International organization

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International Organization

Intergovernmental Organization

Emblem of the United Nations

UN Family of Agencies
 United Nations

The single most important IGO

 UN iLibrary

Access to many publication not available for free on

the UN public website.

more...

Major Funds and Departments within the UN

These agencies report directly to the Secretariate.

 UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development

Focuses on issues of international trade and its

relationship to development.

 UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

The UNDP is one of the many UN agencies

involved in development work. It publishes many
reports and studies including reports related to
development projects it funds. Some major access
points:

 UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme

 the main focus point within the UN for all
environmental efforts.

 UNHCR : The UN Refugee Agency

leads and co-ordinates international action to

protect refugees and resolve refugee problems
worldwide.

 UN-Habitat: UN Human Settlements Programme

Promotes socially and environmentally sustainable

human settlement

 UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund

 United Nations Population Fund
 UNODC: UN Office on Drugs and Crime

Works with member states to fight illicit drugs and

crime.

 UNRWA: United Nations Relief and Works Agency

for Palestine Refugees

Focuses on issues of education, health care, relief

and social services, camp infrastructure and
improvement, microfinance and emergency
assistance with Palestinian Refugees

 UN Women

Pull together info from the UN system on gender

equality and women’s empowerment

 World Food Programme

the food aid arm of the United Nations system.

Food aid is one of the many instruments that can
help to promote food security, which is defined as
access of all people at all times to the food needed
for an active and healthy life.

UN Specialized Agencies

 The World Bank

Premier international development agency

 World Bank e-Library

Fulltext PDF-format versions of all new World Bank

books and selected books beginning in 1984. Much
of it is paid content not available on the World Bank
 public website.

more...

 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Website

Main public website for the IMF. The organization

fosters economic growth and employment by
providing temporary financial assistance to
countries to help ease balance of payments
adjustment and technical assistance

 IMF e-Library

Direct access to the IMF's periodicals, books,

working papers and studies, and data and statistical
tools. Includes content not available through the
IMF public website.

more...

 FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

Focuses on efforts to alleviate hunger through

better agricultural practices

 IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural

Development

Promotes agricultural development to alleviate rural

poverty and hunger.

 ILO: International Labour Organization

Promotes international labor rights by formulating

international standards on the freedom to associate,
collective bargaining, the abolition of forced labor,
and equality of opportunity and treatment.

 IMO: International Maritime Organization

Advocates for a comprehensive shipping regulatory

framework, addressing safety and environmental
concerns, legal matters, technical cooperation,
security, and efficiency.

 ITU: International Telecommunications Union

Focuses on telecommunications and information

technology issues.

 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific,

and Cultural Organization
  UNIDO: UN Industrial Development Organization

Focuses on issues of industrial development and

poverty reduction

 WHO: World Health Organization

Monitors public health around the world and

responds to global health emergencies, pandemics,
and works to eradicate diseases.

 WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization

Protects intellectual property throughout the world

through 23 international treaties.

 WMO: World Meteorological Organization

Promotes the free international exchange of

meteorological data and information

Other IGO's
These Intergovernmental organizations are made up of
countries that span the world but have more limited
membership.

 OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development

35 member countries including the most advanced

economies as well as select emerging economies.

 OECD iLibrary

Full-text book and serial publications not available

on the public website. Also includes substantial data
sets.

more...

 G7/G8 Information Centre (University of Toronto

Tracks the annual meeting of the top 7/8 developed

countries.

 IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency

Overseas and monitors the peaceful use of atomic

energy around the world.

 Interparliamentary Union

Everything you need to know about parliaments

 around the world

 IOM: International Organization for Migration

Helps manage challenges of migration, explores

migration issues, and encourages social and
economic development through migration.

 World Trade Organization

Global organization that coordinates trade rules

worldwide.

Flag of the United Nations

Member states of the United Nations

Abbreviation IO, IGO

Type Treaty-based bodies

Membership States

The offices of the United Nations in Geneva (Switzerland), which is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations

in the world.[1]
 An international organization (intergovernmental organization) is an organization established
by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing its own international
legal personality, such as the United Nations, the World Health
Organization and NATO.[2][3] International organizations are composed of primarily Member states,
but may also include other entities, such as other international organizations. Additionally,
entities (including, but not limited to states) may hold observer status.[4]
Notable examples include the United Nations (UN), Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe (COE), International Labour Organization (ILO)
and International Police Organization (INTERPOL).[5]

Contents

 1History
 2Purpose
 3Regional Organizations
 4United Nations Agencies
 5International NGOs
 6See also
 7Notes and references
 8External links

History[edit]
The first and oldest intergovernmental organization - being established by means of a treaty, and
creating a permanent secretariat - is the International Telecommunication Union (founded in
1865). The first general international organization—addressing a variety of issues—was
the League of Nations. The United Nations followed this model after World War II.

Purpose[edit]
The role of international organizations is helping to set the international agenda,
mediating political bargaining, providing a place for political initiatives and acting as catalysts for
coalition- formation.They facilitate cooperation and cordination among member nations.

Regional Organizations[edit]
International Organizations typically have member states from the whole world, however in some
cases organizations have geographic limitations, such as the European Union, African
Union and NATO. The United Nations also has regional organizations, such
as UNECE and UNECA.
The oldest regional organization is the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, created
in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna.

United Nations Agencies[edit]

The United Nations organizes its work into agencies, such as United Nations Relief Works
Agency, which are generally considered as international organizations in their own right.
Additionally, the United Nations has specialized agencies which are organizations within the
United Nations System, that have their own member states (often nearly identical to the UN
Member States) and are governed independently by them, examples include International
Organizations that predate the UN, such the International Telecommunication Union, and
the Universal Postal Union, as well as organizations that were created after the UN such as
the World Health Organization (which was made up of regional organizations such as PAHO that
predated the UN).

International NGOs[edit]
International Organizations are sometimes referred to as Intergovernmental
Organizations (IGOs), in order to clarify the distinction from International nongovernmental
organizations (INGOs), which are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate
internationally. These include international non-profit organization such as the World
Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins
Sans Frontières, but also NGOs that lobby on behalf of for-profit companies such as the World
Economic Forum.

UN Family of Agencies
 United Nations

The single most important IGO

 UN iLibrary

Access to many publication not available for free on the UN public website.

more...

Major Funds and Departments within the UN

These agencies report directly to the Secretariate.

 UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Focuses on issues of international trade and its relationship to development.

 UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

The UNDP is one of the many UN agencies involved in development work. It publishes many
reports and studies including reports related to development projects it funds. Some major access
points:

 UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme

the main focus point within the UN for all environmental efforts.

 UNHCR : The UN Refugee Agency

leads and co-ordinates international action to protect refugees and resolve refugee problems
worldwide.

 UN-Habitat: UN Human Settlements Programme

Promotes socially and environmentally sustainable human settlement

 UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund

 United Nations Population Fund
 UNODC: UN Office on Drugs and Crime
 Works with member states to fight illicit drugs and crime.

 UNRWA: United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees

Focuses on issues of education, health care, relief and social services, camp infrastructure and
improvement, microfinance and emergency assistance with Palestinian Refugees

 UN Women

Pull together info from the UN system on gender equality and women’s empowerment

 World Food Programme

the food aid arm of the United Nations system. Food aid is one of the many instruments that can
help to promote food security, which is defined as access of all people at all times to the food
needed for an active and healthy life.

UN Specialized Agencies

 The World Bank

Premier international development agency

 World Bank e-Library

Fulltext PDF-format versions of all new World Bank books and selected books beginning in 1984.
Much of it is paid content not available on the World Bank public website.

more...

 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Website

Main public website for the IMF. The organization fosters economic growth and employment by
providing temporary financial assistance to countries to help ease balance of payments adjustment
and technical assistance

 IMF e-Library

Direct access to the IMF's periodicals, books, working papers and studies, and data and statistical
tools. Includes content not available through the IMF public website.

more...

 FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

Focuses on efforts to alleviate hunger through better agricultural practices

 IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development

Promotes agricultural development to alleviate rural poverty and hunger.

 ILO: International Labour Organization

 Promotes international labor rights by formulating international standards on the freedom to
associate, collective bargaining, the abolition of forced labor, and equality of opportunity and
treatment.

 IMO: International Maritime Organization

Advocates for a comprehensive shipping regulatory framework, addressing safety and

environmental concerns, legal matters, technical cooperation, security, and efficiency.

 ITU: International Telecommunications Union

Focuses on telecommunications and information technology issues.

 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

 UNIDO: UN Industrial Development Organization

Focuses on issues of industrial development and poverty reduction

 WHO: World Health Organization

Monitors public health around the world and responds to global health emergencies, pandemics,
and works to eradicate diseases.

 WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization

Protects intellectual property throughout the world through 23 international treaties.

 WMO: World Meteorological Organization

Promotes the free international exchange of meteorological data and information

Other IGO's
These Intergovernmental organizations are made up of countries that span the world but have more limited
membership.

 OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

35 member countries including the most advanced economies as well as select emerging
economies.

 OECD iLibrary

Full-text book and serial publications not available on the public website. Also includes substantial
data sets.

more...

 G7/G8 Information Centre (University of Toronto

Tracks the annual meeting of the top 7/8 developed countries.

 IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency

Overseas and monitors the peaceful use of atomic energy around the world.
  Interparliamentary Union

Everything you need to know about parliaments around the world

 IOM: International Organization for Migration

Helps manage challenges of migration, explores migration issues, and encourages social and
economic development through migration.

 World Trade Organization

Global organization that coordinates trade rules worldwide.

International Monetary Fund

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"IMF" redirects here. For other uses, see IMF (disambiguation).

International Monetary Fund

Coat of arms

Abbreviation IMF

Formation 27 December 1945; 73 years ago

Type International financial institution

Purpose Promote international monetary co-operation,

facilitate international trade, foster sustainable economic growth,

make resources available to members experiencing balance of

payments difficulties[1]
 Headquarters Washington, D.C. U.S.

 Headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Location

Coordinates 38°53′56″N 77°2′39″WCoordinates: 38°53′56″N 77°2′39″W

Region Worldwide

Membership 189 countries

Official English[2]
language

Managing Kristalina Georgieva

Director

Chief Gita Gopinath[3]

Economist

Main organ Board of Governors

Parent United Nations[4][5]

organization

Staff 2,400[1]

Website www.imf.org

The International Monetary Fund (IMF), also known as the Fund, is an international
organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 189 countries working to foster
global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high
employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world while
periodically depending on World Bank for its resources.[1] Formed in 1944 at the Bretton Woods
Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes,[6] it came
into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing
the international payment system. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of
payments difficulties and international financial crises.[7] Countries contribute funds to a pool
through a quota system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can
borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had XDR 477 billion (about US$667 billion).[8]
Through the fund and other activities such as the gathering of statistics and analysis, surveillance
of its members' economies, and the demand for particular policies,[9] the IMF works to improve
the economies of its member countries.[10] The organization's objectives stated in the Articles of
Agreement are:[11] to promote international monetary co-operation, international trade, high
employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources
available to member countries in financial difficulty.[12] IMF funds come from two major sources:
quotas and loans. Quotas, which are pooled funds of member nations, generate most IMF funds.
The size of a member's quota depends on its economic and financial importance in the world.
Nations with larger economic importance have larger quotas. The quotas are increased
periodically as a means of boosting the IMF's resources.
The current Managing Director (MD) and Chairwoman of the International Monetary Fund is
Bulgarian Economist Kristalina Georgieva, who has held the post since 1 October 2019.[13]
 Gita Gopinath was appointed as Chief Economist of IMF from 1 October 2018. She received her
PhD in economics from Princeton University. Prior to her IMF appointment she was economic
adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala, India.[14]

Contents

 1Functions
o 1.1Surveillance of the global economy
o 1.2Conditionality of loans
 1.2.1Structural adjustment
 1.2.2Benefits
 2History
o 2.121st century
 3Member countries
o 3.1Qualifications
o 3.2Benefits
 4Leadership
o 4.1Board of Governors
o 4.2Executive Board
o 4.3Managing Director
 4.3.1List of Managing Directors
 5Voting power
o 5.1Effects of the quota system
o 5.2Inflexibility of voting power
o 5.3Overcoming borrower/creditor divide
 6Use
o 6.1Exceptional Access Framework – sovereign debt
 7IMF and globalization
 8Criticisms
o 8.1Conditionality
o 8.2Reform
 8.2.1Function and policies
 8.2.2US influence and voting reform
o 8.3Support of dictatorships
o 8.4Impact on access to food
o 8.5Impact on public health
o 8.6Impact on environment
o 8.7Impact on gender equality
 9Scandals
 10Alternatives
 11In the media
 12See also
 13Notes
 14References
o 14.1Footnotes
o 14.2Bibliography
 15Further reading
 16External links

Functions[edit]
According to the IMF itself, it works to foster global growth and economic stability by providing
policy advice and financing the members by working with developing nations helps them achieve
macroeconomic stability and reduce poverty.[15] The rationale for this is that private international
capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets.
Such market imperfections, together with balance-of-payments financing, provide the justification
for official financing, without which many countries could only correct large external payment
imbalances through measures with adverse economic consequences.[16] The IMF provides
alternate sources of financing.
Upon the founding of the IMF, its three primary functions were: to oversee the fixed exchange
rate arrangements between countries,[17] thus helping national governments manage
their exchange rates and allowing these governments to prioritize economic growth,[18] and to
provide short-term capital to aid the balance of payments.[17] This assistance was meant to
prevent the spread of international economic crises. The IMF was also intended to help mend the
pieces of the international economy after the Great Depression and World War II.[18] As well, to
provide capital investments for economic growth and projects such as infrastructure.
The IMF's role was fundamentally altered by the floating exchange rates post-1971. It shifted to
examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a
shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy. The IMF also
researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery.[17] A particular
concern of the IMF was to prevent financial crisis, such as those in Mexico 1982, Brazil in 1987,
East Asia in 1997–98 and Russia in 1998, from spreading and threatening the entire global
financial and currency system. The challenge was to promote and implement policy that reduced
the frequency of crises among the emerging market countries, especially the middle-income
countries which are vulnerable to massive capital outflows.[19] Rather than maintaining a position
of oversight of only exchange rates, their function became one of surveillance of the overall
macroeconomic performance of member countries. Their role became a lot more active because
the IMF now manages economic policy rather than just exchange rates.
In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy
of conditionality,[17] which was established in the 1950s.[18] Low-income countries can borrow
on concessional terms, which means there is a period of time with no interest rates, through the
Extended Credit Facility (ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility
(RCF). Nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-
By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL), the Precautionary and Liquidity Line
(PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid
Financing Instrument (RFI) to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs.[20]
Structural adjustment[edit]
Further information: Structural adjustment

Some of the conditions for structural adjustment can include:

 Cutting expenditures, also known as austerity.

 Focusing economic output on direct export and resource extraction,
 Devaluation of currencies,
 Trade liberalisation, or lifting import and export restrictions,
 Increasing the stability of investment (by supplementing foreign direct investment with the opening of
domestic stock markets),
 Balancing budgets and not overspending,
 Removing price controls and state subsidies,
 Privatization, or divestiture of all or part of state-owned enterprises,
 Enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-a-vis national laws,
 Improving governance and fighting corruption.
These conditions are known as the Washington Consensus.

Benefits[edit]

These loan conditions ensure that the borrowing country will be able to repay the IMF and that the country will not
attempt to solve their balance-of-payment problems in a way that would negatively impact the international
economy.[26][27] The incentive problem of moral hazard—when economic agents maximise their own utility to the
detriment of others because they do not bear the full consequences of their actions—is mitigated through conditions
rather than providing collateral; countries in need of IMF loans do not generally possess internationally valuable
collateral anyway.[27]
Conditionality also reassures the IMF that the funds lent to them will be used for the purposes defined by the Articles of
Agreement and provides safeguards that country will be able to rectify its macroeconomic and structural
imbalances.[27] In the judgment of the IMF, the adoption by the member of certain corrective measures or policies will
allow it to repay the IMF, thereby ensuring that the resources will be available to support other members. [25]
As of 2004, borrowing countries have had a very good track record for repaying credit extended under the IMF's regular
lending facilities with full interest over the duration of the loan. This indicates that IMF lending does not impose a burden
on creditor countries, as lending countries receive market-rate interest on most of their quota subscription, plus any of
their own-currency subscriptions that are loaned out by the IMF, plus all of the reserve assets that they provide the
IMF.[16]

List of Managing Directors[edit]

Country of
Nr Dates Name Background
origin

6 May 1946 – 5 May Politician, Economist, Lawyer, Economics

1 Dr. Camille Gutt Belgium
1951 Minister, Finance Minister

3 August 1951 – 3
2 Ivar Rooth Sweden Economist, Lawyer, Central Banker
October 1956

21 November 1956 – Economist, Lawyer, Academic, League of

3 Per Jacobsson Sweden
5 May 1963 Nations, BIS

1 September 1963 – Pierre-Paul Lawyer, Businessman, Civil Servant, Central

4 France
31 August 1973 Schweitzer Banker

1 September 1973 – Politician, Economist, Academic, Finance

5 Dr. Johan Witteveen
18 June 1978 Netherlands Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, CPB

18 June 1978 – 15 Jacques de

6 France Businessman, Civil Servant, Central Banker
January 1987 Larosière

16 January 1987 – 14 Michel

Dr.
7 France Economist, Civil Servant, Central Banker
February 2000 Camdessus

1 May 2000 – 4 March Politician, Economist, Civil Servant, EBRD,

8 Horst Köhler Germany
2004 President

7 June 2004 – 31 Politician, Businessman, Economics Minister,

9 Rodrigo Rato Spain
October 2007 Finance Minister, Deputy Prime Minister

1 November 2007 – Dr.Dominique Politician, Economist, Lawyer, Businessman,

10 France
18 May 2011 Strauss-Kahn Economics Minister, Finance Minister
 Country of
Nr Dates Name Background
origin

5 July 2011 – 12
11 Christine Lagarde France Politician, Lawyer, Finance Minister
September 2019

1 October 2019 – Kristalina

Dr.
12 Bulgaria Politician, Economist
present Georgieva

On 28 June 2011, Christine Lagarde was named managing director of the IMF, replacing Dominique Strauss-Kahn.

Previous managing director Dominique Strauss-Kahn was arrested in connection with charges of sexually assaulting a
New York hotel room attendant and res
World Bank
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Not to be confused with World Bank Group.

World Bank

World Bank logo

Motto Working for a World Free of Poverty

Formation July 1944; 75 years ago

Type Monetary International Financial Organization

Legal status Treaty

Headquarters 1818 H Street NW, Washington, D.C., U.S.[1]

Membership 189 countries (IBRD)[2]

173 countries (IDA)[2]

Key people  David Malpass

(President)[3]

 Anshula Kant

(Managing Director and Chief Financial Officer)

 Penny Goldberg

(Chief Economist)[4]

Parent organization World Bank Group

The World Bank (French: Banque mondiale)[5] is an international financial institution that
provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries for the purpose of pursuing
capital projects.[6] It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a
component of the World Bank Group.
The World Bank's most recent stated goal is the reduction of poverty.[7] As of November 2018, the
largest recipients of World Bank loans were India ($859 million in 2018) and China ($370 million
in 2018), through loans from IBRD.[8][9]
World Bank Group[edit]
The World Bank Group is an extended family of five international organizations, and the parent organization of the
World Bank, the collective name given to the first two listed organizations, the IBRD and the IDA:

 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

 International Development Association (IDA)
 International Finance Corporation (IFC)
 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
 International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

Presidents[edit]
Name Dates Nationality Previous work

Eugene 1946–
United States Newspaper publisher and Chairman of the Federal Reserve
Meyer 1946

John J. 1947–
United States Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War
McCloy 1949

Eugene R. 1949–
United States Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank
Black, Sr. 1963

George 1963–
United States Bank executive with First Boston Corporation
Woods 1968

Robert 1968– President of the Ford Motor Company, US Defense Secretary under
United States
McNamara 1981 Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson

Alden W. 1981–
United States Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America
Clausen 1986

Barber 1986–
United States New York State Senator and US Congressman
Conable 1991

Lewis T. 1991–
United States Bank executive with J.P. Morgan
Preston 1995

James 1995– United States Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office.
Wolfensohn 2005 Australia (prev.) Corporate lawyer and banker

United States US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dean

Paul 2005–
of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns
Wolfowitz 2007 Hopkins University, prominent architect of 2003 invasion of Iraq,
resigned World Bank post due to ethics scandal[31]

Robert 2007–
United States Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative
Zoellick 2012

United States Former Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine
2012–
Jim Yong Kim South at Harvard, president of Dartmouth College, naturalized American
2019
Korea (prev.) citizen[32]

2019–
Kristalina Former European Commissioner for the Budget and Human Resources
2019 Bulgaria
Georgieva and 2010's "European of the Year"
(acting)

David 2019–
United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs
Malpass present

Chief Economists[edit]
Main article: World Bank Chief Economist

Name Dates Nationality

Hollis B. Chenery 1972–1982 United States

Anne Osborn Krueger 1982–1986 United States

Stanley Fischer 1988–1990 United States/Israel

Lawrence Summers 1991–1993 United States

Michael Bruno 1993–1996 Israel

Joseph E. Stiglitz 1997–2000 United States

Nicholas Stern 2000–2003 United Kingdom

François Bourguignon 2003–2007 France

Justin Yifu Lin 2008–2012 China

Kaushik Basu 2012–2016 India

Shanta Devarajan 2016–2018 United States

World Trade Organization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
show
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in
Indonesian. (August 2019) Click [show] for important translation instructions.

"WTO" redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).

World Trade Organization

Organisation mondiale du commerce (in French)

Organización Mundial del Comercio (in Spanish)

Members

Members, dually represented by the EU

Observers

Non-participant states

Formation 1 January 1995; 24 years ago

 Type International trade organization

Purpose Reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade

Headquarters Centre William Rappard, Geneva, Switzerland

Coordinates 46°13′27″N 06°08′58″ECoordinates:

46°13′27″N 06°08′58″E

Region served Worldwide

Membership 164 member states[1]

Official English, French, Spanish[2]

language

Director- Roberto Azevêdo

General

Budget 197.2 million Swiss francs (approx. 209 million US$) in

2018.[3]

Staff 640[4]

Website www.wto.org

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is concerned

with the regulation of international trade between nations. The WTO officially commenced on 1
January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994,
replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. It is
the largest international economic organization in the world.[5][6]
The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between
participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute
resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are
signed by representatives of member governments[7]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[8] The
WTO prohibits discrimination between trading partners, but provides exceptions for
environmental protection, national security, and other important goals.[9] Trade-related disputes
are resolved by independent judges at the WTO through a dispute resolution process.[9]
The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo,[10][11] who leads a staff of over 600
people in Geneva, Switzerland.[12] A trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of
decisions, was agreed by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement
in the organization's history.[13][14] On 23 January 2017, the amendment to the WTO Trade Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement marks the first time since the
organization opened in 1995 that WTO accords have been amended, and this change should
secure for developing countries a legal pathway to access affordable remedies under WTO
rules.[15]
Studies show that the WTO boosted trade,[16][17][9] and that barriers to trade would be higher in the
absence of the WTO.[18] The WTO has highly influenced the text of trade agreements, as "nearly
all recent [preferential trade agreements (PTAs)] reference the WTO explicitly, often dozens of
times across multiple chapters... in many of these same PTAs we find that substantial portions of
treaty language—sometime the majority of a chapter—is copied verbatim from a WTO
agreement."[19]
GATT Negotiations before Uruguay[edit]
See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further
reducing tariffs. Then the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a
section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies represented the first major attempt to tackle trade
barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff
barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because not all
GATT members accepted these plurilateral agreements, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these
codes were amended in the Uruguay Round and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members.
Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in
1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two. [25] Despite attempts
in the mid-1950s and 1960s to establish some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT
continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional
basis.[26]

Functions[edit]
Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:

 It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements (with the exception is that
it does not enforce any agreements when China came into the WTO in Dec 2001) [47][48]
 It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes. [49][50]
Additionally, it is WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and
transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[48][50] Another priority of the WTO is
the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and
disciplines through technical cooperation and training. [51]

1. The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation and further the objectives of this
Agreement and of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, and shall also provide the framework for the
implementation, administration and operation of the multilateral Trade Agreements.
2. The WTO shall provide the forum for negotiations among its members concerning their multilateral trade
relations in matters dealt with under the Agreement in the Annexes to this Agreement.
3. The WTO shall administer the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes.
4. The WTO shall administer Trade Policy Review Mechanism.
5. With a view to achieving greater coherence in global economic policy making, the WTO shall cooperate, as
appropriate, with the international Monetary Fund (IMF) and with the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD) and its affiliated agencies. [52]
The above five listings are the additional functions of the World Trade Organization. As globalization proceeds in today's
society, the necessity of an International Organization to manage the trading systems has been of vital importance. As
the trade volume increases, issues such as protectionism, trade barriers, subsidies, violation of intellectual property
arise due to the differences in the trading rules of every nation. The World Trade Organization serves as the mediator
between the nations when such problems arise. WTO could be referred to as the product of globalization and also as
one of the most important organizations in today's globalized society.
The WTO is also a centre of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its
annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization. [53] Finally, the WTO
cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank. [49
United Nations
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"UN" redirects here. For other uses, see United Nations (disambiguation) and UN
(disambiguation).

United Nations Organization[show]

Flag

Emblem

Headquarters New York City (international territory)

  Arabic
Official languages
 Chinese
 English
 French
 Russian
 Spanish[1]

Type Intergovernmental organization

Membership 193 member states

2 observer states

Leaders

• Secretary-General António Guterres

• Deputy Secretary-General Amina J. Mohammed

• General Assembly President Tijjani Muhammad-Bande

• Economic and Social Council President Mona Juul

• Security Council President Vasily Nebenzya

Establishment

• UN Charter signed 26 June 1945 (74 years ago)

• Charter entered into force 24 October 1945 (74 years ago)

Website
UN.org
UN.int

The United Nations Organization (UNO) or simply, United Nations (UN), is

an intergovernmental organization responsible for maintaining international peace and security,
developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and being a
center for harmonizing the actions of nations.[2] It is the largest, most familiar, most internationally
represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world. The UN
is headquartered on international territory in New York City; other main offices are
in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna and The Hague.
The UN was established after World War II with the aim of preventing future wars, succeeding
the ineffective League of Nations.[3] On 25 April 1945, 50 governments met in San Francisco for a
conference and started drafting the UN Charter, which was adopted on 25 June 1945 and took
effect on 24 October 1945, when the UN began operations. Pursuant to the Charter, the
organization's objectives include maintaining international peace and security, protecting human
rights, delivering humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable development, and upholding
international law.[4] At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193,
representing the vast majority of the world's sovereign states.
The organization's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by
the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union and their respective allies. Its
missions have consisted primarily of unarmed military observers and lightly armed troops with
primarily monitoring, reporting and confidence-building roles.[5] UN membership grew significantly
following widespread decolonization beginning in the 1960s. Since then, 80 former colonies have
gained independence, including 11 trust territories that had been monitored by the Trusteeship
Council.[6] By the 1970s, the UN's budget for economic and social development programmes far
outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After the end of the Cold War, the UN shifted and
expanded its field operations, undertaking a wide variety of complex tasks.[7]
The UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly; the Security Council; the Economic and
Social Council; the Trusteeship Council; the International Court of Justice; and the UN
Secretariat. The UN System includes a multitude of specialized agencies, such as the World
Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO,
and UNICEF. Additionally, non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status
with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work. The UN's chief administrative
officer is the Secretary-General, currently Portuguese politician and diplomat António
Guterres since 1 January 2017. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary
contributions from its member states.
The UN, its officers, and its agencies have won many Nobel Peace Prizes, though other
evaluations of its effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization
to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called it
ineffective, biased, or corrupt.

Specialized agencies
Main article: List of specialized agencies of the United Nations

The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the United Nations can establish various specialized agencies to
fulfil its duties.[112] Some best-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture
Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank, and
the World Health Organization (WHO). The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies.
Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the
work of the WFP), and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by UNHCR).[113]

Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations

Established
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
in

Food and Agriculture José Graziano da

1 FAO Rome, Italy 1945
Organization Silva

International Atomic Energy

2 IAEA Vienna, Austria Yukiya Amano 1957
Agency

International Civil Aviation Montreal,

3 ICAO Fang Liu 1947
Organization Quebec, Canada

International Fund for Agricultural Kanayo F.

4 IFAD Rome, Italy 1977
Development Nwanze

5 ILO International Labour Organization Guy Ryder 1946 (1919)

Geneva, Switzerland

International Maritime London, United

6 IMO Kitack Lim 1948
Organization Kingdom
 Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations

Established
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
in

Washington,
7 IMF International Monetary Fund Christine Lagarde 1945 (1944)
D.C., United States

International Telecommunication
8 ITU Houlin Zhao 1947 (1865)
Union
Geneva, Switzerland

United Nations Educational,

9 UNESCO Scientific and Cultural Paris, France Audrey Azoulay 1946
Organization

United Nations Industrial

10 UNIDO Vienna, Austria Li Yong 1967
Development Organization

11 UNWTO World Tourism Organization Madrid, Spain Taleb Rifai 1974

12 UPU Universal Postal Union Bishar 1947 (1874)

Bern, Switzerland Abdirahman Hussein

David
Washington, Malpass (President)
13 WBG World Bank Group 1945 (1944)
D.C., United States Kristalina
Georgieva (CEO)

14 WFP World Food Programme Rome, Italy David Beasley 1963

15 WHO World Health Organization Tedros Adhanom 1948

Geneva, Switzerland

World Intellectual Property

16 WIPO Francis Gurry 1974
Organization
Geneva, Switzerland

World Meteorological Petteri

17 WMO 1950 (1873)
Organization Taalas (Secretary-General)
Geneva, Switzerland
Michel
 Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations

Established
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
in

Jarraud (President)

ANTIO GUTRESS