Simple is better when it comes to AUTHORS

Robert W. Wellner ~ ExxonMobil

sequence stratigraphy: The Upstream Research Company, 22777
Springwoods Village Parkway, Spring, Texas
Clearwater Formation of the 77389; robert.w.wellner@exxonmobil.com
Robert W. Wellner has worked at ExxonMobil
Mannville Group reinterpreted for 21 years, where his research interests
have been largely focused on the
using a genetic body approach emplacement and producibility of clastic
reservoirs. Rob received his B.S. from State
Robert W. Wellner, Bogdan L. Varban, Xavier Roca, University of New York at Oneonta in 1987,
his M.S. from Rutgers–New Brunswick in
Jason A. Flaum, Esther K. Stewart, and Michael D. Blum
1989, and his Ph.D. from Syracuse University
in 1993. He was a postdoctoral research
professor at the University of Alabama prior
to joining Exxon Production Research
ABSTRACT
Company in 1996.
Analysis of high-resolution three-dimensional seismic data from the
Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP) of central Alberta, Canada, Bogdan L. Varban ~ ExxonMobil
Upstream Research Company, 22777
has resulted in a new sequence stratigraphic interpretation and
Springwoods Village Parkway, Spring, Texas
depositional model for the upper Albian Clearwater Formation of 77389; present address: Devon Energy
the Mannville Group. Specifically, we document the presence of Canada, 400 3 Ave. SW, Calgary, Alberta T2P
one sequence boundary within the Clearwater Formation that (1) 4H2, Canada; bogdan.varban@dvn.com
separates older, deltaic deposits from a younger fluvial-dominated, Bogdan L. Varban has worked for Devon
terraced incised valley fill succession and (2) ties to a lowstand Canada for more than 2 years as
shoreline approximately 100 km (62 mi) to the north of the CLPP. a stratigrapher. Before joining Devon he
Although this interpretation is far simpler than previous strati- worked for 9 years with both Imperial Oil and
graphic interpretations of this area, the sedimentologic record ExxonMobil as an explorationist, production
within the Clearwater Formation remains very complex because geologist and modeler, and researcher.
of the vertical stacking of high-energy fluvial to fluvial–estuarine Bogdan received a degree in geological
engineering from the University of Bucharest
deposits that are scour based. The composite sequence boundary
in Romania and a Ph.D. in stratigraphy from
identified here is associated with an extended period of landscape
Western University in Canada.
degradation and the formation of a moderately large valley that is
complexly defined by a series of terraced fluvial deposits. Because Xavier Roca ~ Imperial Oil Ltd., 505
individual channels eroded vertically and migrated laterally during Quarry Park Blvd., Calgary, Alberta TC2 4K8,
both the fall and ensuing rise of sea level, the resulting valley-shaped Canada; present address: ExxonMobil
Upstream Research, 22777 Springwoods
stratigraphic sand body is (1) substantially wider than the true
Village Parkway, Spring, Texas 77389; xavier.
topographic valley (i.e., landform that is constrained by subvertical roca.argemi@esso.ca
to near-vertical walls, open to the air, and typically resulting from
Xavier Roca has worked for both Imperial
degradation of the landscape via vertical and lateral erosion by
Oil and ExxonMobil Upstream Research as
a fluvial channel or channels) within which the lowstand channels a clastic stratigrapher for 10 years. Before
flowed, (2) formed by both fluvial and marine processes that can be starting his current research assignment on
allogenic and/or autogenic in nature, and (3) defined by a composite deepwater clastic deposition, his work was
mostly focused on the stratigraphic
characterization, geologic modeling, and
assessment of Canadian Oil Sands assets.
Copyright ©2018. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Xavier received his B.S. from Autonomous
Manuscript received May 4, 2016; provisional acceptance September 19, 2016; revised manuscript received
December 6, 2016; revised manuscript provisional acceptance February 7, 2017; 2nd revised manuscript
University of Barcelona in 2001, his M.S.
received March 17, 2017; final acceptance May 3, 2017.
DOI:10.1306/0503171607717150

AAPG Bulletin, v. 102, no. 3 (March 2018), pp. 447–482 447

 from Ohio University in 2003, and his Ph.D.
from Western University in 2007.
Jason A. Flaum ~ ExxonMobil Upstream
Research Company, 22777 Springwoods
Village Parkway, Spring, Texas 77389; jason.
flaum@exxonmobil.com
Jason A. Flaum has worked at ExxonMobil for
9 years, where he has focused on mixed
calcareous and clastic fine-grained rock
properties. He received his B.S. from the
University of Miami in 1998, M.S. from the
University of Alabama in 2003, and Ph.D.
from Northwestern University in 2008.
Esther K. Stewart ~ ExxonMobil
Upstream Research Company, 22777
Springwoods Village Parkway, Spring, Texas
77389; present address: Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey, 3817
Mineral Point Rd., Madison, Wisconsin
53705; esther.stewart@uwex.edu
Esther K. Stewart has worked as the
Precambrian geologist at the Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History survey for
the past 4 years. Her research interests there
are focused on the 1.1-Ga Midcontinent Rift
and the stratigraphy and later deformation
of the less than 1.7-Ga Baraboo interval.
Before joining the Wisconsin Geological and
Natural History Survey, Esther worked at
ExxonMobil for 4 years. She received her
B.A. from Mount Holyoke College in 2005
and her M.S. from Idaho State University in
2008.
Michael D. Blum ~ ExxonMobil Upstream
Research Company, 22777 Springwoods
Village Parkway, Spring, Texas 77389;
present address: Geology Department,
University of Kansas, 1475 Jayhawk Blvd
#120, Lawrence, Kansas 66045; mblum@ku.
edu
Michael D. Blum is the Scott and Carol Ritchie
Distinguished Professor in the Department
of Geology at the University of Kansas. He
received his Ph.D. in 1992 from The
University of Texas at Austin, then held
positions at the University of
Nebraska–Lincoln (1995–2003), Louisiana
State University (2003–2008), and
Exxonmobil Upstream Research
(2008–2014). His research interests include
fluvial to shallow marine processes and
448 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
surface that formed during the descending limb of a base level
cycle and was partially modified during the subsequent base
level rise and is thus of minor chronologic significance. We
attempt to define the time of maximum topographic valley
development, but younger erosion has removed much of the
record of this valley. However, we estimate that the Clearwater
Formation topographic valley had a maximum incision depth
of greater than 60 m (>197 ft) and a width of approximately
20 km (12 mi). These dimensions correlate very well to incised
valleys observed in the Quaternary. Analysis of core and log results
within our seismic stratigraphic framework indicates that
a fluviodeltaic model best explains the lithofacies distributions
and geometries within the CLPP. Furthermore, finer-scale
seismic mapping was used to encapsulate packages of sediment—
which we refer to as genetic sedimentary bodies—whose reservoir
properties could then be defined using core results. A genetic
body approach to defining stratal architectures has resulted in
(1) a predictive model for reservoir types and distributions across
the CLPP; (2) accurate paleoenvironmental interpretations; and
(3) a simple, yet robust sequence stratigraphic model of this area
that is aligned with recent results reported from the study of similar
systems in the Quaternary, recent morphologic observations from
small-scale, physical sand box experiments, and the most up-to-date
models of coastal fluvial erosion, deposition, and stratigraphic
surface formation.
INTRODUCTION
The concept that coastal fluvial systems extend their drainage
networks across exposed continental shelves in response to gla-
cioeustatic fall has been well established in the Quaternary (see
Talling, 1998; Blum and Tornqvist, 2000; Wellner and Bartek,
2003; Anderson and Fillon, 2004; Labaune et al., 2005; Gibling,
2006; Shen et al., 2012; De Santis and Caldara, 2014, and all
references therein). Furthermore, there is abundant evidence that
as Quaternary drainage networks grow on exposed shelves, they
incise into their genetically related coastal sedimentary prism and
moribund continental shelf (see Anderson and Fillon, 2004, for
examples). Given enough time and the appropriate sediment
types and yields, these lowstand fluvial systems begin to erode
laterally, leaving behind a topographic low that can be tens to
hundreds of kilometers wide and many meters deep. This topo-
graphic low has been variably termed an entrenched fluvial sys-
tem, paleovalley, or incised valley. Although upper Quaternary
incised valleys have been recognized and mapped over many
continental margins, the formative process, morphologic ex-
pression, and scaling considerations continue to be areas of study,
and our ability to recognize and accurately map incised valleys deposits and source-to-sink sediment
in the subsurface remains problematic and can result in widely dispersal.
varying sequence stratigraphic models for the same rock succes-
sions or similar depositional systems from different locations or ages. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sequence stratigraphy is a methodology for partitioning
We thank both Imperial Oil and ExxonMobil
clastic and carbonate sediments and rocks into a series of hier-
management for their unwavering support
archical chronological units (e.g., parasequences, systems tracts, through the course of the Oil Sands Research
sequences, and sequence sets), to make predictions concerning Project. We are grateful to all of the Imperial
sedimentary characteristics (e.g., presence and quality of reservoir, Oil and ExxonMobil geoscientists and
source, and seal for hydrocarbon exploration) within and among engineers who contributed to our
basins (see Van Wagoner et al., 1988; Posamentier and James, understanding of the Clearwater Formation.
1993). One of the key tenets of this methodology is the ability to Your ideas and observations made this paper
identify significant surfaces that (1) bracket varying stratal stacking possible. We thank the diligent staff of the
Alberta Core Research Centre for their
patterns and (2) document the translation, evolution, omission,
excellent curation and friendly assistance with
and removal of depositional environments in response to changing our core description efforts. Finally, we thank
accommodation and define time lines for partitioning the rock Fran Hein, an unidentified reviewer, and
record. The early developers of this methodology (see Mitchum AAPG associate editor Janok Bhattacharya for
and Vail, 1977; Vail et al., 1977; Posamentier and Vail, 1988; their insightful comments and detailed editing
Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988, 1990, for of the original manuscript.
review) argue that the primary surface for the separating the fill
history of a basin is the sequence boundary (SB), which of late has
been referred to as the subaerial unconformity (see Holbrook and
Bhattacharya, 2012). An SB (i.e., type 1 SB) as originally defined
by Van Wagoner et al. (1988) is a regional surface characterized by
subaerial exposure and concurrent subaerial erosion associated with
stream rejuvenation, a basinward shift of facies, a downward shift in
coastal onlap, and onlap of overlying strata. Although there is no
direct mention of incised valleys in this early definition of a SB, more
recent definitions (see Van Wagoner and Bertram, 1995; Boyd et al.,
2006) use the presence of incised fluvial channels, with or without
tidal modification, as one of the primary recognition criteria for
defining an SB. Although this definition seems reasonable and is
supported by more than 25 yr of research in both modern and
ancient coastal depositional systems, recent results from small-scale,
morphodynamic experiments designed to record the response of
fluvial systems to fluctuating base level have reignited the discussion
of how and where SBs form, the extent to which they are modified
through a complete sea level cycle, and their utility as stratigraphic
time lines (see Strong and Paola, 2008; Martin et al., 2009).
The implications of the experimental results presented in
Strong and Paola (2008) to the high-frequency sequence strati-
graphic model are significant and are discussed at length by both
Holbrook and Bhattacharya (2012) and Blum et al. (2013).
Herein we summarize the key observations and comments con-
cerning incised valley development and their preservation in the
rock record, the difference between a stratigraphic valley fill and
a topographic valley fill, and the implications of stratigraphic
valley surfaces to the application of the sequence stratigraphic
model.

WELLNER ET AL. 449

 Strong and Paola (2008) succinctly summarized
the difference between stratigraphic and topographic
valleys using a series of small-scale, morphodynamic
experiments. In short, topographic valleys are the
open air part of a deeply confined channel or channel
belt. Stratigraphic valleys are the depositional record
associated with the development, modification, and
ultimate burial of channel and genetically related
overbank sediments within a single but ever evolving
topographic valley or multiple topographic valleys.
Although stratigraphic and topographic valleys may
have a similar form, the base of a stratigraphic valley
can, and commonly does, record multiple erosional
and depositional events associated with the devel-
opment and evolution of a topographic valley. Thus,
it is unlikely that a single surface defines the form of
a topographic valley or that the topographic valley is
recorded as a similarly shaped stratigraphic body in
the subsurface.
Holbrook and Bhattacharya (2012) argue that
SBs are not a single surface but a suite of diachronous
scours that record erosion and nearly simultaneous
deposition and burial within an evolving fluvial
channel belt. These authors term this complex fluvial
erosion and deposition the “cut-and-cover” model and
argue that a better term for the interval character-
ized by the diachronous fluvial erosion is a regional
composite scour (RCS) surface. The RCS in the cut-
and-cover model is a facies-bounding diastem that
has a lacuna only slightly greater than that of the bed
and bed set boundaries that it encapsulates. Further-
more, Holbrook and Bhattacharya (2012) argue that
the diachronous nature of deposition and erosion along
the fluvial profile results in areas where fluvial sedi-
ments above RCS are older than genetically related
sediments (associated deltaic depocenter in more distal
settings) beneath the RCS. Thus, RCS should not be
considered an SB, because it fails to separate older
sediments from younger sediments over the length
of its development.
Blum et al. (2013) argued that the period of
fluvial incision and incipient valley formation corre-
sponds to times when sediment export to the coast is
at a minimum and sediment storage within the
evolving channel belt or valley is at a maximum.
This complex interplay between sediment storage,
channel belt migration, and sediment transport and
delivery to the coastline results in a stratigraphic
architecture consisting of complexly stacked scour
450 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
surfaces and depositional bodies, which are geneti-
cally related, are of the same age, and can range from
erosion to deposition and back many times within
the evolving incised valley. In short, these authors
argue that there is no single, long-term sediment
bypass surface that unconformably separates discrete
depositional facies below from those above. Fur-
thermore, these authors argue that the scour within
the evolving incised valley links down-dip to periods
of deposition in the marine depocenter. Thus, ero-
sional scour surfaces within and along the incised
valley ultimately tie to a series of clinoformal bed set
bounding surfaces at the shoreface and that these
surfaces downlap onto a basal marine surface. Thus,
in this scenario, up-dip fluvial scour links to marine
depositional bodies near the terminal end of the
incised valley, and scour surfaces become bed and/or
bed set boundaries in this area and should be de-
scribed as a complex depositional facies boundary
and not an SB.
Herein we present new sequence stratigraphic
architecture for the Cold Lake Production Project
(CLPP) that is based on the interpretation of newly
acquired high-resolution, three-dimensional (3-D)
seismic data set with abundant cores and wire-line
logs (Figures 1, 2). The primary focus of this paper is
on the stratal architecture and depositional history
of the Lower Cretaceous Clearwater Formation, a
large deltaic complex and the primary reservoir
target within the Mannville Group at the CLPP. It is
our contention that the abundance of high-quality
subsurface data, coupled to the paleodepositional
setting, makes the Clearwater Formation an ex-
cellent candidate to test the new concepts for in-
cised valley and SB development and to improve the
sequence stratigraphic model.
SETTING
The Aptian–Albian Mannville Group was depos-
ited within the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
(WCSB), a foreland basin generated by crustal
loading during the development of the ancestral Rocky
Mountains. The Upper Jurassic through Eocene fore-
land basin fill is underlain by west-dipping, Paleozoic
rocks that onlap deformed cordilleran rocks to the west
and thin and onlap the Canadian Shield to the east
(Figure 1). During Mannville deposition, the foreland
Figure 1. Map 1 illustrates the tectonostratigraphic elements of the North American Western Interior. Yellow polygon represents the study
area shown on map 2, the greater Athabasca region study area. Note the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP) shown on the bottom right of map
2 (yellow polygon). The CLPP is the primary focus area of this research documented herein. Also shown are the regional well log transects used
to define and map the stratal architecture of the Mannville Group (see colored lines and circles). Circles indicate wells analyzed. Isochore maps of
reservoir thicknesses for the McMurray Formation (Fm.) are also shown and indicate that the CLPP resides on the western flank of a long-lived,
sand-prone fairway in the Mannville Group. Note that this fairway extends through the CLPP and beyond but is shown here to abruptly end at
the northern side of the CLPP. We are currently in the process of extending the thickness maps from previous studies for the McMurray Fm. Map
data were compiled and modified from DeCelles (2004), Kauffman (1977), and Hein and Marsh (2008). Ck. = Creek.

WELLNER ET AL. 451

Figure 2. Detailed map of the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP) study area. Shown on this map are the locations of the seismic and
well data analyzed in this study and illustrated in figures herein. The locations of Figures 3, 4, 8, 9, and 17 are labeled. Color-filled polygons
represent areas of discrete seismic facies for the Clearwater Formation.
basin is thought to have been connected to the Boreal
Sea, creating a shallow, long, north–south-oriented
marine embayment. The Mannville Group records
deposition of a thick and regionally extensive clastic
wedge associated with north-flowing fluvial to
shallow marine depositional systems. This wedge fills
much of the accommodation generated dominantly
by eustatic rise at this time (see Leckie and Smith,
1992). It has been proposed that local and regional
subsidence trends, coupled with rising sea level in
the Early Cretaceous, resulted in a series of major,
southerly directed transgressions of the Boreal Sea,
which periodically inundated the continental and
coastal lithosomes along the periphery of the evolving
seaway (see Roca et al., 2008; Varban and Plint,
2008). It is the presence of these major transgressive
452 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
surfaces and associated marine lithofacies that allows
the Mannville Group to be further subdivided into
the McMurray, Clearwater, and Grand Rapids For-
mations (Figure 3). A brief summary of formation
characteristics is provided below.
STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MANNVILLE
GROUP
The clastic sediments of the Lower Cretaceous
Mannville Group are separated from the underlying
carbonates of Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group by
a regionally extensive, angular unconformity termed
the sub-Cretaceous unconformity (Figure 3) and
from overlying Colorado Group clastic sediments by

a regional unconformity that is thought to be of latest
Albian age (see Leckie et al., 1994, for discussion). Thus,
the Mannville Group represents a low-order sequence
roughly equivalent to Aptian 5 through Albian 10 sea
level cycles recognized globally and displayed on sea
level cycle charts (Hardenbol et al., 1998).
McMurray Formation
The McMurray Formation is the basal formation in the
Mannville Group and is the main reservoir throughout
the Athabasca Province oil sands trend (Figure 1) with an
estimated 1.7 trillion barrels of bitumen in place reported
by the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board in 2007. The
McMurray Formation is buried approximately 500 m
(1640 ft) below the modern surface at the CLPP
(Figure 3). Structural warping and tilting following the
emplacement of the McMurray Formation, coupled
with subsequent erosion during the Late Pleistocene, has
exposed the McMurray Formation near the city of Ft.
McMurray, Alberta. Subcrops of the McMurray For-
mation in the northernmost part of the oil sands trend are
bitumen charged and can be accessed using surface
mining techniques (Figure 1). Farther south, production
from this formation is limited, commonly relies on in situ
recovery techniques, and is water wet.
The McMurray Formation reaches a maximum
thickness of up to 100 m (328 ft) on the eastern side of
Figure 3. Two-dimensional,
depth-converted, seismic line
extracted from the Mahikan
seismic survey (see Figure 2 for
location). Formations and mem-
bers within the Mannville Group,
the Colorado Group, and the
overlying Quaternary sediments
are shown. The primary focus of
this paper is on the Clearwater
Formation and the distribution of
reservoir within the Cold Lake
Production Project and vicinity.
V.E. = vertical exaggeration.
the oil sands (Figure 1), where it appears to occupy the
main trunk of a valley-like drainage network, com-
monly referred to as the Assiniboia paleovalley (see
Christopher, 1974, 1984; Blum and Pecha, 2014, for
discussion). To the west, the McMurray Formation
thins to less than 10 m (<33 ft) over a structural feature
termed the Grossmont high (see Wightman et al.,
1991). Although age dates are sparse, the McMurray
Formation is generally thought to be deposited in the
latest Aptian (see Blum and Pecha, 2014) and rep-
resents the first Cretaceous influx of clastic sediments
on to the subaerially exposed platform carbonates of
the underlying Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group.
The McMurray Formation is divided into three
informal units termed the lower, middle, and upper
units (see Carrigy, 1959, for recognition criteria and
Massop and Flach, 1983, for discussion). Collectively,
these units form a complicated, northward prograd-
ing alluvial and coastal plain complex that locally
incised into the underlying Devonian and fed aerially
extensive, prograding shorefaces in the far northern
part of Alberta and the arctic of Canada (see Leckie,
1986; Hayes et al., 1994). On the basis of well log
correlations, a series of incised valleys have been
recognized and mapped in the McMurray Formation
(Hayes et al., 1994; Fustic et al., 2012). Analysis of
detrital zircons recovered in cores of the McMurray
Formation indicates that the lower unit was sourced
WELLNER ET AL. 453
from the Canadian shield (Figure 1), most likely
through small fluvial systems, whereas the middle and
upper units were sourced from a large river system that
drained areas with both Appalachian and Grenville age
zircons (Benyon et al., 2016). This implies that the
drainage area for the middle and upper McMurray
extended far into the eastern part of the North
American continent. Blum and Pecha (2014) observed
a similar zircon geochronology for the McMurray
Formation and postulated that a large, continental-
scale drainage network extended into the eastern
North American continent to the Athabasca region,
where it became a large trunk river that formed
and flowed through the Assiniboia paleovalley (see
Figure 1, map 2, where the thicker part of the
McMurray Formation defines a part of this valley trend,
and Bhattacharya et al., 2016, for detailed discussion
and references). The late Aptian to early Albian
transgression of the Boreal Sea complexly flooded the
landscape, first flooding the mouth of the Assiniboia
paleovalley and ultimately flooding its distal interfluve
areas. This long-term transgression forced fluvial
systems to aggrade and fill the Assiniboia valley with
an aggradational stack of thin channel belts, tide-
influenced channel belts, bayhead delta, and coastal
marine deposits. Thus, the upper part of the
McMurray Formation in the CLPP records a series
of retrograding and progressively more tidally influ-
enced fluvial systems and deltaic deposits and ultimately
is restricted to open marine environments. This more
open marine deposition is commonly referred to as the
Wabiskaw Member of the Clearwater Formation, and
its first occurrence in the CLPP records the end of
McMurray deposition. For a more detailed discussion of
the McMurray Formation, the reader is referred to
Stewart and MacCallum (1978), Stewart (1981),
Pemberton et al. (1982), Massop and Flach (1983),
Flach and Mossop (1985), Thomas et al. (1987), Hayes
et al. (1994), Ranger and Pemberton (1997), Ranger
and Gingras (2002, 2008), and Gingras et al. (2012).
Clearwater Formation
The deposition within the Clearwater Formation is
confined to the Albian, a time when rising sea level
resulted in a marine transgression and ravinement of
the underlying McMurray Formation and subsequent
burial beneath a series of back stepping marine units of
the Clearwater Formation (Hayes et al., 1994). The
454 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
Clearwater Formation (and its basinal equivalents, the
Bluesky Formation and Ostracod Beds; Cant, 1996)
overlies the McMurray Formation and is named for
exposures along the banks of the Clearwater River
near the city of Ft. McMurray (Figure 1). At the type
locality, the Clearwater Formation is characterized by
black and green mudstones with abundant ironstone
concretions, thin interbeds of siltstone, green sand-
stones, and abundant marine bioturbation (McConnell,
1893). Lithologically, the Clearwater Formation
has been shown to have more glauconite pellets, eu-
hedral biotite flakes, montmorillonite-type clays, pla-
gioclase feldspar grains, felsitic grains, and chert grains
than the underlying McMurray Formation (Carrigy,
1963). This change from fluvial progradation to ma-
rine retrogradation across the WCSB coincides with the
first occurrence of volcanic grains and feldspathic-
dominated sandstones that are interbedded within
quartzose-rich deposits that typify the underlying
McMurray Formation. This is interpreted as a major
provenance change associated with tectonically driven
basin reconfiguration, where sediments shed into the
WCSB came dominantly from the stable Canadian
shield to the east during McMurray deposition and
gained additional input during Clearwater and youn-
ger deposition as fluvial systems became more orga-
nized and began to deliver sediments associated with
the unroofing of volcanic and metamorphic terrains
in the eastern cordillera and basin-bounding thrust
front (Mellon, 1967). The change from clean, quartz-
dominated to dirtier, feldspar-bearing sandstones is
easily recognized on gamma-ray logs and can be used to
separate the McMurray and Clearwater Formations in
the absence of petrographic or biostratigraphic data
(Figure 4). Badgley (1952) recognized a distinct
lithofacies of interbedded black, fissile shale and
green-tinged, argillaceous glauconitic sandstones
within the basal Clearwater Formation. The basal
Clearwater is characterized by firm ground suites
of Diplocraterion, Thalassinodes, Rhizocorallium, and
Skolithos (Gingras et al., 2012), which indicate more
open marine conditions compared with the underlying
upper unit of the McMurray Formation. These dis-
tinct lithofacies and biofacies are now known as the
Wabiskaw Member (Badgley, 1952; Carrigy, 1963).
The upper part of the Clearwater Formation, which is
in facies relationship with but for the most part
stratigraphically above the Wabiskaw Member (McKay
and Longstaffe, 1997), becomes progressively sandier
Figure 4. Core description and well log for
the 14-12-65-5 core hole (see Figure 2 for lo-
cation). A total of six hand samples were an-
alyzed (~448–540 m [~1470–1801 ft] measured
depth [mD]) to determine the presence and
types of benthic and pelagic forams, di-
noflagellates, pollen grains, and spores in the
Clearwater Formation (Fm.). Details concerning
the biostratigraphic analyses and implications
for age and depositional setting are labeled
directly on core description. In general, the
mud-prone intervals beneath, within, and above
the sandy Clearwater Fm. indicate that the
Clearwater is upper Albian and that the mud-
stones were deposited in restricted marine (i.e.,
samples 2–5) to more terrestrially influenced
environments (sample 7), such as interdis-
tributary bay or coastal flood basin. Also illus-
trated here is the increased, but less digitate,
gamma-ray (GR) response (i.e., +10–15 API
units higher than the underlying McMurray Fm.)
typical of the Clearwater Fm. in the Cold Lake
Production Project. Sand grain size is indicated
as very fine (vf), fine (f), or medium (m). Mbr. =
Member; SFL = shallow resistivity.

WELLNER ET AL. 455

in the southern part of the WCSB and is nearly all
sandstone in the vicinity of the CLPP area (~450 km
[~280 mi] south of the type locality). At the CLPP, the
Clearwater is buried ~400 m (~1312 ft) below the
modern-day landscape (see Figure 4) and is the pri-
mary reservoir target at the CLPP where it produces
over 150,000 bbl of bitumen per day using the cyclic
steam stimulation technique.
Historically, the Clearwater Formation was in-
terpreted as a river-dominated delta (Minken, 1974;
Harrison, et al., 1981; Jackson, 1984; Smith et al.,
1984; Dekker et al., 1987; O’Connell, 1988; Hutcheon
et al., 1989; Leckie and Smith, 1992; Smith, 1994;
McKay and Longstaffe, 1997). However, more recent
publications by McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and
Feldman et al. (2008) argue that the Clearwater
Formation is dominated by stacked fluvial incised
valleys that are tidally modified and filled with tidal–
estuarine deposits. Both McCrimmon and Arnott
(2002) and Feldman et al. (2008) analyzed hundreds
of cores from the greater CLPP area to define a com-
prehensive suite of nonmarine and marine lithofacies
for the Wabiskaw Member and Clearwater Forma-
tion. Furthermore, these authors placed their obser-
vations into a well log–based sequence stratigraphic
framework that allowed the cored lithofacies to be
grouped into lithofacies assemblages and systems
tracts. On the basis of the mapped distribution of
lithofacies assemblages, both McCrimmon and Arnott
(2002) and Feldman et al. (2008) interpreted the
paleodepositional setting of the CLPP area. Here we
summarize the key environmental observations and
contrast the various stratigraphic evolution proposed
by these authors. The reader is referred to the original
articles for a detailed discussion of lithofacies, litho-
facies assemblages, and maps illustrating their distri-
butions within the CLPP.
McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) defined four
unconformity-bounded depositional sequences within
the CLPP for the Clearwater Formation. All of the
unconformities, with the exception of the oldest,
define the basal surface within a series of stacked,
northwest–south-oriented incised valleys. Each
valley is filled with a tide-dominated delta. Feldman
et al. (2008) analyzed approximately 400 additional
cores from the CLPP and used these new data to
refine and expand on the earlier work of McCrimmon
and Arnott (2002). In this more recent study, the four
original sequences of McCrimmon and Arnott (2002)
456 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
have been further subdivided into 13 stacked incised
valleys that range from 30 to greater than 120 m
(98–394 ft) thick. Each of the 13 valleys undergoes
a similar, rapid depositional facies change from fully
sandy fluvial and/or high- energy estuarine facies in
the south to finer-grained, commonly muddy estua-
rine and even fully marine facies in the north. Feldman
et al. (2008) mapped each of the incised valleys and
indicated that valley depths decrease to the north and
ultimately end in thin (<2-m-thick [7-ft-thick]) muddy
sheet sandstones. Feldman et al. (2008) argue that
there are no thick lowstand deltas or sandy wave-
dominated shoreline deposits associated with the
Clearwater incised valleys at the CLPP (see Feldman
et al., 2008).
Grand Rapids Formation
The Grand Rapids Formation records the switch
from south-directed retrogradation of the under-
lying Clearwater Formation to north-directed pro-
gradation of coastal fluvial–floodplain, shoreface, and
shelfal systems (Leckie and Smith, 1992). The Grand
Rapids Formation can be separated from the Clear-
water Formation on the basis of a widespread,
mudstone-prone interval, which relates to the distal
toes of shoreface clinoforms and a downlap surface
(Cant, 1996; Feldman et al., 2008). In the CLPP, this
differentiation can be difficult because of the presence
of similar lithofacies above and below the downlap
surface (i.e., maximum flooding surface [MFS]). The
Grand Rapids Formation consists primarily of brackish
deltaic and genetically related wave-dominated shoreface
deposits (Christopher, 1984; Wightman et al., 1987).
North of the Peace River arch (Figure 1), the Grand
Rapids Formation is dominated by muddy, deepwater
deposits (Smith, 1994). On the basis of missing biozones,
the contact between the overlying mudstones of the
Colorado Group and muddy sandstones of the Grand
Rapids Formation is interpreted as a major unconformity
(see Hayes et al., 1994). This unconformity is easily
recognized on both seismic sections (Figure 3) and well
logs (Figure 4) within the WCSB.
Stratigraphic Architecture of the Mannville
Group
Cant (1996) describes the Aptian through upper
Albian (~114–104 Ma) deposits of the Mannville
Group as a third-order sequence composed of two
systems tracts, a lower transgressive systems tract (TST)
and an upper highstand systems tract (HST). The basal
TST of Cant (1996) starts at the sub-Cretaceous un-
conformity or SB and incorporates the fluvial–estuarine
deposits of the McMurray Formation and the complex
and variable stratigraphy of the Wabiskaw Member.
This TST is characterized by strata that become pro-
gressively more marine and finer-grained upward. The
HST of Cant (1996) extends from the top of the
Wabiskaw Member, through the upper Clearwater
Formation and progradational coastal systems of the
Grand Rapids Formation, to the base of the Colorado
Group Strata in the HST become progressively more
continental and coarser grained upward and are in-
terpreted to downlap onto the underlying transgressive
systems tract in the northern parts of the WCSB. It
should be noted that Cant (1996) recognized several
internal, higher-frequency SBs within the McMurray,
Clearwater, and Grand Rapids Formations, which,
according to sequence stratigraphic methodology of
Van Wagoner et al. (1990), requires that these pro-
posed low-order systems tracts be elevated to trans-
gressive and highstand sequence sets. Note that the
boundaries of the TST and HST sequence sets would
also need to be shifted slightly to their closest high-
frequency SB. Although the Mannville-scale stratal
stacking patterns is not the primary focus of this paper,
it is difficult to analyze the depositional history of the
Clearwater Formation without a good understanding of
the underlying and overlying strata. Thus, we undertook
a more regional well log correlation exercise to provide
context for the Clearwater Formation Figure 5 (foldout)
is an example of our regional well log interpretations
that were derived within the CLPP and extended to the
north through the WCSB. The systems tract boundaries
of Cant (1996), as well as the sequence set boundaries
of Feldman et al. (2008), are shown in this illus-
tration. Note that Feldman et al. (2008) shifted the
major downlap surface to the top of the Clearwater
Formation. The implications of these various se-
quence stratigraphic interpretations for the Mannville
Group will be discussed again, later in the paper.
DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY
Starting in 2007 and continuing through today, Im-
perial Oil has acquired a series of 3-D seismic surveys,
which, when merged, provide coverage across the
undeveloped part of the CLPP (see Figure 2). These
new seismic data sets have a frequency range between
5 and 200 Hz, with peak frequencies between 100
and 110 HZ (Figure 6). The limits of detectability are
less than 2 m (7 ft) thick, with tuning thicknesses
averaging approximately 4 m (13 ft). Seismic data are
zero phase and Exxon normal polarity. For the most
part, these data are of excellent quality and can readily
be interpreted and used to build a very detailed
seismic stratigraphic framework for the CLPP. To tie
core and well log data to the seismic data, a total of 30
synthetic seismograms were generated (Figure 6).
Overall, well tie quality is excellent at the formation
scale and good at the intraformational scale. A But-
terworth wavelet yielded the best ties, caused by the
broad frequency spectra of the 3-D seismic data. Note
that there are somewhat limited check shot data in the
CLPP. In the absence of a well-specific check shot,
we relied heavily on sonic well data. The lack of check
shots commonly required that synthetic data be bulk
shifted to generate statistically valid ties. Wells that
penetrated into the underlying Devonian carbonates
provided the most accurate ties, and these wells were
preferentially selected for inclusion in the synthetics
database (Figure 6). The transition from low-impedance
Cretaceous clastics sediments to high-impedance De-
vonian carbonates is recorded as a high-amplitude,
positive response (Figure 6). Formation boundaries in
the CLPP are characterized by a change from sand-
dominated sediments to more mud-rich sediments and
are recorded as positive response with widely varying
amplitudes across the CLPP (Figure 6).
A database of approximately 4300 logged wells
with nearly 850 cores was used to define the stratig-
raphy within and near the CLPP (Figures 1, 2). Cores
and logs collected prior to 2002 formed the foundation
of the McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and Feldman
et al. (2008) studies, and we used their descriptions to
determine where we should in fill our core data dis-
tribution with more recent core results. In total, we
selected 38 additional cores for detailed description of
grain size trends, lithologies, sedimentary structures,
ichnofabric, and ichnofacies. These cores, which are in
key locations within our stratigraphic framework, help
define depositional facies, capture locally preserved
marine sediments for biostratigraphic analyses, and
provide evidence to define the nature of presence and
type of seismic surfaces, which then could be used to
WELLNER ET AL. 457
aid in the interpretation of sequence stratigraphy of
this field. However, we would like to point out that
approximately 4000 well logs were used to extend our
seismically derived observations and to generate isocores
and environment of deposition maps for the CLPP.
The methodology employed in this study is
substantially different from prior studies of the CLPP
because we had access to the newly acquired 3-D
seismic data. In this study, we correlated the most
continuous reflections within the survey to generate
a first-order stratigraphic architecture. We then an-
alyzed core data to document the lithologic charac-
teristics associated with each of the major reflections.
If we could document that the seismic reflection
corresponded to a significant, observable change in
key lithologic parameters, such as stacking style or
lithofacies, then the seismic reflection was used to
build our stratigraphic framework. This method was
employed at all of the stratigraphic levels within the
Clearwater Formation and for the uppermost part of
the underlying McMurray Formation, where en-
countered. After confirming that the seismic strati-
graphic framework was rigorous and reflectors could
be recognized in core, we subdivided the Clearwater
Formation into genetic packages (i.e., seismic facies
and lithofacies bounded by laterally extensive, sig-
nificant stratigraphic surfaces) and documented the
3-D lithofacies distributions within each genetic
package. Note that the main production trend in the
center of the CLPP has no 3-D seismic data coverage
(Figure 2). For the central production area, our
mapping efforts relied on well-based correlations that
tied seismic interpretations that surround the primary
production area. It is the results of this iterative, seismic
to core and back to seismic methodology that resulted
in the new seismic and stratigraphic framework and
maps of lithofacies distributions within paleodeposi-
tional environments presented in the next section.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS
A surface-based interpretation of the seismic volumes
was undertaken to define large-scale (i.e., field-wide
and 100-m-thick [328-ft-thick]) packaging within
the Cretaceous interval, which here tied very well to
formational boundaries (Figures 7, 8) and was used to
define and subdivide the primary reservoir interval—
the Clearwater Formation—into distinct seismic bodies.
458 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
We recognize two distinct and overlapping seismic
facies within the CLPP. The first facies consists of
complete to incomplete channel form geometries that
are confined to the central part of the CLPP (Figure 2).
Complete channel forms are rare because of the
complex truncation by overlying reflections (Figure 7).
Within the channel geometries we observed chaotic,
subparallel and onlapping, or laterally shingled seis-
mic facies (Figures 7, 8). The second seismic facies
occurs along the eastern and western periphery of the
CLPP and is cut by the younger channel form seismic
facies (Figure 2). This older facies is characterized by
subparallel, laterally continuous, moderate-amplitude
reflections that have a subtle mounded geometry and
that may exhibit small (10–100-m-wide [<33–328-
ft-wide]), straight channel form(s) that thin below
detection limits in the central and northern part of
the CLPP (Figure 8). Synthetic well ties indicate that
the oldest seismic facies includes both the basal
Wabiskaw Member and the middle part of Clear-
water Formation.
We further subdivide the two seismic facies into
four stratal packages, each of which has distinct
bounding surfaces that can be mapped to their ter-
minal ends and used to encapsulate unique internal
geometries. It is our hypothesis that each stratal
package developed through linked and likely similar
depositional processes and is thus better referred to
as a genetic body of sediment. A description of the
lithologic characteristics within each genetic body is
provided below.
Genetic Body A
Body A consists of planar, shallow dipping reflections
(i.e., 1° dips to the northeast). Individual reflections
are of variable amplitude and largely continuous but
may locally exhibit subtle concave-up reflections
with sporadic amplitudes (Figure 8). We interpret the
concave-up reflections as small channel forms that
appear to be the feeder system to the shallow dipping
but clinoformal reflections observed in the northern
part of the study area. Core results from body A
indicate that this package is dominated by cross-
bedded sands with few mudstone interbeds and
minor rip-up clast zones in the south and central part
of the study area. This body undergoes a facies change
from more massive sandstones to interbedded ma-
rine mudtones and current and wave ripple laminated
WELLNER ET AL.
Figure 6. Example of a typical synthetic well tie for the Cold Lake Production Project well data. Formational boundaries tend to have a strong, positive impedance (Imp.) response and
are easily recognized on our seismic data. Internally, the Clearwater Formation (Fm.) is characterized by low impedances and relatively weak reflection patterns. However, cemented
zones and/or calcite-cemented concretions (i.e., sharp deflections to the right on the density [RhoB] log curve), which commonly occur at bed set boundaries but are of limited aerial
extent, can have a strong, high-impedance response. Seismic data presented herein are zero phase and have a frequency range of 0–200 Hz and peak frequencies between 105 and 115 Hz.

459
Wells were tied to three-dimensional seismic data using a Butterworth wavelet. GR = gamma ray; Reflect. Coeff. = reflection coefficient; SP = spontaneous potential; TWT = two-way time.
Figure 7. Depth-converted seismic extraction from the Mahikan survey area (see Figure 2 for location). Note that reds are negative
impedances, and blacks are positive impedances. The gamma-ray curves for well data used to depth convert this seismic line are shown.
Seismic surfaces within the Clearwater Formation (Fm.) that were carried within the survey area and, in some cases, across the Cold Lake
Production Project are shown as solid lines. Internal reflections that have limited areal extent but provide useful information concerning the
fabric of the sediments within our surface-defined, genetic body–based architecture are shown as dashed lines. Genetic depositional bodies
A, C, and D described in the text are labeled. Here the deltaic complex of body A has been eroded by the channel form features of bodies C
and D. Internal reflections within bodies C and D are laterally shingled and are typically truncated by their younger counterpart. We
interpret this seismic reflection pattern that has been tied to core results as single-story, point bar–dominated channel belt. Note that we
recognize several abandoned channels (A.C.) within this complex. Core results within the abandoned channels recovered a fully marine
trace fossil assemblage, which indicates that the point bar complex formed at or near the coast. Mbr. = Member; V.E. = vertical exaggeration.

sandstones, with a somewhat impoverished Cruziana
ichnofacies assemblage, along the periphery of the
CLPP. Glauconite was recognized in several of these
sandy beds within this prodelta succession. Regional
mapping suggests that they are within the main
deltaic part of the Clearwater Formation, and we
interpret these thin glauconitic sandstones as re-
worked Wabiskaw Member. Bioturbation within
the sandiest, southern part of body A is rare but
consists of large, reinforced types of marine burrowing
such as Ophiomorphia. A combination of seismic map-
ping within the CLPP and well log and core-based
mapping outside the seismic coverage indicates that
there are at least four compensational stacked, deltaic
lobes (or parasequences) in the greater CLPP area
(Figure 2). The upper part of the western delta lobes
consists of thin (<2-m-thick [7-ft-thick]) hummocky
cross-stratified bed(s) with mudstone interbeds.
Seismic and well log correlations indicate that this
open marine succession is preserved along the pe-
riphery of the CLPP and is largely removed by
erosion throughout the central part of the CLPP.
The map extent of body A is substantially larger
than the CLPP study area, and our seismic coverage
spans one or possibly two deltaic sublobes within this
large delta complex (Figure 9A). Mapping of each
deltaic lobe indicates that the complex was sourced
from the south and prograded to the north and that
each individual lobe has a sand-prone central axis that
becomes more interbedded and finer grained away
from this central axis (Figure 9A). The sandy central
axis is interpreted as a succession of confined to weakly
confined distributive channels and delta mouth bar
deposits, whereas the interbedded sandstone and

460 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy

 Figure 8. (A) Seismic extraction from the K-L Trunk, J-Trunk, and Mahkesis seismic survey area (see Figure 2 for location) and (B) interpreted, genetically related packages or bodies
defined in this study. Grain size data (coarser to the left) and gamma-ray curves are shown. See Figure 11 (foldout) for an expanded view and more details concerning lithofacies and
depositional facies observed in the cores shown here and their distribution and stacking trends within the study area. Note that the interpreted stratal architecture is converted to depth
(m). Genetic bodies are labeled A (oldest) to D (youngest). Bodies were defined using termination of reflections and onlapping relationships, as well as lithofacies associations defined in

WELLNER ET AL.
core and expressed as seismic facies in the cubes. The bold and colored surfaces illustrated in (B) have been mapped across Cold Lake and are well expressed in core. The finer, dashed
black lines have also been mapped seismically but do not extend across the study and, in some cases, are difficult to locate in core. Fm. = Formation; Mbr = Member; V.E. = vertical
exaggeration.

461
Figure 9. Simple, environment of deposition maps for genetic bodies A–D defined herein for the Clearwater Formation (Fm.). Individual
maps show the dominant depositional setting for (A) genetic body A, (B) genetic body B, (C) genetic body C, and (D) genetic body D. Each map
can and should be further refined as new data are collected within the Cold Lake Production Project or in the Athabasca heavy oil trend.

mudstone successions that flank the central axes
are interpreted as delta front deposits (Figure 9A).
Furthermore, we interpret the hummocky cross-
stratified beds locally observed near the tops of the
deltaic lobes as indicators of intradelta avulsion, lobe
abandonment, and subsequent reworking by storm-
generated waves, and they are not a major flooding
surface nor a radical change in depositional envi-
ronment as implied by Feldman et al. (2008).
Genetic Body B
Body B is best expressed in the southwestern part of
the CLPP, where a series of inclined reflections define
a suite of amalgamated but laterally offset subbodies
(seismic packages that are bounded by heavier lines
within genetic body B in Figure 8). These laterally
offset subbodies become progressively younger to the
east, where they erode into and replace the un-
derlying Wabiskaw Member over the central part of
the CLPP (Figure 8). The internal seismic expression
within subbodies is similar; consisting of relatively
continuous, moderate-amplitude reflections that ei-
ther downlap on or contribute to the development of
the basal erosional surface. Downlap is consistently to
the east until the very latest and deepest development
of the basal scour surface, where it may reverse di-
rections and downlap to the west (Figure 8). Clino-
forming reflections within and among the B subbodies
have an average dip of 5°. The upper bounding
surface for the B body is characterized by more planar
erosion with subtle, low-angle truncation of the B

462 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy

subbodies (Figure 8). Given the preserved geometries
and vertical stacking trends in the most complete parts
of the body B, we conclude this erosional surface has
removed a substantial amount of the underlying B
body and, to a lesser extent, the top of the A body.
The geometric expression of the basal composite
erosional surface is interpreted as a stepped lowering
of the channel bed through time. Scour depths are
shallowest in the west and deepen to the east, cul-
minating in the deepest scour near the western edge
of the Mahkesis survey area (see Figure 8). Because of
younger erosion that removes the upper parts of the B
body, it is not possible to determine if top strata
within each subbody onlap its predecessor. However,
the basal scour surface or tread associated with short-
lived channel lowering and re-equilibration events
within a longer-term, down cutting episode are well
preserved at the CLPP.
Lithofacies within the B1–B3 units are simi-
lar in all cores and consist of very fine to fine
sand (<250 mm) within planar laminated to cross-
laminated beds that range in thickness from 10 to
50 cm (4 to 20 in.). Bed set boundaries are typi-
cally defined by reactivation surfaces, with or
without mudstone rip-up clasts, or disturbed,
planar to wavy-laminated silty mudstones. Cur-
rent ripples are commonly observed at the top of
trough cross sets and at the tops of bed sets. Bed set
boundaries are commonly separated by thin (<3-
cm-thick [1-in.-thick]) mudstones, and there may
be a slight increase in the total number of muddier
interbeds toward the top of each terrace. Organic
material, such as decimated leafy and wood debris,
is commonly observed in association with rip-up
clasts. Bioturbation is very rare and restricted to
nondescript, unlined, near-vertical, Skolithos-like tubes
(1 mm [.04 in.] wide and <1 cm [.40 in.] long).
On the basis of the lithofacies and the laterally
shingled channel form geometries observed on
seismic sections and studies in the Holocene and
Quaternary coastal fluvial systems (see Blum and
Aslan, 2006) and similar ancient systems (see Li
and Bhattacharya, 2013), we interpret body B as
terraced fluvial deposits that formed as a result of
a punctuated erosion and channel belt development
during an overall base level fall. This fluvial complex is
interpreted to record the progradation of the alluvial
plain out and across its genetically related deltaic
system. Younger erosional events have removed
much of this channel belt, leaving only a small
remnant on the west side of the CLPP (Figure 9B).
Genetic Body C
The seismic and core characteristics of genetic body
C are best expressed in the southcentral part of the
KL–J Trunk–Mahkesis survey area and the central part
of the Mahikan survey area (see Figure 2). The bottom
of this body is defined by deep scour at the base of
laterally shingled seismic reflections in the north
(Figure 7) and by weakly shingled to onlapping re-
flections in the south (Figure 8). Internal reflections
within body C either downlap or onlap onto a seismic
reflection that defines a deep (>60 m [>197 ft])
channel form (Figures 7, 8). The seismic expression
of body C is much more transparent and weaker
amplitude then bodies A, B, or even D (Figure 8).
We interpret this seismic response as a change to
finer-grained and/or more thinly bedded deposits.
In the southern part of the study area, this channel-
like feature is partially filled with west-dipping
reflections, which have similar appearance, but an
opposing dip direction, to the majority of the body
B3 clinoforms (Figure 8). Onlap of curvy planar, high-
frequency, and low-amplitude reflections onto the
B3 channel form indicates a less energetic, more ag-
gradational depositional setting at this time (Figure 8).
Core results from the deepest C scour pool (see
Figure 9 for location) recovered heterolithic facies
consisting of 35%–60% mudstone (Figure 10). Mud-
rich beds can have a sparse marine trace fossil as-
semblage that includes Paleophycus, Teichichnus,
Terebellina, and Skolithos. Sandstone beds are deci-
meter thick, planar, low-angle inclined planar, and
trough cross bedded and exhibit a grain size range
between 150 and 300 mm. The middle and upper
parts of body C consist of trough cross-bedded
sandstones with variably preserved mudstone in-
terbeds at bed set boundaries. Meter-thick mudstone
rip-up clast zones are also observed and commonly
define bed set boundaries. In general, the upper part
of this body has fewer mudstone interbeds and is
coarser grained than the lower part of the body, and is
defined by the first appearance of rounded, large (up
to 15 cm [6 in.]) mudstone clasts, commonly armored
by a sandy rind (Figure 10). Marine bioturbation is
present but decreases abruptly at the first occurrence
WELLNER ET AL. 463
Figure 10. Typical well log
and core expression of the
Clearwater Formation at Cold
Lake. The lithofacies we typically
observed (numbered 1–7) are
shown at bottom and as colored
polygons on the grain size track
of the core description. The
stratigraphic tops and bottoms
of our genetic bodies are also
shown. Numbers on cores
photos represent the dominant
lithofacies within each core stick
or box. Note that several core
sections have been enlarged
(see photos A and B) to show
the fine details, such as marine
(A)
traces and lamination geome-
tries. Traces in photo B are
highlighted with arrows and
indicate deposition in a brackish
bay setting. Unless otherwise
indicated, sandstones appear
black on photos because of the
presence of pore filling bitumen,
and mudstones tend to be
white. ILD = deep induction
curve; IMP OV = Imperial Oil
Venture; MD = measured depth;
PL = Planolites; RhoB = density;
SP = spontaneous potential;
TE = Teichichnus; TR =
Terebellina. (B)

464 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy

of the armored mudstone balls and continues to de-
crease toward the top of the body.
Thus, it appears that the fill of C was initially
lower energy and more marine influenced and be-
came more energetic and less marine influenced by
the middle to late part of its development, when
sedimentation and seismic geometries become similar
to those observed in the B body. This transition from
more marine influence below to less above occurs
over a meters-thick interval and is characterized by
a change from simple, narrower, and deeper channels
to wider, shallower, and more amalgamated and in-
tercutting channels on seismic data. Locally, seismic
reflections that tie to the armored mudstone ball
facies were recognized, but correlating these re-
flections across the entirety of a single survey or
among surveys was difficult, and we are hesitant to
subdivide this body at a finer scale. For the most
part, this high-energy zone appears to be a series of
aggrading and complexly intercutting, small (10–100-
m-wide [<33–328-ft-wide]) laterally shifting chan-
nels with incompletely preserved side attached bar
deposits. Systematic observations from closely spaced
cores may warrant separating the lower and upper
parts of body C into two different bodies or shifting
the base of body D down to the first occurrence of
the mud clast conglomerates across the CLPP.
Body C is interpreted as a complex succession
of marine-influenced, potentially estuarine point bar
deposits that evolve into a tide-influenced bayhead
delta complex late in the development of body C
(Figure 9C). Overall, body C records the switch from
degradation of the landscape to aggradation within
the incised valley, likely in response to a sea level–driven
rise in base level. Continued transgression across the
lowstand shelf resulted in progressively more marine
influence on the fluvial systems within the CLPP and
forced channel bases to aggrade and ultimately fill all
of the preexisting incised valley topography. This
aggradational fill succession is defined by the main
production trend in the CLPP (Figure 2).
Genetic Body D
Body D attains its greatest thickness in the south-
eastern, central, and northwestern parts of the CLPP
(Figure 1), where it has eroded between 10 and
60 m (<33–197 ft) into the underlying A–C bodies
(Figure 9D). In the north, body D exhibits west–east-
dipping reflections that form an amalgamated basal
scour surface (Figure 7). Sands are typically fine lower
to fine upper, well sorted, and trough cross bedded.
Mudstone interbeds can be up to 50 cm (20 in.) thick
and typically comprise centimeter-scale, angular, and
compressed mudstone rip-ups and 2- to 10-cm-
wide (<.78- to 4-in.-wide), very well rounded, ar-
mored (with sand), ball-shaped mudstone rip-up
clasts. In the south, body D consists of more flat-
lying and higher-amplitude reflections (Figure 8),
locally eroded by narrow (~100-m-wide [~328-ft-
wide]), thin (5- to 7-m-thick [<16- to 30-ft-thick]),
and very straight channel forms (Figure 9D). We
interpret the laterally shingled, heterolithic, and
marine bioturbated part of body D observed in the
southern and central part of the CLPP as marine
influenced, distributive fluvial succession that was
close to the paleocoastline because of the wide variety
of marine trace makers observed throughout the
body. Marine traces were particularly abundant in the
muddy abandoned fluvial channels. Modern exam-
ples of this situation can be observed in aerial pho-
tographs of the Lafourche and St. Bernard lobes of the
Mississippi Delta complex, where intralobe channel
avulsion leaves long segments of the previously brackish
to freshwater distributary channel open to marine in-
undation and sedimentary processes (M. Blum, 2014,
personal communication). We interpret these straight
channelized features as abandoned distributary arms or
tidal channels that are passively filled by marine pro-
cesses after abandonment.
Lithofacies Distributions and Reservoir
Characteristics
Figure 11 (foldout) illustrates our interpretation of
core lithofacies and their distributions for a typical
transect through the CLPP. For the most part, genetic
bodies A–D are dominated by inclined planar trough
cross-bedded sandstones with variable amounts of
siltstone interbeds (see photos 3, 4, and 6 in Figure 11
[foldout]). Genetic body A exhibits a tendency to
coarsen upward from marine mudstones at the base
to interbedded marine sandstones and siltstones to
clean and trough cross-bedded sands at the top (see
Figure 11, photos 1 and 9 [foldout]). Locally, the
uppermost beds in body A consist of amalgamated
hummocky cross-stratified sandstones (Figure 11,
photo 2 [foldout]), which are overlain by a meters-thick
WELLNER ET AL. 465
silty mudstone, with a nondescript, monospecific trace
fossil assemblage of vertical to subvertical sand-filled
tubes. We interpret this upward-coarsening trend
as a marine deltaic parasequence capped by an
abandonment surface that has been wave modified
and ultimately buried in an interdistributary bay
setting. This interval is further marked by the abun-
dance of thick (decimeter-scale) concretions. We
interpret this parasequence as the depositional record
of the northward progradation of the deltaic depo-
center, where interbedded delta front and sand-rich
stream mouth bar deposits have been deposited over
genetically related prodelta mudstones (Figure 9A).
In the far southern part of the CLPP, the contact
between the underlying prodelta mudstones and
overlying sandy deltaic deposits can be very sharp or
even subtly erosive (Figure 11, foldout). However,
over the majority of the CLPP this facies transition
between subenvironments is gradational and records
a normal, northward progradation of the delta front
and top set across the CLPP (Figure 9A).
Genetic body B has a similar lithofacies assem-
blage to the underlying body A but does not exhibit
a coarsening-upward trend, nor is there evidence for
fully marine sediments anywhere within this body.
Body B is equally sandy to the upper part of body A
but contains slightly more muddy interbeds. Within
body B we could not document any profound grain
size trends, nor could we establish any thick to thin
bedding relationships. The presence of mudstone in-
terbeds appears to be mostly random, although some
cores record more interbeds and thicker mudstone
intervals near the top of body B. Defining a trend
within body B is complicated by younger erosion,
which truncates and complexly removes the upper
part of body B over much of the study area. As pre-
viously mentioned, body B consists of several laterally
offset, seismically observable subunits, where younger
subunits contribute to the composite erosional surface
that becomes stratigraphically lower through time.
Internally, each subunit has a very similar seismic
facies consisting of eastward dipping reflections
that can be as steep as its bounding reflections but
are generally shallower and cut by the overlying,
subunit-defining basal surface (Figure 11, foldout). We
interpret the trough cross-bed–dominated succes-
sions within each subunit as vertically stacked, east-
ward accreting unit bars associated with a mildly
sinuous fluvial system. Each subunit records the
466 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
preservation of a single, moderately large point bar
that became stranded because of channel lowering
and became the eastern bounding channel wall and
a fluvial terrace within the evolving incised valley
(Figure 13B).
Genetic body C includes the most diverse,
muddiest lithofacies assemblage in the CLPP. Al-
though the oldest deposits within body C have similar
lithologic characteristics to the adjacent B age ter-
raced fluvial sediments, we separate them into a new
body because they record the change from landscape
degradation to aggradation and filling of a fairly
deep (~50 m [~164 ft]) topographic low (Figure 11,
foldout). Figure 10 illustrates the thickest expression
of the Clearwater Formation and body C sediments
within the CLPP. In comparison to bodies A and B,
body C is finer grained and has more current ripple
cross-lamination and mudstone interbeds, some of
which are quite thick (up to 75 cm [30 in.] thick).
Marine bioturbation is common, although the trace
fossil assemblage has a limited diversity that is
dominated by Teichichnus (see Figure 10, photo B).
Body C undergoes a transition from coarsest-grained,
highest-energy, and laterally shingled deposits at the
base to lower-energy and finer-grained, muddier,
more curvy planar and onlapping deposits in the
middle to upper part of the body (Figure 8). The
uppermost part of body C is characterized by a high-
energy, mudstone ball conglomeratic lithofacies or
coarse-grained trough cross-bedded lithofacies with
mud-prone and organic-rich laminae set and bed
boundaries (Figure 10). Seismic images indicate that
this conglomeratic facies occupies the basal part of
shallow (5- to 10-m-thick [<16- to 33-ft-thick]), lat-
erally migrating and intercutting channels (Figure 8).
No single or composited surface is associated with the
first occurrence of the mudstone ball conglomerate.
Rather, this facies seems to occupy a zone immediately
adjacent to the top of the underlying terraced deposits
of body B, which may indicate that the topographic
low is completely filled and no longer confining de-
position in this area.
The abrupt change from extremely rare, non-
descript bioturbation in body B to fairly abundant,
marine bioturbation in the middle and upper parts of
body C is thought to record the response to a marine
transgression landward of the bayline, which at this
time is thought to have been near the northern part of
the CLPP (Figure 2). Figure 9C attempts to capture
changes within body C where the valley-confined fill
pattern starts out with muddy fluvial point bar de-
position and evolves to marine influenced and pos-
sibly estuarine point bar deposition that is expressed
as inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) and finally to
smaller and shallower, more frequently shifting, and
more tidally influenced channel deposits consisting of
lateral accretion and IHS.
Genetic body D is similar in most aspects to
the lithofacies assemblage documented for deposi-
tion in body C. Stratal geometries, particularly in the
northern part of the CLPP, are also reminiscent of
body B (Figure 7). The transition into body D occurs
at approximately the top mudstone ball conglomer-
atic zone at the decrease in the abundance of marine
bioturbation and mudstone interbeds. The basal
surface for body D is a relatively flat, high-amplitude,
and semicontinuous reflection in the southern part of
the CLPP (Figure 8). The discontinuities in this basal
reflection result from the combined erosion associ-
ated with small (<200-m-wide [656-ft-wide]), thin
(<10-m-thick [<33-ft-thick]) channel forms and by
a relatively flat, widespread truncation surface at the
top of body D (i.e., top of the Clearwater Formation
at the CLPP). We interpret this widespread erosional
truncation surface as a major transgressive surface of
marine erosion (Figures 10, 11 [foldout]). Body D
is best observed in the Mahikan seismic survey
(Figure 2), where it is characterized by composite,
basal erosional surface that truncates the underling C
channel form and is itself contained with a broad (up
to 9-km-wide [6-mi-wide]) but shallow (10- to 20-m-
thick [<33- to 67-ft-thick]) channel form that has
incised into the older deltaic deposits of body A
(Figure 7). Body D is the primary reservoir being
exploited within the CLPP (Figure 9D). The south-
ern seismic surveys (see J–KL–Mahkesis surveys in
Figure 2) are located on the accretion side of the
channel form, whereas the eastern surveys (see West
May–Maskwa surveys in Figure 2) are on the cut bank
side (Figure 13D). The flanks of this wide channel belt
are characterized by flat, high-amplitude seismic
reflections that are locally cut by small channel forms.
Core facies indicate that the small channels are
filled with heterolithic sediments with an abun-
dant and somewhat diverse trace fossil assemblage
that includes Asterosoma, Paleophycus, Planolites,
and Teichichnus. Sandstones are mostly current or
wave ripple cross-laminated, but small-scale (<20-
cm-thick [<8-in.-thick]) trough cross-beds are
observed. Bed sets tend to fine and become thinner
bedded and more heterolithic upward. Syneresis
cracks and deformed, slumpy bedding is common.
Muddy drapes within sandstone beds and bedded
mudstones between sands tend to contain abundant
organic detritus (see Figure 11, photo 5, foldout).
These mud-prone channels cut into coarser-grained,
cleaner sandstones that are typically trough cross-
bedded (see Figure 11, photo 6, foldout) and have
mudstone rip-up clast horizons at the base, becoming
more heterolithic but not necessary finer grained
upward. Core photographs from the 12-23-65-4
well (Figure 12, foldout) illustrate the typical
lithologic expression observed throughout the primary
production trend in body D. Note that the ma-
jority of the mudstone beds shown in Figure 12
(foldout) are moderately to intensely bioturbated by
monogeneric suites of Teichichnus, Asterosoma, or
Thalassinoides, whereas the sand beds exhibit little
or no bioturbation.
Sequence Stratigraphy of the Clearwater
Formation
On the basis of the paleoenvironmental interpreta-
tions for each genetic body, as well as the overall
stratal stacking patterns observed in the Mannville
Group, we propose the following geologic history
for the development of the sequence stratigraphic
architecture of the Clearwater Formation in the CLPP.
The Wabiskaw Member of the Clearwater Formation
records the transgression of the Boreal Sea across the
CLPP area. The contact between the underlying
continental deposits of the McMurray Formation and
the overlying glauconitic sandstones and siltstones of
the Wabiskaw Member represents a marine ravine-
ment surface (Figure 5). Although the maximum
extent of this flooding event is outside the scope of
this study, we postulate on the basis of the Skolithos-
dominated, firm ground suite and the open marine to
prodeltaic lithofacies assemblage observed in core that
the maximum transgressive shoreline was south of
the CLPP. We interpret the sandy, basal part of the
Wabiskaw Member as a transgressive sheet sand as-
sociated with the passage of a shoreface through the
CLPP. The mudstones immediately above the sand-
stones are interpreted as prodeltaic depositional fa-
cies associated with the development of large deltaic
WELLNER ET AL. 467
system in the southern part of the WCSB. Northward
progradation of this early shoreline buried the trans-
gressive sheet sand. Thus, the base of the sheet sand is
interpreted as a transgressive surface (TS) of marine
erosion, whereas the top is a condensed section or MFS
(Figure 5). Much of the transgressive sandstone has
been modified as a result of bioturbation. The origin of
the glauconite-rich sandstones, commonly observed in
cores of the Wabiskaw Member, remains enigmatic
and requires more detailed study. However, using the
sequence stratigraphic interpretations outlined above,
the glauconite likely formed from the alteration of fecal
pellets associated with the abundant marine organisms
that lived in the transgressive sands and/or penetrated
the sands from the overlying marine mudstones. These
overlying mudstones are informally referred to as the
Wabiskaw Shale but are better thought of as the mud-
prone, prodeltaic deposits associated with the de-
velopment of a large, lower Clearwater Formation,
deltaic system.
The switch from retrogradational to prograda-
tional shoreline stacking and development of a re-
gional downlap surface indicates that most of the
Clearwater Formation deposition occurred within
an HST (see Figures 5, 9A, 13A). Comprehensive
seismic and well log mapping, coupled to description
of key cores from the CLPP, indicates that this deltaic
HST prograded from south to north and formed
a series of discrete, large (minimum widths on the
order of 20 km [12 mi] and lengths in excess of 30 km
[19 mi]), and compensationally stacked deltaic lobes,
referred to herein as genetic body A (Figure 13A).
Well log sections that reflect our observations from
the CLPP and extend these interpretations far to the
north, beyond the city of Ft. McMurray (Figure 1),
indicate that this Clearwater HST prograded at least
120 km (75 mi) to the north of the CLPP (Figure 5).
As this deltaic system developed, the delta top ap-
pears to have been eroded into by its fluvial feeder
system. Detrital zircon analysis indicates that the
early delta deposition was sourced by an eastern-
derived fluvial system of continental scale. A major
influx of younger detrital zircons in the upper part of
the deltaic system is interpreted as the catchment of
a cordillera-derived fluvial network, which sourced
the rest of the Clearwater Formation (see Blum and
Pecha, 2014; Benyon et al., 2016, for discussion).
We interpret body B as an erosional remnant that
consists of very mildly sinuous, fluvial point bar
468 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
deposits. Body B has eroded into the top set strata of
body A and locally removed 10–20 m (<33–66 ft) of
top set strata. We correlate this fluvial incision to the
overall progradation of the proximal parts of the
distributive drainage network across the delta top and
front, in response to a minor base level fall. Fluvial
discharge during the base level reshaped the dis-
tributary channel network into a single, trunk channel
that cut more than one (i.e., >20 m [66 ft]) dis-
tributary channel depth into the underlying and
stranded deltaic system. Figure 9B shows the aerial
extent of the erosional remnant of this fluvial system,
and Figure 13B illustrates the reconstructed strati-
graphic expression of these deposits. This recon-
struction, which depicts onlapping top set geometries
associated with a suite of laterally accreting bar forms,
is highly interpretative and cannot be observed, be-
cause of younger erosional events that remove much
of body B in the CLPP. However, the geometric
expression of a series of terraced channel bases or
treads is preserved, and the geometric expression
depicted herein has been faithfully reconstructed
from seismic images. As depicted in Figure 13B,
fluvial body B incises into the underlying deltaic
deposits, ultimately removing all of the marine
deltaic sediments and much of the underlying
Wabiskaw Member transgressive sheet sandstone.
At its deepest point, fluvial channels have cut almost
entirely through the older McMurray Formation
(Figures 7, 8). The stepped but sustained degradation
of the landscape created an incised valley that had
a minimum width of 20 km wide (12 mi) and
a maximum depth of approximately 60 m (~197 ft;
see Figure 13B, C). These dimensions are similar to
many incised valleys documented in the near modern
(see Blum et al., 2013, for discussion). However, be-
cause of the complex cut and fill history in overlying
strata that has altered the eastern flank of this incised
valley, knowing the true dimensions at the time
of maximum fluvial incision is not possible (Figure 9B),
nor is the interpretation and correlation of an SB a
simple process. We will outline the complexities as-
sociated with the interpretation of an SB and propose
a suite of potential scenarios for their identification
within the Clearwater Formation, as well as other
similar successions elsewhere, later in the text.
We propose that landscape degradation and in-
cised valley deepening came to an end at the start of
body C development, whereas valley widening likely
 (A) (C)

(B) (D)

Figure 13. Schematic illustration for the development of the stratal architecture within the Cold Lake Production Project. (A) Deltaic
deposition associated with genetic body A. Deltaic sediments lay beneath a moderately flat, abandonment surface (dashed black line). (B)
Development of fluvial terraces that are underlain by a composite erosional surface (genetic body B) associated with degradation of the
landscape and development of a topographic valley, which is shown as a blue line. (C) Early aggradation within the incised valley thought to be
related to the onset of a regional marine transgression occurring down dip on the lowstand shelf (genetic body C). (D) Fluvial aggradation and
final fill of the incised valley (genetic body D), before valley is inundated by the Boreal Sea. Red line represents a composite sequence boundary
(SB), which defines the base of a valley-form, stratigraphic body. Fm. = Formation; MFS = maximum flooding surface; TS = transgressive surface.

continued well into development of body D (Figure 9C).
Seismic geometries record a change from narrow (~3-
km-wide [~2-mi-wide] and deep (15–20 m [<49–66 ft])
valley wall confined channelized flow to progressively
wider, shallower, and more widely migrating chan-
nels. Individual channels stack in an aggradational
pattern. The first occurrence of marine traces ob-
served in core also occurs at this switch from degra-
dation to aggradation, which indicates down-dip
sea level rise was a factor in the sedimentation and
rapid filling of valley accommodation at this time. We
postulate that the deepest and narrowest channels at
the end of body B deposition correspond to the time
of maximum exposure of the paleoshelf, whereas all
of body C deposition records the initial filling of the
accommodation within the incised valley, most likely
in response to a relative sea level rise and translation of
the backwater zone through the CLPP. Rising base
level(s) forced coastal fluvial systems to aggrade and
transform from high-sinuosity channels with sandy
point bar deposition to more weakly sinuous and
muddy, estuarine point bar deposition (Figures 9C,
13C). Furthermore, mapping of the active and
abandoned branches of the D fluvial system indicates
that (1) channel widths narrow as the river system
approached the paleoshoreline and (2) channel belt
deposits have a low sinuosity, both of which are in-
dicators for deposition within the coastal backwater
zone (see Hoyal and Sheets, 2009; Blum et al., 2013).
If base level fall is responsible for the fluvial
down-cutting in the CLPP, and there is accommo-
dation in front of the highstand coastal prism outside
the CLPP, then we should expect to observe a series of
falling stage shoreline deposits that end in a maximum
lowstand shoreline somewhere within the WCSB.
Feldman et al. (2008) tested this concept and could
find no lowstand sandy shoreline deposits anywhere in
the immediate vicinity of the CLPP. To confirm this
observation, we constructed a series of regional well
log cross sections that extend greater than 300 km
(186 mi) to the north of the CLPP (Figure 1).
Figure 14 illustrates the mapped position of
a lowstand, Clearwater shoreline that we document
from analyses of long well log cross sections (see
Figures 1, 5, 15 [foldout]). The 10- to 15-m-thick
(33- to 48-in.) lowstand shoreline identified here is
some 100–130 km (<62–81 mi) north–northwest of
the CLPP and is intimately linked to the time of

WELLNER ET AL. 469

Figure 14. Map view reconstruction for the Clearwater Formation highstand (yellows and browns) and lowstand channel (red) and
shoreline (red dotted) positions identified in this study. The lowstand shoreline position is estimated from the interpretation of well log cross
sections (lines with circles) that start within the Cold Lake Production Project area and extend far to the north, past the city of Ft. McMurray,
Alberta (see Figure 1). The locations of Figure 5 (north–south oriented, blue line north of township 65) and Figure 16 (large circles) are
labeled. Sawtooth pattern along the southern edge of highstand depositional bodies and eastern edge of the lowstand shoreline trend
delineates the extent of our detailed mapping effort. Lk. = Lake.

maximum fluvial incision that we identified in the
CLPP (Figure 15, foldout). Furthermore, the area
studied by Feldman et al. (2008) has no regressive
shorelines for several reasons. First, the area imme-
diately to the north of the CLPP lacked accommo-
dation during the fall of base level. As a result, any
deposition would be thin and most likely consist of
shallow distributive fluvial channels and splays and
thin muddy shoreline deposits. Second, this area
appears to have been extensively eroded by marine
shoreface process during the subsequent transgres-
sion (see Bhattacharya, 2011, for a description of
the transgressive shoreface ravinement model on low
relief shelves). Thus, the record of regressive shoreline
development has been removed and replaced by
a thin (<3-m-thick [<10-ft-thick]) transgressive
muddy sandstone at the top of the sandy Clearwater
Formation, beneath the Clearwater Shale (Figures 5,
14). This marine ravinement surface further modified
the upper parts of the incised valley fill and interfluves
adjacent to the valley, which indicates that preserved
valley depths and widths are minimums for the CLPP
incised valley complex. We illustrate the slope of
the paleoshelf associated with the top Clearwater

470 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy

Formation TS or ravinement surface in Figure 15
(foldout). Gradients of the Clearwater paleoshelf
were exceptionally flat with a gradient of approxi-
mately 0.0007 (0.07% slope). This slope is far shal-
lower than most modern continental shelves (greater
than ~0.001) and may help explain the large offset
between accommodation-driven depocenters during
even small-scale, 20- to 30-m (<66–98-ft) sea level
fall(s) that characterized the early Cretaceous.
The change from regression, incised valley, and
lowstand shoreline development to transgression of
the CLPP is complexly recorded in the upper part of
body C, as the armored mudstone ball conglomerate
interval. Seismic data hint that the conglomeratic
lithofacies forms discontinuous carpets that record
cut bank erosion and channel margin collapse as-
sociated with shallow, laterally migrating, marine-
influenced channels (Figure 8). This interval, although
diffuse, occurs within a fairly thin stratigraphic
window and appears to record erosion and collapse
of older body A deltaic deposits exposed along the
eastern margin of the incised valley. The armored
and rounded nature of these mudstone balls sug-
gests some transport, but the preservation of finely
laminated muds with a single, sandy rind indicates
they were slightly indurated at the time of erosion
and transported only short distances before being
reburied. Similar mudstone ball facies have been
recognized in modern tide-influenced deltaic sys-
tems such as the Fraser River Delta (Sisulak and
Dashtgard, 2012), western Canada, and the Fly
River Delta, Papua New Guinea (Dalrymple et al.,
2012). Sea cliff collapse–mud ball generation–
transport–reburial is an ongoing process that can
be observed along the periphery of the modern
Willapa Bay. We interpret the mudstone ball con-
glomerate and overlying IHS as the proximal marine-
influenced feeder system to the upper Clearwater,
back-stepping late lowstand systems transect (LST)
shorelines and transgressive shoreline deposits that
have been observed and mapped down dip.
Genetic body D records the renewed fluvial
progradation and final fill event within the incised
valley (Figure 13D). Seismic images (see Figure 7)
indicate body D consists of laterally offset, eastward
dipping reflections and small, apparently mud-filled
channel forms. Lithofacies observed in core are
similar in many respects to the interpreted fluvial
deposits of body C (see Figure 9). Comparison of
cored lithofacies indicates that the fluvial point bar
deposits of body D are more heterolithic and that the
mudstones are more intensely bioturbated than ob-
served in body C. We interpret body D as a single-
story, multilateral fluvial deposit characterized by
IHS. The lateral extent and single-story nature of
the D age fluvial system indicates that the D fluvial
system was at or near equilibrium with rising base
level. We interpret the switch from subtle aggrada-
tional stacking in the upper part of body C to lateral
stacking of fluvial deposits in body D as an indication
that the marine transgression slowed within the
drowned incised valley or sediment supply sub-
stantially increased, or both, such that D fluvial sys-
tem could easily keep pace with the addition of sea
level–driven accommodation. As a result, a fairly
thick (~30 m [~98 ft]) succession of fluvial–estuarine
point bars filled the remaining space within the in-
cised valley. Erosion of the incised valley margins,
particularly the eastern margin, appears to have oc-
curred at this time. Although D fluvial systems
strongly contribute to the overall form of the strati-
graphic valley form, we do not interpret a new SB at
its base of body D, because there are no omitted
depositional environments. Rather, body D exhibits
more marine influence than the fluvial deposits of C
below it. Thus, we interpret body D as the last, more
marine influenced, fluvial fill phase within the C age
incised valley.
Once the remaining accommodation within the
incised valley was filled, this area abruptly drowned,
and marine erosion removed the upper part of
the D fluvial–estuarine point bars. The record of
this drowning is recorded as a complicated TS con-
sisting of a thin (<3-m-thick [10-ft]), clean sandstone
within the incised valley and on the adjacent inter-
fluves (Figures 12 [foldout], 13).
DISCUSSION
Interpretation of 3-D seismic data within the CLPP
has resulted in a new sequence stratigraphic frame-
work for the Clearwater Formation that (1) is dif-
ferent from previous interpretations of this area; (2)
is better aligned with both small-scale experimental
modeling results and observations from modern
systems in similar depositional settings; and (3)
provides very good predictions for presence, types,
WELLNER ET AL. 471
and expected variability of reservoir and seal li-
thologies recovered in new well results from the
margins of the CLPP. Here we discuss the results
from the integrated seismic, well log, and core study
of the Clearwater Formation and the implications of
these results for reservoir distribution within the
CLPP and the sequence stratigraphic understanding
of this area. We also discuss how the results from both
sand box experiments and modern coastal studies
strongly influenced the development of this new, body-
based understanding of the Clearwater Formation.
The most easily recognized sequence strati-
graphic surfaces within the Clearwater Formation are
the MFS within the Wabiskaw Member and the TS
that coincides with the last, reservoir-grade sandstone
within the Clearwater Formation. We recognize
a single SB, which is expressed as a terraced incised
valley that has been incompletely preserved because
of younger fluvial and marine erosion. Here we argue
that the best example of an SB is when the deepest
topographic incised valley existed (Figure 13B, sur-
face outlined in blue) late in development of body
B. The maximum topographic relief achieved within
this valley (~60 m [197 ft]) resulted from sustained
erosion by an approximately 25-m-deep (~82-ft-
deep), 2- to 3-km-wide (<1- to 2-mi-wide), weakly
sinuous fluvial channel that became straighter and
deeper through time and left behind a series of
erosional remnants or terraces. This stepped down-
cutting likely formed somewhat shallower but equally
wide topographic valleys along the way, but the re-
cord of these shallow valleys has been largely removed
by younger erosion. What remains is the basal tread of
each preserved terrace. Using tread elevations, we
document the degradational trend and evolution of
the incised valley to maximum depth at the end of B
deposition. However, subsequent erosion associated
with body C, but primarily within the body D,
has removed much of the record for incised valley
development. Figure 13D illustrates the maximum
extent of the highly composited SB as a result of these
younger erosional events. For example, comparing the
blue line (topographic valley form) in Figure 13C with
the red in Figure 13D (composite SB that defines
a stratigraphic incised valley in the subsurface), it is
clear that the composite SB formed from a series of
widely varying erosional processes associated with
development of younger genetic bodies within the
CLPP. Furthermore, in this case it is easy to argue that
472 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
the use of a composited surface, particularly one
which apparently spans a significant amount of time
(i.e., nearly the entire time span of the upper
Clearwater Formation deposition) and forms by
a wide spectrum of erosional processes, is of little
chronologic value. However, if we return to the
original criteria for defining an SB—subaerial ero-
sional truncation and an abnormal basinward shift in
depositional facies—then the best candidate for an SB
is the composite surface beneath fluvial terraces,
which ties to a subtle but field-wide shift of the dis-
tributive fluvial system out and over its own delta
front and into the prodelta. This basinward shift is
subtle, and there is a narrow window within and north
of the CLPP where these changes are recorded.
Outside of this small detection window, deposition
consists of regressive and transgressive deltaic deposits
(i.e., parasequences) with very similar stacking pat-
terns and internal lithofacies trends. This proposed
SB is expressed as a very low–angle onlap surface
associated with several compressed (5-m-thick [16-ft-
thick]), muddy, retrogradationally stacked para-
sequences (Figures 5, 15 [foldout]). In our opinion,
all other depositional episodes defined in core and
on seismic sections reflect normal, landward (or at least
vertical) directed shifts in depositional facies and en-
vironments and surfaces that we use to define genetic
bodies; although critical for defining production char-
acteristics, they are not significant SBs but a complex
series of scour surfaces associated with the aggrada-
tional stacking of marine-influenced fluvial channels
that form an RCS in the cut-and-cover model
outlined in Holbrook and Bhattacharya (2012).
The proposed model for the development,
modification, and morphology of the Clearwater in-
cised valley is similar to the small-scale, experimental
valleys generated by Strong and Paola (2008). One of
the key observations of Strong and Paola (2008) is that
experimental fluvial systems need not necessarily
form incised valleys during a sea level cycle, but when
base level fall is rapid, incised valleys may form, and
there is tendency for valleys to (1) deepen and narrow
during increasing rates of base level fall, (2) continue
to deepen and widen during decelerating base level
fall, and (3) fill and become wider during the rising
part of a base level cycle. These experimental obser-
vations appear similar in many respects to the mor-
phology of Clearwater Formation incised valley we
have documented. Furthermore, the application of
conceptual terraced fluvial incised valley models de-
veloped in Quaternary successions with near-modern
coastal settings (see Blum et al., 2013, and references
therein) also helped explain the observed seismic ge-
ometries and facies distributions in the CLPP.
Our interpretation of terraced fluvial deposits and
complex SB development in the ancient rock record
is not unprecedented. The terraced fluvial, incised
valley model has been known for many years
(i.e., Bull, 1991), yet the model has not been widely
applied in the subsurface, nor documented in studies
of outcrop exposures in similar depositional settings.
One possibility for this disconnect may be the lack of
resolution in past seismic studies of degradational
fluvial settings. In our opinion, low-resolution 3-D
seismic data would be unable to detect the small
(3- to 10-m [<10- to 33-ft]) shifts in channel treads
between terraces; thus, the profound facies changes
and composited scour may be recognized, and a strati-
graphic incised valley, with an oversimplified fill history,
may be proposed. In outcrops, the interpretation of
laterally adjacent fluvial deposits that are lowering
the landscape would require significant vertical
and lateral exposure lengths that are rarely ob-
served and even less commonly documented. Thus,
the depositional model that seems most plausible for
valley development remains underapplied and poorly
documented in the subsurface. Furthermore, we agree
with Blum et al. (2013) that the commonly held belief
that incised valleys form from erosional evacuation of
an expanding topographic low on the coastal plain
and shelf is overly simplistic and cannot explain many
of the well-constrained and documented Quaternary
stratal architectures and thus should be applied
with great caution to describe the ancient rock
record.
A comparison of our seismically derived stratal
architecture with the log and core-based architectures
of McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and Feldman et al.
(2008) indicates that we have recognized far fewer
sequence stratigraphic surfaces, specifically, the total
number of SBs, and far more fluviodeltaic influ-
ence within the Clearwater Formation at the CLPP
(Figure 16). Here we address some of the major dif-
ferences among the architectures and argue that our
simpler sequence stratigraphic framework better char-
acterizes the observed stratal stacking trends and lith-
ofacies distributions and can be used to more accurately
predict well pad performance across the CLPP.
McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and Feldman
et al. (2008) both interpreted the Clearwater For-
mation as a series of nested incised valley fill suc-
cessions associated with a lowstand sequence set.
However, the total number of incised valleys, as well
as the fill types within each valley, differs somewhat
between these authors. For example, McCrimmon
and Arnott (2002) interpreted a total of 3 incised
valleys (Figure 16A), whereas Feldman et al. (2008)
interpreted 5 incised valleys along the same transect as
McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and 13 incised val-
leys in total across the CLPP (see figures 14–figures 16
in Feldman et al., 2008). McCrimmon and Arnott
(2002) argue sediment was largely exiting the valley
during each sea level lowstand, and there is little or no
record of the processes by which this sediment by-
passing surface or SB formed. These largely empty
valleys were then flooded during subsequent trans-
gressions, when they evolved into estuaries and were
then completely filled by thick, tide-dominated deltas
(Figure 16A). Feldman et al. (2008) reanalyzed the
same cores as McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) and
integrated hundreds of additional cores and inter-
preted an additional 10 largely remnant incised valley
fill successions within the Clearwater Formation.
Collectively, these 13 incised valleys form a valley
complex that is up to 120 m (394 ft) thick (see
Figure 16B). Furthermore, Feldman et al. (2008)
argue on the basis of well log–derived map patterns
and core observations that some of the incised valleys
contain thin fluvial deposits near their base, but all of
the incisions formed topographic valleys that, in
a similar fashion to that of McCrimmon and Arnott
(2002), became estuaries during high-frequency
transgressions across the CLPP. Maps and detailed
well log cross sections provided in Feldman et al.
(2008) indicate that each LST contained within each
valley thins, and facies change to finer-grained sedi-
ments and downlap out to the north. On the basis of
these interpretations, these authors argued that there
is no contemporaneous sandy lowstand shoreline
associated with any of the 13 incised valleys they
documented. Furthermore, these authors argue that
the proximal or southern end of the youngest suite of
incised valleys shoals to the south, where they are
truncated by a surface at the top of the Clearwater
Formation. Thus, many of their valleys have ladle-
shaped morphologies with thin proximal feeder sys-
tems that connect to a deep valley, which then
WELLNER ET AL. 473
474 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
abruptly shallows and ends in a seaward direction.
Feldman et al. (2008) argue that this valley mor-
phology is the result of fluvial erosion and de-
position in the south that is linked to more tidal bar
and estuarine deposition to the north. These authors
proposed that the transition from fluvial-dominated
to tide-dominated deposition is recorded by (1) the
presence of more bioturbated mudstone interbeds
and (2) a change in grain size trends from fining or
dirtying upward in fluvial facies to coarsening up-
ward or cleaning upward in tidal facies. Diagrams
generated to explain the distribution of fluvial and
tidal deposits in this model (see figure 24 in Feldman
et al., 2008) imply that the Clearwater valleys de-
veloped from incision by braided fluvial channels,
which were then flooded but maintained their fluvial
style and fed sediment to the head of the estuary,
where tidal processes redistributed the sediment
into an amalgamated tidal bar complex. Tidal bars
are thought to become more isolated, finer grained,
and muddier in the middle to outer part of the
estuary. Collectively, the fluvial–tidal deposits within
each incised valley form a series of seaward shingled,
intercutting sequences that thin and downlap in the
seaward direction and/or are truncated beneath
a marine erosional in the southern part of the CLPP.
Comparisons of all the stratal architectures pro-
posed for the CLPP are illustrated in Figure 16 for
similar west–east-oriented transects in the CLPP. One
obvious difference is the number of SBs (or incised
valleys) that are believed to compose the Clearwater
Formation. Specifically, we interpret a total of one SB
and one terraced incised valley within the Clearwater
Formation (Figure 16C) and interpret all other sur-
faces to be autocyclic in nature, with short correlation
lengths, and not appropriate sequence stratigraphic
surfaces (see Figure 17 for all possible interpreta-
tions). As a result, we document a simple sequence
stratigraphic architecture but far more complex
lithofacies distributions than have been previously
reported. We have placed detailed core descriptions
into our seismic stratigraphic framework and ana-
lyzed the core data for systematic trends. We found
that the deltaic parasequences or lobes associated
with body A exhibit a weak, upward cleaning and
upward coarsening trend. Grain size trends within our
incised valley (bodies B–D) have a weak tendency to
fine upward at the bed set scale but are largely uni-
form from top to bottom of the fill succession. The
complicated development of the incised valley,
coupled with an equally complicated fill history of
prograding, retrograding, and aggrading channelized
fluvial to marine-influenced fluvial flow, has resulted
in numerous reactivation surfaces that, in our opin-
ion, randomized stacking trends and, in the absence of
very high–resolution seismic data, make core-based
studies of stacking patterns problematic and prone to
errors. Because of the aggradational stacking of fining-
upward bed sets, we struggled to isolate the tidal
bar facies mapped by Feldman et al. (2008) to the
stratal framework proposed herein. Furthermore,
we could not document the tidal bar geometries
proposed by Feldman et al. (2008) or the large-scale
seaward dipping clinoforms of the tide-dominated
deltas of McCrimmon and Arnott (2002). Rather,
we see a series of laterally accreting, aggradationally
stacked, point bar–dominated channel belts that
become progressively more marine influenced and
collectively form a stratigraphic incised valley (see
Strong and Paola, 2008), before being completely
inundated and partially eroded beneath the top
Clearwater TS (Figure 8).
The combination of a very flat (gradient of
~0.0007) and wide continental shelf coupled with the
short-lived, but significant, 30- to 40-m (<98- to 131-
ft) sea level fall in the middle part of the Clearwater
Formation should result in a lowstand shoreline de-
posit(s) that is far outboard of the HST coastal prism
but relatively thin (~20 m [~66 ft] thick). Regional
well log correlations indicate that there is a sand-
stone-prone interval in the Clearwater Formation
approximately 113 km (70 mi) to the north of the

Figure 16. Comparison of published stratigraphic architectures for the Clearwater Formation to the interpretations of this study. Surfaces
identified by, and depositional facies mapped in McCrimmon and Arnott (2002) (Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists [CSPG] © 2002,
reprinted by permission of CSPG whose permission is required for further use) (A) and Feldman et al. (2008) (B, used with permission of
Society for Sedimentary Geology) have been regenerated using our well log database and allow comparison to our more genetic body- and
lithofacies-based interpretation (C) of this area. See Figure 2 for locations of these transects. Red lines represent sequence boundaries (SBs)
in (A) and (B) and a potential SB in (C). CL = last occurrence of thick Clearwater Formation sand; FS = flooding surface; ILD = deep
induction curve; GR = gamma ray; LST = lowstand systems tract; MD = measured depth; RhoB = density; SFL = shallow resistivity; SP =
spontaneous potential; TS = transgressive surface; TVD = true vertical depth.

WELLNER ET AL. 475


Figure 17. Observed geometric expression of the Clearwater
Formation (Fm.) in the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP)
(panel 3) and our interpretation of the key steps in the devel-
opment of the observed stratigraphy (panels 1 and 2). Several
different scenarios are given for the location of the sequence
boundary (SB) or SBs in Clearwater Fm. (see options A–E), which
are shown as a red line in these schematics. Our preferred
interpretation—a single SB associated with the treads of fluvial
terraces—is illustrated in scenario A. This composite surface ap-
proximates the deepest extent of the topographic valley and
honors the SB recognition criteria of an abrupt seaward shift and
omission of depositional facies (see Van Wagoner and Bertram,
1995, for details) but also defines a stratigraphic valley and not
a true topographic valley (see Strong and Paola, 2008). The closest
approximation of our interpreted surfaces to the true topographic
valley is illustrated in scenario E, which in our framework occurs
between genetic bodies B and C. One further complication is
shown in scenario C. The deltaic system of body A was fed by
northward flowing, coastal fluvial systems. We have argued in the
text that the facies tracts prograde north and advance over their
genetically related depositional facies belts. Thus, the presence of
the first, 30-m-deep (98-ft-deep) fluvial channel fill may be part of
a normal stacking trend associated with this northward pro-
gradation of the deltaic system and should not be included within
the lowstand systems tract. Instead, the SB separates deltaic
distributary channel deposits in the westernmost part of the CLPP
from similar but downward cutting fluvial deposits in the eastern
part of the CLPP. One major advantage to choosing our preferred
location for the SB (option A) is that it encapsulates lithofacies with
similar reservoir properties, which, from a geologic modeling
standpoint, can be very useful.
476 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
CLPP (Figure 15 [foldout], 18). We interpret this
sandstone-prone interval as the lowstand shoreline
associated with genetic body C and possibly the early
part of D, and we would argue that the incised valley at
the end of C time was deep in the area of the un-
derlying highstand coastal prism (i.e., body A) but
rapidly shoaled away from this area and transitioned
into a simple, single-story–thick channel belt or even
a series of distributive channels that conveyed very fine
sand, silt, and mostly mud as a result of the significant
increase in transportation length but little or no in-
crease in stream power. The subsequent trans-
gression within the WCSB that defines the top of
the Clearwater Formation likely eroded much of
this lowstand channel-scale deposition, creating the
geometric expression between the highstand and
lowstand shorelines depicted in Figure 14 and possibly
explaining the apparent lack of lowstand shorelines in
the immediate vicinity of the CLPP (see Figure 18), as
documented by Feldman et al. (2008).
The revised stratigraphic framework for the
Clearwater Formation presented herein is simple
relative to the previously proposed architectures for
the CLPP, but on the basis of the ongoing field de-
lineation and production expansion program within
the CLPP, our model accurately predicts reservoir
types and distributions. In summary, we characterize
the Clearwater Formation as a large, fluviodeltaic
system that can be separated into three genetic units
consisting of an early progradational deltaic system
(body A); a degradational fluvial system that cuts
a terraced incised valley into its genetically linked
deltaic deposits (body B); and an aggradational to
slightly progradational fluvial system that fills the
remaining accommodation within the upper part of
the true, topographic incised valley (bodies C and D),
before being inundated by a marine transgression that
passes through the CLPP and defines the top of the
sandy Clearwater deposit. In our opinion, a true to-
pographic valley likely existed during C deposition,
and the scale of the Clearwater topographic valley is
on par with reconstruction of late Quaternary incised
valley systems, such as the Colorado River, United
States, or Po River, Italy (see Blum et al., 2013, and
references therein). The same cannot be said for the
13 incised valleys proposed by Feldman et al. (2008),
which cover the full range of characteristic scales that
Gibling (2006) identified for channels, channel belts,
and incised valleys. On the basis of the single SB that
 Figure 18. (A–C) Simple strike and (D–F) dip-oriented schematic cross sections illustrating the geometric expression and stacking trends observed in the Clearwater Formation. This
cross section illustrates the large-scale stacking trends for sediments within the highstand shoreline at the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP) and the lowstand (see Figure 14) and
transgressive shorelines to the north of the CLPP. Note that lobes deposited during the latest highstand are modified and/or removed by wave ravinement during the subsequent sea level
rise and transgression. The result of this ravinement process is that highstand and lowstand deltas are separated by a wide (100+ km [62+ mi]) zone of erosion and wave modification,
which on the Clearwater lowstand shelf is recorded as an extensive, wave-modified, thin (1- to 2-m-thick [<3- to 6-ft-thick]), muddy sandstone with a sheet-like geometry. Mbr = Member.

WELLNER ET AL.
477
formed late in the depositional history of the Clear-
water Formation we propose that this formation
consists of two systems tracts These are an older,
deltaic HST and a younger, fluvial-dominated LST.
The Clearwater age LST, which can accurately be
described as a stratigraphic incised valley, is appar-
ently the first and potentially the only LST present
in the TSS of the Mannville Group (Figure 5). A
more detailed study of the interval between the
sandstone-prone part of the Clearwater Formation
and the basal part of the Grand Rapids Formation is
needed to confirm this assumption. Although this
sequence stratigraphic framework is far simpler than
previously proposed, the lithofacies distributions,
which control reservoir production behavior, remain
quite complicated. However, we argue that strati-
graphic architecture of the Clearwater Formation
presented here, which was developed using a coupled
genetic body and sequence stratigraphic approach, is
the first step toward reducing the number of wells
necessary to delineate the subsurface resource, while
maximizing recovery efficiencies within the CLPP.
CONCLUSIONS
A revised, genetic body–based framework for the
Clearwater Formation within the CLPP is presented
herein. Revision to the existing framework of this area
was necessary because of the wealth of new core, well
log, and 3-D seismic data, as well as observations from
recent studies in modern depositional systems and
published derivative models. The new stratigraphic
framework, which is tied to 3-D seismic data, has
allowed these authors to visualize and more accu-
rately predict the lithofacies and ichnofacies distri-
butions from core to core and shed new light on the
3-D distribution diagenesis within the field. The
application of 3-D seismic stratigraphic techniques
and detailed reservoir mapping within the CLPP
may, in turn, reduce the total number of delineation
wells needed to characterize the remaining resources
and will form the basis for optimizing the overall
bitumen recovery plan. To maximize its efficiency,
the framework has been designed to be simple, de-
scriptive, flexible, and more in line with sedimento-
logic processes observed in the modern fluvial–deltaic
systems. This new stratigraphic understanding is ex-
pected to explain past production anomalies and
478 Simple is Better When It Comes to Sequence Stratigraphy
improve recovery. This assumption is currently being
tested with both lithofacies and stratigraphic pre-
dictions ahead of the ongoing drilling campaign at the
CLPP. Initial results indicate that our depositional
model accurately predicts reservoir types and distri-
butions, including net pay thickness. The revised
stratigraphic framework identifies two main genetic
units within the Clearwater Formation: an older, un-
confined unit composed of four regional, compensa-
tionally stacked, lobate bodies (genetic bodies A1–A4)
and a series of younger channel belt incisions (B, C, and
D) that collectively form a series of terraced fluvial
deposits and define a stratigraphic incised valley. De-
positional lobes A1–A4 compose a progradational
stacking pattern and depositional facies belts charac-
teristic of open marine deltaic systems.
Body B displays a degradational stacking pattern
that erodes much of its genetically related deltaic
system. This body is interpreted as terraced fluvial
point bar and floodplain complexes deposited during
a long-term relative sea level fall. The penultimate
and composite fluvial valley that formed throughout
deposition of this body was subsequently filled by
fluviodeltaic deposits of body C during the sub-
sequent relative sea level rise. It was at the start of
body C deposition that the deepest (~60 m [~197 ft])
and likely widest (~20 km [~12 mi] or more) topo-
graphic valley formed. Aggradation within the in-
cised valley, likely associated with rising base level
(i.e., relative sea level rise or transgression), led to the
deposition of marine-influenced fluvial to estuarine
point bars in the proximal part of the incised valley.
Renewed fluvial progradation associated with
body D is recorded as sandy, laterally accreting point
bars and straight abandoned channel deposits with
abundant marine traces. This D age channel belt
eroded into the topographic valley margin of body C,
which results in (1) a stratigraphic record of incised
valley development that is unrealistically wide and
(2) the development of a composited basal erosional
surface beneath a stratigraphic valley that formed
over the duration a sea level cycle, and this reflects
a significant amount of time. We interpret body D as
a relatively low–sinuosity fluvial system within the
backwater reach of the Clearwater fluvial network. A
number of complete, mud-filled, and straight chan-
nels within the D channel belt have been recognized.
Ichnofacies within the abandoned channel mudstones
indicate deposition occurred in a fully marine setting.
 Because of the degradational to aggradational
stacking of high-energy fluvial to marine-influenced
fluvial systems across the CLPP, defining the sequence
stratigraphic architecture of the area is difficult. We
chose to use a simple depositional model that records
the regressive and transgressive stacking of linked
fluvial–deltaic environments with varying degrees of
tidal influence. We interpret a single SB within the
regressive phase of the Clearwater Formation. This SB
is composite in nature and ties to the maximum to-
pographic valley depth but not the greatest horizontal
extent of the stratigraphic valley. This interpretation is
similar to the observed stratigraphic and topographic
valley evolution observed by Strong and Paola (2008)
in small-scale, sand box experiments
In general, the observed stratigraphic framework
and proposed geologic history for the CLPP is strongly
aligned with the cut-and-cover depositional model of
Holbrook and Bhattacharya (2012), where we in-
terpret the highly composited fluvial scour surface
beneath a suite of descending fluvial terraces as an SB,
which in turn places the fluvial deposits within the LST
of a new sequence, the extent of which is roughly
defined by current development trend in the in the
CLPP (see Figure 17 for details). This interpretation is
by far the simplest of several potential locations for the
SB in the CLPP. Alternative locations for the SB are
outlined in Figure 17 and discussed in the text.
Choosing which, if any, of these models to apply to
the Clearwater Formation requires an interpretation
of the depositional setting, as well as the genetic
linkages between and among depositional sub-
environments and where the connection between
environments is broken. This is commonly difficult
and can vary widely among interpreters. However,
the applicability of any model corresponds to its
ability to make useful predictions, particularly in areas
of sparse data. Thus, with respect to the Clearwater
Formation depositional model proposed herein, the
capability to predict reservoir type and grade on the
periphery of the field is critical to the success of
the model. To date, the model has done a very good
job predicting cored lithofacies, preserved thick-
nesses of depositional facies, net-to-gross, and reser-
voir grades for the expansion effort in the Mahikan
development area (Figure 2), as well as step-out
drilling and addition of pads along the periphery of
the main production trend in the J-K and Marie de-
velopment areas (Figure 2).
Prior studies of the CLPP suggest that the com-
posite incised valley abruptly ends within or imme-
diately north of the CLPP and that there is no
associated lowstand shoreline(s) or delta (see Feldman
et al., 2008). Our regional, well-based mapping in-
dicates that there is at least one lowstand shoreline far
to the north (see Figure 14), but we concur with
Feldman et al. (2008) that tracking the lowstand fluvial
systems basinward is a difficult undertaking. We at-
tempt to explain the apparent lack of large incised
valleys on the regressive shelf using a simple geometric
model (Figure 18) that uses marine wave ravinement
to strip off and modify lowstand deposits into a muddy
sheet sand over most of the lowstand shelf. This
wave–ravinement process is well expressed in the
CLPP as a marine bioturbated, homogeneous muddy
sandstone that, over most of the CLPP, caps the incised
valley fill succession and records the end to Clearwater
sand deposition. Ultimately, the transgressive shore-
face associated with a Late Albian base level rise passed
through the CLPP, flooding any remaining topogra-
phy, depositing the offshore mudstones of the Clear-
water Shale, ending Clearwater reservoir deposition,
and forming the top seal for the Cold Lake field.
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Wellner et al., Figure 5. Regional well log cross section from the northeastern side of the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP), through the CLPP, and then north to the Fort McMurray area (see Figure 1 for location of transect). Gamma-ray logs are shown. Our interpretation of the Mannville Group sequence stratigraphic architecture is provided, including key surfaces and types, systems tracts (red indicates lowstand systems tract,
yellow indicates highstand systems tract [HST], and green indicates transgressive systems tract [TST]), and previous interpretations by Cant (1996). In our opinion, the Clearwater Formation (Fm.) comprises a deltaic succession that is more correctly referred to as a McMurray HST and fluvial valley fill that makes up the lowstand systems tract for a sequence that spans the Clearwater–Grand Rapids formational boundary. In general, the
Mannville Group is a third-order–scale sequence composed of a lowstand sequence set (LSS), transgressive sequence set (TSS), and highstand sequence set (HSS). The Clearwater Fm. makes up a substantial part of the TSS within the Mannville-scale sequence.
Wellner et al., Figure 11. Stratigraphic cross section illustrating the typical lithofacies observed in core and their distribution through the Cold Lake Production Project (see Figure 1 for location). Stratigraphic surfaces generated from depth converting seismic interpretations and tying to lithologic changes recognized in core. Photos for key lithofacies are shown, and each is tied to its associated core description and genetic
body within the proposed stratal architecture. Unless otherwise indicated, sandstones appear black on photos because of the presence of pore filling bitumen, and mudstones tend to be white. Fm. = Formation; ILD = induction curve; ILM = medium induction curve; RhoB = density; SFL = shallow resistivity; SP = spontaneous potential; V.E. = vertical exaggeration.
Wellner et al., Figure 12. Example of typical heterolithic strata observed in body D of this study. A scale is provided, but core boxes are 0.75 m (2.5 ft) long. Note that this example shows stacked bedsets that become more interbedded and slightly finer–grained vertically. Each bedset starts with a rip-up clast zone that transitions into clean trough cross-bedded sandstone and then becomes more interbedded and
more bioturbated by marine organisms, before another scour surface starts the next cycle of deposition (see hatched triangles). Core to seismic ties indicate that this lithofacies assemblage is typical for the laterally shingled, channel-filling facies we interpret as point bars. Abundant but low-diversity marine terraces throughout body D indicate that this point bar–dominated facies occurs in close proximity to the coast
and may be better described as an estuarine point bar complex. At this location, the estuarine point bars are truncated by relatively clean, commonly massive sandstone that can be up to 3 m (10 ft) thick. We interpret a transgressive ravinement surface at the base of this sandstone that formed during the inundation of the Cold Lake Production Project by the Boreal sea during the late Albian. CLW = Clearwater
Formation; FS = flooding surface.
Wellner et al., Figure 15. Detailed well log cross section for the Clearwater Formation (CLW Fm.). See Figure 14 for location and orientation of this cross section. Note that the cross section is split in half and joins back together as indicated. The correlations shown here start in the sandy highstand shoreline deposits of the Clearwater Fm. within the Cold Lake Production Project (CLPP) (upper left and colored yellow) and
extend to the lowstand shoreline some 100+ km (62 mi) to the north (lower right and colored red). calc = calculated; Den. = density; GR = gamma ray; ILD = induction curve; ILM = medium induction curve; IND = induction log; MFS = maximum flooding surface; NPSS = compensated neutron log; Por. = porosity; RhoB = density; Rhob_Calc. = calculated density; SB = sequence boundary; SFLU = spherically focused resistivity
log; SP = spontaneous potential; Sst. = Sandstone; SSTVD = subsea true vertical depth.