MARCH 1976 Ivtropuction or ELevenra Terzacm Lecturer By George F. Sowers sponsored by the ASCE Geotechnical Engineeris of Dr. Karl Terzaghi, Hon. M. of soil mechanics that saw sé Who understood ‘The Terzaghi lecturers have been who have shown the same spi ur profession by sharing the G. G. Meyerhof, the his life to our pro thur Casagrande s Bjerrum n Seed , Philip C. Rutledge 1969, Stanley D. Wilson Dr, Meyerhof requires li have made his name familiar to those who hav‘ lege of knowing, him personally. For the nongeotechnical engineer, his kinship to the profession as a whole has been expressed by his earlier years as a structural engineer and his present position as Head of Civil Engineering at the Nova Scot College. He graduated from London University, England, in 1938 and immediately engaged in structural engin reinforced conerete, foundation the Staff of the bearing capacity of sand was a techni by a DSc degree from London ‘earned the PRD. 1953 he emigrated to Canada tone. This work was recognized ty in 1954, although he alveady had two years as an eng ineering Corp. In 1955 he went to Nova Xx where he has continued both research and fe duties as Head of Civil Engineering and for several years, Dean of Engineering, -d worldwide. He is Fellow of the Royal he first president, gave him University of Aachen, West Germany, and the University of Ghent, Belgium. PILE FOUNDATIONS BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENT oF Pie FounDaTIONS Ry George Geoffrey Meyerhol y 50 years have passed ed his classic book on Erdbaumechanik (Soil ly new branch of civil engineering. A chap ‘and treats in ment of piles. It seems, ‘of the recent concepts in estimat of pile foundations in the light of Terzaghi’s types of presented in the absence of ASCE. Thi ring Division GTS, March, Toad, Dept. of Civ. Engrg, Nova Seotit Technica198 MARCH 1876 on and piezometer tests structures this inform and plate load tests stresses, strength, tests should be made on pr bearing capacity and settlement of pile foundations may differ considerably ‘from the original conditions. On account of the complex interaction between the soi s during and after construction of the foundation, the behavior of single piles and groups under load can only roughly be estimated from soil tests and semi-empirical methods of analysis based on the results of pile load tests, The empirical data obtained mainly from field observations and some theoretical considerations will be examined in the next sections for driven and bored piles in sand and clay including nonuniform soils Banna Caracrry oF Pues me Sano When piles are driven into a distance of a few of sand near single of the degree of comy their influence on the basis indicate that in homogeneous sand both p reskin frit would increase with greater depth of penetration. However, large-scale experiments and field observa shown (39,40,86,95) that the theoretical relationships hold only when the pile Point is above a certain critical depth. Below this depth, the point resistance and average skin friction remain deposit due to effects of soil compressibility, crushing, a Since no satisfactory method of analysis of pile behavior below the critical depth is available, an empirical approach is necessary at present, as indicated in the following s Wp Ay* fA, a the unit bearing capacity of pile point of atea A,: and f, skin friction on shaft of area A,. Further, the ultimate point resistance in homogeneous sand may be represented by nema of the crcl depth alo capacly theory no isalso shown in Fig and fr Pie FOUNDATIONS oo ® p= he tein ovebrden ress ati poi Ny = the exing {acer with epee to overburden pressures and, ning vale : stance for D/ B= D./ B where B = width of pile, D = depth, opbiof paustalinre Nusa ea i eB FIG, 1.—Bearing Capacity Factors and Critical Depth Ratios for Driven Piles in Fig. 1. This fou ly with D,/B and reaches that the factor N, increases r0 maximum value at a depth ratio of roughly /B beyond which conventional bearing. 3s (40). The approximate depth ratio D,/B (23) ized piles it depends mainly on the friction apy unit point resistance, yomogeneous sand (61) are shown may be represented approximately200 MARCH 1976 PILE FOUNDATIONS. = 0.5N, tan in which N, = the bearing capacity factor for short pile and 4, per square fi effective vertical {sf Q5 kN/m*) for loose sand to 0.5 tsf (50 kN/ this stress femai y independent of the effe« ical depth : Angle of Sand (1 sf ~ 95:8 kN /m?) ugh the values of N, and q, depend mainly on the friction angle, ¢, also in mpressibility of the soil, the method of pile for a given initial , bored piles have ind to one-half of that of driven th great impact energy have up. point resistance of driven piles of sand above the lerdiameters (Fig.MARCH 1976 FIG. 5.—Relation between Utimate Point Resistance of Stratum beneath Weak Soil Layer FILE FOUNDATIONS. 208 are driven into sand or through weak strata to a firm sand Which K, = the average coefficient of earth pres average effective overburden pressure |, particul ction angle of the sand and the method of than for the point res mly on the aforementioned factors, but also on the comp: the original horizontal stress in the ground, as r th pressure coefficient at ‘and on the ple size and shape (87). A igh estimate of the208 MARCH 1976 o PILE FOUNDATIONS with depth along the pile from a maximum near the top where K, may approact pelea eed the passive earth pressure coefficient to a minimum near the anes = mnsolidated sand shows that the value of K, eg + ih of roughl angle, @, can scatter considerably from a lower Soe eT eae ome! in terms of K,. welers because i cb, FIG. 6.—Coetficiont of Earth Pressure on Shaft of Piles above Critical Depth in Send the corresponding value of f, becomes practically independent of the average overburden pressure along. is given by f,. This has b by analyzing the results of load t 1g piles driven weak soil to a firm sand deposit, when the deduced values of K_ Were found to decrease rapidly ing value of f, = f, and the fi from a lower limit for bored nsolidated sand to an upper limit for downward drag of206 MARCH 1976 ora Fr PILE FOUNDATIONS above the critical depth. les driven to a thick firm imately, given penetrometer, aries roughly for driven les roughly al Relation between Ultimate Point Resistance of Piles and Standard Penetration Resistance in Cohesioniess Soil (1 tsf = 95.8 kN/m*: 1 blow/ft = 1 bow /0.3 ma) The observed average ultimateMARCH 1976 luence of overburden pressure and grain ors PILE FOUNDATIONS: 208 a ca | ite inn, ea te FIG, 9.—Empirical Relation betweon Urtimate Skin Friction of Piles and Standard Penetration Resistance in Cohesionless Soll (1 tst = 958 KN/m?; 1 blow/ft ~ 1 blow/0.3 m) great impact energy up bbe used for tSrl FIG. 12.—Bearing Capacity of Model Pile Penetrating into Thin Sand layer Overlving Clay (1 kip = 4.45 KN; 1 in, = 25.4 mm) ig. 10), It was also found that the average each cohesionless ing values of f; using points rest in an imate ut the resistance to punching of the ‘Theory and field observ each layer. by a weak dept ng weak soil Fi. in a sand layer overlying clay i PILE FOUNDATIONS 62) that the rate of decrease of the poi del tests on. ing a soft clay le points and ickness of about 10B can be obtained by an expres im of the single bored in the the individual pile point shear the individual ultimate poi about 3 pile diameters, and n bored pile groups (73). roup capacity of bored be taken as abs at customary pile spacings. If a pile group in a firm bearing st by 2 weak deposit, the le capacities or by vrMARCH 1978 ymewhat remolded and may (@5 mm) from the pile ed clay adjacent stress. The behavior of piles soll. Experience on. the results of some pile load tests PILE FOUNDATIONS. ined shear strength of sand particularly at the end stance of piles will be governed by the eff meters, cand 6, of remolded clay failing close tothe shaft. The corresponding, omogeneous clay may then be taken as J,> 6+ K,pytand =o, : 2 4) which the symbols are as defined for Eq. 6. Eq. 14 assumes that the excess -water pressure sometime aft lation and loading of the pile is negligible re. Analysis offi ingle piles driven which approaches After about one oF made, these pore he drained shear strength ly be taken as zero. OnMARCH 1978 FIG. 13.—Positive and Negative Skin Friction Factors of Driven Piles in Soft and ‘Medium Clays (1 t= 0.305 m) dated clay when K, = 1 ~ sin be represented by B= (sing) tang of about 0.25 PILE FOUNDATIONS 215 1 compression the clay at the shaft f, by the very slow along the upper portion of piles as 2 ‘of the effective overburden factor may be reduced with greater depth to about 0.2 for ‘about 200 ft (60 m), of piles installed in stiff saturated clay can also n Eqs. 15 and 16 on the basis of the drained shear strength provided that the coefficient, K,, is known from previous s, from which rough = (= sin) VR, in which Ry = the overconsolidation ratio of clay. Thus, for stiff fissuredMARCH 1976 PILE FOUNDATIONS: clay. On this basis the coeffici? 1.5 times K,, The figure also shows it clay shows that in a similar way by The factor FIG, 16—Skin Friction Factor of Bored Piles in Sti Clay (1 tof = 95.8 KN)/ mnsolidation of the clay, as indicated by the approximate of K, shown in the figure. The values of K, are somewhat n K, for bored piles in stiff clay and they are roughly one-hal responding values of K,, for driven piles, rhe effective horizontal‘ pressure on the shaft of piles also be estimated from sei clay ean the average urden pressure along the shaft (53), ndrained shear strength, c,, only (18). Thus, the between the plasticity index and the values onsolidated clay Varies roughly between 1.5 ¢,/p, for highly pla clay of ‘Taking the lower value, theMARCH 1976, ions, which are related to Eq. 13, are found to be tests on used when the value of K, of overcons Group Capacity.—In the absence of le groups in clay can be of an equivalent pier ns. Thus, the pier of driven or bored © pile caps are not resting on the ground, the group c: will usually be governed by the sum of the ultimate loads of the single with some reduction due to the overlapping zones of shearing deform: the surrounding tanding groups of frietion piles driven into soft and medium clays yy not ips rest in a firm dept h a group is given for d PILE FOUNDATIONS 219 ee can be estimated dit mn for negative friction, Sernewenr oF Pus Fouspanions ile piles under (0 a few pile diameters below the points ofa acceptable for pi —Using the concept of an lement of a pile group ures on spread found: Id data (78), the jon resistance, in blows per foot (blows per 0.3 ment (depth roughly once pile group width in homogeneot y sand tWice the right-hand side of Eq. 21 should be use nggested that Eq. 21 can be used with a 50% re lement estimates of deep spread foundations, which may be taken at an220 MARCH 1976 PILE FOUNDATIONS am effective depth in the bearing stratum of more than about four times the wi ibsequent change in the ground elevation or water table. Moreover, ratum below the effective foundation depth is ment can be reduced roughly jowever, the greatest influence sand in the past, when the evaluation ‘a considerable overestimate of settlement al experience. For the same reason the of the total settlement of a pile group in sand from 4 test pile at the same load per pile (59,88) can ‘even for similar pile dimensions and spacing cx porn-bearing pile groups in sand are subjected to negative skin fiction i upper consoleting clay or silt stratum, the corresponding downerag ‘er unit area of the pile group has to be included inthe net foundation A comparison of ns on foundations ure for settlement estimates. Moreover for aroups of piles passing through by driven and bored piles ‘observed maximum s ato sand the effective depth ofthe vary reduction of the estimated settlement due to the depth of mpensaced re basement excavation to reduce hea 5 i FIG. 16,—Comparicon of Estimated and Observed Setvements of Pile Foundations In Gohesionless Soll (1 In, = 25.4 mm) for pile foundations in saturated cohesionless soll, in which q, = the average in seat of settlement; and all symbols are in consistent Both methods appear to give roughly equally reasonable estimates for tical purpos ‘The settlement estimates based on the penetration resistance should be modified under 16a oan ot Tough DerestinNaMARCH 1876 ing value of this resistance, using either the friction angle of the soil or preferably the results of and standard penetration tests directly with an allowance for pile embedm in the bearing stratum and method of pile installation, On the other hand, th skin friction of piles in. cohesionless it depends additionally on the stress history of the soi of the piles, and other factors, Accordingly, only a general guide to the skin friction and sh pile load tests. homogeneous soi be taken as the sum, corresponding si for possible punching For piles in saturated clay and plastic si y theory the undrained shear strength of unc il represents mainly the lowance for the effect of sensitivity Of the soil. On the other hand, several months after installing the shaft resistance is governed by the drained shear strength of remolied soil ‘The skin friction of driven and bored piles can be estimated from skin friction {actors with respect to the average effective overburden pressu the earth pressure coefficient at rest of the deposi normally consolidated clays and silts the positive and negative skin friction factors of driven piles have a similar value and they decrease with provide 2 lower les. In other cases the jon factor can only be very roughly estimated from empirical correlations ith the average undrained shear strength of the clay for driven and bored piles of various embedded lengths. ‘The group capacity of di caps resting fon saturated clay can readi manner from block failure of an equivalent pier using the undrained shear strength of the clay. However, if the pile caps do not rest on the ground, the ultimate load of the group at customary pile spacings is roughly given by two-thirds of the sum of the single pile capacities using the drained remolded shear strength of the clay for the skin friction, The negative skin friction on a poi pile group passing through consolidating soft clay or silt canbe si ‘The settlement of pile foundati be estimated as for an equivalent pier. Conservat been presented for preliminary estimatesof the total settlement of pile foundations PILE FOUNDATIONS 2a jonless soil using the results of static and standard penetration tests jonal methods of estimating the settlement of pile foundations in clay wwe a clay stratum are generally satisfactory for the total settlement but fe of movement is frequently difficult to predict, except on the basis 1 experience. Accwowsomenrs s lecture the writer profited from stimulating us countries. Some of them provided yned in the references, and are 1e preparation of tafalaya Floodway.” AREA “Bearing Capacity of Piles ‘Dutch Static Penetration Test with the Adhesion Jacket G.M. Laboratory of Grondmect s, Deft, Netherlands, Marine England, “Comparison of Shear Strength Characteristics Proceengs ofthe Research Conference on Shear fg Measurements on a 1604, Floating Pipe Test pile in eotechnical Journal, Vol 9, 1972, pp. 127-136. Measurements on 270 Composite rn, 1974, pp. 531-578, I In Traité de Mécanique der Sols, Gauthier-Vilars, Pacis, jon of Piles in Cohesive Soils in Terms of Fective Review. Val. 3, 1968, pp. 48-51 18, Clark J. C., and Meyerhot, G. G., "The Behaviour of Piles Deven in ClayMARCH 1976 RA Technical Publication 4, Amer ‘Some Considerations Cones seedings ofthe Ssmpos (78-204 Proceedings of the London, England, Vol. 2, 1957, pp. 27-34 1d, Pal 18, s, Pats, France, Vol. 2, 1961, pp. 45-53 Endo, M., et al, “Negative” Skin Friction’ Acting on Steel Pipe-Pies in Clay,!™ renth International Conference on Soil Mechanics, r of Tests on Piles at Gothenburg ish State Rallvays, 1955 BH, “Down-Drag on Piles in Ci Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol Fellenus, B. Hand Samson, Ly Ung Fox, D.A., Parker, G, ings of the Second Conference on Off pp. 535-546 ofthe Eighth Inter USSR, Vol, 21, 1973, pp. Hluizinga’ TK, “Appl of Deep Penetration Tests to Foundation ig Research Congress, London, England, Vé der Grosse und des Verlufs nileichférmigen Sand-Kies-gemischen ‘West Germany, ines of the Fifth 1 pp. 7388, Proceeding’ Conference PILE FOUNDATIONS. 225 Foundations, Japan, Vol Wl Bearing “ude Théorique et Expérimentale de I'Expansion dans un Sol runt une CavitéPrésamtancune Symétre Sphere ou Cylindrgue,” Annales ‘des Belgique, Vo. 62, 191, pp, 105-148, Proceedings Moscow, USSR, Val * Proceedings, ‘and Eth + Volt, 1972 pp. C, Livand Focht, J. A., “Ple Loading Tests, Morganza Floodway Contr i ‘ASCE, Vol. 79, per No. 134, 1958, pp. 3241 ie Tests, Low Foundations ‘Sondenuntersuchungen in Sand," Mitelluagen der Verenigune der Grosskessétbctrlber, Aachen, Germany, No. z ‘of Foundations,” Geotechnigue, the Foundations of a Bridge on al Conference on Soll Mechanics, Z Meyerhof. G. G. Journal ofthe Set! Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proc. Paper 866, Tan. 1956, pp. 661-19, Meyethot, G, G., "Compaction of Sands and Bearing Capacity of Piles,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 8, No. SMG, Proc Paper 2292, Dec. 1959, pp. 1-30 “Meyethot, G. G., "Some Recent Research onthe Bearing Capacity of Foundations,” Canadian Geote , Vol. 1, 1963, pp. 16-26. Meyethor. G. G. ‘Countries Outside Burope,” Procedi of the Europe Testing, Stockholm, Sweden, Vo 197, pp. 408. leyerhot. G. ings on Sand Layer Oveslying Chay,” Moyethof. G. G., The Design of Sorel Stadium with Special Referens EIC Jounal, Vol. 40,1957, pp. 70-275. Meyethof, G. G., ing Capacity ‘of Some Bor Vol Meyethof, G.G.,and Sehastyan,G. Y., “Settlement Studies on Air Terminal Building Geotechnique, London, BrglanMARCH 1976 land. Apron, Vancouver Inter ral, Vol 7, HL, and Weiss, K., 33-456 “Fournal ‘and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 89, No. SMB. Prog 3 pp. 135, ‘Proceedings ich, Switzerland, Val. Medd., Copenhagen, Vol. 41. 1968, pp. 33-54 Peck, R. B,, "A Sludy of the Comparative Behav Board, Washington, D.C, 1958, pp. 1-72 and Thornburn, T. H., Foundation Engineering, Soh i pen in Bezichung 2u der des Binzelpfahe ‘Sand Displacement and Compaction Around £" Canadian Getecacal Jounal, Vol Tavenas, FA losopiy. "Proceedings, Highway Research 28 of the Eighth Inernational Conference on ol 1.3, 1973, pp. 29-242 = Proceedings of the Building 951. pp. 1 Piles in London Clay, Proceedings of th Metco: Vol. 19 Sp S38 ‘Taveras, FA. Load Tests Results on Fiction Plein Sand,” Canadian Geo bp, 7-22 ahi. K., Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Deutcke, i, 1935, PILE FOUNDATIONS ‘ie Load Tests o Failure the Clyde Al On Behaviour of Pies, London, Engin, 1! ‘Some Effects of Pile Driving on Skin Fret Conference on Behaviour of Pes, F. T., and Reese, 1. C., “Behavior of Bored Piles in Sand,” Journal of, jeotechnical Engineering Divison, ASCE, Val. 10, No, GT?, Proc: Paper 105 4, pp. 748-761 ," Proceedings of the he Netheriands, * Report B89, ion, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM3, Proc, Paper 6790, ighth International Conference 73, pp. 257-260, P.J., and Zeman, 2. P., Comparison of Pile Load-Test'Skin- Friction Values and Laboratory Strength Te 6, 1969, pp. 339.352, Whitaker, 1, Experime' Model piles in Groups,” Geotechnique, London, 167 ‘Waitaker, T, Symposi Whitaker, T., and Cooke, R. W. of amg Bed Pin Lon Clay Pr 0, J. D., "Pile Loading Tests in Stitt Clays,” Proceedings of the Fh Intemational Conference on Soil Mechanics, Pari, los, Zeevaert, L, “Compensated Friction Pile Fou of Buildings on Highly Compress Proceedings of al Conference on Soil Mechanies, London, England, Val. ‘Aorenorc I —Noranion The following symbols are used in this paper: area of width; unit cohesion: unit adhesiBE pie eS, Paces. uneenea MARCH 1976 tundrained shear strength; depth; depth in bearing stratum; influence factor of embedment coefficient of earth pressure at res nt of earth pressure on shaft; angle of skin MARCH 1976 JOURNAL OF THE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING DIVISION UntrorM PLACEMENT OF SAND By Wayne A. Bleganousk} William F. Marcuson, TII,* M. AS ry was desired. The experience devices is presented in this paper. -al sample encased ‘uniform fine sand, ising @ WES developed observed to be in (@) a single which was developed, di