Teardown: The power inverter - from sunlight

to power grid
Steve Taranovich - January 13, 2012

This teardown article will delve into the architectural design and
components of a solar inverter card starting from the Solar panel DC
inputs and working our way through the DC to AC conversion process
to the AC output that is sent out to the power grid. We will show
what features need to be implemented into such a design to meet
various safety and other performance standards as well as stringent
power company demands upon the signal that is put onto their grid.

In the process we will look at the major elements and component choices that were made in the
design of the SMA "Sunny Boy" series of Solar inverters, from the EMI suppression capacitors from
Vishay to the TMS320F2812 DSP by Texas Instruments, with a special emphasis on isolation and
protection, through the smart use of optically isolated MOSFET gate drivers such as the HCPL-316J
and HCPL-J312 from Avago.

Note: For more analysis on the often-overlooked topic of optical isolation, we have included an in-
depth video interview (see below).

Photovoltaic (PV) power systems consist of multiple components, such as PV solar panels that
convert sunlight into electricity, mechanical and electrical connections and mountings, and solar
power inverters, which are essential for conveying solar-generated electricity to the grid. Figure 1
shows a generic, but all-encompassing and complete Photovoltaic system block diagram.
 Figure 1: Complete Photovoltaic system block diagram (Courtesy of Texas Instruments)

What is a PV Solar Inverter?

The inverter’s main function is to convert variable-voltage DC from sunlight on the PV panels or
battery storage to a specific AC voltage and frequency for use by appliances and feedback to the
grid. The AC output varies by region, of course, with 60-Hz 115 VAC used in North America and 50-
Hz 230 VAC in much of Europe.

Enter SMA Solar Technology AG, headquartered in Germany with the "Sunny Boy" series of solar
inverters. The inverter board we are looking at in Figure 2 is used in the Sunny Boy 3000TL,
4000TL and 5000TL transformer-less versions rated at 3kW, 4kW and 4.6kW AC output power
systems respectively (@230v, 50 Hz).

The inverter card has a multi-string technology with two independent DC converters making highly
complex generator configurations easy to implement. This section of the input is seen in Figure 2 on
the lower left quadrant in the image. Each of the two DC inputs uses Vishay EMI suppression
capacitors #339MKP as part of the filter, and the filter also includes DC common mode filter
inductors wound on a common core plus a 15 uF boost converter smoothing capacitor # MKPC4AE
series shown in the same lower left quadrant to Figure 2.

Also on the DC input side, two relays are used to monitor insulation resistance in accordance with
IEC 61557-8 in pure IT AC systems. See Figure 2 upper left quadrant.

Measured are insulation resistances between system lines and system earth. When falling below the
adjustable threshold values, the output relays switch into the fault state.

With these relays, a superimposed DC measuring signal is used for measurement. From the
superimposed DC measuring voltage and its resultant current the value of the insulation resistance
of the system to be measured is calculated. Note the Hall-effect current measuring transducers in
the diagram of Figure 2.

One of the most impressive features evident on this SMA inverter card is the use of very high quality
active and passive components, enhancing reliability and performance of this power inverter design.

Figure 2: SMA Solar Technology AG solar power inverter card for "Sunny Boy" series.

Maximum power point (MPP)

The first DC function encountered in the signal chain is the MPP function.

This inverter task compensates for environmental conditions that affect power output. For example,
PV panel output voltage and current are highly susceptible to variations in temperature and light
intensity per cell unit area (referred to as "irradiance"). The cell output voltage is inversely
proportional to cell temperature, and cell current is directly proportional to irradiance.

The wide variation of these and other key parameters causes the optimum inverter voltage/current
operating point to move about significantly. The inverter addresses this issue by using closed-loop
control to maintain operation at the so-called MPP, where the product of voltage and current is at its
highest value. SMA uses the OptiTrac Global Peak MPP tracker. The proven operation tracker
management system OptiTrac finds and uses the optimal operating point that gives good yields
despite partial shading in PV plants with this additional feature. The TI DSP controller is the brains
behind Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

The most common algorithm for determining MPP is for the controller to perturb the panel’s
operating voltage with every MPPT cycle and observe the output. The algorithm continues
oscillating around the MPP over a wide enough range to avoid local but misleading peaks in the
power curve caused by, say, movement in cloud cover or some other condition that affects the curve.
The perturb and observe algorithm is inefficient to the extent that it oscillates away from the MPP in
each cycle.

An alternative, the incremental inductance algorithm, solves the derivative of the power curve for 0,
which is by definition a peak, then settles at the resolved voltage level. While this approach does not
have the inefficiency caused by oscillation, it risks other inefficiencies because it may settle at a
local peak instead of the MPP. A combined approach maintains the level determined by the
incremental inductance algorithm, but scans at intervals over a wider range to avoid selecting local
peaks. This approach, while the most efficient, also requires the greatest amount of performance on
the part of the controller.

Figure 3 shows how the determination of MPP can vary with different conditions.

Figure 3: MPP under various conditions as weather, time of day and heat of the panels
(Courtesy of Texas Instruments).

A capacitor is commonly used to store the energy that must be stored and retrieved by the inverter.
This capacitor is usually located on the PV bus, and has to be large enough to control the voltage
ripple across the bus. This ripple would be detrimental to MPPT accuracy otherwise.

Electrolytic capacitors are very well suited to control the ripple because of their low Equivalent
Series Resistance (ESR) and high capacitance per volume. Banks of smoothing capacitors can be
seen in Figure 2 along the top edge of the pc board.

Boost DC-to-DC step-up converter

Next in line is the step-up DC-to-DC converter that boosts the DC input to the switching MOSFET
bridge so that the inverter can efficiently create a 230V, 50-Hz AC sine wave to send on to the grid.
This DC-to-DC boost converter along with the H5 switching bridge are contained in the separate
power module that is attached to the back side of the inverter card. This module is well heat-sinked
to the chassis. See the upper mid-area of the board in Figure 2 where this module would be
mounted in the final assembly.

Figure 4 shows the essential basic DC/AC conversion circuit or inverter in a typical transformer-less
configuration, in which:
● DC/DC conversion raises or lowers the incoming PV voltage, adjusting its output for greatest
efficiency in the DC/AC conversion stage
● The capacitor provides further voltage buffering
● The IGBTs or MOSFETs in the H4 bridge shown use a switching frequency in the range of 20 kHz
to create an AC voltage
● The coils smooth the switched AC into a sinusoidal signal for use in generating a grid-frequency AC
output.

Transformer-less inverter technology

The idea behind transformer-less switching has existed long before the PV market was even
developed. Device engineers have known that a pair of field-effect transistors operates most
efficiently in a complete ON or OFF state, when no current flows through them, and they dissipate
no power. Thus, amplifying an ideal square wave would theoretically be 100% efficient.

If a signal is modulated by a much higher-frequency square wave, the result is pulse width
modulation (PWM), and the corresponding circuit is called Class D. In this manner, it is possible to
convert DC to DC, or efficiently switch DC to AC. For solar inverters, the technology was not
available in the past because of the high cost of the switching MOSFETs and IGBTs. These, however,
are getting cheaper and faster every year, so the technology has become more cost-effective than
analog switching into large masses of copper and iron. The same technology is making electric cars
feasible.

Transformer-less inverters have been available for several years now in Europe and SMA received
UL certification in August 2010 for distribution in the US. The certification applies to SMA’s
transformer-less Sunny Boy 8000TL-US, Sunny Boy 9000TL-US, and Sunny Boy 10000TL-US
inverters, and was granted as a result of complying with "UL Standard 1741 for PV and Battery-
Powered Inverters", which includes requirements on transformer-less inverters for the first time .
Transformer-less inverters are significantly lighter than their galvanically isolated counterparts and
can offer a wider range of operating voltages than traditional inverters because of their advanced
switching circuitry.
 Figure 4: Transformer-less DC/AC Conversion Circuit—the inverter (Courtesy of Texas
Instruments).

The downside of not having galvanic isolation is the possibility of a ground fault destroying the
inverter and causing an electrical fire. With a transformer, if the secondary is shorted, then all of the
current will flow through the primary and will (hopefully) be stopped by a thermal disconnect once
the transformer overheats. Without one, if no protection exists or if the protection fails to detect the
ground fault and trip, the large MOSFETs or IGBTs will immediately fail in a rather catastrophic
manner. Fortunately, the likelihood of such an event occurring is extremely remote, and all such
inverters are required to have ground fault protection as per UL 1741 requirements. The burden,
however, remains on the installer to insure that back-feed current in the case of an undetected
ground fault is taken into account when sizing combiner and disconnect fuses.

Thus, provided that the correct simple calculations are performed, there are few downsides and
numerous benefits to transformer-less inverters.

However, the PV inverter provides still many other critical functions.

The PV inverter also offers a grid disconnect capability to prevent the PV system from powering a
utility that has become disconnected; that is, an inverter remaining on-line during grid disconnect or
delivering power through an unreliable connection can cause the PV system to back-feed local utility
transformers, creating thousands of volts at the utility pole and endangering utility workers. Safety
standard specifications IEEE 1547 and UL 1741 state that all grid-tied inverters must disconnect
when ac line voltage or frequency is not within specified limits or shut down if the grid is no longer
present. Upon reconnect, the inverter cannot deliver power until the inverter detects rated utility
voltage and frequency over a five minute period. This can be seen in the upper right quadrant of
Figure 2 using four LF-G grid safety shut-off relays rated at 22A, 250VAC.
But again, this is not the end of the inverter’s duties. In addition to these tasks, the inverter also
supports manual and automatic input/output disconnect for service operations, EMI/RFI conducted
and radiated suppression, ground fault interruption, PC-compatible communication interfaces
(Bluetooth in the case of this "Sunny Boy" series) and more. Encased in a ruggedized package, the
inverter is expected to remain in full-power outdoor operation for more than 25 years!

A typical single-phase PV inverter like the SMA board has uses a digital power controller, the DSP,
and a pair of high-side/low-side gate drivers to drive a pulse-width modulated (PWM) full-bridge
converter. Full H-bridge topology is used in this and many good inverter applications because it has
the highest power carrying capability of any switch mode topology. SMA uses the H5 technology
where a fifth power semiconductor between the input capacitor and H-bridge inhibits a loss inducing
oscillation of electrical charge and clearly lowers the power loss once again. The H5 is a marked
improvement over the classic inverter bridge circuit (H4 topology) showing maximum conversion
efficiencies of 98%. To prevent a fluctuating potential of the PV-generator the architecture
disconnects the DC-side from the AC-side during the freewheeling periods of the inverter.

The H5-Topology shown in figure 5 only needs one more switch compared to the normal full H4
bridge seen in Figure 4. The switches T1, T2 and T4 are operated at high frequency of around 20
kHz or so, T1 and T3 at grid frequency, in this case 50 Hz. During free-wheeling T5 is open,
disconnecting DC- and AC-side. The free-wheeling-path is closed via T1 and the inverse diode of T3
for positive and T3 and the Diode of T1 for negative current.

Figure 5: H5 bridge topology by SMA.

The PWM voltage switching action synthesizes a discrete, but noisy, 50 Hz current waveform at the
full bridge output. The high-frequency noise components are inductively filtered and produce the
moderately low amplitude 50 Hz sine-wave. The H-bridge works by asymmetric unipolar modulation.
The high side of the asymmetric H-bridge should be driven by 50Hz half-wave dependent on the
polarity of the mains while the opposite low side is PWM modulated to form the mains sinusoidal
shape. You will note the AC output filter section in Figure 2 with EMI suppression capacitor on the
right side of the inverter card. The output sine wave filter containing large inductors will be also
bolted on to this card in this area to complete the AC filter.

PV inverter design requires many design compromises that can cause designers heartburn if the
wrong trade-offs are made. For example, PV systems are expected to operate reliably and at full
rated output for a minimum of 25 years, and yet they need to be competitively priced, forcing the
designer to make tough cost/reliability trade-offs. PV systems need highly-efficient inverters because
higher efficiency inverters run cooler and last longer than their less efficient counterparts, and they
generate cash savings for both the PV system manufacturer and user. SMA has done an exceptional
job here.

The control architecture

The "brains" behind the inverter is its controller, usually a digital power controller (DPC) or digital
signal processor (DSP) in this case. Digital signal processor (DSP) based controllers, such as the
Texas Instruments TMS320F2812 in this design, provide the high level of computational
performance and programming flexibility needed for the real-time signal processing in solar power
inverters. Highly integrated digital signal controllers help inverter manufacturers create more
efficient, more cost-effective products that can support the growing demand for solar energy in
upcoming years.

A control processor for an inverter has to meet a number of real-time processing challenges in order
to effectively execute the precise algorithms required for efficient DC/AC conversion and circuit
protection. MPPT and battery charge control, while only needing near-real time response, do involve
algorithms with a high level of processing. Digital signal controllers, combining high-performance
DSPs and integrated control peripherals, offer an excellent solution for real-time control of the
DC/AC converter bridge, MPPT and protection circuitry in solar power inverters. DSP controllers
inherently support high-speed mathematical calculations for use in real-time control algorithms.

Integrated peripherals such as analog to digital converters (ADCs) and pulse-width-modulated

outputs (PWMs) make it possible to directly sense inputs and control power IGBT’s or MOSFETs,
saving system space and expense. On-chip flash memories aid in programming and data collection,
and communication ports simplify design for networking with units such as meters and other
inverters. The higher efficiency of DSP controllers in solar power inverters has already been
demonstrated by designs reporting that conversion efficiency losses were cut by more than 50
percent, as well as achieving significant cost reduction.

Typically, the controller’s firmware is implemented in a state machine format for the most efficient
execution using non-blocking (fall-through) code, which prevents execution from inadvertently
entering an endless loop. Firmware execution is hierarchal, typically servicing the highest priority
functions more frequently than lower order functions. In the PV inverter case, isolated feedback loop
compensation and power switch modulation are usually the highest priorities, followed by critical
protection functions to support safety standards, and finally followed by efficiency control or
Maximum Power Point (MPP). The remaining firmware tasks pertain mostly to optimizing operation
at the present operating point, monitoring system operation and supporting system communication.

Integrated functions keep costs efficient along with system operation. TI’s TMS320F2812 controller
features ultra-fast 12-bit ADCs that provide up to 16 input channels for performing the current and
voltage sensing required to achieve a regular sinusoidal waveform. For safety, the ADCs also can
provide current sensing in the residual current-protection device (RCD).

Twelve individually controlled enhanced PWM (EPWM) channels provide variable duty cycles for
high-speed switching in the converter bridge and battery charging circuits. Each of the EPWMs has
its own timer and phase register, allowing phase delay to be programmed in, and all of the EPWMs
can be synchronized to drive multiple stages at the same frequency. Multiple timers give access to
multiple frequencies, and fast interrupt management is available to support additional control tasks.
Multiple standard communication ports, including the CAN bus, provide simple interfaces to other
components and systems.

Isolation
 Figure 6: Alternative energy systems need isolated connections (red) between the high
voltage power circuits and the controller managing power flow (Courtesy of Avago).

Right in the center of the SMA inverter card we will find five Avago isolated gate drivers. See
Figure 2.

Two of the isolated MOSFET drivers that control T1 and T3 switching at grid frequency of 50 Hz are
Avago HCPL-316J, 2.5-A gate drive optocoupler with integrated (VCE) desaturation detection and
fault status feedback. The other three isolated MOSFET drivers that control T2, T4 and T5 switching
at higher frequency are Avago HCPL-J312, 2.5-A output current MOSFET gate drive optocouplers.
See Figure 5 for H5 configuration.

Especially in a transformer-less inverter design, opto-couplers provide re-enforced insulation and in

the event of a fault provide fail-safe protection.

Why is Reactive power control important in a PV inverter1?

The "Sunny Boy" models 3000TL/4000TL/5000TL are available with reactive power control.

Reactive power usually occurs any time that energy is transferred via alternating current. Its
importance for solar engineers and PV system operators is increasing, for larger and for smaller
systems. Most important realization: reactive power is no problem at all. It is actually a solution for
some problems.

On July 1, 2010 PV systems in Germany that feed into the grid at medium-voltage level had to be
able to provide reactive power to the grid. This is stated in the 2008 edition of the Medium-Voltage
Guidelines of the German Federal Association of the Energy and Water Industry. For the low-voltage
grid, even stricter requirements are being discussed.

How does reactive power develop?

For DC, the equation is quite simple: electric power is the product of voltage and current. However,
for AC things are a little more complicated because the intensity and direction of a current and
voltage change regularly here. See Figure 7.
 Figure 7: The required reactive power is produced in the inverter—in addition to the
received PV active power. The geometric sum of both is the apparent power; it is decisive
for the inverter design. (Courtesy of SMA)

In the public grid both have a sinusoidal trajectory with a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. As long as the
current and the voltage are "in phase", i.e. moving at the same rhythm, the product of these two
oscillating factors will also be an oscillating output with a positive average value – pure active power
(Figure 8a).

Figure 8a: When there is no phase shift, the product of current i and voltage u is an
oscillating, yet always positive output – pure active power. (Courtesy of SMA)

However, as soon as the sinusoidal trajectories of the current and the voltage are shifted against
each other, their product will be an output with an alternating positive and negative sign. In extreme
cases the current and the voltage are phase-shifted by a quarter period: the current always reaches
its maximum intensity when voltage is equal to zero – and vice versa. The result: pure reactive
power, the positive and negative signs completely neutralize each other (Figure 8b).
 Figure 8b: At a phase shift of 90 degrees between the current i and the voltage u, an
alternating positive and negative output with an average value of zero will be the result –
pure reactive power. (Courtesy of SMA)

This phase shift can naturally occur in two directions. It occurs when coils and capacitors are in the
AC circuit – which is usually the case: all engines or transformers have coils (for inductive shifts);
capacitors (for capacitive shifts) are also commonly found.

Multi-conductor cables also function like a capacitor, while high-voltage overhead lines can be seen
as extremely long coils. Therefore, a certain degree of phase shifting, i.e. reactive power, cannot be
avoided in AC grids. The measurement parameter for phase shifting is the shift factor cos(φ), which
can have a value between 0 and 1. It can be used to easily convert output values. Reactive power is
measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts (See Formula 1)
Formula 1: Reactive power calculation using the Pythagorean Theorem for right triangles.
(Courtesy of SMA)

What are the effects of reactive power on the grid?

Only active power is actually usable power. It can be used to power machines, make lamps glow, or
operate electrical heaters. Reactive power is different: it cannot be consumed and can therefore not
power any electric devices. It simply moves back and forth in the grid and thereby acts as an
additional load. All cables, switches, transformers, and other parts need to additionally consider
reactive power.

This means that they need to be designed for apparent power, the geometric sum of active and
reactive power. The ohmic losses during energy conduction occur based on apparent power;
additional reactive power therefore leads to greater conduction losses.
 Video interview: Jamshed Khan, Avago factory applications engineer for optical isolation
products, discusses the importance of isolation in solar converters with EDN contributing
editor Steve Taranovich.

Going Forward

PV systems are relative newcomers to the energy production field. Like other emerging
technologies, PV systems will be subject to rapid changes as the technology matures. As a result, PV
systems will undoubtedly continue to evolve to meet market demands for higher capacity, lower cost
and higher reliability. As this happens, PV inverters will expand in functionality, and designers will
demand more integrated, application-specific, component-level devices. As these events unfold, PV
power systems will become more widespread and ultimately represent a viable segment of the utility
mainstream that significantly reduces our dependence on fossil fuels.

References

1. From SMA Solar Technology website:

http://www.sma.de/en/products/knowledge-base/sma-shifts-the-phase.html
2. Texas Instruments Application Report #SLVA446–November 2010, "Introduction to Photovoltaic
Systems Maximum Power Point Tracking"
3. Texas Instruments Application Report #SPRAAE3–May 2006, "TMS320C2000™ DSP Controllers:
A Perfect Fit for Solar Power Inverters"
4. Avago "Integrate Protection with Isolation In Home Renewable Energy Systems" Whitepaper
5. "Analysis and Modeling of Transformerless Photovoltaic Inverter Systems," by Tamás Kerekes,
Aalborg University Institute of Energy Technology Denmark, August 2009