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Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213

15th International scientific conference “Underground Urbanisation as a Prerequisite for

Sustainable Development”

Underground development: a springboard to make city life better in

the 21st century
Dimitris Kaliampakos a,*
a
School of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,Greece

Abstract

The 21st century will probably be the century of urban areas and especially megacities. Megacities are continuously growing in
size and numbers, they are major economic and political hubs and every event or decision that affects these areas has significant
repercussions for the rest of the planet. These large agglomerations have soaring problems that challenge their sustainability
goals and their future in general. The development of the urban underground space can offer efficient, long-term and
environmental friendly solutions to these problems and keep megacities in the sustainability path. The present paper describes
the sustainability problems of modern cities and attempts to outline the new challenges in future underground utilization. The
paper also focuses on the people who work in the underground space and analyzes the social and psychological results. Finally,
since, contrary to common belief, the most visited places in the world are underground, several issues regarding design,
aesthetics and human friendly underground spaces are discussed along with the pioneer role of ACUUS in underground
development.
©©2016
2016Published
The Authors. Published
by Elsevier by Elsevier
Ltd. This is an openLtd.
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 15th International scientific conference “Underground
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review
Urbanisation under
as aresponsibility
Prerequisiteoffor
theSustainable
scientific committee of the 15th International scientific conference “Underground Urbanisation as a
Development.
Prerequisite for Sustainable Development
Keywords: underground urban development, megacities, new challenges, “undergrounders”, human-centered underground space design.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30-69-777-85-314

E-mail address: dkal@central.ntua.gr

1877-7058 © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 15th International scientific conference “Underground Urbanisation as a
Prerequisite for Sustainable Development
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.11.792
206 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213

1. Introduction

Urban areas have grown to unprecedented proportions. Since 2007 more people live in urban areas than
anywhere else in the rest of the planet. Furthermore, by 2050, the world population is expected to reach 9.3 billion
while the population living in urban areas is projected to reach 6.3 billion (Vassigh and Hove 2012). Most of the
population growth expected in urban areas will be concentrated in the cities and towns of the less developed regions
(UN Habitat 2010).
Megacities are growing all over the world and new megacities continuously emerge. Today, these cities account
for 9% of the world’s urban population. Urban growth is spread unequally around the world, and the same is true
for the big cities. Most of the megacities in the developed world are growing slowly, if at all. Tokyo remains the
largest with 35 million inhabitants, but the fastest growth will be in the developing world (particularly in Asia and
Africa), placing huge pressure on infrastructure. By 2020 Mumbai, Delhi, Mexico City, São Paulo, Dhaka, Jakarta
and Lagos will each have populations of over 20 million (GlobeScan and MRC McLean Hazel 2007).
Megacities have a pivotal role, not only due to their total population, but also because they are key players in
economy and politics at a global scale. Moreover, the problems they face are an extrapolation, perhaps exaggerated,
of the general problems of urban areas. Therefore, pioneer solutions adopted by megacities can be more easily
applied later to the rest of the urban fabric (Kaliampakos 2014).
The present paper analyzes the major difficulties and complicated problems that modern cities face nowadays.
These problems risk both the functionality and quality of life in big cities. However, these problems can be
alleviated with the utilization of urban underground space. Furthermore, the paper identifies the new challenges that
come from the energy crisis, the climate change and the need, sooner or later, to colonize other planets. Finally,
subjects regarding people working in the underground environment and how to make underground spaces more
human-friendly are discussed.

2. Sustainability in modern cities

Nowadays, megacities around the world have grown in such proportions regarding population as well as surface
area that the resulting problems threaten their sustainability. A survey conducted in 2006 among 25 megacities
concluded that the most pressing environmental problems for major urban areas are pollution, transportation and
waste management (Table 1).

Table 1. The most important environmental problems of megacities (source: GlobeScan and MRC McLean Hazel 2007).
Environmental challenge % of respondents mentioning
Air Pollution 26
Transportation 15
General pollution 14
Waste pollution 13
Solid waste 9

2.1. Transportation

Transportation and the closely associated problem of air pollution occupy the highest places on the urban
sustainability agenda. It is generally considered among local authorities and stakeholders that transportation issues
have a key role in both city competitiveness and quality of life. In EU, car ownership during the last ten years has
risen ten times faster than population. As a result major cities suffer from congestion and increased traffic loads
that, in turn, impose high costs on the economy. An estimation carried out by the Confederation of British Industry
(CBI) states that the cost of congestion in the UK alone is £20 billion (US$38 billion) a year.
The only viable solution is underground mass transit systems. The first metro system was built in London, a city
that had already over 1 million residents, in the 19th century. Today metros are considered a necessary and
 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213 207

indispensable part of every large city’s transit network. Worldwide, there are more than 11,000 km of metro lines
providing services to 150 cities around the world. In addition, in excess of 1,000 km of metro tunnels are currently
under construction. Given that construction costs range between $40 and $600 million/km, it is clear that the
sector’s economic size is huge.
However, urban sustainable mobility, in general, cannot rely on underground mass transit systems alone. First, it
is not feasible or sustainable to build a metro station in every city block. Second, in order to improve the quality of
life in the cities, residents need to radically change their daily behavior. People in large urban areas should adopt a
more natural and healthier way of life, such as walking or biking leading to what is called “BMW” (Bike Metro
Walk) transportation system.

2.2. Infrastructure

One of the oldest uses of the underground space is for the necessary infrastructure of a city, such as water supply
and sanitation. Ancient examples like the “Qanat” tunnels that were used to collect underground water and transfer
it to the Persian ancient cities, date back to the 1st millennium BC.
Megacities today have enormous requirements in terms of infrastructure (energy, telecommunications, heating,
water supply, sanitation, waste management, etc.). The sustainability goals of urban areas can only be met if this
infrastructure is placed in the underground space. To draw an analogy, just like the human body has its vital
functions and organs under the skin, cities should build core infrastructure underground. On the other hand, the
absence of an integrated land-use plan, especially in the case of the shallow underground space, has resulted in
significant problems (the well-known “spaghetti subsurface” problem) that compromise subsurface’s future
utilization
Utility tunnels are an efficient solution to the “spaghetti subsurface” problem. Their purpose is to host a range of
urban services, such as transmission lines and pipes for district heating, district cooling, electricity and water supply
systems, as well as a large number of different cable links. The placement of utility networks in tunnels offers many
advantages such as centralized operational control, extended lifetime of utilities, enhanced safety, easier
maintenance and repairs. All construction works and repairs are made underground without interference to city
environment, traffic, etc. Finally, the corridor design can achieve savings in minimizing the length of the housed
services through minimization of curves, while at the same time all expenses can be mutually divided to the service
providers (Satola et. al., 2011).

2.3. Waste management

Waste management is one of the major issues of urban engineering. Nowadays, estimations place the total
amount of waste generated annually worldwide (municipal, industrial, hazardous) in the order of 4 billion tons
(Veolia, 2009). Municipal solid waste account for 45% of these, while the rest is industrial waste, including
hazardous one. The level of economic development of a country has a significant effect on the production of urban
solid waste (Cointreau, 2007). The daily waste production per capita ranges from 0.6 kg to 1.4 kg on average basis,
with people in highly developed countries producing more waste (Table 2).

Table 2. Production of urban solid wastes with respect to the level of country’s development (Cointreau, 2007).
Population Municipal waste quantities in urban areas

High revenue developed Approx. 1.4 million tn per day (1.4

1 billion
countries kg/capita/day)
3 billion
Average revenue developing Approx. 2.4 million tn per day (0.8
countries (approx. 30% of the urban population live in kg/capita/day)
shantytowns)
2.4 billion
Low revenue developing Approx. 1.4 million tn per day (0.6
countries (approx. 65% of the urban population live in kg/capita/day)
shantytowns)
208 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213

In the future, global municipal waste production is expected to increase owing to the increase of global
population and of GDP per capita in developing countries. According to Mavropoulos (2010), urban food waste
production is expected to increase by around 45% between 2005 and 2025.
The last 20 years the use of underground (and semi-underground) systems for the collection of urban waste
streams has been broadly introduced. Compared to typical above ground collection, these systems have waste
containers that are positioned underground in pre-fixed places. Thus, they are developed in a form of permanent
infrastructure network to facilitate the waste collection activities, instead of being a house specific service
employing waste bins, like typical collection schemes (Törnblom, 2008). Furthermore, this solution can yield
considerable results in both the logistics of waste management and the environmental protection. These underground
systems can either operate as stand-alone collection points or can incorporate automated vacuum collection (AVAC
or Automatic Solid Waste Collection system - AWCS), through which the waste are pneumatically transported to a
centralized facility for further process. Both systems can manage different waste streams (e.g. mixed waste, paper,
etc.) with the inclusion of additional collection points or inlets.
Examples of such installations can be found in many places such as in Roosvelt Island, USA, the Wembley City,
UK, the Yas Island, UAE, Barcelona and Leon, Spain, Romainville, France etc. One of the most impressive
applications is the AVAC system installed in Mecca, S. Arabia. The project is estimated at around 50 million Euro
and is expected to perform more efficiently the job now being done by 2,000 workers and around 40 cleaning
equipment units.

2.4. Waste water management

Two of the most highly ranked problems with regards to cities sustainability are water supply and waste water
management issues. Actually, the UNDP estimates that the lack of these services results in 1.8 million annual child
deaths from diarrhea alone. Moreover, the WHO roughly estimates that lack of access to water and sanitation costs
developing countries US$170 billion per year, a figure equal to 2.6% of their GDP. On these grounds, even simple
solutions in water demand can have a huge impact in megacities. Shanghai’s recent requirement that families
replace 13-litre toilets with 9-litre ones will save the city US$189 million annually in water treatment costs
(GlobeScan and MRC McLean Hazel 2007).
The daily production of wastewater per household is 200–300 lt on average. In developed countries collection
systems and treatment plants cover the majority of the population. For example, in EU, member states are required
to comply with Directive 91/271/EEC (Urban Waste Water Directive) which mandates that all EU countries were
required to provide collecting and treatment systems in all agglomerations with a population equivalent (PE)
between 2,000 and 10,000 where the effluent is discharged into a sensitive area, and in all agglomerations with a PE
of 10,000 to 15,000 where the effluent is not discharged into such an area.
The situation, however, in developing countries is quite different and only a small fraction of the population or
specific areas in urban centers have access to such collection and treatment infrastructure. Based on the latest
available data (2004), only 32.5% of the total population is connected to wastewater treatment facilities in China
(UN Statistics Division 2012). As a result, in the near future there will be an increased demand for the development
of sewage networks and treatment plants, especially in developing countries.
The construction of underground sewage treatment plants (STP) is constantly gaining ground over typical above-
ground installations. The experience from several projects highlights their major advantages as the release /
reclamation of surface land, the higher environmental protection attained by such facilities etc.
There are many examples of underground sewage treatment plants such as the Pec pod Sněžkou in Czech
Republic, the Viikinmäki and Kakolanmäki plants in Finland, the VEAS facility in Norway, the Stanley plant in
Hong Kong, the Dihua and Neihu plants in Taiwan etc. A notable example is the Pantai2 in Malaysia. It is
designed as a replacement for the existing above ground treatment plant in the city of Kuala Lumpur. The Pantai2
plant will be developed underground and will be able to process 320,000 m3 of sewage per day from a population
equivalent (PE) of 1.423 million residents. Additionally, a biogas power generation plant will also be installed. The
area previously occupied by the above-ground facilities will be converted to a leisure park with sports, recreational,
administration building and community facilities for the local residents (Pantai2STP, 2012). The total cost will be
about HK$2.5 billion.
 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213 209

2.5. Underground freight transportation

Underground freight transportation (UFT) is regarded as one of the viable solutions for transportation and
distribution of freight, especially in densely populated areas (Pielage, 2001). Instead of expanding or improving
existing infrastructure for the various transport modalities, a task not always possible, UTF uses automated cargo
vehicles/cargo capsules, moving through underground tunnels or pipelines. It is implemented as an unmanned
transportation system in which close-fitting capsules or trains of capsules carry freight through tubes between
terminals.
This idea is capitalizing on the prior experience of underground networks for the handling of small parcels found
in many cities in Europe (London, Paris, Prague, etc.) and in the US (Chicago). All historic systems were
pneumatically powered and often referred to as pneumatic capsule pipelines (Vance et al., 1994). Nevertheless,
these systems have drawbacks such as increased energy consumption and small transport distance. Therefore,
contemporary design approaches utilize either rail transport or more modern systems based on an electromagnetic
drive.
According to a feasibility analysis regarding such an underground freight system for Tokyo, NOx and CO2
emissions are lower by 10% and 18% respectively. Furthermore, a reduction of 18% of energy consumption and an
increase of 24% in average travel speed in city is expected (Taniguchi et al., 2001).

3. New challenges in future underground space use

Climate change and global warming are probably the most critical universal problems. Humans seem to react
rather paradoxically. Instead of adapting their way of life to the new circumstances, people increase their energy
consumption e.g. by increasing the use of air-conditioning systems. That, in turn, increases greenhouse gases which
intensify the global warming problem and so on, thus resulting in a vicious circle.
In China, cities have grown by a factor of two in only five years. Owing to the urban “heat island” effect,
temperatures are increasing about three times faster than the rate of temperature rise in other areas. Paris
experienced a devastating heat wave in 2003. Both the public and the authorities were unprepared for dealing with
such extreme weather conditions, which were exacerbated by building practices, especially the lack of air
conditioning (Hunt 2012).
A modern city can only be sustainable if it has the ability to withstand natural disasters or other important risks.
To this end, the development of the urban underground space in order to deal with vulnerability and resilience issues
is extremely important (Sterling 2012; Besner 2012; Bobylev et al 2012; Admiraal 2012). Many cities face water
flooding risks and tunnels are being built for flood management purposes, as it is considered the most efficient
solution. During emergencies it may be extremely difficult or even impossible to evacuate in time a large city even
if an early warning system is available. The use of underground structures as shelters for the protection of civilians
can be an efficient solution. The city of Oslo in Norway has been using underground gymnasiums, swimming
pools, bowling halls etc. for many years. These facilities can be converted to civil defense shelters at very short
time (Holestöl and Palmström 1996).
Throughout human history, extreme weather conditions, be it heat or cold, have urged humans to resort in the
thermal insulation offered by rock mass. The thermal advantages of the earth’s temperature moderation in a harsh
climate, together with the ability to create shelter with minimum materials, energy and mechanization resulted in the
mass construction of these caves to our day (Carmody and Sterling, 1984). The heritage of underground dwellings
can be seen almost all over the world, like the Matmata village (Tunisia), the Cappadocia region (Turkey) the
villages at Guadix area (Spain), the Sassi di Matera village (Italy), the Santorini traditional underground houses
(Greece) etc. There are also contemporary examples, from the underground city of Montreal in Canada (Besner
2002) to the underground town of Coober Pedy in Australia, where miners working in the nearby mine responded to
the scorching heat of the desert by developing an underground town (Living Underground: Coober Pedy, 2010).
The thermal isolation properties of the ground medium provide superior energy savings to underground space
applications not only to extreme weather conditions but to normal ones as well. Even at very shallow depths and
mild environmental conditions, the ground temperatures seldom reaches the outdoor air temperatures in the heat of a
210 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213

normal summer day, thereby conducting less heat into the house due to the reduced temperature differential
(Carmody and Sterling 1993; Staniec and Nowak 2011). Benardos et al (2014) examined the economic benefits of
the thermal insulation provided by the ground. They compared a typical surface house and an earth-sheltered
building on the Greek island of Kea where, typically for Cyclades, temperature often reaches over 30oC with long
sunshine duration. The results indicate that the surface building has 250% bigger thermal energy demand, 25%
bigger cooling demand and an overall of 42% bigger total energy demand than the underground building (Table 3
and Fig. 1). Furthermore, the analysis showed that despite the fact that the earth-sheltered building has a higher
construction cost, the difference would be offset in the long-term, owing to the reduced operational costs and energy
savings.

Table 3. Energy needs of the underground and the aboveground residence (after Benardos et al, 2014).
Month Underground, heating Underground, cooling Αboveground, Aboveground, cooling
demand (kWh) demand (kWh) heatingdemand (kWh) demand (kWh)

January 323 0 691 0

February 238 0 531 0
March 110 0 347 0
April 0 116 41 191
May 0 450 0 545
June 0 1.050 0 1.312
July 0 1.333 0 1.732
August 0 1.282 0 1.643
September 0 843 0 973
October 0 603 0 692
November 14 0 110 0
December 207 0 500 0
TOTAL 892 5.676 2.222 7.089

2000
Underground
1800
Aboveground
1600
Total Energy Demand (kWh)

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 1. Total energy demand of the underground and the aboveground structure on a monthly basis (after Benardos et al, 2014).

The potential deriving from the utilization of the underground space is not limited to our planet only. If we would
establish human settlements i.e on the Mars in the future we would have to deal with a critical problem: the
 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213 211

protection of humans from cosmic radiation. It seems that the underground has a solution to this problem as well
because only 9 cm of compacted soil can reduce gamma ray intensity by 50%. Therefore, by developing these
settlements a few meters underground the protection offered is almost equal to that of earth. Recently NASA
launched a competition titled “3-D Printed Habitat Challenge Design Competition” for architectural designs of Mars
habitats (NASA 2015). Many of the proposals consisted of underground designs.

4. The “undergrounders”

There are two categories of people related to the underground space: those who work in the construction sector
for underground projects and those whose occupation requires them to be underground.
The former, the “undergrounders” are workers specialized in underground construction, like tunneling, rock
caverns etc. They are characterized by high specialization, leading to higher salaries, and increased mobility, as they
move from a construction site to a new one. Of course, the bigger group of people working underground is miners.
Miners serve as a connecting bridge between the two categories, because depending on the point of view they can be
registered either in the first category or in the second one. The underground mining annual turnover is in the order
of 1 trillion US$, involving officially almost 4 million workers in big companies and up to 20 million in smaller
ones, worldwide. A big percentage of them are underground miners. Since miners were the first people to work for
a prolonged period of time underground, they are the ideal group to identify the social and psychological impacts of
long term working underground.
The latter category, people working in the underground space on a daily basis, consists of people working in
underground infrastructure and services like in the metro, people working in the utility tunnels, in underground
sewage treatment plants, etc. Also, there are people working in underground malls, underground military facilities
or research facilities. People working in underground spaces often report the feeling of isolation, detachment from
nature and the people above ground that strengthens their own social identity and shape their own culture. We
should focus on these problems, without forgetting that i.e. in the miners a great sense of pride is very obvious due
to the fact that they take part to this incredible victory, the conquest of the underground!

5. Making the underground space more human-friendly

When asked which the most visited place in the world is, people would probably reply with a well-known tourist
attraction like the Eiffel Tower (7 million visitors per year), the Taj Mahal (7-8 million visitors per year) or the
rNiagara Falls (22 million visitors per year). In reality, contrary to their answers, the most visited places in the
world are underground. For example the Grand Central metro station in New York receives annually twice the
number of visitors of Niagara Falls. Kita-Senju Station (Tokyo metro) is most probably the correct answer as around
102.600.000 passengers/year, five times the visitors of Niagara Falls, use this underground station. To put things
into perspective one should take into account the annual ridership of the metro systems. The three biggest metro
systems alone, namely in Seoul, Beijing and Shanghai carry annually a number of passengers bigger than the planets
population. This fact has considerable consequences in many engineering aspects as it affects design, aesthetics as
well as, on the top of all safety.
The critical problem of people safety in metro systems was tragically emerged in 1995 with the sarin gas attack in
the Tokyo metro. However, there are also quite significant consequences when a metro system operation is
disrupted. According to a study prepared by IHS Global Insight for the American Highway Users Alliance a one-
day metro shutdown would cost from US$ 250 million in the case of Virginia to US$ 700 million in the case of New
York (IHS Global Insight 2014).
As far as the design principles of underground metro stations is concerned, initially, the focus was placed on
meeting the enormous demand. The outcome of this approach was stations built with simple but rather uninspired
box-shaped structures, clearly a case of “function over form”. Of course, there are exceptions, but they serve as
proof to the general rule. However, today a new approach is challenging the existing trend. It relies upon the
inherent features of the underground space, transforming them into opportunities of intriguing design. A notable
example of such an approach is the Blue Line in Stockholm. In this case, the natural rock is not hidden behind
212 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213

artificial walls but is exposed to the public and with the addition of artwork the place challenges the conventional
design of metro stations. Another interesting example comes from a metro station in Taiwan. The renowned Italian
artist Narcissus Quagliata designed the Formosa Boulevard station in Kaohsiung. As a result, instead of being
another ordinary, rather indifferent metro station, the Formosa Boulevard station is known for its "Dome of Light",
the largest glass work in the world. It is 30 m in diameter and covers an area of 2,180 m2 and it is made up of 4,500
glass panels. Soon, within months, the station became a tourist attraction and a very popular wedding venue.
Towards making the underground space more human-friendly even simple ideas can have a big impact. The
London metro for example uses the announcement boards that are placed in every station to convey a message,
usually with a typical British sense of humor.

6. The role of ACUUS

ACUUS is an international non-governmental association actively promoting partnerships among all actors in the
field of planning, management, research and usage of urban underground space. As such, the ACUUS works since
its creation in the following directions:
x Provides support and services to the national organizations and research centers con-ducting similar
activities in view of enhancing their linkages and international radiance.
x Facilitate the exchanges between the clientele and the expert knowledge worldwide as regards the
potentialities and techniques of expansion in the urban underground.
x Raising the awareness of the private sector, the governments at all levels and the general public on the
specific issues related to the usage of the urban underground.
ACUUS strives to bind these levels into a cohesive network of cooperation for the benefit of all parties involved.
It enhances the international cooperation and exchange among the world community of planners, architects, geo-
engineers, lawyers, builders and investors, scholars and researchers, decision-makers and many other professionals
involved in the use and development of the urban underground space.
Since ACUUS’s establishment in 1996, it has acted as a magnet that attracted the spontaneous interest for the
utilization of the urban underground space, an interest that emerges as a result of the continuous growing needs of
contemporary societies. The utilization of the underground space seems to be the solution for the alleviation of the
stifling lack of free space in modern megacities, for dealing with the important environmental problems, for a
complete reorganization of the modern way of living that will allow a better living quality and a more rational way
of resources utilization. The ACUUS strongly supports the need for an integrated 3-D land use planning in urban
areas. Otherwise, the urban underground space, a valuable resource, is being sporadically utilized and consequently
is being wasted and quickly depleted.
x The shared will for progress on the issues of the urban underground creates a favorable climate for mutual
cooperation and international exchange. This is a commonly accepted point, for the following reasons:
x The global and complex nature of the urban underground problematic implies a multi-disciplinary and multi-
national approach.
x The marked advance of some countries and cities over the others creates conditions for transfer of expertise.
x The assessment of future possible approaches requires a large comparative basis.
There exist specialized organizations of scientists, professionals and experts devoted to the challenges of
underground expansion. Such organizations - in the form of academic research centers or various national
associations - have sprung over the years in many countries around the world: the USA, China, France, Holland,
Italy, Japan, Korea, Greece, Canada and more recently in Singapore, Russia, Iran and Sweden. While detaining
wealth of expertise and information, most of them are national organizations, searching for regular and closer ties
among their members and with other interested parties from the international surroundings.
The majority of people involved in underground construction and development are affiliated to the geotechnical
sciences. The ACUUS seeks to find common ground and mutual goals acknowledging the individual character of
each sister organization and without compromising the particular nature and culture that organization may have.
In this pursuit there are many other potential allies that can join forces and contribute to the cause. By examining
the core values of our community one can draw the conclusion that deep down we are a green movement. We
 Dimitris Kaliampakos / Procedia Engineering 165 (2016) 205 – 213 213

should also form alliances with those that are interested in the improvement of the living quality and the
environment in urban areas.

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