in some
waveforms the 2 peaks are not equal.
The peak value may also be referred to as Maximum, or Amplitude.
Figure 139: Peak / Peak to Peak Value

current or voltage in heating power. An alternating voltage with an rms

value of 240V, for instance, is just as effective in heating the filament
13.1.3.1 Root-Mean-Square, or Effective Value of a light bulb as 240V from a steady DC voltage source. For this
reason, the rms value is also called the effective value.
The most common method of specifying the amount of a sine wave of
voltage or current is by relating it to DC voltage and current that will Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave ac measurements are in rms
produce the same heating effect. This is called its root-mean-square values. The capital letters V and I are used, corresponding to the
value, abbreviated rms. The formula is: symbols for DC values. As an example, V = 240V for the ac power-line
voltage.
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0,707 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Note that sine waves can have different amplitudes but still follow the
Or sinusoidal waveform. The diagram below compares a low-amplitude
voltage with a high amplitude voltage. Although different in amplitude,
they are both sine waves. In each wave, the rms value =0.707x peak
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 0.707 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 0,707 value.
With a peak of 340V, for example, the rms value is. This is the voltage
of the domestic ac power supply, which is always given in rms value.
It is often necessary to convert from rms to peak value. This can be
done as follows:
For example, the domestic power-line voltage with an rms value of

240V has a peak value of, which equals 340V, approximately. Its peak-
to-peak value is 680V, which is double the peak value. As a formula:
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 2,828 × 𝑟𝑚𝑠

The factor 0.707 for rms value is derived as the square root of the
average (mean) of all the squares of the sine values.
Figure 140: Sine Wave different Amplitudes
The advantage of the rms value derived in terms of the squares of the
voltage or current values is that it provides a measure based on the
ability of the sine wave to produce power. As a result, the rms value of
an alternating sine wave corresponds to the same amount of direct

13.1.3.2 Phase
When both alternating quantities of the same frequency pass through

corresponding points in a cycle at the same instant of time they are
said to be in phase with each other (Fig below). If they pass through
corresponding points at different instants of time they are said to be
out of phase and there is a phase difference between them (Figure
142) which may be expressed as a time but is more usually expressed
in angular measure. This phase difference is then often called the
phase angle.
Figure 142: Phase Shift in Degrees
Figure 141: Amplitude versus Time

13.1.4 Power in AC Circuits above and below this line are equal (Fig below). Thus in the diagram
the instantaneous power fluctuates rapidly (at twice the supply
The power dissipated in an ac circuit is the average value of all the frequency) between the maximum and minimum values of the curve,
instantaneous values of power for a complete cycle. To find the but over a complete cycle or number of cycles the average power is
instantaneous power at any moment, the instantaneous values of half the maximum power.
voltage and current at that moment are multiplied together. Thus at the
moment X shown in Fig below, the voltage is A volts and the current is
B amperes. The power at this moment is therefore A*B watts and is
represented by the point C. If this process is carried out over a
complete cycle, the curve shown in the diagram below will be obtained.
It is always above the axis, ie the power is always positive, because
the current and voltage are in phase and when the voltage and current
are both positive their product is positive; when they are both negative
their product is still positive.
Figure 144: Peak- Average Power
We are only interested in average power, since the frequency of an ac

supply is usually so high that during the normal lengths of time for
which a device is switched on, a large number of cycles will occur. The
average power (usually referred to simply as power) is thus half the
peak power value in a resistive circuit; and this peak value is the
maximum voltage multiplied by the maximum current. Thus:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Figure 143: Instantaneous Voltage, Current, Power 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = × = 0.707𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 0.707𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 √2 √2
The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the
power curve and this is represented by a line halfway between the = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
maximum and minimum values of the curve, since the shaded areas

The average power in a resistive circuit is therefore the product of the 13.1.4.1 Electrical Rating
rms values of voltage and current. It is usually given in the form P =
I*V, where I and V are rms values. The other power equations also Many electrical types of equipment have a small plate similar to that
apply, so: shown in the diagram below. The voltage (or current) shown on these
plates is the rms value. The power is the average power. The current
𝑉2 needed to operate can be calculated from the figures given on the
𝑃 =𝑉×𝐼 𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 or 𝑃= plate, eg for example in the diagram the rms current will be
𝑅
approximately 15 amperes, however this is not taking into
Note: As the rms values of voltage and current have the same heating consideration the power factor.
effect as equal values of dc voltage and current they are sometimes
called 'effective' values. It is customary when talking of ac to quote power in volt amperes VA,
Figure 145: Electrical Rating Label

13.1.5 Other waveforms

Peak amplitude is measured from the zero axis to the maximum
In many electronic applications, other wave shapes are important. Any positive or negative value. However, peak-to-peak amplitude,
waveform that is not a sine or cosine wave is a nonsinusoidal measured from maximum negative value to maximum positive value,
waveform. Common examples are the square wave and sawtooth is better for measuring nonsinusoidal wave shapes because they can
wave. have unsymmetrical peaks.
With nonsinusoidal waveforms, for either voltage or current, there are The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine waves, as this
important differences and similarities to consider. Note the following factor is derived from the sine values in the angular measure used only
comparisons with sine waves. for the sine waveform.
In all cases, the cycle is measured between 2 points having the same Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as angular measure is used
amplitude and varying in the same direction. The period is the time (T) only for sine waves.
for one cycle T for any of the waveforms is 4 µs and the corresponding
frequency is equal to ¼ MHz, or 0.25 MHz. All the waveforms represent ac voltages. Positive values are shown
above the zero axis, with negative values below the axis.
The sawtooth wave in represents a voltage that slowly increases, with

a uniform or linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then drops
sharply to its starting value. This waveform is also called a ramp
voltage. It is also known as a time base because of its constant rate
of change.
Figure 146: Nonsinusodial Waveforms

Three - Phase AC 13.2.1.3 Aircraft Installations
13.2.1 Symmetry and Balance Three-phase generators are also to be found on aircraft because of
their robust construction and favorable output-power to weight ratio.
Symmetry and balance are 2 important terms in the generation and Again the voltage symmetrical 3-phase system is preferred, but the
distribution of electrical energy by 3 phase ac systems. The first term, frequency most used is 400 Hz.
symmetry, is defined as follows.
13.2.1.4 Phasor Representation – Voltage
13.2.1.1 Symmetry
Typical voltage waveforms of a voltage symmetrical 3-phase system
The normal arrangement is to generate and distribute electrical energy are illustrated below. The individual phases are distinguished by the
by a voltage symmetrical 3 phase ac system. The waveforms are letters a, b, c, or by the colours red, yellow, blue.
symmetrical because the voltage waveforms are of equal magnitude,
of the same frequency and there is equal phase displacement between
waveforms.
The second term, balance, is defined as follows:
13.2.1.2 Balance
A 3 phase system is said to be balanced when the currents in the line

conductors are equal in magnitude and their phasor sum is zero.
Balance is achieved when the phases of a voltage symmetrical 3
phase ac system are equally loaded. The generation and distribution
of 3 phase ac is most efficient when the system is operating in the
balanced condition.
To achieve balance it is necessary to equally load the individual
phases and for the phase voltages to be sinusoidal. The frequency of
50 Hz has been adopted by the electricity supply industry in the United
Kingdom. Other frequencies are in use by foreign countries, such as
60 Hz in the United States of America. Careful construction of
generators is required if third harmonic distortion of the output sinusoid Figure 147: Waveforms and Phasors
is to be minimized. (See later notes).

Convention requires that for a voltage symmetrical system the

following conditions apply:
Three Phase Interconnections
The red voltage phase is taken as the reference phase.
The yellow voltage phase lags the red by 120°. Although it is possible to run a 3 phase system with the phases
The blue voltage phase lags the yellow by 120°. completely separate, using 2 conductors for each phase, it is unusual
to do so since interconnection makes possible considerable savings in
All voltage phasors are of the same magnitude. line conductor materials. The terms star and delta are the general
terms applied to the interconnection of 3 phase AC phases.
If the individual phase voltages attain their maximum positive or
negative values in the order red, yellow, blue, then they are in positive 13.3.1.1 Phase Line
phase-sequence. A negative phase-sequence exists when the order
is red, blue, and yellow. The phase lines of a 3 phase AC system are those conductors which
connect the source of electrical energy to the load. In the star
connection, a phase line is required from each terminal other than the
terminal for the star point. In the delta connection, a phase line exists
for each terminal which connects the finish of one phase to the start of
the next in sequence. Phase lines are identified either by letters a, b,
c etc., or by colours.
13.3.1.2 Neutral Line
When loads of equal impedance are star-connected to a voltage

symmetrical 3 phase system, then the artificial point of reference given
by the star point of the load is termed the neutral point. The conductor
which connects the star points of generator and load is called the
neutral line.

13.3.2 Star Connection
Figure 148: Star Connection
A star connection is an arrangement in which the corresponding ends

of phases, either start or finish, are connected to a common terminal
known as the star point. The other end of each phase is connected to
a separate terminal.
13.3.2.1 Star Point
The circuit symbol for the star-connection of windings in a generator or

transformer is shown in below, this symbol is rearranged to show the Figure 149: Star Point
position of the star point. Since 3 of the phase winding ends are joined
at the star point, then only one terminal (n) is required for these ends.
Thus a star connected 3-phase system requires a maximum number
of 4 conductors to transfer energy from source to load.

13.3.2.3 Line and Phase Voltages
13.3.2.2 Balance Condition It is possible to provide a choice of voltage to the consumer if 4

conductors, 3 phase and one neutral, are used for 3-phase distribution.
In the balance condition, no current flows in the neutral line. In practice, The 2 voltages available are phase voltage (line-to-neutral) and line
a degree of unbalance must be tolerated, so a small current is to be voltage (line-to-line). The phase voltage is measured between the
expected. Many equipments require only a single phase supply, so to phase line and the neutral line; it is the voltage induced in the particular
avoid unbalance, single phase loads are equally shared among the phase winding. The line voltage is measured between 2 phase lines
3 phases. and is the phasor sum of the voltages induced in the 2 phase windings
involved.
Severe unbalance occurs if one phase is disconnected, but unbalance The magnitude of the line voltage is 1.73 (√3 ) times the magnitude of
is greatest if full load is applied to only one phase. In the latter case, the phase voltage.
the neutral line current equals the full load current. The neutral
conductor must, therefore, be capable of carrying the full load current 13.3.2.4 Practical Values of Phase and Line
in a simple distribution network. If the distribution network operates at Voltages
near balance, it is possible to reduce the current rating of the neutral
conductor. This technique involves devices to disconnect the phase From the previous paragraphs it is seen that a star-connected voltage
lines when the current in the neutral line exceeds a predetermined symmetrical 3-phase system with a phase voltage of 240 volts can also
value. provide a line voltage of
240V  3  415V .
These values, 240 volts and 415 volts, are the normal voltages
available to the consumer from the electricity supply industry in the
United Kingdom. The most common voltages in use on aircraft are
115 volts for phase voltage and 200 volts for line voltage.

13.3.3 Delta Connection 13.3.3.1 Circuit Connections
From the 2 methods of connection above, it would make sense to This symbol is rearranged in Figure to demonstrate the delta-
connect all cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this connection. Since the phase ends are paired from start to finish, then
would provide the battery with a high voltage and also a high current only 3 terminals are required. Thus a delta-connected 3-phase system
capacity with an overall lower internal resistance, in this arrangement requires only 3 conductors to transfer energy from source to load.
the power obtained from the battery would be at its maximum.
Figure 150: Delta Connection
A delta connection is an arrangement in which the finish of each phase

is connected to the start of the next in sequence. Phases connected in
this manner form a ring and each point of connection is connected to
a separate terminal.
Figure 151: Delta Connection

For standardisation, as laid down in ATA (Airline Transport

Association) Specification 100, line ‘b’ is always used as the return line.
13.3.3.3 Summary
13.3.3.2 Line Voltage
In a balanced symmetrical 3-phase system the total power is 3 times
The voltages induced in the phase windings of a delta-connected the power in one phase. This is a special case of the general statement
system are the line voltages. which is – in a balanced symmetrical N-phase system the total power
is N times the power in one phase. In a balanced star-connected
Note: That only line voltage is available from delta-connected system:
generators and transformers.
Line current equals phase current
In a delta-connected system the magnitude of the line current is
3 times the magnitude of the phase current. Line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage
This effect can be used to advantage in high current power supplies by I LINE = I PHASE
reducing the current carrying capacity requirement of the generator or
transformer windings.

Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits
triangle is always the side opposite the right angle while the other two
14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive sides enclose the right angle.
(L) Circuits
The mathematical relationships in phasor diagrams, and consequently
in AC circuits, can also be described using sine, cosine and tangent
R, C and L in AC Circuits trigonometric functions.
14.1.1 Introduction When resistances and reactances are connected in series, the same
current I flows through all the components. The total voltage V is
Resistors, capacitors and inductors (coils) are important components divided into component voltages VR and VC , and VR and VL.
in electrical engineering and electronics. They occur in a wide variety
of combinations and circuit variants, particularly in electronic circuits. Because of the phase shift, the resistive (active) voltage UR is always
at right angles to reactive voltages VC and VL in the phasor diagram.
However, many electrical devices and appliances behave as a load, Their geometrical addition then gives the total voltage V across the
which can be simulated by an equivalent circuit with resistors, circuit.
capacitors and coils. The behavior of these components and their
interaction is particularly important in operation with sinusoidal When the resistances and reactances are connected in parallel, on the
voltages: other hand, the same voltage V is applied to all the components. The
total current I is divided into component currents IR and IC, and IR and
 with a resistor: the current and voltage are always in IL.
phase
 with a capacitor: the voltage lags the current by 90° Because of the phase shift, resistive current IR and reactive currents IC
 with a coil: the voltage leads the current by 90°. and IL, are always at right angles to each other in the phasor diagram.
The total current I flowing in the circuit is consequently only obtained
The phase shifts which occur can both be represented in graphs and by geometrical addition of resistive current and reactive current.
in phasor diagrams. Phasor diagrams of voltages, currents,
impedances and powers are of particular importance in describing the
interaction between resistances and reactances.
In this case, a right-angled triangle occurs in every phasor diagram, so

that the mathematical relationships can be derived using Pythagorean
theorem, which states that, in a right-
angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides. The hypotenuse in a right-angled

The frequency at which this case occurs is referred to as the ’cut-off

Because the proportions are the same, the impedance, admittance and frequency’ fc of the voltage divider. This cut-off frequency is of
power triangles can directly be derived from: particular importance in electronics in evaluating circuit properties.
 the phasor diagram of voltages for series connection Parallel RC or RL circuits, on the other hand, can be used as
 the phasor diagram of currents for parallel connection. frequency-dependent current dividers. Here again, a special case can
occur, where the resistive and reactive components have the same
The power consumed in the resistor is referred to as ’active’ (or magnitude. The characteristic frequency at which this case occurs is
’resistive’) power P. On the other hand, capacitive reactive power QC also referred to as the cut-off frequency fc.
occurs within the capacitor, and inductive reactive power QL in the coil.
Regardless of whether one is dealing with a series connection or a
Only the active (resistive) power can be used directly or is converted parallel connection, the following formulas hold good for the cut-off
into heat as a power loss. The capacitive or inductive reactive power frequency:
which occurs, on the other hand, is required to build up the electric or
magnetic field, and is fed back to the voltage source when these fields 1
collapse. 𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶
or
The resultant of the active power P and the reactive power Q is the
apparent power S. This is the product of total voltage V and total
current I:
𝑅
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝐿
S=V⋅I.
Circuits in which resistances R, capacitive reactances XC and
The component of the apparent power S which can be used in practice inductive reactances XL are present at the same time are referred to
is the resistive power P. This can be determined from the apparent as ’R C L circuits’.
power, using the power factor cos φ :
In RCL circuits, two special cases arise, when
P = S ⋅ cos φ = V ⋅ I ⋅ cos φ .
XC =XL
Series RC or RL circuits can be used as frequency-dependent voltage
dividers. A special case exists when, in such a circuit, the reactance
XC or XL is of exactly the same magnitude as the resistance R.

The existing capacitive reactance compensates the undesired

at a particular frequency. The frequency at which this situation occurs inductive reactive power, thereby reducing the current in the leads.
is referred to as the ’resonant frequency’ fr. At this resonant frequency Generally no complete compensation is carried out, because of the
fr, from an external point of view, the effects of the reactive components peculiarities with resonance. Improving the power factor to cos φ 0.8
are cancelled out, because VL numerically equals VC and they are 180 to 0.9 is consequently a good compromise between technical
out of phase. improvement and cost.
Consequently, the behavior is determined only by the resistance. The A further example of the interconnection between resistances and
energy stored in the reactances shuttles backwards and forwards reactances is the RC phase shifter, with which a phase shift φ can be
between the coil and capacitor, and is used for alternately building up set between 0 and 90. If a phase shift φ of 0 to 180 is required, this will
the electric or magnetic field. For this reason, RCL circuits may also be be possible with a phase shift bridge circuit. These phase shifters are
referred to as ’series oscillating circuits’ or ’parallel oscillating circuits’, both required and particularly used in measuring instrumentation.
depending on the construction of the circuit. The following holds true
for the resonant frequency for both types of oscillating circuit:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
This formula is known as Thomson’s oscillation formula. Resonant
circuits (circuits consisting of an inductor and a capacitor in series or
parallel) are of particular significance in electronics and in
communications engineering.
A further practical application of RCL circuits is reactance

compensation. Many devices and installations operated with the AC
mains show a behavior which is referred to as ’mixed inductive’.
In this case, an inductive reactive component occurs in addition to the

resistive component. This results in an additional current load on the
leads, stemming from the reactive power shuttling backwards and
forwards between the load and voltage source, without performing
useful work. For this reason, a capacitor is connected in series or in
parallel with the mixed-inductive load.

Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance Therefore, current I can be determined from the expression:
in AC Circuits 𝑣
𝐼=
14.2.1 Pure Resistance in AC Circuits 𝑅
When purely resistive components are used in an alternating current 𝑉 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 ∗ 𝑡
circuit Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws and the usual circuit rules of 𝐼=
voltage and current can be equally applied as in direct current circuits 𝑅
Figure 153 shows that current and voltage rise and fall together - they
to both all instantaneous values and RMS values. are in phase.
In the following, ideal conditions are considered and a circuit with pure
resistance is assumed.
Figure 152: Resistor in an AC-circuit
In the circuit shown in Figure 1 the sinusoidal voltage u = U sin ω t is

applied to the resistance R. At any instant, Ohm’s Law is applicable in
the circuit.
Figure 153: V and I on a Resistor connected to AC

14.2.2 Pure Inductance in AC Circuits

Since voltage and current in a pure resistive alternating circuit are in
phase, any similar measurement of V and I can be used to calculate If in an AC circuit only a pure inductance is arranged, the current does
R. not rise or fall at exactly the same time as the voltage. The maximum
current is reached a quarter of a cycle later than the voltage, and it
Therefore: remains a quarter of a cycle behind at all points in the cycle.
𝑉 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 Although there is no such device as a pure inductance, the ideal is

𝑅= assumed for the purpose of better understanding.
𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠
When the current through an inductance (inductor) changes, the
𝑉 following effects will result:
𝑅=
𝐼  the magnetic field surrounding the inductor changes
 the changing magnetic field causes the lines of flux to cut the
inductor
 when the lines of flux cut the inductor a voltage is induced
 by Lenz’s Law this induced voltage opposes the applied voltage
(back EMF)
 the magnitude of the induced voltage (back EMF) is
proportional to the rate at which the current changes (Δi) in
conjunction with time changes (Δt):
∆𝑖
𝑣 = −𝐿
∆𝑡

Figure 154: Inductance in an AC-circuit
Figure 154 shows an inductor connected to a sine wave source which

causes a current i to flow.
Figure 155 shows the rate of change of current i in relation to the

sinusoidal lapse. When the current waveform passes through the zero
axis the rate of change is greatest, while at the peak values (both
maximum and minimum) the rate of change is zero.
Figure 155: Rate of change of Current

Figure 157 shows that the back EMF is proportional to the rate of
change of current, and hence has the same shape as the rate of
current. However it is reversed in sign because it always opposes the
rate of change of current (Lenz’s Law).
Figure 157: Phase shift V and I on a Coil
As the inductor is the only component in the circuit, the back EMF must
be exactly equal to the applied voltage. The waveform of the applied
voltage is thus equal, but opposite to the back EMF.
Figure 156: Back EMF
When the current and the applied voltage waveforms are
superimposed, it can be noticed that the voltage leads the current by
90° degrees in a pure inductive circuit.

Inductance affects current flow only while the current is changing. In

an AC circuit the current changes continuously and the induced back
EMF provides continuous opposition to current flow.
This opposition to current flow is known as ’inductive reactance’ and

the symbol is XL. Like resistance, reactance is equal to the ratio of
voltage to current.
The value of XL can also be calculated from the expression:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐿 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)
Inductive reactance (XL) is proportional to frequency. Thus a graph of

XL against f must be a straight line, as shown in Figure 7.
This results in the following conclusions:

 for a given applied voltage, if frequency increases, reactance
increases and therefore current decreases
 at a given frequency, if inductance increases, reactance
increases and therefore current decreases
 at zero frequency (i.e. direct current) reactance is zero. An ideal
inductance offers no opposition to the flow of direct current. Figure 158: Graph XL-f
Thus it follows: the reactance of an inductor increases as the frequency

increases and the provided inductance and supply sources remain
constant.

The voltage across the capacitor changes with the change of the
supply source voltage, so if e.g. u is a sine wave, vc will also be a sine
14.2.3 Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits wave of the same amplitude.
In practice it is impossible to have a pure capacitive circuit because the As already mentioned, uc is proportional to the charge on the
connecting leads and dielectrics inevitably have some resistance. This capacitor, therefore changes in uc can only be brought about by a
resistance in relation to the reactance of the capacitor can be made so current i, which removes electrons from one plate and deposits them
small that this resistance can be ignored. on the other.
∆𝑉𝑐
When a DC voltage is applied across a capacitor, a current flow Consequently i must be proportional to the rate of change of vc, i.e . ∆𝑡
removes electrons from one plate of the capacitor and deposits them
on the other via the external circuit. A voltage vC across the capacitor
and an electric field, which stores the energy, are generated by the
current flow (charge).
Figure 159: Capacitor connected to AC
When the resistance of the circuit is negligible, as shown in Figure 9,

the voltage v will appear only across the capacitor, and vc will be equal Figure 160 Phase shift on a Capacitor
to u. Thus, as u changes vc will also change.

At point A in Figure 160, vc is changing at maximum rate and therefore

i must be at maximum as shown at point B. At point C the rate of
change of vc is momentarily zero and consequently the corresponding
value of i is zero. Superimposing of u on the graph i shows that the
voltage lags the current by 90° in a pure capacitive circuit, i.e. the
phase angle Φ is equal to 90°.
Current flows in a pure capacitive circuit while the applied voltage is

changing. Even then, the size of the current is only sufficient to adjust
the charge on the capacitor so that the voltage across it remains equal
to the applied voltage.
Since i is directly proportional to f and C, it follows that the resistance

to current flow, known as ’capacitive reactance’ (Xc), must be inversely
proportional to these quantities.
Therefore:
1
𝑋𝑐 = Figure 170 XC graph
2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶
This results in the following conclusions:
Capacitive reactance is equal to the ratio of voltage to current, in the  as frequency increases, reactance decreases and therefore
same manner as resistance and inductive reactance: current increases
 as frequency decreases, reactance increases and therefore
𝑉 current decreases
𝑋𝑐 =  at zero frequency (DC), reactance is infinite, i.e. a capacitor
𝐼 acts as a ’block’ to DC.
Since capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, a
graph of Xc against f will be as shown in Figure 30. The phase relationships in inductive and capacitive circuits are as
follows:
 in an inductor, voltage leads current
 in a capacitor, current leads voltage.

Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase Also of significance in this AC circuit is the phase shift angle, which
describes the phase shift between current I and voltage V.
AC Circuits
The relationship can be represented both mathematically and
14.3.1 Series Connection of Resistance and graphically. In graphical representation, phasor diagrams or waveform
Reactance diagrams are used. It is absolutely essential to ensure that the
quantities to be determined or represented are always phasor
14.3.2 Series Connection of Resistor and quantities. A phasor, like a vector, has a magnitude and a direction.
Capacitor
The phasor properties of electrical quantities of an AC circuit can be
14.3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages particularly well illustrated in a phasor diagram.
Note: The reactance of capacitor C is designated XC ; the phase-shift

angle between I and V is designated φ.
Figure 171 RC Series circuit
Figure 172 Phasor Diagram

In the AC circuit in the electrical quantities which occur are the total
voltage V, the component voltages VR and VC, the total current I, the
resistance R and the reactance of capacitor C.

The other side enclosing the right angle is component voltage VC,
Figure 172 shows the phasor diagram of the voltages with a resistor which is called the ’reactive voltage’. The total voltage V is the
and a capacitor connected in series. hypotenuse of the voltage triangle.
Current I is usually selected as a reference quantity. Voltage VR across
the resistor is directly proportional to the current, and according to It is obtained from the geometrical addition of component voltages VR
Ohm’s law: and VC. It is referred to as the ’apparent voltage’ V.
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅 Between current I and total voltage V there is a phase shift, whose

angle is less than 90° and whose sign is negative. Accordingly, the
Since, with a resistor, current I and voltage drop VR across it are in following applies to the phase shift angle when a resistor and a
phase, in the phasor diagram the voltage value is represented as a capacitor are connected in series:
voltage phasor VR in the same direction as current I. 0° > φ > -90°.
It only differs in its length from the current phasor, because of the scale
chosen. Waveform Diagram of an RC Series Circuit
The voltage across the capacitor VC can also be calculated with Ohm’s
law:
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑋𝑐
1
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∗
2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶
The voltage across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. This phase shift
is taken into consideration accordingly in the phasor diagrams in Figure
172.
By parallel displacement of voltage phasor VC, so as to connect the
starting point of voltage phasor UC to the end point of voltage phasor
VR, a right-angled triangle is produced.
One of the sides enclosing the right angle of this voltage triangle is
component voltage VR. It is referred to as the ’resistive’ or ’active’ Figure 173 Waveform diagram
voltage.

The relationship between current I and voltage V and component 14.3.2.3 Impedance Triangles
voltages UR and UC can also be represented in a waveform diagram.
Refer to Figure 1 again. Ohm’s law applies to AC circuits, as it does to DC circuits. The
following relationships therefore apply to a resistor and capacitor
Figure 173 shows the waveform diagram of an RC series circuit connected in series:
corresponding to Figure 1.
Voltage VC across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. Voltage VR 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅
across resistor R, on the other hand, is in phase with current I, and the
phase shift angle between total voltage U and current I is between 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑋𝑐
φ = 0° and –φ = -90°.
The voltages are thus proportional to the associated resistance or
reactance, with the current which flows through both components
14.3.2.2 Mathematical Relationships between acting as a proportionality factor.
Voltages
On the basis of this relationship, the phasor diagram of the voltages,
which is shown in Figure 174.
Mathematical relationships between voltages can be determined by
using the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 2.
Geometrical addition of voltages produces a right-angled triangle, to
which both the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometry functions can
be applied.
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the voltages:
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶 2 ⟹ 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐶 2
Figure 174 Phasor diagram resistances

It can be seen from the impedance triangle that geometrical addition of 14.3.3 Series Connection of Resistor and Coil
resistance R and reactance XC produces an impedance which is
proportional to the total voltage V. Impedance is the total opposition a 14.3.3.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages
circuit offers to current flow, and is denoted by the symbol Z. On the
basis of Ohm’s law, the following holds true for the impedance Z:
𝑉
𝑉 =𝐼∗𝑍 ⟹𝑍 =
𝐼
14.3.2.4 Mathematical Relationships between

Impedances
The Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometry functions can also be

applied to the impedance triangle. This gives the relationship:
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐 2
Figure 175 RL series circuit
When a resistor and a coil are connected in series, similar relationships

as those obtained by connecting a resistor and a capacitor in series
will occur. Thus, current I and voltage VR across resistor R in the circuit
are always in phase. On the other hand, a phase shift angle φ = 90°
between current I and component voltage VL across the coil occurs
again. In this case, the voltage leads the current.

The component voltages can again be determined using Ohm’s law:

The phasor diagram of an RL series circuit is reproduced in Figure 176.
C urrent I is again chosen as the reference phasor. Component voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅
VR is in phase with current I, whereas a phase shift angle φ = +90°
exists between current I and component voltage VL.
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑋𝐿
The magnitude of the resistive (active) voltage VR only depends on

 the magnitude of current I and
 the resistance value R.
The magnitude of the inductive reactive voltage VL depends on

 current I
 inductance L
 frequency f.
Total voltage V is obtained by geometric addition of component

voltages VR and VL. Depending on the frequency, a phase shift angle
between 0° and +90° occurs between current I and voltage V.
Therefore the following applies to the series connection of a resistor
and a coil:
0° < φ < +90°.
Figure 176 phasor diagram voltages
Displacing voltage phasor VL in parallel, so as to connect the starting

point of voltage phasor VL to the end point of voltage phasor VR, a right-
angled triangle will be produced.

Waveform Diagram of RL Series Circuit

Voltages
In precisely the same way as in RC series circuits, the component

voltages VR and VL in RL series circuits must be geometrically added
to obtain the total (apparent) voltage. According to the Pythagorean
Theorem:
𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
14.3.3.3 Impedance Triangles
Proportionality between the voltages and their associated resistance

or reactance exists in RL series circuits, too:
𝑉𝑅
𝑅=
Figure 177 wavefor diagram RL series circuit 𝐼
The time-dependent electrical quantities current I, resistive voltage VR,

𝑉𝐿
𝑋𝐿 =
reactive voltage VL and total voltage V are plotted together in Figure 𝐼
177. It can be seen that voltage VL leads current I by 90°, that voltage
VR is in phase with current I, and that a phase shift angle between 0° Consequently the phasor diagram of the voltages can be converted
and 90° occurs between total voltage V and current I. directly into an impedance triangle. Figure 8, shows the phasor
diagram of the impedance triangle.

Power in RC and RL Series Circuits

Current I flowing in a circuit generates a power in the components. This
power is independent of time, since it is based on the effective value
of the sinusoidal alternating current.
On the other hand, the product of the instantaneous values of current

and voltage give the instantaneous power. The work done is the
product of power and time.
When power and work are considered in an AC circuit,

 in reactances: only a reactive power Q exists, and
 in resistances: only a resistive power P exists.
Taking the phase shift into consideration, a total power will be

obtained, which is referred to as the ’apparent power’ S.
Figure 178 phasor diagram of impedance triangle
14.4.1 Power Triangle and Waveform Diagrams
14.3.3.4 Mathematical Relationships between The following relationships apply to the power in an RC series circuit
Impedances and to an RL series circuit:
Following relationships apply:  P = UR * I resistive (active or true) power in W

 QC = UC * I capacitive reactive power in W or var
𝑉 =𝐼∗𝑍  QL = UL * I inductive reactive power in W or var
 S =U*I apparent power in W or VA.
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2

The power is directly proportional to the voltages, so that triangles are In the RC series circuit (detail a)), the capacitive reactive power QC
obtained for the powers corresponding to Figure 179. lags the resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained,
which consequently lags the resistive power P with a phase shift angle
between 0° and -90°.
In the RL series circuit (detail b)), the inductive reactive power QL leads
the resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained, which
consequently leads the resistive power P with a phase shift angle
between 0° and +90°.
Figure 179 phasor diagrams of power

Current I, voltage V and instantaneous power P are reproduced in the

waveform diagrams shown in Figure 180.
Detail a) represents the waveform diagram of an RC series circuit and

detail b) documents the waveform diagram of an RL series circuit.
It can be seen from the representation that only a small proportion of

the instantaneous power P lies under the time axis t, i.e. is negative.
This means that the reactive power returned to the voltage source
during one half of the cycle (i.e. it is negative for half a cycle) has not
been entirely cancelled out by the resistive power, which is always
positive.

Powers
The formal relationships between the powers can be derived from the
power triangles in Figure 179. Moreover, the formulas which have so
far been used to calculate power from current, voltage and
resistance/reactance remain valid.
The apparent power S of a circuit (or load with similar properties),

connected to an AC voltage, governs the current absorbed by the load
and consequently also flowing in the leads.
The resistive power P is an important component, since only this

component can be converted into other useful energy or generate heat
losses. Consequently the following relationship is particularly
significant:
Figure 180 Waveform diagrams

P = S * cos φ.

The factor cos φ is referred to as the ’power factor’ and is a measure

of the proportion of the apparent power S which can directly be used.
The greater the power factor cos φ, the greater also the proportion of
resistive power P to apparent power S. When cos φ = 1, then P = S,
and only resistive power will be generated.
When reactive power is generated, it cannot be converted into usable

power. It will be absorbed when building up an electric or magnetic
field, and will be fed back again into the supply source when the field
collapses.
Since the reactive current increases the load through the supply leads,
the reactive power component should always be kept as small as
possible.

Transformers
15 Transformers As has been explained earlier EMF is induced in a conductor if the

conductor is moved through a magnetic field in such a way that
magnetic flux lines are cut.
Principle of Operation and Construction
Since this effect is reversible, EMF is also induced in a conductor if the
15.1.1 Principle of Operation conductor is fixed and the magnetic flux is alternating.
The device which makes use of the effect that EMF is induced by an
alternating flux is called a ’transformer’. A transformer in its basic form
consists of two coils fitted to a magnetic iron core, as shown in Figure
2.
Figure 182 Basic Transformer function
These two coils are located so that one coil is cut by the magnetic flux
lines of the other. The windings connected to the source, are called
primary windings and those in which EMF is induced are called
Figure 181 Transformer principle secondary windings.

Transformers
The supplied voltage ’Vp’ (primary voltage) causes current to flow The phase relationship between primary AC voltage and secondary
through the primary windings thus producing magnetic flux lines in the AC voltage depends on the direction of the windings with reference to
iron core. The flux linkage induces voltage ’Vs’ (secondary voltage) in one another. The secondary voltage may be in phase with the primary
the secondary coil. voltage or both voltages may be 180 out of phase with reference to one
another as shown in Figure 4, detail a).
If the secondary circuit is closed, that means a load is connected to the
secondary windings, current ’Is’ (secondary current) caused by the This is explained by Lenz’s law:
secondary voltage ’Us’ flows through the secondary circuit.
Therefore, energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the
secondary circuit without any electrical connection between the change causing it.
circuits.
In some applications, this phase shift is of no consequence while in
The ability of a transformer to transfer energy from its primary circuit to other applications it is extremely important. Therefore the phase
its secondary circuit by flux linkage is a function of inductive coupling relationship between AC voltages of different windings is sometimes
or high mutual inductance. This means that the inductance of each indicated on circuit diagrams by dots ’•’ as shown in Figure 184, details
winding should be as great as possible. b) and c).
Figure 183, shows two symbols which are used in circuit diagrams to
represent a transformer.
Figure 183 Transformer symboles

Transformers
15.1.2 Construction
15.1.2.1 Transformer Core
For maximum transfer of power from the primary to the secondary of

the transformer the flux linkage must be complete; that means, all lines
of force set up by the primary winding must be linked to the secondary
winding.
For this reason, the secondary is often wound directly on the primary
as shown in Figure 185. A protective insulation separates the two
windings.
Figure 184 Phaseshift on a Transformer

Figure 185 Transformer core

Transformers
Since the reluctance of air is very great and its permeability small, the
installation of a soft steel core of high permeability into the transformer
increases the flux linkage between the coils and facilitates a high
percentage of power transfer.
Even with the use of cores of high permeability, some of the flux lines
will fail to link the secondary winding and are effectively lost,
constituting a flux leakage which prevents the transformer from being
a perfect conductor of power between primary and secondary winding.
A well-designed iron-core transformer may effect 98 % flux linkage, i.e.
the coupling coefficient between primary and secondary winding is
0.98.
Magnetic cores in large and most small transformers are made from
steel laminations, normally in the shapes shown in Figure 6, details a)
and b).
Steels used for transformer cores are special alloys of iron and carbon
with the addition of a small percentage of silicon, or in some special
cases, of nickel. Typically a cold-rolled carbon steel containing up to 3
% silicon is used.
Note: Silicon steels are used for reducing the hysteresis

component of total core loss, and a laminated structure is
employed to reduce the eddy current component.
The lamination thickness is dependent on the power supply frequency,

for 50 Hz or 60 Hz applications this would typically be 0.3 mm. Each
lamination has an insulating coating applied to one surface.
Figure 186 Different Core forms
Lamination stacks for large transformers are held rigid by insulated
bolts which pass through the core and an additional insulated clamping
frame. In smaller transformers the core is riveted or simply held
together by an insulated clamp.

Transformers
15.1.2.2 Forms of Construction
There are three principal forms of construction which cover all

transformers except for very specialized ones.
These are
 the core types (Figure 187, detail a))
 the shell types (detail b))
 the toroidal types (detail c)).
The Single-Phase Core Transformer

The single--phase core type is an arrangement of U- and I--shaped
steel laminations. These are built up to form a rectangular core with
the windings wound around its limbs.
The Single-Phase Shell Transformer

The single-phase shell type has a laminated magnetic core which has
a central limb supporting all the windings and two outer limbs
completing the flux path.
The Single-Phase Toroidal Transformer

The single--phase toroidal type has a ring-shaped core, often formed
by helically wound steel strip, resin-bonded to form a rigid structure.
The whole ring surface is wound by the primary and secondary winding
with the low--voltage winding nearer to the core.
15.1.2.3 Application of Transformers
Transformers are widely used in electricity and electronics. For this

Figure 187 Principle of Transformer construction
reason transformers have been designed to operate at voltages of
10,000 V and more, but they also operate at very small voltages, e.g.
2.4 V.

Transformers
Characteristics Example: If 250 V AC is applied to the primary winding, the voltage

induced in the secondary winding is assumed to be:
15.2.1 Turns Ratio
𝑉𝑝 ∗ 𝑁𝑠 250𝑉 ∗ 1000
𝑉𝑠 = = = 1000𝑉
𝑁𝑝 250
The expression Ns/Np or Us/Up is called the ’turns ratio’ of a

transformer and may be expressed as a single factor. In the example
shown in Figure 1 the transformer has 250 turns in the primary winding
and 1,000 turns in the secondary winding.
Thus, the turns ratio is 4 : 1 or 4.
A transformer in which the voltage induced in the secondary winding is

greater than the voltage supplied to the primary winding is called a
Figure 188 Transformer ratio
step-up transformer. A step-down transformer is one in which the
voltage induced in the secondary winding is less than the voltage
In theory the voltage induced in the secondary winding of a transformer supplied to the primary winding.
is proportional to the number of turns of the secondary winding
compared to the number of turns in the primary winding. This is It should be noted that the terms ’step-up’ and ’step-down’ applied to
described by the formula: transformers always refer to the voltage level, never to the current
level, nor are they ever applied to power, which in any carefully
designed transformer is taken to be practically the same in both
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 primary and secondary windings.
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
This equation may be written:
𝑉𝑝 ∗ 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑁𝑝

Transformers
Figure 189 Multiwinding transformer Figure 190 Power on a Transformer
Figure 189 shows an example of a transformer. In this case it is a multi-

winding transformer, i.e. the secondary consists of more than one In the transfer of electrical power across an ideal transformer, the
winding and each winding provides a separate voltage. power absorbed by the primary winding is equal to the power delivered
by the secondary winding.
The windings carry the designations s1 to s4 and for calculation of the Hence:
individual secondary voltage the formula explained before is valid. Pp = Ps
Where: Pp = primary power

Ps = secondary power.

Transformers
In an ideal transfer of energy from generator to load (primary to

secondary winding), the load appears as a pure resistance to the 15.2.2 Losses and Efficiency
generator, and the apparent power is equal to the true power.
Therefore, the power factor of the transformer is 1 and the phase angle Losses occur because of hysteresis loss, core saturation, eddy
is 0°. Thus, the power on either side of the transformer is equal to the currents and copper loss.
volt-amperes, or:
15.2.2.1 Hysteresis Loss
Pp = Vp * Ip and Ps = Vs * Is
When iron is not magnetized, its magnetic domains are arranged in a
Vp * Ip = Vs * Is random pattern. However, if a magnetizing force is applied, the
domains line up with the magnetic field. When the magnetic field
As the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the reverses, the domains must reverse their direction also.
turns ratio:
In a transformer, the magnetic field reverses direction many times each
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 second in step with the applied AC signal. Thus, the domains must
= reverse their direction many times each second. When reversing
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 direction, the domains must overcome friction and inertia. In doing this,
a certain amount of power is dissipated in the form of heat. This power
the ratio of current in the primary winding to current in the secondary loss is referred to as a hysteresis loss.
winding is equal to
In some materials, the hysteresis loss is quite high. Soft iron normally
has a high hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss in steel is generally
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝 lower. Some large power transformers use a special type of metal
=
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠 called ’silicon steel’ because it has a low hysteresis loss.
This means a transformer which steps up voltage, must at the same

time step down current, and vice versa. This indicates that the current 15.2.2.2 Core Saturation
ratio is inversely proportional to the turns ratio.
Soft iron cores exhibit losses due to saturation, that is, the number of
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 flux lines in the core reaches a point at which an increase in current
= = causes no additional magnetization.
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝

Transformers
15.2.2.3 Eddy Currents 15.2.2.5 Efficiency
The cores of power transformers are generally made of soft iron or Every transformer has a certain power loss. Due to this fact, the
steel. Because iron and steel are good conductors, a current is induced amount of power applied to the primary of the transformer must be
in the core when the core is subjected to a moving magnetic field. As greater than the power which is necessary at the secondary. Thus, the
stated already, a moving magnetic field is a requirement in all efficiency of a transformer is always less than 100 % but greater than
transformers. Thus, unless special precautions are taken, large 95 %.
circulating currents are induced in the core of the transformer. These
currents are called eddy currents. The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of output power to input
power:
Eddy currents can be reduced by using many sheets of metal for the 𝑃𝑠
core rather than using a solid block of metal.
𝜂(%) = ∗ 100
𝑃𝑝
15.2.2.4 Copper Loss

15.2.3 The Autotransformer
Another type of loss present in all transformers is called ’copper loss’.
This loss is caused by the DC resistance of the copper wire in the In some transformer applications no separate primary and secondary
primary and secondary windings. A transformer winding can consist of windings are provided. A single-tapped winding is used which acts as
hundreds of turns of fine copper wire. the equivalent of a double-wound transformer.
Because of the length of the wire and its tiny cross-sectional area, the
DC resistance can be quite high. As current flows through this In such special types of transformers or ’autotransformers’, as they are
resistance, some power is dissipated in the form of heat. called, there is no isolation between primary and secondary. A single
continuous coil is wound around the core. In the step-up transformer,
The amount of power can be determined by the formula: represented in Figure 191, detail a), the primary winding Np is formed
by one part of the entire winding whereas the secondary winding Ns is
P = I2 * R formed by the complete coil.
For this reason, another name for copper loss is: I2 * R In detail b), a step-down transformer is shown whose primary winding
Np is formed by the complete winding whereas one part of the whole
coil serves as secondary winding Ns.

Transformers
When an autotransformer is used as step-up transformer, all primary

windings form part of the secondary windings, and when an Voltages across the individual windings follow the turns ratios, as
autotransformer is used as step-down transformer, all secondary stated already when explaining transformers in general. Regarding
windings form part of the primary windings. autotransformers it must be considered that there are parts of the
whole winding through which both currents, the primary as well as the
secondary, are flowing. Since both currents flow in opposite directions
through this common part, this portion only carries the difference
between both these currents.
This autotransformer characteristic provides substantial saving in

copper, leading to a reduction in cost and weight.
A disadvantage of this type of transformer is that the secondary circuit

is not electrically isolated from the primary circuit. In a normal
transformer, the only connection between source and load is the
magnetic coupling.
Figure 191 Autotransformer

Filters
16.2.1 Low-Pass Filters

16 Filters
A low-pass filter attenuates signals higher than a specified frequency
A filter is a network of inductors and capacitors, which attenuates (fc) and passes signals lower than a specified frequency. The diagram
different frequencies by different amounts. The networks are therefore below show a simple, low-pass filter (called a half-section) and the
reactive, i.e. frequency dependent. They are designed to give the ideal characteristic.
required attenuation and also form a correct impedance match
between the source and load.
16.1.1 Pass-band
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is ideally
zero.
16.1.2 Stop-band
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is a
maximum (ideally infinite), i.e. the filter presents high impedance. It is
sometimes known as the attenuation-band.
16.1.3 Cut-off Frequency

The cut-off frequency (fc) is the frequency which separates a pass-
band from a stop band.
Types of Filter
There are 4 types of filter, classified according to the function they
perform, as follows:
Figure 192: Low-Pass Filter characteristic
 Low-pass
 High-pass
 Band-pass
 Band-stop

Filters
16.2.1.1 RC Low Pass Filter 16.2.1.2 RL Low Pass Filter
Figure 194: RL-Low-Pass Filter

Figure 193: RC-Low-Pass Filter
1 At low frequencies X L  2  f  L is small.

At low frequencies X C  is large.
2  f  C The output voltage Vout taken across R is therefore large.
The output voltage Vout taken across C is therefore large.
At high frequencies XL is large, hence VL is small.
At high frequencies XC is small, hence VC is small. Therefore, the output across R is also small.
Therefore, the output across C is also small.

Filters
16.2.1.3 RC High Pass Filter
3.41.2.1 High- Pass
High-pass filters attenuate signals lower than a specified frequency

and pass signals higher than a specified frequency. The diagram
shows a half section and the ideal characteristic.
Figure 196: RC-High-Pass Filter
16.2.1.4 RL High Pass Filter
Figure 195: High- Pass filter characteristics
With the reactive components swapped around the circuit behaves in

an opposite sense to a low pass filter. Figure 197: RL-High-Pass Filter

Filters
16.2.2 Band Pass Filters 16.2.2.1 RCL Series Band Pass Filter
As shown in the diagram a band-pass filter attenuates all frequencies

except a specified band.
Figure 199: RCL Series Band Pass Filters
R, C and L are connected in series. The output voltage is connected

Figure 198: Band Pass Filters characteristics parallel to the resistor.
At resonance-frequency, the complete voltage will drop the resistor,
hence the circuit will have no voltage drop over C-L.

Filters
16.2.3 Band- Stop Filters

As shown in the diagram below, a band-stop filter attenuates all
frequencies within a specified band only and passes all other
frequencies,
Figure 201: Band- Stop RCL series
With the reactive components swapped around the circuit behaves in

an opposite sense to a band pass filter.
Figure 200: Band- Stop Filter characteristic

Filters
3.41.2.4 Circuit Symbols
Figure 202: Symbols for Filter Circuits

AC Generators
17 AC Generators
Types of AC Generators
17.1.1 Principle of Operation
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field as shown in
Figure 203, the lines of magnetic force are cut and voltage is generated
(induced) in the conductor. This induced voltage is called
’electromotive force’ (EMF). EMF is the name of the force which
maintains a potential difference between the terminals of batteries or
electric generators.
When the conductor is moved through the field in reverse direction,

EMF is produced in opposite direction. Because EMF is produced only
when a conductor is moved through the magnetic field, that means,
only when field lines are cut, hence the following basic rule can be
stated:
If lines of magnetic force are cut by a conductor, a voltage

is induced in this conductor.
The induced voltage produces a current. The direction of this current

depends on the direction of the conductor’s motion through the
magnetic field and can be determined using the right-hand rule.
Figure 203: AC Generator principle of Operation

AC Generators
Figure 204: Basic Principle of EMF Generation
To continuously generate EMF a loop of wire rotates around an axis

within a magnetic field. The loop is turned around an imaginary axis
and provides a continuously changing induced voltage. This is the
basic principle of EMF generation by a generator. Figure 205: Simple AC Generator
The method of producing electrical energy by voltage induction is The voltage at the slip rings is the sum of the two voltages which are
shown in Figure 204. The loop rotates in a magnetic field. The ends of induced in the two parts of the loop and are represented in Figure 204
the loop are connected to two slip rings which are insulated from each by the two arrows V1 and V2. The reason for the addition of the two
other. Two brushes on the slip rings allow the voltage to be fed to the voltages V1 and V2 is the fact that the two parts of the loop move
voltmeter and any load. through the magnetic field in opposite directions. Thus the two voltages
which are generated have opposite directions.

AC Generators
When a conducting loop is moved through a magnetic field as shown The instantaneous amount of EMF induced in each winding depends
in Figure 204, a voltage is generated in the conductor. The amount of on the angle at which the field lines are cut by the conducting loop. If
the generated voltage depends on the magnitude of the magnetic flux the conductor moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic lines of
’Φ’ which is cut by the conducting loop, the velocity ’v’ of the loop force (0° position) no voltage will be induced since no cutting of flux
moving through the magnetic field and the number of windings (loops) occurs under these conditions. If the conductor moves at right angles
of which the conductor is composed. to the direction of the lines of magnetic force (90° position) the
maximum value of voltage will be induced.
Since the conducting loops rotate within the magnetic field the angle at
which the lines of force are cut increases from 0° to 90°. Thus the
induced voltage increases from 0 V to its maximum value. If the loop
has passed the 90° position the induced voltage will decrease because
the angle at which the field lines are cut is decreasing. The value of the
induced voltage will be zero when the loops have turned about 180°
(180° position).
If the windings turn from 180° to 0° the induced voltage will have
opposite direction because the field lines will now be cut in opposite
direction (right-hand rule).
Figure 205: Generation of AC Voltage

AC Generators
17.1.2 AC Generators (Alternators)

An AC generator consists of two main components:
 The ’rotor’ is the rotating part which is turned by mechanical

energy (Figure 206, detail a))
 The ’stator’ is the fixed part of the generator (detail b)).
In practice electromagnets are employed in order to produce the

magnetic field. The advantage of using electromagnets in order to
produce a magnetic flux is that the EMF can be controlled by variation
of the field strength. More current flowing through the field windings
increases the magnetic field; therefore the EMF increases, too.
Figure 206: AC Generator construction

AC Generators
Figure 6: AC Generator Working Principle

AC Generators
In AC generators, usually the magnetic field rotates and the component

in which the alternating voltage is induced stands still. The advantage
of this construction is that alternating current, which may be large, can
be drawn from fixed terminals and need not be collected from brushes.
In order to produce the rotating magnetic field a relatively small exciting
current must be fed to the electromagnet via the sliprings.
Figure 7b: Principle of a Three-Phase Generator
Normally, the practical application of an AC generator is the three-

phase generator. As shown in Figure 7a, three identical windings are
arranged in the stator at an angle of 120 to each other. During rotation
of the rotor its N and S poles pass the stator windings 1, 2 and 3. This
Figure 7a: Principle of a Three-Phase Generator causes an alternating voltage to be induced in each winding. The time
pattern of these three alternating voltages is shown in Figure 7b. The
voltages are 120 apart (one third of a revolution) and thus not in phase.

AC Generators
The DC source normally is obtained from a small DC generator,

mounted on the same shaft as the synchronous generator. When the
excitation winding is rotated, a voltage is induced in the stator windings
as previously explained.
The three-phase AC voltage is provided at the terminal connections U,

V, W which are contained within a terminal box. The machine shown in
Figure 8 is equipped with a rotor which has one north pole and one
south pole when the DC source is connected.
This type of machine is termed ’two-pole machine’, which means it has

one pair of poles. The number of pole pairs determines the frequency
of the AC voltage supplied to the terminal box. The frequency of an AC
generator is proportional to the number of revolutions per minute of the
rotor.
If the rotor is equipped with a magnet system consisting of two pole

pairs (two north poles and two south poles) two induction periods occur
during each revolution. Consequently, two periods of AC are produced
during one complete revolution.
Machines which are equipped with more than one pole pair on their
rotor are called 4-pole, 8-pole or 16-pole machines according to the
Figure 8: Three-Phase Synchronous Generator number of pole pairs established. The number of pole pairs and the
number of revolutions determine the output frequency of the AC
Figure 8 shows the arrangement of a ’Three-phase synchronous waveform. The frequency can be calculated by the formula:
generator’. This is the most important type of AC generator. Three
windings spaced at 120 degrees are accommodated in the stator. The 𝑛∗𝑝
rotor, often driven by a turbine, is fitted with an excitation winding, which 𝑓(𝐻𝑧) =
is powered by a DC source via the slip rings. 60
where: n = revolutions/minute
p = pair of poles.

AC Generators
Since the frequency is a fixed nominal value the revolution must be

constant. Consequently the amplitude of the generated voltage can
only be changed by increasing or decreasing the excitation current.
As shown in Figure 9 the ends of the three stator windings are identified
by the letters U, u; V, v; W, w. Terminal connectors u, v and w are
connected together whereas U, V and W are connected to the terminal
box.
Figure 9, details a) and b) show the connections u, v and w at a point

which is called the ’star point’ or ’neutral’ which is normally connected
to ground or earth, as shown in detail b). Detail c) shows the standard
circuit symbol of a synchronous generator.
Figure 9: Synchronous Generator Circuit Diagrams

AC Generators
17.1.3 AC- Brushless Generators

Brushless generators were developed for the purpose of eliminating
some of the problems of generators that employ slip-rings and brushes
to carry exciter current to the rotating field.
The advantages of a brushless generators are:
1. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip ring
wear.
2. High stability and consistency of output, because variations
of resistance and conductivity at the brushes and slip rings
are eliminated.
3. Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the
brushes is eliminated.
The brushless generator’s operation is to use electomagnetic induction
to transfer current from the stationary components of the generator to
the rotating components and use a three-phase Star connected
armature. The Figure shows a schematic of a brushless generator
Figure 10: Brushless generator function diagram
The permanent magnet, which is connected to the rotor, is used to
induce an alternating current into the stationary PMG three-phase
armature winding. The Generator Control Unit (GCU) rectifies the AC
armature current to DC voltage, which is applied to the exciter filed
winding. The exciter field induces an AC into the exciter armature. The
exciter armature is connected to the rotating rectifier, which changes
the AC to DC for the main generator field winding. The main field
induces an AC voltage into the main generator stator fields. The stator
fields are induced with 115V phase voltage giving the 200V between
two phases.

AC Motors
Another typical feature is that this type of motor is particularly suited for
18 AC Motors constant speed applications.
Types of AC Motors
18.1.3 Three-Phase Motor
18.1.1 Description of AC Motors
18.1.3.1 Major Parts
The basic principles of magnetism and electromagnetic induction are
the same for AC and DC motors, but AC motors do not require any
commutator for supplying the rotor with energy, because alternating
current changes its direction rapidly and thus the direction of the
produced magnetic flux is also changed.
There are three principal types of AC motors:
 induction motor (asynchronous motor)

 synchronous motor
 universal motor.
18.1.2 Induction Motor (Asynchronous Motor)

The induction motor, sometimes called ’asynchronous motor’, is the
most widely used AC motor. The induction motor can be designed as
three-phase motor or single-phase motor.
Both types of induction motors are built in such a way, that a rotating
magnetic field is produced by stator windings. The windings of the rotor
are cut by this rotating magnetic field and a torque is produced. The
advantage of the induction motor is that it does not require a
commutator, thus most of the troubles encountered in the operation of Figure 1: Major Parts of an Induction Motor
DC motors are eliminated.

AC Motors
The major parts of such a type of motor are the stator and the rotor.
The stator (Figure 1, detail a)) is the stationary part of the machine. It
carries the windings which are responsible for producing a rotating
magnetic field. The windings are placed in slots around the pole shoes.
The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. In the example shown in
detail b) it consists of an iron core with longitudinal slots around its
circumference in which copper or aluminium bars are embedded.
These bars are shorted on both ends by short-circuit rings, thus a
current is able to flow through the bars.
Because the rotor looks like a squirrel cage this type of rotor is called
’squirrel-cage rotor’ and the motor can also be called ’squirrel-cage
18.1.3.2 Principle of Operation
The generation of the rotating magnetic field can be explained using

Figure 2. Detail a) shows the structure of a three-phase induction motor
including the pole shoes which are labelled 1 to 6. Two pole shoes each
form a pair of poles whose windings are supplied by one of the three
phases marked a, b and c.
Figure 2: Principle of a Three-Phase Induction MSotor

AC Motors
As shown in detail b), the three voltages are equal in amplitude but out
of phase. At the instant of time shown as time ’0’, the resultant magnetic The rotor rotates at nearly the same speed as the rotating field. The
field produced by the application of the three voltages has its greatest difference in speed is called ’slip’ and is expressed as a percentage of
intensity in the direction extending from pole 1 to pole 4. Under this the synchronous speed.
condition, pole 1 can be regarded as north pole and pole 4 as south
pole. Example: If the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the synchronous
At the instant of time shown as time ’1’, the resultant magnetic field will speed is 1,800 rpm, the difference in speed is 50 rpm.
have its greatest intensity in the direction from pole 2 to pole 5 and, in
this case, pole 2 can be regarded as a north pole and pole 5 as a south 50∗100
pole. Thus, between instant ’0’ and instant ’1’, the magnetic field has
The slip then is = 2,78%
1800
rotated clockwise.
If the rotor rotated at the same speed as the magnetic field, no field
At time ’2’, the resultant magnetic field has its greatest intensity in the lines would be cut by the conductors of the rotor, no EMF would be
direction from pole 3 to pole 6 and it is apparent that the resultant induced, no current could flow and there would be no torque. The rotor
magnetic field has continued to rotate clockwise. At instant ’3’, poles 4 would then slow down. The difference in speed just being sufficient to
and 1 can be regarded as north and south poles, respectively, and the induce enough current in the rotor is the result of mechanical and
field has rotated still farther. electrical losses in the rotor. When the motor is loaded the slip
increases.
At later instants of time, the resultant magnetic field rotates to other
positions while travelling in clockwise direction, a single revolution of
the field occurring in 1 cycle. This speed is known as the ’synchronous
speed’ of the rotating field.
The rotating magnetic field generated by the stator windings induces a

voltage in the longitudinal bars of the rotor. This induced voltage
causes a current to flow through the bars.
The direction of the current flowing through the rotor bars produces its
own magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the
flowing current. The forces resulting from the reaction of the two
magnetic fields produce a torque which turns the rotor.

AC Motors
18.1.4 Single-Phase Motor

The usual voltage of 240 V is called a single-phase voltage (phase-to-
neutral wire). Therefore, motors which are commonly used in
household appliances, such as washing machines, refrigerators,
pumps, kitchen machines and also fan motors must be designed for
single-phase operation.
These types of motors are called ’single-phase’ motors. Single-phase

motors are asynchronous motors and equipped with squirrel-cage
rotors similar to those used in three-phase motors.
The function of a single-phase motor may be compared with that of a

three-phase squirrel-age motor, if one of the three phases (L1, L2 or
L3) is not connected to the three-phase motor.
In consequence of the fact that one phase is missing, the motor is not
able to start by itself and a starting aid is necessary. After the motor
has been started, the rotor keeps on rotating. Refer to Figure 3.
Figure 3: Single Phase Motor with Starting Capacitor
A starting aid for self-starting of a three-phase motor, which is only
connected to two phases (producing a rotating field), is given by
connecting one phase via a capacitor C.
The single-phase motor is constructed with a main winding connected

to terminals U and V and an auxiliary winding connected to terminals
W and Z. The starting capacitor is switched on in order to produce a
starting torque. After the starting period of the motor the capacitor is
switched off either by a time relay R or by a centrifugal contact.

AC Motors
Together with the stator winding the short-circuit copper band forms a
18.1.5 Shaded-Pole Motor transformer. The stator winding forms the primary winding and the
copper band the short-circuit secondary winding.
A part of the flux of the stator winding penetrates the copper loop and
a voltage is induced which drives a current through the loop. The
current flowing through the stator winding and the current of the copper
loop are phase-shifted. The two magnetic fluxes created by the two
currents are equally phase-shifted resulting in a common rotary field
which enables the rotor to turn. A single-phase motor which operates
in a similar way is known as ’split-phase motor’.
Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors, as the name implies, rotate at a speed which is
synchronized with the applied alternating current fequency.
18.2.1 Three-Phase Motor

Figure 4: Shaded-Pole Motor Principle
The three-phase synchronous motor has three separate windings in
the stator which produce a rotating field like the stator of an induction
An important single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor. This type motor. In a very small synchronous motor the rotor may be a permanent
of single-phase motor is used in applications in which power magnet, but in larger motors the rotor is an electromagnet excited by
consumption is low. The rotor is constructed as a squirrel-cage rotor. an external source of direct current.
The stator has salient poles which carry the main winding. A short-
circuit copper band is placed around a shaded portion of each pole,
forming the auxiliary winding for the starting period.

AC Motors
The rotor of a synchronous motor consists of one or more pairs of poles

Figure 5 shows a synchronous motor which is excited by an external with concentrated or distributed windings supplied through sliprings
source of direct current. The stator of a synchronous motor has the and brushes from a DC source. The rotor of the synchronous motor
same general form as the equivalent induction motor. It consists of a represented in Figure 5 consists of two pole pairs.
laminated soft-iron shell with coils wound through slots on the inner
surface. The magnetic field produced by the current flowing through the rotor
windings causes the rotor to run at the same speed at which the stator
field revolves. In other words, the rotor runs synchronously with the
rotating stator field.
A synchronous motor is not able to run up by itself because it has zero

starting torque. Hence, this machine must be run up to operating speed
by an external drive.
When the rotor poles are almost in synchronism with the rotating field
produced by the stator they pull into step and the rotor runs at
synchronous speed. Since the motor turns at a precisely constant
speed, it can be used to drive an alternator through a differential gear
system and thus to provide an exact frequency of any desired value.
For that reason, synchronous motors are also used to change the
frequency of alternating current.
Figure 5: Synchronous Motor exited by an Eternal Source

AC Motors
18.2.1.1 Single-Phase Motor
Single-phase synchronous motors are available in miniature sizes and

with fractional horsepower. They are employed for driving low-torque
paper drivers, clocks and gramophone turn-tables.
18.2.1.2 Universal Motor
The universal motor is so named because it is a type of electric motor

that can operate on AC or DC power. It is a commutated series-wound
motor where the stator's field coils are connected in series with the rotor
windings through a commutator. It is often referred to as an AC series
motor. The universal motor is very similar to a DC series motor in
construction, but is modified slightly to allow the motor to operate Figure 6: Universal motor diagram
properly on AC power. This type of electric motor can operate well on
AC because the current in both the field coils and the armature (and
the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) AC Motor Control
synchronously with the supply. Hence the resulting mechanical force
will occur in a consistent direction of rotation, independent of the AC motors operate from AC power sources. The magnetic fields
direction of applied voltage, but determined by the commutator and typically are generated using coils on the rotor and stator, and the field
polarity of the field coils movement occurs naturally in the stator due to the alternating nature of
Universal motors have high starting torque, can run at high speed, and the input power. These motors are inexpensive to build and operate,
are lightweight and compact. They are commonly used in portable reliable, and usually run from standard line power.
power tools and equipment, as well as many household appliances.
They're also relatively easy to control, electromechanically using The power supply frequency determines the speed of an AC motor, so
tapped coils, or electronically. However, the commutator has brushes if operated from line power, the speed of rotation is always the same.
that wear, so they are much less often used for equipment that is in Variable frequency power drives control the speed of AC motors, but
continuous use. In addition, partly because of the commutator, such drives are expensive.
universal motors are typically very noisy, both acoustically and
electromagnetically

AC Motors
The rotation direction is controlled on the order of the phases applied

to the motor. If the order of two phase wires is changed, the rotation
direction is changed.
An AC induction motor consists of two basic assemblies - stator and

rotor - and is analogous to an AC transformer with a rotating secondary.
Induction motors are practically fixed speed devices. There is

practically only two methods to change the rotation speed of an AC
induction motor:
 use frequency converter or

 use motor with separate winding for different speeds.
In some applications motors with dual speed winging are used. The
applications where accurate speed control is necessary, a frequency
converter is needed. A frequency converter can run a three phase AC
motor at very wide speed range quite well (the performance of motor is
usually reduced outside it’s optimal operation speed).
Frequency converter does not work with AC induction motors that are
run from single phase power source, because the operation of the
needed motor phase conversion capacitor is very frequency sensitive
(works as expected only at normal mains frequency).

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Training Manual

PART 66 – Basic Training

5.1.1 Primary Cell ............................................................................. 19

For Training Purposes Only Page 2 of 194

6.1.4.1 Resistance Units .......................................................................... 37 Capacitance .................................................................... 60

11.1.4.1 Back EMF ................................................................................ 94 13 Alternating Current ................................................... 127

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Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase AC 16.2.1 Low-Pass Filters ................................................................ 172

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When the structure of matter is looked at below the atomic level, it is

1.1.1 The structure of matter

The ultimate particle to which an element can be reduced to is called

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Every atom consists of a central nucleus around which one or more

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Figure 2: Electron Shells

Figure 3: Positive and negative Ions

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Figure 4: Free Electrons

So if an electron leaves, remember it takes its negative charge with it,

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Non metallic insulators Semiconductors

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We have already looked at how static electricity is formed, using this

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2.1.4 Vacuum Coulomb

We can write this in equation form.

Thus1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is

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Electron Theory 2.3.1 Conventional Theory

Figure 11: Conventional flow of current

Therefore the oppositely charged bodies are producing the energy

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This is the ability to cause current to flow in a complete circuit.

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The factors governing a materials resistance are: Conductance = 1/Resistance.

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3.8.2 Electron Current

DC circuits in aircraft are considered with respect to conventional

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Light (Photovoltaic Cells)

Pressure (Crystal Controlled Oscillators)

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reaction – known as polarization, manganese dioxide is added to the

We shall look at each one of these in turn.

5.1.1 Primary Cell

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5.1.2 Secondary Cells 5.1.3.2 Electrolyte

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The definition of capacity in terms of batteries is the quantity of

5.1.3.4 Chemical Action

To produce a voltage each cell has to create a chemical reaction

Battery State of Positive Negative

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5.1.3.5 Voltage and Specific Gravity Relation Charge/Discharge

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5.1.4.2 Semi Open

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5.1.4.4 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline

This is a common type of alkaline battery; the plates are formed on a

Figure 16: Liquid NC Battery Plate

Figure 17: Typical Liquid NC Aircraft Battery

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