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EDITORIAL TEAM
b) Practical
References:
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Lecture-1
ECOPHYSIOLOGY
I.I INTRODUCTION
Eco physiology is a branch of plant physiology. It deals with the
ecological control on growth, reproduction, survival, abundance, and geographical
distribution of plants. It is well known that all these processes are affected by
interactions between plants with their physical, chemical, and biotic environment.
German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1969) was first to propose the word
Ecology (Greek; Oikos- house or place to live; Logos– study). Ecology is defined as
the study of the relationship of organisms or groups of organisms with their
environment. The questions addressed by eco physiologists are derived from
“ecology” in its broadest sense. It also includes questions originating from
agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and environmental sciences.
However, the eco physiological explanations often require
understanding even at a lower level of integration of organisms (i.e. about
physiology, biochemistry, biophysics and molecular biology).Ecophysiology also
addresses some societal issues like pollution, climate change, conservation of
nature etc. Thus, a modern eco physiologist requires a good understanding of both
molecular aspects of plant metabolic processes and also functioning of an intact
plant in its environment.
For example
a) Wheat is cultivated largely in North India because it requires low
temperatures for germination and vegetative growth.
b) Sugarcane is a less yielder under Punjab climatic conditions as compared to
that of Tamilnadu. (A warm summer season with less variation in mean
monthly temperatures is the reason for higher cane yield in Tamilnadu.)
(C) Lithosphere is the earth’s crust made up of different layers, like SIAL, made up
with silicon and Aluminum, SIMA, which contains Silicon and magnesium and
MANTLE, the densest part of the earth’s crust.
The biosphere is not entirely hospitable to life and based on this fact
biosphere is identified into two regions.
Parabiosphere : The region of the biosphere ,with severe environmental conditions
which permits inhabitation for some organisms only.
Ex : Higher altitudes, cold Polar Regions and numerous localized regions such as
volcanoes (burning mountains) geysers (a spring that throws forth intermittent jets
of heated water) and highly polluted areas.
Eubiosphere : The region of the biosphere in which active metabolic processes of
the organisms are possible. This region is hospitable for much of the organisms of
the earth.
Modern ecologists fear that parabiosphere is increasing in size at the
expense of the eubiosphere, owing to the destructive activities of man.
The following diagram clearly illustrates how the energy is transferred from
one component to the other.
The main source of energy in the entire universe is the Sun. The autotrophs or
producers [Green plants and Photosynthetic bacteria] traps and converts this solar
energy into chemical energy and stores it in the form of adenosine tri phosphate
(ATP). Autotrophs are consumed by the consumer class and they may be primary,
secondary or tertiary consumers. Producers and consumers after their death are
subjected to decomposition by the decomposers, where the complex organic food
substances storing energy are broken down in to simpler substances like sugars
and nutrients. They are again taken up by the producers.
SUN
CLIMATE REGIME
PRODUCERS
FOREST ECOSYSTEM MARINE
ECOSYSTEM
GRASSLAND NUTRIENTS
ECOSYSTEM
TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS ECOSYSTEM
DESERT DECOMPOSERS CONSUMERS
ECOSYSTEM
FRESH WATER
MAN ENGINEERED ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
10
1) Primary consumers: All the heterotrophs which live directly upon plant food
are called as primary consumers. These are herbivores like, Grasshopper,
Goat, Cow, Deer, Rabbit, Elephant etc.
2) Secondary consumers: They are heterotrophs and derive their food
requirement from herbivores. These secondary consumers are carnivores
E.g. Frog, Tiger, Lion etc.
3) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores which feed on other carnivores
(mostly Secondary consumers) e.g. snake.
c) Decomposers: They are also heterotrophic organisms which break down
complex organic compounds of dead plants and animals and release inorganic
substances which are made available to autotrophs. Since they consume some
chemical substances for their own growth and reproduction they are also called as
microconsumers. These decomposers play a very special and important role in
the ecosystem
E.g. Bacteria, Actinomyces and Fungi.
*******
11
Lecture-2
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems are classified as natural ecosystems (E.g. a pond, a
lake, a river, a stream, a forest or a coral reef) and Artificial or man engineered
ecosystems (E.g. crop ecosystems of maize, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut etc.).
Another way of classification of ecosystems is as follows
ECOSYSTEMS
2.I Aquatic ecosystems: The water ecosystems on the earth are mainly of two
types (a) Fresh water and (b) Marine ecosystems
a) Macrophytes: these are mainly rooted large plants. They are submerged or
Free floating or emergent hydrophytes.
E.g. Typha Nymphia, Chara, Hydrilla, Salvenia, Eichhornia, Lemna etc.
b) Phytoplanktons: These are minute, Suspended or floating lower plants.
E.g.Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Volvox, diatoms, chlamydomonas
etc.
12
c) Tertiary consumers (carnivores): They are large fish such as game fish which
feed upon small fish and thus become tertiary (top) consumers.
NOTE: In a pond, fish may occupy more than one tropic levels.
13
3) Decomposers: They are chiefly bacteria and some fungi .These microbes are
active in decay of dead organic matter of Producers and macro consumers.
2.2 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS: Under this heading Forest ecosystem and crop
ecosystems are discussed here.
2.2.I FOREST ECOSYSTEM
The different components of forest ecosystem are:
a) Abiotic component: forest soil consists of minerals and accumulated dead
organic debris. Litter accumulation and complex stratification are characteristic
features of forest ecosystem.
b) Biotic component:
1) Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and
greater degree of stratification in tropical forests. E.g. Tectona grandis, Butea
frondosa, Shorea robusta etc. Besides trees, there are also shrubs and ground
vegetation. In temperate forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus, acer,
Betula, Thuja, etc,
2) Consumers: These are of three types:
14
15
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like frogs and some birds that
eat insects.
c) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores like snakes and hawks. They feed
on secondary consumers like. frogs and small birds.
c. Decomposers
Ploughing , application of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and the
organic matter in the soil subsystem are some of the factors which influence the
decomposer activity in the cropland ecosystem. Bacteria, actinomyces and fungi,
are the chief decomposers responsible for decay, and humification. This process
makes minerals available to producers.
Plants are eaten by animals and the death of the plants and animals is
ultimately followed by their decomposition. This process involves transfer of organic
matter which can be equated in terms of energy. If we could measure the amount
and the rate of transfer of organic matter from one organism to the other, we can
build up a dynamic picture of that ecosystem. The flow of energy and materials is
shown in figure.1
From figure.1 it is clear that the movement of energy in any ecosystem is
unidirectional and the movement of materials is cyclic in nature. Energy conversion
in to biomass depends upon the rate at which radiant energy is converted by
Producers. Besides, by feeding on producers how much energy is assimilated by
herbivores and carnivores also matters. This will decide the amount of energy
finally available for decomposers? .For example, in a given period of time if ‘X’
amount of solar energy is converted by the producers this will become the
maximum amount of energy available in that ecosystem. In that, if ‘Y’ amount of
energy is lost in the process of its transfer from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers, the amount of energy finally available for decomposers becomes ‘X-
Y’. This X-Y fraction is the net energy that helps in decomposition of organic matter
and release of nutrients. Therefore it should be noted that, more the energy fixed
per unit time and unit area, more will be the flow of materials in that ecosystem in a
cyclic manner.
2.4 PRODUCTIVITY: The rate of production of organic matter per unit area in
unit time is termed as productivity. There are two levels of production, primary and
16
secondary. The amount of new organic matter resulting from photosynthesis (by
producers) is termed as primary production, while secondary production occurs
in herbivores, carnivores and decomposers, using materials synthesized in primary
production. Further, at each level it can be distinguished into gross production,
that is, the amount of organic matter produced; and net production, the amount of
organic matter that remains after respiration.
GP-R = NP
SUN
HERBIVORES
CARNIVORES
PROCEDURES
(Carbohydrates,
protein, fats &
nucleic acids)
DECOMPOSERS
K
N P H Mg
Ca S
C
Zn
Mn Mo
Cu B
Fe Cl
NUTRIENT POOL
17
to the next tropic level. Thus, energy flow in an ecosystem depends not only on the
size of producers and their rate of production but also depends upon Assimilation
efficiency of producers, herbivores and carnivores.
Solar radiation D D D
AUTOTROPHS
(Producers) HERBIVORES CARNIVORES
N.U
N.U
N.U
R R R
The basic source of energy for the ecosystem is solar radiation. A surface
exposed at right angles to the sun’s rays outside the earth’s atmosphere would
receive energy at the rate of 1.94 cal / cm-2 / min (SOLAR CONSTANT). This solar
energy is effective only during day light hours and, because of absorption in passing
through the atmosphere, scattering by smoke, dust particles and clouds, only 47%
of the solar radiation reach the ground level. However, this varies with latitude,
season and locality.
Green plants use this energy for photosynthesis. The leaf area of the plant
is the best measure of photosynthetic size, and the most appropriate measure of
leaf area is Leaf Area Index i.e. the leaf area per unit land area . In cropland
ecosystems the LAI value is generally in the range of 2-6. In natural communities it
may be as high as 6-13 (forest) and 3-15 (grasses). In annual crops LAI steadily
rises with age, attains peak at flowering and than declines. LAI alone does not
account for the total assimilatory surface of the plant, as stem and ears possessing
chlorophyll add significantly to the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant.
18
photosynthetic gains. The important factors that effect primary production are LAI
and NAR. Besides high Co2 concentration, leaf temperature, precipitation and
nutrient status also plays an important role.
Considering the global primary production the amount of radiation reaching
the earth’s surface is approximately 3.5x1023 joules per year. Of this only 3-4% is
fixed annually by plant tissues leading to global primary production of about
17x1013kg (dry weight) per year. The primary productivity differs in different
ecosystems according to the prevailing conditions.
Net primary productivity of various ecosystems
19
Lecture-3
GLOBAL CLIMATE AND CROP DISTRIBUTION
A SIMPLE DIAGRAM
EXPLAINING MAJOR
CLIMATIC REGIONS
OF THE WORLD
20
Crops that are grown in subtropical and temperate regions, where lower
temperatures prevail upon are called as temperate crops. In these areas, the
“growing season” is the crucial factor for crop growth. Which otherwise decides
how many months are congenial for crop cultivation. Here the growing season is the
period between last frost in winter ( December, January and February) and the first
frost in autumn(September, October and November))
When we further move towards Polar Regions this growing season further
constricts. Because, in Taiga regions there will be a snow cover for 5-7 months and
in tundra’s temperature is less than 0oc for more than 9 months period, which allows
us to grow very less number of crops here.
Thus, one should understand the fact, that, it is not possible to cultivate all
the crops in all the climatic regions of the world.
3.2.1 RICE:
21
3.2.2 Wheat:
Note: Wheat is a very hardy crop which shows great adoptability to various climatic
regions. It needs an annual rainfall of 40-75cm only. Although yields and
productivity levels are highest in temperate mid latitudes, the major wheat belts are
in the drier semi arid climates. In dry tropical areas wheat is mainly cultivated
because of it’s lesser water requirement (Rainfall of 40-75cm). Half of the world has
the possibility to get this much of rainfall. Thus, wheat is most extensively grown
crop of the world.
3.2.3 Maize:
It grows best where the summers are warm and humid. About half of the
world’s maize is grown in U.S. (In U.S from central Ohio State to central Nebraska
region corn is cultivated in a stretch of 1400 Kms which is popularly called as Corn
Belt). Maize requires 34oc temperature for its optimum growth and 21-30oc for
22
better tasseling. The most essential climatic factor for maize is a 140 days frost free
period. Thus it is mainly grown in temperate regions. Major maize producers are
The U.S., China, EU-27, Brazil and Mexico.
3.2.4 Sorghum:
Major producers of Sorghum are Nigeria, U.S. India, Mexico and Sudan.
3.2.5 Sugarcane:
This is a tropical crop thrives best in hot and humid sunny areas.
Temperatures ranging between 20oc – 27oc and a rainfall of 75-120cm are ideal for
its growth. Ideal climate for a one year crop would include at least 4-5 months with
a mean daily temperature of 30-35oc and 1.5-2.0 months of cooler temperatures
prior to harvest which enhances sucrose accumulation.
Hence, it is largely grown in tropical monsoon and tropical grass land areas.
Brazil (1/3 of world Sugarcane producing area), India, China, Thailand and Mexico
are the lead producers of Sugarcane.
23
NOTE - While understanding climatic regions of the world we should not expect fixed
latitudinal zonation like 0-10 o, 10-20 o, 20-30 o etc., because of the local physiographic
factors role in deciding the climate of a locality. Many a times a slight overlapping of
latitudes for eg. 0-10 o, 5-15 o etc., is quite common . Remember that, with in the same
latitudinal width there may exist, more than one type of climatic conditions.
24
An agro climatic region is a land unit in terms of major climate and growing
period which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars
(FAO,1983)
Planning commission of India (1984) has divided the country in to 15 Agro
climatic regions on the basis of factors like soil type, rainfall pattern, temperature
etc.,They are summarized in the following table
.
AGRO CLIMATIC REGION SPREAD
Eastern Himalayan Region Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal and all North
eastern states ( Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland)
Eastern Plateau and Hill region Maharashtra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
West Coast plains and Ghat regions Tamilnadu, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka and
Maharashtra
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26
Lecture-4
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
27
All life on earth is supported by the stream of energy Radiated by the sun
and flowing into the Ecosphere. The ecosphere receives solar radiation at wave
lengths ranging from 290 nm to about 3000 nm. Radiation at shorter wavelengths
(ultra- violet) is absorbed in the upper atmosphere by the ozone and oxygen in the
air, the long wavelengths or infrared radiation is absorbed by water – vapour and
carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. About 40-50% of the solar energy received falls
in the spectral region 380-780 nm which we perceive as visible light.
Radiation is characterized by its wavelengths. It is composed of small
packets of energy called quanta or photons. The energy in a single photon is
inversely proportional to its wavelength. That means, shorter wavelengths possess
highest energy.
Ultraviolet – B radiation
28
Hill reaction activity was reduced in oats and soybeans. Electron transport
system became ineffective. Photo system – II was more inhibited when
compared Photosystem – I.
When exposed to 72 hours of UV- B radiation, the double membrane of
chloroplast was disrupted and vesicles are formed in stroma. In mitochondria
less number of cristae was observed.
The enzyme RuBP carboxylase activity was reduced in soybean ultimately
affecting photosynthesis.
Dark respiration was stimulated much. Protein content was reduced
significantly.
There was reduction in nodulation and nitrogen fixation in Crotaloria juncea,
when exposed to UV- B radiation.
Radiation effect on plant processes may be divided into three categories viz.
photoenergetic effects, Photo cybernetic effects and photo destructive effects. All
these effects are brought by Photo receptors (pigments) of the plants.
29
They occur with extremely high intensity of radiation. The damage consists
primarily of Photo oxidation of chloroplast pigments. Some of the sensitive plants to
strong light are algae, some ferns and shade plants.
*******
30
Lecture-5
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: CLIMATIC FACTORS : PRECIPITATION
Since all life requires water and water is unevenly distributed over the earth,
its abundance or scarcity in the environment is reflected on the vegetation. About
73% of earth’s surface is covered with water in the form of rivers, streams and
oceans. The source of precipitation is the atmospheric water vapor. This source of
atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface through precipitation and the water from
the earth’s surface goes back to the atmosphere through evaporation and
transpiration. This is a continuous and cyclic process termed as Hydrological Cycle
or Water Cycle.
At a given time the amount of water in the atmosphere has been estimated to
be only enough to provide a one inch rainfall for the whole world. It can meet only
10 day’s supply. This limited supply means that the Hydrological cycle must be
rapid and continuous.
According to Hutchinson (1957), world precipitation amounts to about
4.46x1020 Gallons annually, of this amount about 0.99x1020G falls on land surfaces
and remaining 2.47x1020 G falls on oceans and river surfaces.
Rain
Of the various forms of precipitation, rainfall is the main source of water for
terrestrial plants.
Snow
White crystals of frozen water formed directly from water vapour of the air at
temperature less than 00C is known as snow. Snow may be injurious or beneficial to
plants in a number of ways.
Its weight may cause physical injuries to the plants, especially when the
snow fall is accompanied by wind. Plants ranging in size from small grasses to lofty
pines are damaged by heavy snows. Glazing, which is the coating of leaves and
stems by snow may cause damage by suffocation, accumulation of toxic materials,
oxygen deficiency or by physical breaking.
The gradual melting of mountain snow feeds streams descending to the low
lands during summer. Winter surveys of the depth and water content of snow in
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such regions helps in good forecast of the supply of irrigation water that is available
in the following season.
Hail
It is a special type of precipitation during summer season in the form of small
ice pieces. This is too infrequent and not a significant source of soil water. It is
called a Hail-storm when it is accompanied by wind. It may cause considerable
temporary damage to the aerial parts of plants.
Orchard crops like Mango during flowering and fruit setting damages severely by
this hail storms.
Sleet
Frozen or partly frozen rain is called as sleet. This is not a frequent
phenomenon and causes considerable damage to plants, especially in case of
tender crops.
Dew
The moisture condensed upon the surfaces of cool bodies like grasses,
usually at night, is called as dew. It is the main source of water for the ephemeral
plants (which can complete their life cycle in a very short time like drought evading
types) that grow in the deserts. Dew formation occurs normally during winter.
32
33
being heavy rain, run off or irrigation. But whatever be the reason for excessive
water, the effect is much the same and depends on the sensitivity and tolerance of
the species.
Apart from roots, the soil micro – organisms are greatly affected by poor
aeration in waterlogged situations.
As the sun rises in the morning, the earth’s surface beings to gain more heat
than the heat lost by radiation so that, its temperature rises progressively and
rapidly. After several hours a relatively high surface temperature is attained and
radiation gains are approximately equaled by losses due to re-radiation and
conduction. After the sun sets, the earth’s warmed surface continues to give up its
accumulated heat to the atmosphere.
34
When temperature rises above the maximum for growth, plant enters in to
Quiescent State. When temperature drops below the minimum for growth, a plant
becomes Dormant.
35
36
Low temperature injury occurs when a plant gives off more heat than it
absorbs. The death by cold is the consequence primarily of disturbed nucleic acid
and protein metabolism though changes in permeability of membranes and
stoppage of Photosynthesis are also involved. Plants resistant to chilling above the
freezing point are damaged by frost that is by ice formation in the tissues. Usually
ice is formed not in the protoplasts (Intracellular ice formation) but rather in the
intracellular spaces and in the cell walls (Free space or outer space). This sort of ice
formation is called Inter cellular ice formation.
The sensitivity of plants to low temperatures, and the amount and severity of
injury, depends to great extent on the physiological conditions of the plant. For
example mineral nutrition, especially the nitrogen level has a particularly strong
influence on low temperature tolerance. Tissues too high in nitrogen are soft, with
moderate to low nitrogen content are harder and more tolerant of temperature
extremes.
A plant is not equally resistant to low temperatures at all stages of its life-
cycle. Seeds and spores are generally the most resistant stages. All organs of the
same plant are not necessarily equally resistant to low temperature at the same
time. For example the ovule may be killed without apparent injury to the carpel.
37
2. Freezing – Sensitive Plants : These can tolerate low temperature but they
are damaged as soon as ice beings to form in the cells. Ex: Valencia
peanuts.
3. Freezing – Tolerant Plants : These plants survive extra cellular freezing
and the associated withdrawal of water from the cells. Ex: Certain freshwater
algae, Algae of tidal zones and Perennial land plants.
Of late, accumulated Growing degree days are used synonymously for heat units.
Growing degree days: This is the arithmetic accumulation of daily mean
temperatures above certain threshold temperature.
During a crop season, number of days the crop is exposed to a daily mean
temperature above the base temperature is calculated. When it is calculated every
day it is called as growing degree day. Accumulation of such growing degree days
during a crop season is called as Effective Heat units. For example accumulated
heat units for Maize and Cotton in United States climatic conditions are calculated
as 1600-1800(from planting to harvesting) and 1900 units respectively. These heat
units help us to estimate the crop yield by modeling.
******
38
Lecture-6
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES:CLIMATIC FACTORS :
6.1 EDAPHIC FACTORS
The factors of the environment that are related to the soil are called
edaphic factors. The branch of science concerned with the study of soil
formation, composition and classification of soil types is called pedology.
Knowledge of fundamentals of this field is an absolute prerequisite to
understand plant ecology.
Soil contains most of the mineral elements which are essential for
plant growth. Deficiency of any one of these elements severely impairs plant
growth. Besides, excess presence of these elements also causes serious
problems. For example excess of Aluminium in acidic soils cause leaf
yellowing, distorted root growth and reduced shoot growth.
a) Soil Moisture
b) Soil Temperature
c) Soil Aeration
e) Soil organisms
f) Soil nutrients
39
6.2.1 OXALOPHYTES:
Oxalophytes are the plants that grow on acidic soils. The acidity in
the soil develops due to chemical composition of parent materials,
metabolism of soil microbes and accumulation of organic matter. In
temperate climates soil acidity develops mainly due to accumulation of un
decomposed organic matter. On acidic soils several Pinaceae, Eriaceae,&
Polytricum species grow well. Roots of these plants are restricted in the
upper acidic soil horizon.
6.2.2 HALOPHYTES:
Halophytes are those plants which grow on soils and in water- rich in
salts. The non Halophytes such as Sugar beet and Alfalfa sometimes grow
on saline soil and are known as facultative halophytes. In saline conditions
water is usually not available owing to its high concentration and plants are
unable to absorb water in these conditions. (The mechanisms for salt
tolerance are discussed in the later part of this chapter)
The effect of dissolved salts on the plant is partly osmotic and partly
chemical. Important adaptive features of plants growing on saline soils are as
follows.
a) Plants grow chiefly on rainy season when soil solution has been diluted
and salts move down below the root zone.
c) Plants are usually shallow rooted. Surface feeding roots are helpful in
aeration, as the soil becomes water logged in the rainy season.
40
while in tropics they shows a remarkable tree growth which are called as
Mangrove forests.
2. They exhibit a vast network of prop roots which supports plants high
above the water mark.
4. They exhibit vivipary (Seeds germinate inside the fruits while they are
still on the mother plant)
6.2.3 PSAMMOPHYTES
Psammophytes are the plants adapted to sandy soils. Since the soil is
made up of bigger soil particles, the water is not retained in the upper layers
of soil but it trickles down to reach ground water table. Thus, most of the time
the soils remain deficient in water and plants have to depend on dew and
ground water for their requirement. Therefore, psammophytes have a well
developed root system which enables them to procure water both from
deeper layers of the soil as well as from upper soil horizon.
6.2.4 LITHOPHYTES:
Lithophytes are the plants grown on exposed rock surface. Plants
which can withstand high degree of desiccation grow on such surfaces.
Lithophytes have the capacity to utilize the atmospheric humidity as a
source of water.
Ex.Lichens and Selaginella
6.2.5 CHASMOPHYTES:
Chasmpophytes are the plants which can grow on rock crevices. These
are grown slightly on a better condition of soil moisture. Soil in rock crevices
is made up of gravel and coarse sand with low organic matter content. Plants
growing in such habitats are mainly surface feeders and their roots are
exposed to soil surface.
41
Salt affected soils contain excess soluble salts in the root zone of crop
plants, which adversely affects their growth and yield. In India they are estimated to
cover about 7 Million ha area.
Plants are classified as glycophytes or halophytes according to their
capacity to grow on salt medium. Most plants are glycophytes and cannot tolerate
salt stress because-
High salt concentration (chlorides & sulphates (Cl - &SO4-- ) of Na and Mg in
case of saline soils) decrease the osmotic potential of the soil solution creating
a water stress in plants. This is known as physiological drought (i.e. water is
available around the root zone but plant cannot take up this water because of
the highly concentrated soil solution around the root)
Secondly, they cause severe ion toxicity.
Finally, the interactions of salts with mineral nutrition may result in nutrient
imbalances and deficiencies.
Alkali soils are rich in Carbonates and Bicarbonates which makes the
physical condition of the soil so poor. For example, seed germination is difficult
in these soils because of the Crust formation by the salts.
Relative tolerance of crops to salts:
Tolerant Medium tolerance Sensitive
Barley, Cotton, Sugar Wheat, Rice, Oats, Maize Legumes (Mung, Urd,
beet, Tobacco. Sorghum, Potato Gram), Beans, Groundnut,
Alfalfa
42
6.3.2 ANTIOXIDANTS:
Salt stress like any other abiotic stress leads to production of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) like
-
.
Singlet oxygen (1O2), Superoxide radical ( O2 )
.
Hydrogen Peroxide ( H2O2), Hydroxyl radical ( OH ).
43
Lecture-7
The factors related to the form and surface behavior of the earth constitute
physiographic factors or topographic factors.
Topography affects the growth of plants in two ways
a) They bring about local variations in climatic conditions
Altitude refers to the position of the land surface to the mean sea
level (MSL). The continuous increase in altitude and its effect on vegetation
can be best observed on the mountains. Increase in altitude is usually
associated with climatic changes, namely
Decrease in temperature
Increase in precipitation
Increase in wind velocity
Increase in humidity
Steep slope causes swift runoff of water after rain. This will decrease the
moisture content of the soil and the soil becomes untenable due to erosion.
44
The water table on the slopes is also very low. Further, in the adjacent
valleys the water table is nearer to the soil level and therefore they have
luxuriant vegetation. There is no possibility for accumulation of humus on
slopes and thus difficult for plants to establish on slopes. It is because of this
reason absence of higher plants has become a characteristic feature of steep
slopes.
A mountain slope exposed to weak intensity of light and strong dry winds
has xerophytic vegetation.
The slope exposed to direct sunlight and humid winds has luxurious
mesophytic vegetation.
During the monsoon season, warm moist winds from the Bay of
Bengal move towards Northern part of the country. When these winds drift
towards north eastern side they are forced to converge in the narrower zone
over the Khasi Hills of Assam and Meghalaya. Thus moisture is concentrated
in this area. The alignment of the Khasi Hills (east to west) places them
directly in the path of the airflow from the Bay of Bengal, producing a
significant uplift of moisture laden winds, their cooling and condensation. On
the other hand similar winds moving from the Arabian Sea blow over a part of
Rajasthan without condensing into rain drops because there is no mountain
chain in the path of the wind.
45
Air moves from a region of high pressure to the one of low pressure. Pressure
differences are caused basically by unequal heating of the atmosphere, the
equatorial region receiving more heat than regions further south and north. In
general this results in a movement of air from the poles (High pressure) towards the
equator (low pressure).Thus, winds correct the imbalance of solar energy and
prevents a cumulative excess of energy in the tropics and a deficit in polar regions.
7.2.1 Effects of wind on vegetation: Wind has both positive and negative effects
on plants.
Winds help in transporting of water vapor to inland areas from large water
bodies. They play a crucial role in hydrological cycle.
Transporting of pollen and seed dissemination is an important ecological
function performed by winds.
Winds have a powerful effect on the humidity of atmosphere. Layers of
humid air adjacent to plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind. This tends to
keep relative humidity low and to increase transpiration rate. The velocity of
wind increases with height so trees may suffer more from drying effects than
do herbaceous plants.
Unidirectional strong wind causes complete distortion of general shape of the
plant and its branches by killing the buds and twigs.
Plants like Rice, Maize and Sugarcane fall flat on the ground due to lodging
caused by strong winds. Single trees or a group of trees which are uprooted
in forests by strong winds are known as ‘wind throws’ or ‘wind falls’.
Winds carrying coarse sand particles may tear off the delicate surface of the
leaf .It allows easy entry of pathogens.
Along the sea coasts strong winds carry salts from the near by seas and
deposit them on plants which is called as ‘salt spray’
Plants growing under the influences of dry winds causes’ desiccation. This
will decrease the turgidity of the cells and their size is reduced. Plants
exposed to such unidirectional winds are usually dwarfed in their stature.
Much damage to crops is caused by hot dry winds during the time of
flowering. The decrease in flower set is because of the upset caused by hot
dry winds in the internal water balance of the plants.
Soil erosion is aggravated by winds in dry regions and areas with extended
periods of drought.
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46
Lecture-8
The environmental factors concerned with the effect of fire on vegetation are
called as pyric factors.
8.1 Sources of fires
I) Natural fires
1. Lightening
S No. Type of Reasons for fire & matter Extent of damage caused
fire involved
1 Ground Occurs when accumulated Destroys all plants that are
fires humus and debris catches rooted within the debris
fire. They show Smoldering
effect (burn and smoke
without flame)
2 Surface When dried twigs and fallen Rapidly spreads over the forest
fires leaves catch fires. floor Kills and scorches ground
flora and bases of forest trees
3 Crown When tree tops of dense Spreads easily from one crown
fires forests catches fire it leads to another. Engulfs the entire
to crown fires. forest, cause huge flames and
consume entire tree from top to
bottom
Negative effects:
1. Destruction of humus and organic matter. It can also disrupt Nitrogen cycle.
2. Destroys seeds and seedlings of many plant species
3. Damages surface layer of the soil and its fertility.
4. Changes the composition of forest species.
a) Sciophytes are displaced by heliophytes
b) Fire sensitive species are replaced by fire tolerant species.
5. Fire exerts stimulating effect on growth and seed production ability of
certain weed species like Cynodon dactylon .
6. Fire leaves wounds and large scars on the trunks of woody trees which
facilitate easy entry of parasitic bacteria and fungi.
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Positive effects:
1. With fires, immediate supply of potash increases.
2. In certain cases harmful surface layer (highly acidic raw humus) may be
eliminated. This practice helps in increasing the PH value of the soil.
3. Burning of undesirable debris eliminates certain harmful pathogens.
4. Well planned burning is taken up to clear old forests and to take up new
plantations.
Plant adaptations to fires
Seeds of certain species are fire-resistant and easily escape fire injury
Ex.Pinus
Certain plants like Eucalyptus possess auxiliary buds and ligno tubers.
They are dormant during fires. Once the fire puts off they helps in
producing new growth.
Certain plants develop thick bark and cork layers to escape from fires.
Burning crop residues: Burning crop residue in the respective fields is a common
phenomenon as preparatory measure of fields before monsoon rains and otherwise
too. When crop residue is burnt in a controlled manner it turns into ash. Ash has its
value especially in improving the pH of the acidic soils. It also adds potassium to the
soil. How ever, burning practice leads to loss of valuable organic matter.
Rejuvenation of plants : Forest fires help the seeds and cones of certain plant
species. These cones which are coated with resins releases seeds only when they
are exposed to fires.
Ex. Pinus plant has serotinus cones completely covered with thick resin.
These seeds remain dormant even for a period of 75 years. This seeds get a
chance to germinate only when they are exposed to fires.
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Lecture-9
The plants ability to live and grow depends not only on the physical factors of the
environment but also on other organisms which can usually modify the physical
environment. Physical factors are usually the governing forces of environment but
some biotic influences are truly direct.
Some of the important biotic factors are herbivores( grazing effect), symbiosis,
insectivorous plants, epiphyte, parasites and mycorrizha.
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2) In the processes of nodule formation, host plant releases tryptophan in to the soil
which is taken up by bacteria (rhizobium)and metabolises it in to IAA.This IAA helps
for growth and multiplication of root cells.
3) Initial infection of rhizobial cells occurs in root hairs, which undergo characteristic
curling. After a series of cell divisions and multiplications root nodules are formed in
the cortical cells of the host. Bacterial cells inside infected host cells (cortical cells)
multiply rapidly and are transformed in to swollen forms called Bacteroids.
4) Bacteroids carry on the aerobic respiration and require O2.But the enzyme
system that fixes N2 in bacteriods is very sensitive to O2.Excess O2 invivo inhibits
Nitrogen fixation. This problem of bacteroids is solved by its host plant by producing
a reddish protein called leghaemoglobin.
Leghaemoglobin delivers O2 to bacteroids at concentrations necessary
for their aerobic respiration but harmless to their N2 fixing enzyme system.
Thus at each step a fine cooperation is found in the symbiotic relationship of
legumes and Rhizobium.
9.2.3 Mycorrizha
Mycorrhizal fungi are species of fungi that intimately associate with plant roots
forming a symbiotic relationship. Plants provide sugars and other organic
substances to the fungi where as fungi helps the plant in mineral nutrition and water
uptake.
Advantages of mycorrhizal symbiosis:
Helps in uptake of water.
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This symbiotic association helps the plant to resist root rot and color rot
diseases.
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9.5.1 Deforestation: Excessive and indiscriminate cutting and felling of the trees for
the purpose of firewood, timber, house building and clearing the land for cultivation
purpose has completely changed the vegetation of different places. These activities
affected the ecological balance and are responsible for vast variations in climatic
situations of the affected regions.
9.5.2 Afforsetation: To check the soil erosion, loss of fertility of soil and spread
of sandy tracts in the plains the forest department has launched a drive to erect
new forests .This process of raising forests in hither to barren and unproductive
lands is called as afforestation.
9.5.3 Reforestation: This is referred to raising of forests on a forest land after the
forest is cleared for timber and other purposes.
9.5.4 INDUSTRIALISATION
Unplanned and un-scientific method of industrialization has caused lot of
disturbance to the natural ecosystems. Persistent disturbance to natural
ecosystems may have pronounced and prolonged effects especially with regard to
the toxic industrial chemicals.
Raising crops on virgin lands and after some time when they become less
productive, shifting to new areas of virgin lands is referred to as shifting cultivation.
Through shifting cultivation man has brought forth large scale changes in vegetation
patterns especially in the fragile ecosystems along the hills and savannahs.
Instead of changing the field every time, It is always better to follow crop rotation
i.e raising different crops in the same field in a sequential order For example:
legume crops after cereals, Shallow rooted crops after deep rooted crops.
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During his migration and travel from one region to other man carried the
seeds and saplings of useful plants, medicinal plants, fibre yielding plants and other
industrially important plants. This practice has led to the spread of these useful
plants to many regions of the world. In this process knowingly or unknowingly, man
has also introduced many weed species, new diseases and pests in to new areas.
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Lecture:10
COMPETITION
The word “competition” denotes a striving for the same thing. In ecological
terms competition is a process of interaction when two or more individuals/ Plants
/organisms make simultaneous demand on a type of resource or quality of
resource, in insufficient supply, to meet the growing needs.
Plants in agriculture and forests compete for light, space and nutrients when
supply and availability of resource is inadequate. In a struggle for existence plant
communities modify, change or regulate their physical environment within certain
limits through competition.
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site (cleared by forest fire or deforestation). All the individuals (pioneers as they are
called) compete with each other first; with the growth of the shrubs they become
dominant over herbs and are in turn dominated by trees. Herbs or shrubs still
compete with respective counterparts. Within the dominant tree layer, individuals
compete with one another in the same higher layer.
10.4 STRATIFICATION
Stratification is the occurrence of plants in different strata (Stories or tiers
of layers) at different heights or levels in a stand of plant community. It is a way
of vertical distribution of plants. Both the above ground parts as well as
underground parts show stratification. Some of the contributory causes for
stratification are that the life forms such as trees, shrubs, herbs, and mosses
(also bryophytes, lichens) differ in their requirements and ecological amplitude.
Therefore, they grow at various levels (in a community) which differ in light
intensity, temperature, humidity and other factors.
The stratification of vegetation facilitates a fuller and better utilization of
environmental resources. It minimizes competition among plants of a stand.
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These concepts are used in agriculture to make effective and economic use of
the arial space within crops especially in plantation crops.
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forms such as grasses with grass; than between those that are distant forms
such as grass with dicots.
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With the backdrop of nature and types of competition that exists in plant
communities certain terms are important in cultivation of crops in agriculture.
10.6 MONOCULTURE:
Continuous cropping of same crop species in the same piece of land year after
year or season after season is called as monoculture
Example: rice, wheat, Plantations in forest etc.
Plants with more sensitivity to inter-specific competition will show their best
growth in monoculture, Here the time of onset of competition and intensity is
linked to density of population which determines the inter- plant and intra-plant
competition which in turn determine the final grain yield.
10.7 POLYCULTURE:
Cultivation of different species of crops in the same piece of land in a year
either in a sequence or simultaneously is called as polyculture. Example (a)
Rice followed by a pulse or groundnut (b) Groundnut and red gram grown
simultaneously in inter cropped situation.
The species with minimum inter- specific competition show better growth in
polyculture.
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It is always better to cultivate more number of crops in the same piece of land
(eg.polyculture) rather than shifting the site of cultivation every time which
makes the soil exhausted.
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Multistoried cropping
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(2) In tobacco, artificial shading is used to produce large and thin leaves used for
cigar wrapper, (3) In coffee plantations, the plants are grown under shade of trees
(4) Tea plants and betel vine plants are also grown under shade of trees to improve
quality of leaves.
When excess N is applied, in crops like rice mutual shading causes for lower
photosynthetic ability. Besides, it also increases succulence causing increased
incidence of diseases and pest attack ultimately reducing grain yield.
Many successful competitors create conditions of “stress” for other plants by
growing rapidly/taller by producing large, dense canopies thus create a deep shade
below. This makes it difficult for other crops to establish. For example: pulse crops
after producing dense canopies become dominant over weeds.
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Lecture-11
ALLELOPATHY
11.1 Definition
The term allelopathy was coined by Hans Molisch (1937), which is derived
from Greek language (allelon: of each other; pathos: to suffer). It means “mutual
harm or injurious effect of one upon the other”. Molisch defined the term allelopathy
as “biochemical interactions detrimental as well as beneficial between all types of
plants”.
In current use the term allelopathy refers to any effect; direct or indirect,
stimulatory or inhibitory, mediated by a chemical compound released in to the
environment by a given plant or microorganism (Rice,1984).The walnut tree
(Juglans nigra and Juglans regia) is perhaps the best known allelopathic plant
causing many crops and other plants in its vicinity to wither and die. The leaves,
roots and fruits of this plant produce a hydroquinone, which is oxidized in the
environment to juglone, this compound is responsible for the toxic effects on other
plants.
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b) CROP SPECIES:
Numerous crops have been investigated more or less thoroughly for
allelopathic activity towards weeds or other crops. A suppressive effect on weed,
possibly mediated by the release of allelochemicals has been reported for a wide
range of temperate and tropical crops. These include alfalfa (Medicago sativa),
barley (Hordeum vulgare),clovers (Trifolium spp., Melilotus spp.) oats (Avena
sativa) pearl millet(Pennisetum glaucum), rice (Oryza sativa) rye (Secale cereale),
sorghums (Sorghum spp.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), sweet potato (Ipomoea
batatas) and wheat (Triticum aestivum)
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Lecture-12
PHYTOREMEDIATION
12.1 Definition:
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses either naturally
occurring or genetically engineered plants to remediate contaminated soils,
sediments and water. The term ‘Phytoremediation’ consists of two words. A Greek
prefix phyto (plant) and a Latin word remedium (to correct or remove an evil). Thus,
“Phytoremediation is defined as a process in which various naturally occurring or
genetically modified plants, including trees and grasses, are used to degrade,
extract, detoxify, contain, and/or immobilize toxic pollutants from contaminated soil,
water, and air…”
Organic solvents, detergents, pesticides, Heavy metals, crude oil and its
derivatives are some of the common pollutants that affect soil, water and air. Most
of the conventional methods (soil incineration, excavation and landfill, soil washing
etc.,) used for cleaning up of these contaminants are either costly or cumbersome.
It is estimated that, the conventional methods of remediation may cost from $10 to
1000 per cubic meter. Where as, phyto remediation (phyto extraction) costs are
estimated to be as low as $ 0.05 per cubic meter. Therefore, phytoremediation is
now accepted as a cost effective and an environmental friendly alternative to
prevent pollution.
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family contains a large number of hyper accumulating species with widest range of
metals.
These plants absorb contaminants through root system and store them in
root biomass and/or transport them in to stems and leaves. Thus, at the time of
disposal contaminants are typically concentrated in much smaller volume of the
plant matter than in the initially contaminated soil or sediment. Through repeated
planting and harvesting of hyper accumulators heavy metals concentration in the
soil can be reduced to an acceptable limit.
b) Ambrosia artemisifolia
(Rag weed)
3 a) Azolla Chromium
Hyper accumulating Aquatic
b) Eichornia crassipes Mercury
plants
(Water hyacinth) Cadmium
Chromium
6 Helianthus annus Uranium This was observed after the
(Sun flower) Chernobyl nuclear accident
Arsenic -
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12.2.2 PHYTOSTABILIZATION:
Ex: This technique immobilizes or precipitates heavy metals, so that they can not
escape from mining areas.
12.2.3 RHIZOFILTRATION:
12.2.4 PHYTOVOLATILISATION:
12.2.5 PHYTOTRANSFORMATION :
Phytotransformation is also called as Phytodegradation. In this process the
contaminants are taken up by the plant roots and are degraded in side the plant
body through the metabolic processes. Some times the breakdown of contaminants
is also possible outside the plant, through the effect of compounds (such as
enzymes) released by plants.
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Ex:
- Hybrid poplar trees metabolize TNT (Tri Nitro Toluene), which is an explosive
material. This is done by the enzyme nitroreductase produced by the plant.
- chlorinated compounds are dechlorinate by another plant produced
enzyme dehalogenase
12.4 LIMITATIONS :
1. Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and up to the depth occupied
by the plant roots.
2. Slow growth and low biomass production by plants is a major set back
3. With this plant based technology it is not completely possible to stop the
leaching of contaminants in to the ground water.
4. Possible bioaccumulation of o contaminants , if not monitored properly, can
easily enter in to the food chain.
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Lecture-13
POLLUTION
Pollution may be studied in terms of media (e.g. Air, water and soil that are
polluted or in terms of pollutants that pollute the media like
SO2,CO2,CO,Fluorides,Nitrates,radioactive substances etc.)
Air pollution means the presence of one or more air contaminants in the
outdoor atmosphere such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke, or vapor in
quantities or characteristics, and of duration, such as to be injurious to human, plant
or animal life. Some of the important air pollutants and their effects on plant growth
and development are listed below.
13.2.1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
It is a primary product of the combustions of sulphur containing fossil fuels.
Coal burning presently accounts for 60 per cent of the sulphur dixoxide pollution.
Sulphur oxides are absorbed by water and go into solution in water. If not absorbed,
it soon oxidized to the less toxic SO3 and finally to sulfuric acid mist. Sulphuric acid
mists on Condensation nuclei and fall upon the vegetative canopy and affect the
plant growth.
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splits the NO2 back to NO and atomic oxygen which combines with the molecular
oxygen of the atmosphere to form ozone (O3). Thus, Ozone (O3) accumulates in the
atmosphere. When the leaves are exposed to O3, the guard cells of the epidermis
quickly lose turgor and the stomatal aperture closes. Ozone may destroy structural
integrity of membranes. It damages tobacco, tomato, bean, pine etc. NO in the
urban atmosphere reacts with several hydrocarbons (Ex. Aledehydes) and thus
helps in production of secondary pollutants like PAN(Peroxy Acyl Nitrates).
13.2.6 Fluorides
Both gaseous and particulate fluorides are released into the atmosphere for
the aluminum factories, manufacturing units of fluoride compounds, glass, pottery
and brick works. Fluoride enters the plant through stomata. In intercellular spaces
they dissolve in water and transported to the leaf tips and margins where it
accumulates. Chloroplasts are presumed to be the major site of accumulation of
fluorides. Accumulation of toxic concentrations of fluorides in broad-leaved species
causes necrosis, chlorosis or both at leaf tip and margin.
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13.2.8 Ammonia
As pollutant ammonia escapes from refrigerator pre-cooling systems of cold
storage rooms and anhydrous ammonia used in fertilizer industry. The phytotoxic
effects of ammonia include dark spots or complete blackening of leaves, bleached
white (barley) and rusty along the leaf margins (wheat and rye).
13.2.9 Chlorine
Chlorine escapes into the atmosphere from industrial accidents,
manufacturing processes and leaking chlorine cylinders. Chlorine is required for
photosynthetic O2 evolution. The sensitive species are radish, alfalfa, tobacco,
beans, citrus, potatoes etc. whilst, barley, sugar beet, maize, tomato are tolerant.
The symptoms of chlorine injury are of three basic types: Chlorosis, necrosis and
reddening.
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Water pollution occurs when the quantity of sewage effluent is too large to be
broken down through biological degradation.
Main industrial source of pollution are pulp and paper mills, sugar mills, iron
and steel factories, and petroleum refineries. Some of the contaminants released by
these industries are, lead, detergents, cyanide, chlorine, phenol benzyl derivatives,
ammonia, nitrates and soluble carbohydrates. They cause deoxygenation and
anaerobic conditions.
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a) Fertilizers
Nitrogenous, phosphatic and other fertilizers leached and washed into water
bodies, cause excessive growth of algae, foul smell rendering water unfit for
drinking (EUTROPHICATION). The polluted water with excessive nitrogen gives
bad effects on rice quality. It promotes vegetative growth and reduces the quality of
grains. at moderately high nitrogen content, reduction and decomposition of
organic substances produce bivalent iron and hydrogen sulphide. Excess of these
together with organic acids hampers the nutrient metabolism of rice and suppresses
plant growth.
b) Pesticides
Some of the insecticides, DDT, dialdrin, BHC when washed into water bodies
affect growth and survival of fish. Arsenical compounds turn out into more toxic
arsenate. Though increased use of pesticides enhances production, their
contribution to the total environmental pollution over their benefit is insignificant.
c) Other pollutants
These include empty cans, bottles, automobile junk, waste pieces of rocks,
steel, iron etc. these heaped at a place harbor animals like rats, cockroaches, flies
etc.
a. Lead (Pb)
Lead smelting, gasoline, pesticides, paints, lead lined utensils are the lead
poisoning sources. It is a cumulative cellular poison. Lead taken up by plants is
accumulated in the cell wall.
b. Cadmium (cd)
Cadmium is added to soil through phosphate fertilizers, sewage water, metal
smelters and zinc smelters. Many plant species retain Cd. It is toxic to plants and
disturbs enzyme activity. In plants excess Cd disturb Fe metabolism and cause
chlorosis. Cadmium hampers the growth of rice, soybean, egg plant than tomato
and cucumber.
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4. Atomic wastes
Soil is the basis of agriculture. All crops for human food and animal feed
depends on it. Soil is the ultimate recipient of enormous quantity of man made
waste products. Industrial wastes, sewage, sludge and polluted water cause soil
pollution.
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Materials that find their entry into the soil system having long persistence and
accumulate in toxic concentrations are called as soil pollutants. There are four types
of soil pollutants.
b. Organic wastes
Organic wastes of various types cause pollution hazards. Domestic garbage,
municipal sewage and industrial wastes when left in heaps or improperly disposed
seriously affect the health of human beings, plants and animals. Sewage contains
detergents, water softeners, borates, phosphates and other salts in large amounts.
c. Organic pesticides:
Pesticide persistence in soil and movement into water streams may also lead
to their entry into food and create health problems (Biomagnification). Pesticides
particularly aromatic organic compounds are not degraded rapidly and therefore
have long persistence time.
Persistence time of some selected pesticides
Pesticide Persistence time
Chlordane 12 years
BHC 11 years
DDT 10 years
Aldrin 9 years
2, 3, 6, TBA (Trichlorobenzene) 2-5 years
Diuron 16 months
Simazine 17 months
2, 4 -D 2-8 weeks
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d. Radioactive wastes: Wastes from atomic reactors and nuclear power plants
containing different kinds of radioactive isotopes which are most dangerous. These
wastes affect aquatic plants and animals also. They cause ionization of various
body fluids, gene mutations and chromosomal mutations.
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Lecture-14
GLOBAL WARMING
14.1 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
The atmosphere is able to keep the earth habitable because some of its
constituent gases can absorb heat radiated from the earth’s surface preventing it
from escaping into space. These gases are called as greenhouse gases (GHGs).
They act as a glass pan of a green house which allow solar radiations to pass
through and heat the surface of the earth but does not allow the heat radiated from
the ground to pass through, thereby trapping it in the process. This heat trapping
phenomenon is known as greenhouse effect. It is a natural phenomenon without
which earth would be to too cold to support life.
Some of the sun’s rays that penetrate the layer of CO2 strike the earth and are
converted into heat. The heated earth reradiates this absorbed energy as radiations
of longer wavelengths, much of this does not pass through CO 2 and water vapor in
the atmosphere and adds to the heating of the earth’s atmosphere. There are
several greenhouse gases, the major and important ones are carbon dioxide (CO 2),
methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (NOx) and ozone (O3) as
shown in the table 1.
CO2 and CH4 are produced by natural as well as man-made sources while others
such as CFCs are purely man-made.
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79
In the past, before the industrial revolution, most CO2 and CH4 came from
natural sources and CFCs were not known. Natural processes kept the levels of
these gases within the limits. As a result, through most of human history, the earth’s
atmosphere blanket was held at the average global temperature at around 15 0 C.
but over the last 100 years the levels of the entire major greenhouse gases have
been raising steadily, principally as a result of human activity such as
industrialization, deforestation and agriculture.
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rate of fossil fuel burning continues, it is likely to reach 600 ppm. The present
growth rate of CO2 is 0.5%.
The Mauna Loa observatory at Hawaii Island constitute the longest continuous
record of atmospheric CO2 concentrations available in the world. This record is
considered to be a precise record and a reliable indicator of the regional trend in the
concentrations of atmospheric CO2 in the middle layers of the troposphere.
14.2.2 METHANE:
Another important greenhouse gas which could affect the climate of the earth
is methane (CH4 ), the level of which is rising alarmingly. It is significant to note that
the gas is only about 5% of that CO2 , but it is 20-30 times more effective than that
of CO2 in producing greenhouse effect. Most methane is produced by natural
biological processes such as bacterial action in the gut of cattle and other
ruminants, in Paddy puddle fields, marshy lands, garbage dumps and landfills. To
some extent it is also produced by mining of coal and oil distribution of natural gas.
Leakage of natural gas from pipelines or geological fissures also contributes to the
atmospheric methane level. In mid-1700 the concentration of methane averaged
800 ppm and stood at 1700 ppm 1988. It is rising at the rate of 1-2% a year.
14.2.3 Chlorofluorocarbons:
The third major greenhouse gas is a group of synthetics, called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and these versatile chemical were manufactured only
in 1960s. They are used extensively as refrigerants, plastic foaming agents, aerosol
propellants and cleaning agents. CFCs first attracted the attention of scientists in
1970s when it was discovered that they could have destructive effects on the
stratospheric ozone layer. As a greenhouse gas, it is twenty thousand times as
powerful as CO2. Moreover, they are extremely persistent and can remain in the
stratosphere for decades.
Although CFCs stand after CO2 In their contribution to global warming but their
atmospheric concentrations are extremely small. The current level of CFCs is about
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700 ppm and is rising at 5% a year. CFCs once released in to atmosphere, persists
for hundred years. Americans are successful in recapturing the CFCs present in the
atmosphere.
CFCs contribute global warming through two different routes:
1. As greenhouse gas like CO2 , can trap heat resulting in rise in global
temperature
2. Directly responsible for destructing the OZONE layer, consequently
responsible for increased temperature in the troposphere.
U.V.RADIATION
Cfcl3 (Chlorofluorocarbons)
Cl Cfcl2
Cl + O3
Clo O2
NO2
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14.3.3 Agriculture and Food production: Climate change would pose serious
problem for agriculture especially rain fed farming such as
(1) change in the length of growing season affecting mean yield,
(2) change in the incidence of pests and diseases and weeds and
(3) loss of useful resources.
Global warming could severely disrupt marine ecosystems as well as
agriculture. The flooding of many coastal wetlands as the oceans as the
oceans rise would mean the loss of nurseries for many fish, shrimp and
birds.
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Lecture-15
CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In agriculture there is continuous demand for improved varieties / plant types
that increase both crop production and quality of farm produce. Plant growth and
development are dependent in the first instance on genetic potential and then on
the interaction with the environment as well as growing conditions. The variations
between plants caused due to differences in environmental variations such as light
(radiation), temperature, moisture etc. are not inherited. The variations originating
due to the genetic makeup are only heritable.
To study the effect of genetic factors, the varying effects of environment must
exclude. Similarly, to know the exact influence of a single environmental factor any
variation caused by genetic effects must be excluded by using pure (homozygous)
lines or by using vegetatively propagated clones.
Of late commercial cultivation of high value crops under controlled
environmental conditions is gaining popularity. In this context controlled
environments are very much useful in meeting the above requirements.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
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The following are various purposes for which controlled environments are used are:
b) Acceleration of development:
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The most important use of controlled environments world – wide is the study
of environment effects / variations in relation to growth and development of plants /
crops as well as animals / organisms. Normally, weather is infinitely variable,
unpredictable and complex. It is most difficult to determine precise effect of any one
factor on growth and development of an organism / plant. Through controlled
environments it is possible to study the influence environmental factors at various
levels and duration plants.
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These are relatively small structures and inexpensive with sleek design and
have controlled mechanisms of all environmental variables such as light,
temperature, relative humidity etc. enable growing of plants / organisms as desired
with high degree of precision. These are not walk- in chamber where the operator
gains access from only outside
These rooms are large enough to admit operator / trolleys, with fine control of
temperature often relative humidity, but with relatively low light intensity. These are
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unsuitable for long – term grow of higher plants and hence referred to as
“temperature controlled rooms” rather than growth rooms. They are largely used by
scientists concerned with research on animals and / or insects. These are used
scientists in plant science research as dark rooms to house plants at night. They
provide constant temperature control or even cyclic temperatures.
These are also large rooms with ample pathways for the operator (s) to move
around with provision to regulate temperature precisely within + 20 C by standard
heating / cooling systems. Temperature ranges from – 5 to +450 C with a constant
60 – 80% relative humidity. These rooms are not exposed to din sunlight but
equipped with a provision for sufficient artificial light. In some structures, the light
are include within the experimental volume (internal lighting) while in others lights
are housed above a transparent screen and thus are separated from experimental
area (external lighting). Compared to growth cabinet these structures are greater in
cost. These structures find extensive use in tissue culture / biotechnology
laboratories.
15.3.5 Phytotrons :
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15.3.6 Biotrons :
It has facility to control the environmental factors, but designed to grow both
plants and animals / insects. Animals are grown for producing meat profitably.
Biotron facilitates the study of insects/ incidence on plant and plant behavior at
desired controlled conditions. A biotron is present at University of Wisconsin, U.S.A.
15.3.7 Climatron :
Chrysanthemum is a short day plant which flowers only when the daily light
period is less than critical period. Bud initiation takes place when the day length is
about 12.5 hours the temperature requirement being around 16 0 C. many cultivars
of chrysanthemums must be vernalized before they respond to day length. About 3
– 4 weeks of exposure to chilling temperatures are needed for full vernalization. The
optimum soil pH of about 6.5 is a must.
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The use of cyclic night-break can save 80% of the power cost of lighting
system. The application of this system depends upon (a) the cultivar, (b) the
intended use and (c) the natural day length (the shorter the natural day, the night-
break period).
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PHYTOTRON FACILITY
POLYHOUSE
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Lecture-16
CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION
16.1 Definition:
CO2 fertilization refers to enhancing CO2 concentration ambient to foliage
(crop canopy) by artificial means.
16.2 Concept:
CO2 is the most important rate limiting factor to increase the crop canopy
photosynthesis. How ever, Photorespiration is common in all C3 crops (like wheat,
rice, Soybean, sugar beat etc.,) which are an important part of the world’s food
supply. In some of these plants photorespiration reduces as much as 50% of the net
assimilation of CO2 by photosynthesis. Therefore it is essential to find out the means
to inhibit photorespiration to increase the crop yield.
Other equally important food crops – Corn, Sorghum, Sugarcane exhibit much
less photo respiration. This difference can be explained in part by the fact that these
species are C4 plants carrying out C4 photosynthesis. In this process the high
concentration of CO2 in the bundle sheath chloroplasts will selectively favor
carboxylation rather than oxygenation and little phosphoglycolate will be produced.
Therefore, raising the CO2 concentration increases net photosynthesis and
decreases photorespiration greatly in C3 plants.
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From the above figure it is clearly understood that below 200 PPM,
plants do not have enough CO2 to carry on the photosynthetic process and
essentially stop growing. Because 300 PPM is the atmospheric CO2 content, this
amount is chosen as the 100% growth point. It is observed from the chart that
increased CO2 can double or some times more growth rate is also possible on
most normal plants. Above 1500ppm the growth rate decreases and at 2,000 PPM,
CO2 starts to become toxic to plants.
16.3 IMPORTANCE:
1. CO2 fertilization is an untapped modern agro technique which is not yet
harnessed commercially for maximizing crop productivity. It is certain that the
economic returns from the crops following this method exceed several folds when
compared to the cost of the treatment. Though it is difficult to apply this technique to
field grown crops it is not impossible.
2. Global atmospheric CO2 concentration is on rise at the rate of 0.5 % per annum.
Thus exploration of interactive effects of CO2 and temperature has become an
important area of research. CO2 fertilization technique helps in doing such kind of
simulation experiments to know the response of different crops at elevated CO 2
concentrations and temperatures.
16.4 Sources of CO2 generation
1. Light stimulated CO2 evolution from foliage in situ
4. Soil respiration
6. CO2 is released from manure and compost pits in the process of microbial
decomposition.
7. Pure forms of CO2 like dry ice and cylinder CO2 are some of the sources.
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a) Seed yield
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c) Crop architecture:
e) Accelerated maturity
f) Nitrogen fixation
g) Drought tolerance
i. Wheat grown at 350 and 1000 ppm with and without water
stress demonstrated that, increase in CO2 completely
compensated for water stress.
ii. Similarly CO2 enrichment has increased the root to top ratio in
beans. This is a very important trait for legumes to impart
drought tolerance.
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16.7 Limitations
1. Extending large scale fertilization to open fields cause differences in leaf
photosynthesis among plant species
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16.8.1 CONCEPT
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B.Dynamic Models
C) Phenological Models
It is a broad class of models that predict crop development, from one growth
stage to another. These predictions are generally based on accumulated heat
units.
D) Stochastic Models
A probability element is attached to each output. For each set of inputs different
outputs are given along with probabilities. Thus, we will get various possible
alternatives for decision making
Eg: Weather variables and the probability of occurrence of insets, diseases and
weeds.
E) Mechanistic models: These models explain not only the relationship between
weather parameters and yield, but also the mechanism of these models (explains
the relationship of influencing dependent variables). These models are based on
physical selection. Therefore, they are sometimes referred as physical and
physiological models.
Eg. Up take of Nitrogen by the root system from the soil. It is based upon the
soil nitrogen content and the rate of solution flow to the root. Thus physical
placement of the fertilizer with regard to the plant root system is important as
well as soil and plant nitrogen transformation.
F) Surrogate Variables
These variables are calculated by the model and used to estimate the value of
another quantity that the model does not directly calculate.
Ex. Calculation of dry matter production rate from the estimated transpiration
rate by some modelers.
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G) Simulation models:
Computer models, in general, are a mathematical representation of a real
world system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate
agricultural production as a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop
management. These models use one or more sets of differential equations, and
calculate both rate and state variables over time, normally from planting until
harvest maturity or final harvest.
Models are now available for almost most of the crops. A list of them are given
below
S.No Crop Model name
*
1 Rice CERES –Rice, ORYZA-1, ORYZA-W
2 Wheat CERES-Wheat, WTGROWS, APSIM – N wheat
3 Maize CERES-Maize
4 Sorghum CERES- Sorghum
5 Cotton GOSSYM
6 Peanut PNUTGRO
7 Potato SIMPOTATO
8 Soybean SOYGRO
9 Sugarcane SUCROS , CANEGRO
*
CERES: CROP ENVIRONMENT RESOURCE SYNTHESIS
APSIM: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS SIMULATOR
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