Casting 1 X 1 PDF

Vth Semester Mechanical/ Production Engineering
MODULE Lecture Notes on

I - III PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II
Casting, Welding, and Non Conventional Machining
C ti
Casting
Dr. Joyjeet Ghose
Dr
Associate Professor,
p
Department of Production Engineering,
g g,
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Joyjeet Ghose. 2014
Casting
• Casting takes advantage of the fact the liquid has fluidity,
fluidity i.e.
ie a
liquid can easily take the shape of the container.
• In a casting process,
process a solid material is first melted,
melted heated to proper
temperature, and some times treated to modify its chemical
composition.
composition
• The molten material, generally metal, is then poured into a cavity or
mould that contains it in the desired shape during solidification.
solidification
• Thus in a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from
any material that can be melted.
melted
• The resulting product can have virtually any configuration that the
d i
designer d i
desires.
Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Advantages of casting
• The most attracting feature of casting is that we can cast any shape
in one operation.
• It is possible to cast any material,
material be it ferrous or non-ferrous.
non-ferrous
• Part of any size, shape and intricacy can be cast.
• The
Th necessary tools l required
i d for
f casting
i are simple
i l and d inexpensive
i i
(sand casting).
• Casting generally cools uniformly from all sides and therefore they
are expected to have no directional properties.
• Best suited for manufacturing of composite components.
• Some castingg p processes are capable
p of pproducingg near net shape
p
products.
• Some casting processes are suitable for mass production.

Limitations of casting
• The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal
sand casting process would not be adequate for final application in
many cases.
• The sand casting process is labour intensive to some extent and
therefore many improvements are aimed at it such as machine
moulding and foundry mechanization.
• With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects
• Limitations of mechanical properties.
• Safety
f harards
h d because
b off hot
h molten
l metals l
• Environment issues

Casting Applications
• Cylinder blocks
• machine tools
• piston
i t rings
i
• mill rolls
• Wheels
• water supply
pp y ppipes
p
Sand Casting
• and bells etc
Investment Casting
Die Casting
Ductile Iron Brackets Tractor Gearbox Ductile Iron Auto Parts
Machined Ductile Iron Castings Automotive Casting

Cradle Chassis Brackets
of Vehicle
Source: http://www.iron-foundry.com/china-ductile-iron-castings.html
Ductile Iron Compressor

p Housingg
C t Iron
Cast I Belt
B lt Pulley
P ll
Source: http://www.iron-foundry.com/china-ductile-iron-castings.html

• Most castingg pprocesses requires
q machiningg of the casting.
g
FIGURE: Aluminum piston for an internal combustion engine. (a) As

cast; (b) after machining.

Classification of Casting
Casting
Expendable
E d bl mouldld or
Multiple use moulds
Single use mould
Variations of
Permanentt Mould
P M ld
Multiple use patterns Single use patterns permanent mould Die casting Centrifugal Casting Continuous Casting
casting
casting
H t chamber
Hot h b Di Die True Centrifugal
T C t if l
Sand casting Investment casting Slush Casting
casting Casting
Evaporative
p Pattern
CO2 moulding
mo lding Low-Pressure
Lo Press re Cold chamber Die Semi Centrifugal
Centrif gal
/Lost Foam - Metal
casting Casting casting casting
Casting
Shell moulding Vacuum Permanent

Permanent-
Centrifuging
casting mould Casting
Plaster mould
Plaster-mould
Casting
Ceramic-mould
Ceramic mould
Casting

Classification of Casting
Casting
Expendable
Multiple use
g
Mould or Single
mould
use mould
Variations of
Single use Permanent Centrifugal Continuous
Reusable pattern Permanent Die casting
pattern mould casting casting casting
mould
ld casting
ti
Investment Hot chamber die True centrifugal

Sand Casting Slush casting
castingg casting casting
Lost Low pressure Cold chamber Semi-centrifugal

CO2 Mould
foam/evaporative casting Die casting casting
casting
pattern casting
Shell mould Vacuum casting centrifuging

casting
Plaster mould
casting
Ceramic mould
casting

Casting terminologies
• The process starts with
construction of a pattern, an
pp
approximate duplicate
p of the
final casting.
• The moulding material is then
packed around the pattern and
the pattern is removed to
produce a mould cavity.
cavity
• The flask is the box that
contains the moulding
aggregate.
• In two-part
p mould,, the cope p is
the name given to the top half
of the pattern, flask, mould, or
core.
• The drag refers to the bottom
half of any
an of these features.
feat res

• A core is a sand shape that is
inserted into the mould to
produce to p
p produce internal
features of a casting, such as
holes.
• A core print is that region
added to the pattern, core, or
mould that is used to locate
and support the core within
the mould.
mo ld
• The mould material and the
core then combine to form the
mould cavity, the shaped hole
into which the molten metal is
poured and solidified to
produce the desired casting.

• A riser
ise iss aan eextra
t a vo
void
d ccreated
eated in
the mould that will also fill with
molten metal.
• It provides a reservoir of material
that can flow into the mould
cavity
it tot compensate t for
f any
shrinkage that occurs during
solidification.
• The gating system is the network
of channels used to deliver the
molten metal to the mould
cavity.
• The pouring cup (pouring basin)
is the portion of the gating
system that initially receives the
molten metal from the pouring
vessel and controls its deliveryy to
the rest of the mould.
• From the pouring cup, the
metal travels down a sprue
(The vertical portion of the
gating system),
• then along horizontal channels,
called runners,
• and finally through controlled
entrances, or gates, into mould
cavity.
• Additional
Addi i l channels,
h l known
k as
vents, may be included to
provide an escape for the gases
that are generated within the
mould.

• The pparting g line or ppartingg surface is
the interface that separates the cope
and drag halves of a mould, flask, or
pattern
tt andd also
l the
th halves
h l off a core
in some core making processes.
• Chaplets are used to support cores
inside the mould cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic forces.
• Chills are metallic objects which are
placed in the mould to increase the
cooling rate of castings to provide
uniform or desired coolingg rate.
• The term casting is used to describe
both the process and the product
when
h the h molten
l metall is
i pouredd andd
solidified within the mould.


Sand mould

A Sand mould

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS USED IN A FOUNDRY SHOP
• Riddle: It is used for removing foreign materials such as nails,nails
splinters of wood etc. from the moulding sand. It is also known as a
sieve. It consists of a wooden frame fitted with a screen of standard
wire mesh at its bottom. Different types of riddles are denoted by
different numbers like 8,, 10,, 12 etc.
• Rammer: It is a wooden tool used for packing the sand into mould.
• Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire having a pointed edge at one
end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other end. It is used
for making small holes called vents in the rammed sand moulds to
permit easy escape of gases and steam generated during cooling of
the
h heated
h d metal. l
• Trowel: Trowels are made of iron and are p provided with a wooden
handle. They are available in many types and are used for making
joints and finishing flat surface of the mould.

• Slicks: They are available in many types,
types which vary in shape and
are used for repairing and provide finishing to mould surface and
edges after the pattern has been withdrawn.
• Lifters: They are used for patching deep sections of a mould and
removing loose sand from pockets of the mould.
mould The lifters are
made of thin sections of steel of various width and lengths with one
end bent at right angles. The lifter is a finishing tool used for
patching deep sections of a mould and removing loose sand from
pockets of the mould.
p
• moulding board: It is smooth board on which the pattern and the
flask are placed during moulding.
moulding
• Bellows: They are used to blow loose sand out of the mould and are
used more frequently.
frequently
• Sprue pin: A sprue pin is wooden or metallic pin to make an
opening in the mould through which the metal is poured.
poured
• Shovel: It consists of a square iron blade fitted with a D D-shaped
shaped
wooden handle. It is used for transferring sand to the sand mixer and
ppouringg sand in the moulding g flask.
• Strike off bar: It is a wooden or metallic bar having a true edge. It is
used for removing g the surplus
p sand after rammingg has been completed.
p
• Gate Cutter: It is a piece of sheet metal, which is used to cut opening
(gate)) that connects the sprue
(g p with the mould cavity.
y
• Swab: It is made of hemp and used for applying water to the mould
around the edge g of the p pattern before removingg the ppattern from the
mould. This prevents the sand edges from crumbling when the pattern
is removed from the mould. A bulb swab has a rubber bulb to hold the
water and a soft hair brush at the open end.
• Ladle : Theyy are used to receive molten metal from the meltingg
furnace and is used to pour the same into the mould.
• Crucibles: Theyy are used as metal melting g ppots.












Basic factors common to all casting techniques
• A mould cavity must have the designed shape and size, size and include
allowances for shrinkage. The mould material must be capable of
producing the engineered shape faithfully and not react with the
molten metal.
• Moulds can be produced for one one-off
off castings,
castings but economics make
it desirable to reuse moulds in some way, if possible. Permanent
moulds can be made of graphite or metals but are expensive.
• A suitable method of melting the alloy must be available; this
includes adequate temperature,
temperature satisfactory quality and quantity at
low cost.
• When the molten metal is poured,
poured all gases must be able to escape
allowing the cavity to be filled and keeping the casting dense and
defect free; this is the reason for risers.
risers

Sand Casting Steps
• Preparation of the mould - includes pattern, core and gating system preparation.
• Melt metals
• Pour / force liquid into hollow cavity (mould)
• Cool / Solidify
• Remove
• Heat treatment if necessary
• Cleaning & Finishing.
Pattern
makingg Core making
Gating
Sand moulding systems
Melting Pouring Heat Cleaning &

Solidification Casting Inspection
Of Metal into mould Treatment Finishing
Shakeout and
Furnaces Removal of risers Additional heat Defects,
e ec s,
and gates treatment Dimensions

Expendable mould casting, using multiple use pattern: Sand casting

Expendable mould casting, using multiple use pattern: Sand casting
• Sand casting is one of the older techniques and one of the most
commonly uses casting process.
• It uses sand as the primary moulding material.
material
• The sand grains are mixed with small amount of other materials such as
clay and water,
water to improve mould ability and cohesive strength,
strength and are
then packed around a pattern that has the shape of the desired casting.
• The pattern is removed before pouring.
pouring
• For removal of the pattern, the mould is made of two or more pieces.
• The metal is then poured
po red into the cavity
ca it through
thro gh a gating system.
s stem
Gravity flow is the most common means of introducing the metal into
the mould.
mould
• After solidification, the mould is broken and the finished casting is
removed As the mould is destroyed a new mould must be made for
removed.
each casting.
• Therefore sand casting is expendable mould casting,
casting using multiple use
pattern.
Pattern and pattern making
• The first step in sand casting is design and construction of pattern.
pattern
• Pattern is the principle tool during casting process.
• Pattern
P tt i a model
is d l off the
th casting
ti to t be
b cast,t so constructed
t t d that th t it
may be used to form an impression called mould cavity in the
moulding sand.
sand The mould cavity should be capable of producing
the required casting. When this mould cavity is filled with metal
and the metal is allowed to solidify,
solidify forms the required casting.
casting The
pattern is therefore an approximate duplicate of the required casting
as it has core print and required allowances in order to produce the
required casting. Core prints
Allowances
Casting
Casting super imposed on

Pattern Pattern

• Source NPTEL

Pattern materials
• Wood is the most commonly used pattern making material.
material Some
pattern materials are:
• Wood,
Wood cast iron,
iron brass,
brass aluminum,
aluminum plastics,
plastics rubbers,
rubbers plasters,
plasters
gypsum, and wax etc.
• The selection of pattern materials depends primarily on the
following factors:
– Service
S i requirements,
i t e.g. quantity,
tit quality
lit andd intricacy
i ti off
casting.
– Type off production
d i off castings
i and
d the
h type off moulding
ldi
process.
– Possibility of design changes.
– Number of casting to be produced.

Factors for selecting pattern materials
• The followingg factors assist in selectingg p
proper
p pattern material:
p
– Quantity: No. of castings to be produced.

– Metal to be cast.
– Quality: Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
– Shape, complexity and size of casting.
– Casting design parameters.
– Type of moulding materials.
– The chance of repeat orders.
– Nature off moulding
ldi process.
– Position of core print.
– P ibilit off design
Possibility d i changes
h

Pattern materials
• Requirements of good pattern material:
– Easily worked, shaped and joined.
– Light
Li ht in
i weight.
i ht
– Strong, hard and durable.
– Dimensionally stable in all situation.
– Easilyy available at low cost.
– Repairable and reused.
– Able to take good surface finish.
finish
– Resistant to wear and abrasion
– Resistant
R i t t to t corrosion,
i and d to
t chemical
h i l reactions
ti

Comparative characteristics of metallic pattern materials

Pattern materials based on expected life

Types of Pattern
• Single
g p piece or Solid Pattern: This type yp of ppattern is used onlyy in cases where
the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. They are
relatively cheap to construct, but the moulding process is slow. Single piece
patterns
tt are usedd for
f large
l castings
ti off simple
i l shape
h andd for
f limited
li it d production.
d ti
• Split Pattern: These are used when moderate quantities of duplicate castings are
to be made.
made The pattern is divided into two segments along a single parting
plane, which will correspond to the parting plane of the mould. One half of the
pattern is moulded in drag and the other half in cope. The two halves of the
pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are
fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with the precisely
made holes in the drag half of the pattern.
pattern

Single piece or Solid Pattern

Split Pattern

Split Pattern

Single piece or Solid Pattern and Split Pattern
Figure : Split pattern.
Figure. One piece pattern.

Single piece or Solid Pattern
Source: http://www.iron-foundry.com/hand-moulding-method.html
p y g

Types of Pattern
• Match p plate Pattern: A match-plate
p ppattern is similar to a split
p ppattern,, except
p
that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite sides of a single plate. The
plate is usually made from wood or metal. This pattern design ensures proper
alignment
li t off the
th mould
ld cavities
iti ini the
th cope and d drag
d andd the
th gating
ti system
t can
be included on the match plate. Match-plate patterns are used for larger
production qquantities and are often used when the pprocess is automated.
p
Source: http://www
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/SandCasting
custompartnet com/wu/SandCasting

Match plate Pattern

Match plate Pattern

Types of Pattern
• Copep and Dragg Pattern: A cope p and dragg ppattern is similar to a match pplate
pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the
mould halves are made independently. Just as with a match plate pattern, the
plates
l t ensure proper alignment
li t off the
th mould ld cavities
iti ini the
th cope andd drag.
d I
In
addition to the splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the pattern along
with the ggatingg and riseringg systems
y attached separately
p y to the metal or wooden
plates along with alignment pins. Cope and drag patterns are often desirable for
larger castings, where a match-plate pattern would be too heavy and
cumbersome.
b Th are also
They l usedd forf larger
l production
d ti quantitiestiti andd are often
ft
used when the process is automated.
Source: http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/SandCasting

Cope and Drag Pattern

Types of Pattern
• Gatted Pattern: The ggatted ppattern is
used for mass production of small
casting. To save time, a number of
castings
ti are produced
d d in i a single
i l multilti
cavity mould by joining a group of
patterns. Gatted p
p pattern includes the
gating system in the pattern, as such
eliminates the time required to cut the
gating
ti system
t byb hand.
h d
• Loose-piece
Loose piece Pattern: This type of
pattern is used when contour of the part
is such that withdrawal of the pattern
p
from the sand is not possible. Hence
during moulding, the obstructing part of
the contour is held as a loose-piece
loose piece by
beveled grooves or pins or by a piece of
wire.

Gatted Pattern

Gatted Pattern

Gatted Pattern

Loose--piece Pattern
Loose

Loose--piece Pattern
Loose
p y g

Types of Pattern
• Sweep Pattern: Axis-Symmetrical
Axis Symmetrical moulds,
moulds particularly large in
size, are sometimes shaped by means of sweep patterns. The
sweep pattern consists of a board having a shape corresponding to
the shape of the desired casting and arranged to rotate about a
central axis.
axis

Sweep Pattern

Sweep Pattern
p y g

Types of Pattern
• Skeleton Pattern: It resembles from outside the shape of the
casting but otherwise is a simple wooden frame. This is a ribbed
construction with large number of square or rectangular openings
between ribs which forms a skeleton outline of the pattern to be
made. The frame work is fitted and rammed with clayed y sand or
loam sand and a strike-off board known as strickle board is used to
p
separate the excess sand out of the spaces
p between the ribs so that
the surface is even with outside of the pattern.

Skeleton Pattern

Skeleton Pattern

Types of Pattern
• Follow Board Pattern: This type of pattern is adopted for those
castings where there are some portions which are structurally weak
and if not supported properly are likely to break under force of
ramming. Hence the board is modified as follow board to close fit
the contour of the weak p pattern and thus support
pp it duringg the
ramming of the drag. During the preparation of the cope, no follow
board is necessaryy because the sand which is compacted
p in the drag
g
will support the fragile pattern.

Follow Board Pattern


Source: http://www.brufnut.de/SS100/FORKS/FT_BR/ft_br.htm
Types of Pattern
• Segmental
g Pattern: The segmental
g ppatterns are also known as ppart ppatterns.
Segmental patterns are sections of pattern arranged in such a way so as to form a
complete mould by moving the segmented pattern around the mould suitably.
Th
These are generally
ll applicable
li bl tot circular
i l work, k like
lik rings,
i wheels,
h l rims,i andd
gears etc.
• Shell Pattern: Shell patterns are largely used for drainage fittings and pipe work.work
This type of pattern is usually made of metal mounted on a plate and parted
along a central line, the two sections being accurately doweled together. The
short bends are usually moulded and cast in pairs. The shell pattern is a hollow
construction like shell. The outside shape is used as pattern to make mould while
the inside is used as a core box for making cores. cores
• Built-up Pattern: Built up patterns are composed of two or more pieces.
Patterns for special
p ppulleys
y are built upp of segments
g of wooden strips.
p Such
patterns are used to make intricate shapes.
• Lagged-up Pattern: When a pattern is so large or of such a form that it cannot
b made
be d economically
i ll from
f a solid
lid piece
i or when
h suchh a method
h d wouldld result
l in
i
a pattern of little strength or excessive weight, it is necessary to use a lagged or
staved pattern.

Segmental Pattern

Segmental Pattern

Multiple--part moulding
Multiple
p y g

Pattern making allowances
• Patterns are not made to the exact size as the desired casting for
several reasons. Such a pattern would produce casting which are
undersize. Allowances must therefore be made for shrinkage g draft,,
finish, distortion and rapping.
• Shrinkage g Allowances:
• All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling.
The metal shrinkage g is of two types:
yp
• Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the
metal changesg from liquidq state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the
liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mould.
• Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when
metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for this,
shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

Shrinkage Allowances (Contd
(Contd…):
…):
• Followingg solidification,, a castingg continues to contract as it cools,, the amount of
this contraction being as much as 2%. To produce the desired final dimensions,
the pattern must be slightly larger than casting. The exact amount of this
compensation
ti depends
d d on theth metalt l that
th t is
i being
b i cast.
t
• Different metal has different shrinkages, therefore, there is a shrinkage rule for
each type of metal used in casting.
casting Shrinkage allowances are often incorporated
into a pattern through the use of special shrink rules, measuring devices that are
larger than the standard rule by the desired shrinkage allowance.
• Brass- 1 feet measures 1 feet 3/16 inch

• Draft
a t Allowances:
owa ces: In many a y cast
casting
g pprocesses,
ocesses, tthee patte
pattern co
contains
ta s su
surfaces
aces
that are perpendicular to the parting line (parallel to the direction of pattern
withdrawal), the friction between the pattern and mould, or any horizontal
movement of the pattern during extraction would tend to damage the mould.
This damage would be particularly severe at the corners where the mould
cavity intersects the parting surface.
surface By incorporating a slight taper,
taper or draft,
draft
on all surface parallel to the direction of withdrawal, this difficulty can be
minimized. As soon as the ppattern is withdrawn a slight g amount, it is free
from the sand on all surfaces, and it can be withdrawn further without
damaging the mould.
• The amount of draft is determined by the size and shape of the pattern, the
depth of the cavity, the method used to withdraw the pattern, the pattern
material the mould material,
material, material and the moulding procedure.
procedure

Draft Allowances
Fig. Example of taper allowance

• Suggested draft
d a t values
va ues for
o patterns
patte s

• Finishing or Machining Allowances:
• If the casting process produces rough surfaces, than that have to be
machined to proper dimensions.
dimensions Thus the extra amount of metal
provided on the surface to be machined is called machining or
finishing allowance.
allowance

Finishing or Machining Allowances

• Distortion or camber Allowances:
• Same casting shapes require an additional allowance for distortion.
For example,
example the arms of a U shaped section may be restrained by
the mould, while the base of the U is free to shrink. This restraint
will result in a final casting with outwardly sloping arms.arms To
compensate for this distortion, the arms may be designed to
originally slope inwards, so that upon cooling they will distort to a
straight shape. This type of compensation is called Distortion or
camber Allowances
• Rapping Allowances
• When a pattern is rapped in the mould before it is withdrawn,
withdrawn the
cavity in the mould is slightly increased. In every cases where
casting must be uniform and true to pattern,
pattern rapping or shake
allowance is provided for making the pattern slightly smaller than
the actual size to compensate for the rapping of the mould.
mould

Distortion or camber Allowances

Pattern making allowances examples

• Exercise: The castingg shown in figure
g is to be made of pplain carbon steel usingg
wooden pattern. Assume only shrinkage allowance to calculate the dimensions of
the pattern.
• From table for steel dimensions upto 600mm the shrinkage allowance is 21mm/m
• For dimension 200 the allowance is 200 x 0.021=
0 021 4.2mm
4 2mm
• For dimension 150 the allowance is 150 x 0.021= 3.15mm=3.2 mm
• For dimension 100 the allowance is 100 x 0.021=
0 021= 2.1mm
2 1mm
• For dimension 80 the allowance is 80 x 0.021= 1.68mm=1.7mm
• The required pattern dimension is shown in the fig (b) above

• Exercise: For the p
previous example,
p , if a aluminium ppattern is use for casting.
g The
aluminium pattern is made using a wooden pattern (master pattern). Calculate the
dimensions of the master pattern. Consider only the shrinkage allowance
• Fig (b) shows the dimensions of the aluminium pattern

• From table for steel dimensions upto 600mm the shrinkage allowance is 21mm/m
and for aluminium the shrinkage allowance is 13mm/m . Therefore the total the
shrinkage
g allowance is 34mm/m
• For dimension 200 the allowance is 200 x 0.034= 6.8mm
• For dimension 150 the allowance is 150 x 0.034 = 5.10mm
• The required pattern dimension is shown in the fig (c) above
• Example:
p Again
g from the pprevious example, p , what will be the ppattern dimension if
all the surfaces of the casting need to be machined?
• Let us decide to cast the job horizontally and use a solid pattern for this casting.
• For dimension 200 the allowance is 200 +5.5+5.5= 211mm
• For dimension 150 the allowance is 150 +3+3= 156mm
• For dimension 100 the allowance is 100 +3+6= 109mm (note: 6 mm for cope side
allowance)
• For dimension 80 the allowance is 80 - 2x3== 74mm

• Example
p : Greyy cast iron castings
g of dimension 80 mm are to be made in a metal
mould made of aluminium alloy. The metal mould is to be made using a wooden
pattern. Determine the correct dimension of the wooden pattern considering the
solidification
lidifi ti contraction
t ti only. l
• Solution. Here the wooden pattern must have a double shrinkage allowance for
the shrinkage of metal mould (aluminium) and the casting (cast iron).
iron)
• Allowance for aluminium = (80 mm) x (1.20/100 mm/mm) = 0.96 mm
• Allowance for cast iron = (80 mm) x (0.80/100 mm/mm) = 0.64 mm
• Therefore, total shrinkage allowance = 0.96 + 0.64 = 1.60 mm
• Hence,, the dimension of the wooden ppattern would be = 80 + 1.60 = 81.60 mm

• Exercise : The castingg shown is to be made in cast iron usingg a wooden ppattern.
Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All
Dimensions are in Inches (Source NPTEL)
Solution 1
The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet (as
per Table 1))
p
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch » 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch » 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch,
inch allowance = 8 X 0.125
0 125 / 12 = 0.0833
0 0833 inch » 0.0 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch » 0. 07 inch
The p
pattern drawingg with required
q dimension is shown below:

Table 1 : Rate of Contraction of Various
Metals
Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance
(inch/ft)
y Cast Iron
Grey Upp to 2 feet 0.125
2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083
C t Steel
Cast St l Up tto 2 ffeett
U 00.251
251
over 6 feet 0.155
Aluminum Up to 4 feet 0.155
over 6 feet 0 125
0.125
Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173
Over 4 feet 0.155

• Exercise : The castingg shown is to be made in cast iron usingg a wooden ppattern.
Assuming only machining allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All
Dimensions are in Inches. (NPTEL)
• Solution 2
Th machining
The hi i allowance
ll f castt iron
for i f size,
for i up to
t 12 inch
i h is
i 0.12
0 12 inch
i h andd from
f
12 inch to 20 inch is 0.20 inch (Table 3)
For dimension 18 inch,
inch allowance = 0.20
0 20 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
The ppattern drawingg with required
q dimension is shown in Figure
g below

Table 3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals
Dimension Allowance
Metal
(inch) (inch)
Up to 12 0.12
C t iron
Cast i 12 tto 20 0 20
0.20
20 to 40 0.25
Upp to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8
U 0.09
0 09
Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16

• A jjob shown in the Figure
g is to be made of steel by y castingg pprocess. The mould
for this job is made from a wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the
wooden pattern. Assume machining allowance of 2 mm on each side, shrinkage
allowance
ll off 2% andd a taper
t allowance
ll off 1 degree.
d
• Solution
• Step-1: Machining Allowance
• It is ggiven that machiningg allowance of 2 mm on each side is to be ggiven. Thus,,
each side is increased by 2 mm resulting in the basic dimension of the pattern as
shown in Figure (a). The required casting is shown with dotted lines.

• Step-2
p : Taper
p Allowance
• We decide to cast the job horizontally and use a solid pattern for this casting. For
this design, the draft allowance is to be provided on the vertical sides (24 mm
long). Considering the given taper allowance of 1 degree, the side view of the
pattern would be as shown in Figure (b).
• The taper allowance value x is calculated from the geometry of the Figure (b) as
• x = 24 tan 1 = 0.419 mm.
• Thus thetop surface dimension is increased to provide for draft allowance from
Thus,
54 x 84 mm to 54.838 x 84.838 mm.

• Step-3
p Shrinkage g Allowance:
• Given shrinkage allowance is 2%. Now, the dimensions of pattern are increased
by 2% on all sides.
• That is, dimension 54 mm will become
• 54 + (54*2)/100 = 55.08mm or 55.1mm
• The dimension 54.838 will become 54.838 + (54.838*2)/100 = 55.9mm
• Similarly, all other dimensions are calculated and the final dimensions of the
pattern
tt are shown
h i Figure
in Fi

• A jjob shown in Figure
g is to be made from steel byy castingg pprocess. The mold for
this job is made from wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden
pattern assuming machining allowance of 3 mm on each side, shaking allowance
off 1 mm on length
l th andd width,
idth shrinkage
hi k allowance
ll off 3%

• Step-1
p : Machiningg Allowance: Since ggiven machiningg allowance is 3 mm on
each side, add 3 mm on each side of the part shown in Figure. The dimensions of
the pattern after machining allowance will be:
• L = 80 + 2 x 3 = 86 mm
• W = 40 + 2 x 3 = 46 mm
• H = 30 + 2 x 3 = 36 mm
• The dimensions of the pattern after adding machining allowance are shown in the
following figure .
• Step-2 : shrinkage allownce :The shrinkage allowance of 3% is added to all the
dimensions of the ppattern shown in Figure.
g Dimension of the ppattern after
providing shrinkage allowance of 3% will be:
• L = 86 + 86 x 3/100 = 88.58 mm,
• W = 46 + 46 x 3/100 = 47.38 mm
• H = 36 + 36 x 3/100 = 37.08 mm

• Step
p -3 : Shakingg Allowance : Given shakingg allowance is 1 mm on length
g and
width.
• Recall that, shaking allowance is a negative allowance.
• Hence, 1 mm has to be reduced from the calculated values of length and width
side.
• S d
Students are advised
d i d to note that
h the h height
h i h off the
h pattern doesn’t
d ’ require
i any
shaking allowance.
• Therefore final dimension of the pattern will be:
Therefore,
• L = 88.58 – 1 = 87.58 mm
• W = 47.38
47 38 – 1 = 46.38
46 38 mm
• H = 37.08 mm

Master patterns:
• Master p patterns are used for p
preparing
p g the moulds for metal castings
g which are later used
as patterns for further moulding work, called metal patterns. The master patterns are
accurately finished wooden patterns, which carry double shrinkage allowance and the
required machining allowance.
allowance For example,
example an alluminium pattern is to be made which is
to be used further for making moulds for brass castings. The alluminium pattern should,
obviously, be larger than the desired brass casting by an amount equalto shrinkage that
will take place during solidification ofthis casting.
casting For making this alluminium pattern a
wooden pattern is to be used which should be larger than the alluminium pattern by an
amount equal to the alluminium shrinkage, added with proper machining allowance for
fi i hi
finishing the
h alluminium
ll i i casting.
i M h
Mathematically,
i ll i can be
it b representedd thus
h :
Let Sb represent the size of the desired casting in brass. And Let Sa represent the size of
aluminum pattern. And Let Cb represent the contraction allowance for brass.
Then Sa=Sb+Cb
• Again, let S represent the size of the master pattern. And let Ca represent the contraction
allowance for aluminum.
aluminum Also let Am represent the machining allowance required
to finish the aluminum casting to the required size of
pattern and to give smooth surface finish.
• Then S = Sa+Ca+Am = Sb+Cb+Ca+Am , Or
• Size of master pattern = Size of the final casting to be Made + shrinkage allowance for the
material of final casting + shrinkage allowance of the metal of which the pattern is to be
made + Finishing allowance for the metal pattern.
Moulding Sands
• Silica Sand Grains:
– moulding sand contains 80 to 90 % silica. Silica in the form of
granular quartz, itself a sand, it is the chief constituent of moulding
sand.
d Theyh i
impart refractoriness,
f i chemical
h i l resistivity
i i i and
d
permeability to the sand. The sand grains may vary in size from few
micrometers to a few millimeters.
millimeters The shape of sand grains may be
round or angular. Silica sand normally contains some oxides of
aluminium, sodium, magnesium and calcium as foreign material.
• Moisture/Water:
– Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of required
amountt off water
t (1.5
(1 5 to
t 8 %).%) When
Wh water t is
i added
dd d to
t clay
l it
penetrates in to the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the
surface of each flake.

Moulding Sands
• Clay:
y
– Clay can be defined as natural earthy material that becomes plastic
when mixed with water. Clay consists of two ingredients: fine silt and
true clay.
l Fine
i siltil is
i a foreign
f i material i l or mineral
i l deposit
d i and
d has
h no
bonding power, whereas true clay imparts the necessary bonding to
the moulding sand.
sand Its purpose is to impart necessary bonding
strength to the mould sand so that the mould does not loose its shape
after ramming. moulding sand contains about 5 to 20 % clay.
– The most popular types of clay used are: Kaolinite or Fireclay
(Al2O32SiO22H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O34SiO2H2OnH2O).
– Fireclay
Fi l has h higher
hi h melting
lti pointi t than
th Bentonite.
B t it However,
H B t it
Bentonite
can absorb more water which increases its bonding power. Bentonite
also has better permeability.
p y
– Bentonite is of two types: Calcium ion based bentonite and sodium
ion base bentonite. Sodium ion based bentonite provides better
bonding properties.

Moulding Sands
• Additives: Materials other than basic materials are also added to the
moulding sand for improving existing properties. These are:
– Facing Materials: Facing materials are used to get smoother and
cleaner
l surfaces
f off castings
i and
d helps
h l easy peelingli off sand d from
f the
h
casting surface during shake out. These are:
– Coal dust: Coal dust or sea coal is finely grounded soft coal
(pulverized coal). It tends to obtain smoother and cleaner surface and
reduces the adherence of sand particles to the casting. It also
increases hot and dry strength of the mould.
– Silica flour: It is very fine ground silica. It improves surface finish of
th casting.
the ti
– Cushion Materials:
– Cushion
C shion materials burn
b rn when
hen molten metal is poured
po red and thus
th s give
gi e
rise to space for accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the
surface of mould cavity.y E.g.
g wood flour,, cellulose,, and cereals.
– Wood flour: It is ground wood particles or other cellulose materials.
– Cereals: Cereals are finely ygground corn flour.

Moulding Sands

Classifications of moulding Sand: According to the nature of its origin
• Natural Sand: Natural sand is also called green sand,sand is taken
from riverbeds or is dug from pits. Natural sand contains sufficient
amount of binding materials (Clay) in it so that it can be used
directly.
• Advantages:
–Natural sand maintains moisture content for a long time.
–They
Th are cheap.
h
–The time for mixing the binder is saved.
–No extra equipment for mixing the sand and the binder.
• Disadvantages:
g
–They are less refractory than synthetic sands because of
impurities present.
• Applications: Light castings, Mechanized production of casting
with few cores.
cores

Synthetic Sand: Synthetic sands are basically clay free high silica
sands. They are mixed with desired amount of clay and water to
develop required moulding properties. It is used for steel castings.
• Advantages:
–High
High permeability and refractoriness.
refractoriness
–mouldability with less moisture.
• Disadvantages:
–It is more costly.
–It needs extra time, equipment and men to prepare the sand.
• Applications: Heavily cored castings, Mechanized production,

High pressure moulding..
moulding

Special Sands: Special sand is ideal in getting special characteristics, which
are not ordinarily obtained in other sands. Zircon, olivine, chamotte,
chromite and chrome-manganese are often used as special sands.
• Zircon sand: Zircon sand is zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4). This sand has
low thermal expansion, high heat conductivity, greater density and high
refractoriness. These sands are used for bronze casting, alloy steels-
chrome steels and manganese steels casting.
• Olivine sand: This is orthosilicate of iron and manganese (MgFe)O.SiO2.
It has high density, conductivity and refractoriness. It is used for non-
ferrous steels and intricate casting.
ferrous, casting
• Chamotte sand: This is produced by calcining high-grade fire clay at
about 11000C and crushing it to the required grain size. size It is much
cheaper than zircon and olivine. It is used for heavy steel Casting.
• Chromite and Chrome-magnesite: It has refractoriness,
refractoriness high density and
chilling power. It is useful where chilling tendency is to be increased to
control solidification.

Classification of moulding Sand: Acc. to their initial conditions and use
• Green Sands: Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green
sand. It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 –30 % clay, having total
water from 6-8%. This is suitable for mouldingg ppurposes
p without anyy
further conditioning. Green sand is generally used for casting small
or medium sized moulds.
• Dry Sands: Sands free from moisture are called dry sands. It
possesses greater strength than green sand and can be used for
making larger castings.
• Loam Sands: Loam sands are a mixture of sand and clay (50%). It is
used for making larger castings such as large cylinders, paper rolls.
• Facing Sands: Facing sand forms the face of the mould. It is used
directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes in contact with
the molten metal when the mould is poured. Consequently it is
subjected to the severest conditions and must possess high strength
and refractoriness. Facing sand is composed of dry silica and facing
materials.
t i l
Classification of moulding Sand: Acc. to their initial conditions and use
• Backing Sands: It is the sand,
sand which backs up the facing sand and
to fill the rest of the flask. It is the floor sand already been used.
• Parting Sands: Sand employed on the faces of the pattern before
moulding is called parting sand. The parting sand contains dried
silica and burnt sand.
silica, sand Parting sand is used to avoid sticking of the
green sand to the pattern.
• Core Sands: Sands used for making cores are called core sands. sands
This is silica sand mixed with core oil, which is composed of
linseed oil,
oil resin,
resin light mineral oil and other binding materials.
materials
• System Sands: In mechanical foundries where machine moulding
is employed a so called system sand is used to fill the whole flask.flask
In mechanical sand preparation and handling units no facing sand
is used.
used

Properties of moulding Sand
• Permeability or Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain
amount of dissolved gases, which are evolved when the metal
solidifies, also when the molten metal comes in contact with
moisture sand, generates steam and water vapour. If these gases and
water vapour
p do not find ppassage
g to escape p completely
p y through g the
mould they will form gas holes and pores in the casting. The ability
of the sand to allow the ggas to ppass through g it is called p
permeability. y
It depends on the size and shape of grains, moisture content and
degree of ramming.
• There are four factors that control the permeability of foundry sand:
((1)) fineness of the sand g
grains,, ((2)) shape
p of the sand g grains,, ((3)) the
amount and type of binder, and (4) the moisture content.
Permeability is expressed as a number that increases with an
increasing openness of the sand.

• Plasticity and Flowabilty: This refers to the ability of the moulding
sand to acquire a predetermined shape under pressure and retain the
same when the pressure is removed. This will increase with clay and
moisture content.
Adhesiveness: moulding sand particles should stick to the surface of
the moulding boxes. This enables the mould to retain in a box
during handling.

• Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of the sand particles to
stick to each other. Lack of this property would result in breaking of
the mould when molten metal is poured. This depends on grain size
(decreases with grain size) and clay content (increases with clay) of
sand.
• Green Strength: It is the strength of the sand in green or moist
state. A mould with adequate green strength will not disturb or
collapse even after removing the pattern from the mould box in the
absence of ggreen strength,
g , dimensional stability y and accuracy
y
cannot be obtained.
• Dry strength: It is the strength of the moulding sand in dry
condition. A mould should possess adequate dry strength to
withstand erosive force and pressure of the molten metal.
• Hot Strength: It is the strength of the mould cavity above 100 ° C.
If hot strength is inadequate the mould is likely to enlarge,
enlarge break or
get cracked.
• Refractoriness :The capability of the moulding sand to withstand the
high temperatures of the molten metal without fusing is known as
refractoriness.
• Collapsibility: It is the property of the moulding sand that permits it to
collapse easily during its knockout from the casting.
• Coefficient Of Expansion: moulding sands should possess low
coefficient of expansion. Otherwise mould might crack. moulding sands
should possess low coefficient of expansion. Otherwise mould might
crack.
• Fineness:
Fi Fi
Finer mouldld sandd resists
i metall penetration
i and
d produces
d
smooth casting surface. Fineness and permeability is opposite to each
other Hence these should be balanced for optimum result.
other. result
• Bench Life: It is the ability of mould sand to retain its properties during
storing handling or while standing.
storing, standing
• Chemical Reactivity: The moulding sand should not react chemically
with molten metal,
metal otherwise the shape of casting will be disturbed and
smooth surface will not be obtained.
Permeability of moulding sands
• There are four factors that control the ppermeability y of foundryy sand: ((1)) fineness
of the sand grains, (2) shape of the sand grains, (3) the amount and type of
binder, and (4) the moisture content. Permeability is expressed as a number that
i
increases with
ith an increasing
i i openness off the th sand.
d
• 1. Grain Fineness. Grain fineness is an indication of the grain size of the sands.
It is expressed as a number that tells a moulder if he has a fine sand, sand made up
largely of very small sand grains, or a coarse sand, composed mainly of large
sand grains. The permeability of the coarse sand is very high. As the sand grains
become smaller, the permeability decreases rapidly. This decrease is due to the
smaller voids or openings between the individual sand grains for the fine sand.
Coarse sand grains have the same general size relation to fine sand grains as
basketballs have to marbles.
• Shape p of the Sand Grains. There are two pprimary y shapes
p of sand ggrains,, angular
g
and rounded. There are many degrees of roundness or angularity between the two
extremes. Angular grains can be compared to crushed stone. There are sharp
edges and corners on the grains. grains The rounded sand grains have the appearance of
beach pebbles that have been rounded by the action of the sea. Sharp angular
sand ggrains cannot ppack together g as closelyy as rounded sand ggrains. As a result,,
sand with angular grains have a higher permeability than sands with rounded
grains.
Figure a. Permeability as affected by the grain

size of sand.
sand
Figure b. The effect of sand grain shape on permeability

• 3. Binder. The amount and typeyp of binder also have an effect on the ppermeabilityy
of foundry sand. The effect of increasing amounts of bentonite on permeability is
shown in figure a. The permeabilities are shown for moisture contents of 2 and 4
percent.
t With 2 percentt moisture,
it th sandd shows
the h a rapid
id decrease
d i permeability
in bilit
with increased bentonite content. Sands containing 4 percent moisture show a
fairly
y constant ppermeability
y after 4 ppercent bentonite is reached. This type
yp of
information indicates that 4 percent of moisture in this particular sand would
produce the best permeability over a range of bentonite contents. The type of
bi d also
binder l affects
ff t permeability,
bilit as shown
h i figure
in fi b
b.
Figure a. Permeability
Fi P bilit as affected
ff t d by
b the
th Figure bb. Th
Fi The effect
ff t off bentonite
b t it andd fireclay
fi l
amount of binder. on permeability.
• 4. Moisture Content. The effect of moisture content on ppermeability y was shown
in figures. Low permeability at very low moisture content is caused by the dry
clay particles filling the spaces between the sand grains. Figures a and b both
show
h an increase
i i permeability
in bilit to
t a maximum
i value,
l andd then
th a decrease
d with
ith
further additions of water. The increase in permeability is produced when the
moisture causes the clayy pparticles to agglomerate
gg or stick together.
g This action is
similar to the addition of water to dust to form a firm piece of soil. When water is
added in excess of the amount to produce this sticking together, the excess water
b i to
begins t fill in
i the
th holes
h l between
b t th sandd grains
the i andd as a result,
lt the
th permeability
bilit
goes down. This action is similar to the addition of water to a firm soil to produce
mud.
Figure aa. Permeability as affected by sand Figure b.

Fi b The
Th effect
ff t off sandd grain
i shape
h on
fineness and moisture. permeability
Sand conditioning / Sand preparation
• Proper sand conditioning accomplishes uniform distribution of
binder around the sand grains, controls the moisture content,
eliminates foreign particles, and aerates the sand so that it flows
readily around and takes up detail of the pattern.
• The basic steps are:
– The first step is to remove all foreign and undesirable matters
such as nails,
nails fins,
fins hard sand lumps from the moulding sand.
sand
– The second step is mixing of its ingredients, proper amounts of
pure sand,
sand clay and other additives are mixed and water is
spread over the entire volume. Muller is used for mixing all the
ingredients of sand.
sand Muller is a device which kneads rolls and
stirs the sand.
– In
I the
th third
thi d step,
t theth sand
d is
i passed
d through
th h a mechanical
h i l aerator
t
to separate sand grains into individual particles. It is performed
to increase the flowability.
flowability
Sand conditioning / Sand preparation
Batch Mueller

Sand moulding machines:
• Vertical flaskless mouldingg
• Sandslinger
• Impact moulding
• Vacuum moulding

• Hand ramming: g is the simplest
p method of compacting
p g sand. To increase the
rate, pneumatic rammers are used. The method is slow, the sand is rammed in
layers, and it is difficult to gain uniform density.
• squeezing machines: More uniform results and higher production rates are
obtained by squeezing machines. Hand-operated squeezers were limited to small
moulds and are obsolete; air-operated machines permit an increase in the
allowable size of moulds as well as in the production rate. These machines are
suitable for shallow moulds. Squeezer moulding machines produce greatest sand
density at the top of the flask and softest near the parting line of pattern. Air-
operated machines are also applied in vertical moulding processes using flaskless
moulds Horizontal impact moulding sends shock waves through the sand to pack
moulds.
the grains tightly.
• The sand is rammed harder at the back of the mould and softer on the pattern
p
face. In other words sand has greatest density at the surface where pressure is
applied to sand and sand density decreases progressively towards the pattern.
• moulding force (Mf) = P (π. d2/4)-W
Where, P – Pressure in squeeze cylinder
d – Piston
Pi t diameter
di t
W – Weight of flask pattern and sand
• In jjolt mouldingg machines the ppattern is pplaced on a pplaten attached to the topp of
an air cylinder. After the table is raised, a quick-release port opens, and the
piston, platen, and mould drop free against the top of the cylinder or striking
pads.
d TheTh impact
i t packs
k the
th sand.
d The
Th densities
d iti produced d d by b this
thi machine
hi are
greatest next to the parting line of the pattern and softest near the top of the flask.
This pprocedure can be used for anyy flask that can be rammed on a mouldingg
machine. As a separate unit, it is used primarily for medium and large work.
Where plain jolt machines are used on large work, it is usual to ram the top of the
fl k manually
flask ll with
ith an air
i hammer.
h
• Jolt-Squeeze machine combines in single machine the operating principles of
the jolt and squeeze machines.
machines Combination of jolting and squeezing produces
beneficial compaction effects on sand density and thus a more uniform hardness
throughout the mould is attained. A jolt-squeeze machine makes use of match
plate moulding. Jolt squeeze machines use both the jolt and the squeeze
procedures. The platen is mounted on two air cylinders: a small cylinder to jolt
and a large one to squeeze the mould.mould They are widely used for small and
medium work, and with match-plate or gated patterns. Pattern-stripping devices
can be incorporated with jolt or squeezer machines to permit mechanical removal
of the pattern. Pattern removal can also be accomplished by using jolt-rock over-
draw or jolt-squeeze-rollover-draw machines.

Jolt Squeeze moulding Machine

• The sand slingerg is the most widely y applicable
pp type
yp of rammingg machine. It consists of an
impeller mounted on the end of a double-jointed arm which is fed with sand by belt
conveyors mounted on the arm. The impeller rotating at high speed gives sufficient
velocity to the sand to ram it in the mould by impact.
impact The head may be directed to all parts
of the flask manually on the larger machines and may be automatically controlled on
smaller units used for the high-speed production of small moulds. The sand slinger
consists of a base,
base a sand bin,
bin a bucket elevator,
elevator a swinging or movable arm,arm a belt
conveyor and the sand impeller. Prepared sand lying in the sand bin is picked up by the
elevator buckets and is dropped on to the belt conveyor which takes the same to the
i
impeller
ll head.
h d Inside
I id theh impeller
i ll head,
h d rapidly
idl rotating
i cup shaped
h d blade
bl d picks
i k up theh
sand and throws it downward into the moulding box as a continuous stream of sand with
machine gun rapidity and great force.
• The sand is discharged into the moulding box at a rate of 300 to 2000kg/minute. This
force is great enough to ram the mould satisfactorily.
• In moulding
mo lding boxes,
bo es sand is filled and rammed at the same time.
time The density
densit of sand which
hich
is the result of sand’s inertia is uniform throughout the mould.

sand slinger

Sand Testing: Grain fineness or Grain size test
Sieves
Sieve Shaking Machine
Collecting
g Pan
Motor
• The ggrain size is determined byy ggrain fineness number.

• It can be tested with the help of equipment called sieve shaker.
• It consists of set of standard sieves havingg varying
y g number of meshes 6,,
12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200 and 270.
• The sieve with minimum mesh number has largest aperture and so on.

Sieves

Collecting Pan
Motor
The sample of sand is first washed to remove clay from it, and then it is
dried. A weighed quantity of this sand is now placed on the top sieve and the
whole unit is shaken for a definite period with the help of electric motor. The
sand falls through the apertures,
apertures and the sand of smallest size comes to the
bottom pan. The sand in each sieve is collected and weighed separately and
expressed as a percentage of the original sample weight. The percentage
retained
i d in
i eachh sieve
i i multiplied
is l i li d by
b its
i own multiplier
l i li and d all
ll the
h products
d
are added to obtain the total product. The grain fineness number is obtained
by using the following equation

Sieves
Collecting Pan
Motor
Total Product ΣM i Pi
Grain fineness number =
Total % of sand retained on sieve ΣPi
Where Mi = Multiplying factor of ith sieve, Pi = Percentage of sand retained in ith sieve

American Foundry Society (AFS) Multiplying factor

Seive series
6 3
12 5
20 10
30 20
40 30
50 40
70 50
100 70
140 100
200 145
270 200
Pan 300

Sand Testing: Hardness test
• The hardness of compacted sand provides a quick indication of
mould strength and give additional insight into strength-
permeability characteristics. Hardness of moulding sand can be
measured by an instrument called hardness tester. This tester
determines the resistance of the sand to p
penetration by
y a 0.2 inch
(5.08 mm) diameter spring loaded steel ball.

Sand Testing: Permeability Test
2000cc Bell Jar
Water
Mercury
M
Seal Manometer
Permeability Tester
Valve
• Permeability is measured by the quantity of air that will pass

through a standard specimen of the sand under given pressure in a
prescribed time.
• The permeability apparatus uses the standard rammed 5.08cm
diameter by 5.08cm height test piece.

2000cc Bell Jar
Water
Mercury
Seal Manometer
Permeability Tester
Valve
A permeability
bili meter, hash a cylindrical
li d i l water tank k in
i which
hi h an
inverted bell or air holder, properly balanced, is floating. By
properly
l openingi the
th valve,
l air,i which
hi h is
i trapped
t d under
d the
th bell,
b ll will
ill
flow through the sand specimen as shown. Mercury around the
bottom of the specimen tube provides an airtight seal.
seal The pressure
of this air is obtained with the water manometer and straight scale. It
should be close to 10 cm of water,
water which correspond to a pressure of
10 gm per sq. cm.
2000cc Bell Jar
Water
Mercury
M
Seal Manometer
Permeability Tester
Valve
• Permeability number is defined as the volume of air in cc that

will
ill pass per minute
i t under
d a pressure off 1 gm per sq. cm
through a specimen, which is 1 sq. cm in cross sectional area
andd 1 cm deep.
d

Vxh
Permeability Number =
Px axt
Where,
Where v = Volume of air = 2000cc
• h = Height of the sand specimen = 5.08cm
• p = Air pressure = 10 gm per sq. cm.
• a = cross- sectional area of the specimen = 20.268 sq. cm.
• t= Time for 2000cc of air in Minutes
Putting these values

values, the formula reduces to:
501.28 50.128 3007.2

P
Permeabili
bility N b =
t Number = =
p xTime in min Time in min Time in sec

Sand Testing: Strength Test
Dial
Jaws to
Indicator
hold jobs
Hi Lo a) Compression b) Shear
gh w
Rotating
Handle
Universal Sand
Testing Machine
c) Tensile
• To find
T fi d outt the
th holding
h ldi power off various
i b di materials
bonding t i l in
i green andd dry
d
sand moulds, strength tests are performed. It is done on universal sand testing
machine. mouldingg sand can be tested for compressive,
p , tensile strength
g and
shear strength.
• The specimen is held between the grips. Hand wheel when rotated, actuates
mechanism to build pressure on the specimen. Dial indicator fitted on the tester
measures the deformation occurring in the specimen. There are two
manometers one for low strength sand and other for high strength sands.
manometers, sands

Cores and core making
• Cores:
– Castings are often required to have holes, recesses etc. of
various sizes and shapes.
shapes
– Cores are used for making holes or cavities or recesses, which
cannot normally be produced by pattern alone.
alone
– These cores are obtained by using core sand; cores are
separately
t l made,
d ini boxes
b k
known as core boxes.
b
• Core prints:
– For supporting the cores in the mould cavity, an impression in
the form of recesses is made in the mould with the help of a
projection suitably placed on the pattern.
– This projection on the pattern is known as the core prints.

• Core Sands:
• Core sand is composed of either dry sand or synthetic sand mixed with
core oil and/ or binders.
binders
• Generally Core oils (composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil
(50 to 60% linseed oil,
oil 25% resin and the rest is mineral oil) are used
as they are economical and produces .
• The normal binders are organic in nature,
nature because these would be
burnt away by the heat of the molten metal and thus make the core
collapsible
p duringg the cooling
g of the casting.
g
• Binders are of following types:
• Thermo setting plastic core binders (Rosin, (Rosin pitch): Gives high
strength.
• Thermo setting resin core binders (Urea,
(Urea phenol): Gives high strength.
strength
• Protein binders (Gelatine, glue): Where collapsibility is the main
criterion
criterion.

• Characteristics of Core and Core Sand:
– Green strength: Core sand should be strong enough to retain the shape
till it g
goes for baking.
g
– Dry strength: It should have adequate dry strength so that when the
core is p placed in the mould,, It should be able to resist the metal
pressure acting on it.
– Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is surrounded all around
it is desirable that the core material should have higher refractoriness.
– Permeability: Some of the gases evolving from the molten metal and
generated from the mould may have to go through the core to escape
out of the mould. Hence cores are required to have higher
permeability.
bilit
– Collapsibility: As the casting cools, it shrinks, and unless the core has
good d collapsibility
ll ibilit it isi likely
lik l to
t provideid resistance
it t against
to i t
shrinkage and thus cause hot tears.
– Smoothness: The surface of the core should be smooth so as to
provide a good surface finish to the castings
• Core Boxes
• A core box is a type of pattern being used for making cores. It is made of wood,
brass aluminium or any suitable material. In core boxes sand is rammed or
packed to form the cores and thus impart the desired shape to them. A core box is
so constructed that it gives the exact size and shape of the core required.
A typical core box

• Types of core boxes:
• Half core box: In half core boxes, half of the core is made at one time
as shown in the figure.
figure Another half portion of the core is made
separately and both are baked. The portions are cemented after baking
and then used as a core.
• Slab or dump core box: It is similar to a half core box in construction
but makes a full core at a time as shown in the figure.
g It is used for
making rectangular, square, triangular and trapezoidal cores.
• Split
p core box: A splitp core box consists of two pparts. These pparts can
be joined together with the help of dowels or fasteners temporarily to
show full core cavity after joining.
• Strickel core box: It consists of a strickel board made of wood and a
core box as shown in the figure.
g The sand is dumped
p in a core box and
rammed. The top surface of the core in the core box is given the
desired shape with the help of a strickel board.

Types of core boxes

• Types
yp of Cores
– Horizontal Core
– Vertical core
– Balanced core
– Hanging Core
– Wing/Drop Core
Horizontal Core
Hanging Core


• The steps involved in core making are :
• Mixing core sand:
– The dry sand is mixed with required amount of core oil and binders.
binders
The mixer must be homogeneous so that core will be of uniform
g through
strength g out. The mixing g of sand is p performed in ppaddle
mixers or mullers.
• Ramming of the core sand:
– Cores are usually made in core boxes. The core box is filled with core
sand, rammed and struck off.
• Venting of the core:
– Vent holes are pprovided in cores in order to allow the escape
p of g
gases.
These vents are usually made with wires or rods.
• Reinforcing the core:
– Some cores require internal reinforcements to prevent from breakage
or shifting, when metal is poured in the mould. Wires placed within
the sand serve this purpose.
• Bakingg of the core:
– The cores after removing from the core boxes are baked at temperature upto
about 2600C to develop the strength obtainable from the binders in the core
sand The baking is done in oven,
sand. oven dielectric bakers etc.
etc
• Cleaning of the core:
– The cleaningg of cores consists of trimming, g, brushing,
g, coatingg and muddling.
g
• Trimming: It is done to remove fins arising from loose joints or loose
pieces in the core boxes.
• Brushing:
h It is
i done
d to remove loose
l sand.
d
• Coating: The core is coated with high refractory materials to increase its
refractoriness.
• Muddling: It is localized coating to make the core smooth. In this step,
cavities in the core surface are filled.
• Sizing of the core:
– The cores are then brought to required size by removing excess material.
• Joining of the core:
– Sometimes cores are made of two or more pieces, so before they can be used
theyy are jjoined byy ppastingg or bolting.
g

Core making Example
Figure 1: Core boxes for pump housing core

core.
Figure 2: Ramming up the core.

core
Figure 3: Placing the reinforcing rods.

Core making Example
Figure 4: Cutting vents. Figure 5: Drag core turned out.

Core making Example
Figure 7: Applying core paste.
Figure 6: Cope core turned out. Figure 8: Assembling the two core halves.
Core print design
• Major
j considerations in core pprint design
g are listed below.
1. The print must balance the body, so that the core stays in place during mould
assembly.
2. The print must withstand the buoyancy force of the metal and not get crushed.
3. The print must not shift during mould filling.
4. The print should minimize the deflection of the core.
5. The print should maximize the heat transfer from the core to the mould.
6. The print should allow the internal gases generated in the core to escape to the
mould.
7 Unsymmetrical holes should have foolproof prints to prevent incorrect assembly.
7. assembly
8. The prints of adjacent cores may be combined into one.

Core print design
• Let us analyzey the forces on a horizontal simply p y supported
pp core. Consider a
cylindrical core of diameter d, body length l, print length a and print diameter D.
Let ρmetal and ρcore be the densities of the molten metal and core material,
respectively.
ti l Also,Al let l t σcomp be
b the
th compressive
i strength
t th off the
th mould ld material.
t i l
• Self weight of core body WB = π d2 l ρcore / 4
• Self weight of core prints WP = π D2 a ρcore / 4
• Total weight of core W = WB + WP
• Applying the first design rule to balance the core during placement in mould, mould we
have WB ≤ WP
• y y force B on the core,, B = π d2 l ρmetal / 4
The buoyancy
• The net force on the core (upward) = B – W
• The compressive
p stress on each core pprint σprint = 0.5 ((B - W)) / ((a D))
• Applying the second rule to prevent core failure by crushing due to buoyancy
forces, σprint ≤ σcomp
• For vertical cores, there are two additional considerations. One is that the buoyancy forces
transmitted by the core print may shear the top part of the mould. This is prevented by ensuring
sufficient thickness of the mould wall above the core print. The second consideration is that the core
print must be tapered to facilitate its placement in mould. The draft angle ranges from 2-4 degrees.

Core print calculations
• The main force actingg on the core when metal is ppoured in the mould cavityy is
due to buoyancy force. Hence to fully support the buoyancy force, it is necessary
that the following condition (empirical) is satisfied, p≤ 350 A; where A is the
core print i mm2.
i t area in
• If the above equation is not satisfied, then it would be necessary to provide
additional support by the way of chaplets.
chaplets
• In order to calculate the chaplet area, we need to know the unsupported load:
• Unsupported load = p - 350 A
• If the Unsupported load is greater than zero then the chaplet are required is
29mm2 for every Newton of unsupported load.

• Chaplets
p
– Chaplets are metal supports used to hold a core in place when core prints are
inadequate. It is absolutely necessary that they be clean. Rust, oil, grease,
moisture, or even finger marks, cause poor fusion or porosity. Chaplets
should be the same composition as the casting, if possible. The strength of the
chaplet must be enough to carry the weight of the core until sufficient metal
has solidified to provide the required strength, but it should be no heavier
than necessary.

• Types
yp of chaplets
p

Sand casting examples ( Green sand mould preparation)
• Firstly,
y one half of the ppattern is pplaced with its flat surface on a mould board,
and the drag section of the flask is set over the pattern on the same board.
• After powdering the pattern with lycopodium, talc, or graphite, a layer of facing
sand is then riddled over the pattern.
pattern
• The drag is then filled with layers of green sand mixture. The sand is then
compacted with rammer.
• After the sand is rammed, a strickle is used to scrape off the excess sand level
with the top of the flask.
• The mould is then vented by sticking it with a fine stiff wire at numerous places.
places
• A small amount of loose sand is sprinkled over the mould, and bottom board is
placed on the top.
p p
• The drag is then rolled over, the moulding board is then removed, and the upper
surface is sprinkled with parting sand.
Drag
Step 1
Pattern
Moulding
Board

• The remaining half of the pattern and the cope section of the flask are
then assembled.
• Tapered
p wooden p pegs
g to serve as sprue
p and riser are p
placed in p
proper
p
position on the pattern, which is riddled over with facing sand, and then
the cope is filled with green sand.
• The operations of filling, ramming, venting of the cope proceed in the
same manner as in the drag.
Riser Pin
Sprue Pin
Step 2

• Now, tthee woode
wooden pegs aaree removed
e oved fromo tthee cope aandd a funnel
u e sshaped
aped
opening is scooped out at the top of the sprue to form the pouring basin.
• Next the cope is lifted off and placed on a board with parting line upward.
• An iron bar is now pushed down to the pattern and rapped sideways so as to
loosen the pattern in the mould.
• Next the pattern is drawn out.
Weight
Vents
Cope
Riser
Sprue
Core Step 3
Runner
R
Drag
Gate

• The runner and the ggate are cut in the dragg from the p
pattern to the sprue.
p Now
the core must be placed in the print left by the pattern.
• Mould surfaces are then cleaned.
• Finally the mould is assembled, the cope being carefully placed on the drag
so that the flask pins fit into the bushes.
• Before pouring the molten metal,
metal the cope is sufficiently loaded to prevent it
from floating up when metal is poured.
• The mould is now readyy for casting. g
Weight
Pouring basin
Vents
Cope Riser
Sprue
Core Step 3
Runner
Drag
Gate

Sand casting examples

Sand casting examples

Sand casting examples (a cast iron steel elbow )

Sand casting examples (pump housing)
Figure: Pattern set in drag with gating system parts

Figure: Hand packing riddled sand around the pattern

Figure Ramming a deep pocket.

Figure: Striking off the drag

Figure: Drag flipped over and ready for the cope

Figure: . Cope with pattern and gating pieces set

Figure: Ramming the partially filled cope.

Figure: Venting the cope

Figure: Cope removed and Start of the

pattern draw.
Fi
Figure: P
Pattern
tt completely
l t l drawn.
d

Figure: Setting the core.
Fi
Figure: C
Cope and
d ddrag ready
d ffor closing.
l i

Figure: Clamped
Fi Cl d mold
ld with
ith weights
i ht andd
pouring basin.
Fi
Figure: Pouring
P i the th mold.
ld

Figure: Finished pump housing casting.

Sand casting examples (propeller
(propeller))
Figure: Propeller set in the drag..

(propeller))
Figure: Propeller in the drag with parting
line cut.
Figure: Drawn cope.

(propeller))
Figure: Mold ready for closing.
Figure: As-cast propeller.

Important points to be considered for GATING SYSTEMS Design
• The mould should be completelyp y filled in the smallest time ppossible without
having to raise metal temperatures nor use higher metal heads.
• The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A
turbulent metal flow tend to form dross in the mould.
• Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material should not be
allowed to enter the mould cavity.
cavity
• The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a
way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.
• A proper thermal gradient be maintained so that the casting is cooled without any
shrinkage cavities or distortions.
• Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould erosion
takes place.
• The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould
cavity.
• The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement and
remove after casting solidification.
• Ultimately, the casting yield should be maximised.

ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEMS
Figure: A typical gating system


Figure: Pouring basin
Figure: Sprue




Runner
Figure: Runner

• TYPES OF GATES: There are three g general classifications for g
gates which are
commonly used. They are: (1) bottom gates, (2) top gates, and (3) parting gates (4)
Step gates.
• T Gates.
Top G t TopT gatingti off a casting
ti isi limited
li it d by
b the
th ability
bilit off the
th mould
ld to
t withstand
ith t d
erosion, because the molten metal is usually poured through an open-top riser.
Contraryy to the characteristics of bottom g gating,
g topp ggating
g has the advantage
g of
producing favorable temperature gradients, but the disadvantage of excessive mould
erosion. This method of gating is usually used for castings of simple design which are
poured in gray iron.
iron Top gating is not used with nonferrous alloys which form large
amounts of dross when agitated.
Figure: Top gate

• Bottom Gates. Bottom ggates are most ggenerallyy used because theyy keepp mould
and core erosion to a minimum. In spite of this, they have the very decided
disadvantage of causing unfavorable temperature gradients in the casting, which
make
k proper feeding
f di particularly
ti l l difficult
diffi lt andd often
ft impossible.
i ibl When
Wh using i
bottom gates, as the metal rises in the mould, it heats the mould with which it
comes in contact. This pproduces relativelyy cold metal in the riser with
considerably hotter metal next to the gate. In other words, there is hot metal and
hot mould near the gate and cold metal in a cold mould near the riser. Such
conditions
diti are opposite
it to
t those
th d i d for
desired f directional
di ti l solidification
lidifi ti in
i a casting.
ti
The risers should contain the hottest metal in the hottest part of the mould, and
the coldest mould pparts should be at ppoints farthest removed from the risers.
Figure: Bottom gate

• Partingg Gates. Parting-line
g ggates are used most frequently
q y because theyy are the
easiest for the moulder to construct, particularly in jobbing work. In addition, it is
usually possible to gate directly into a riser. The main disadvantage of parting
gates
t isi that
th t the
th molten
lt metal t l drops
d i the
in th mould ld to
t fill the
th drag
d partt off the
th
casting. Such a drop often causes erosion or washing of the mould. In nonferrous
metals,, dross formation is aggravated
gg and air is often trapped
pp to pproduce inferior
castings.
• Step Gating. The theory behind the step gate is that as the metal rises in the
mould, each gate will feed the casting in succession. This would then put the hot
metal in the riser where it is desired.
Fi
Figure: Step
St gate
t
Figure: Parting gate
Gating nomenclature



GENERAL RULES OF GATING
• The followingg ggeneral rules are ggiven as a gguide in makingg ggood ggating
g systems:
y
• 1. Use Round Sprues. (a) Round gates or the closest approach to round gates are
preferred. (b) A circular cross section has the minimum surface exposed for
cooling and offers the lowest resistance to flow.
• 2. Taper the Sprue. The sprue should be tapered with the smaller end toward the
casting This makes is possible to keep the down-gate
casting. down gate full of metal when pouring.
pouring
Never locate a tapered sprue so that metal is poured into the smaller end.
• 3. Streamline the Gating System. Gating systems having sudden changes in
direction cause slower filling of the mold cavity, are easily eroded, and cause
turbulence in the liquid metal with resulting gas pickup. Streamlining of the
gating
i system eliminates
li i or minimizes
i i i these
h problems.
bl A id right-angle
Avoid i h l turns.
• 4. Use Patterns for the Gates. The gating system should be formed as part of the
pattern whenever possible.
possible The use of patterns for the gates permits the sand to
be rammed harder and reduces sand erosion or washing. Hand-cut gates expose
loosened sand which is easily eroded by the flowing metal.

• 5. Maintain Proper p Gatingg Ratio. There is a definite relationshipp between the
cross-sectional areas of the sprue, runners, and in-gates, to produce the best
filling conditions for the mold. The rate of filling the mold should not exceed the
ability
bilit off the
th sprue to
t keep
k th entire
the ti gating
ti system t f ll off liquid
full li id metal
t l att all
ll
times. The cross section of the runner should be reduced in size as each gate is
passed. This keeps
p p the runner full throughout
g its entire length
g and ppromotes
uniform flow through all of the gates. If this procedure is not followed in a
multiple-ingate system, all of the metal will have a tendency to flow through the
i t farthest
ingates f th t from
f th sprue.
the
Figure: Illustration of gating ratio.

Maintain Proper Gating Ratio Example
• An examplep of the use of ggatingg ratio can be made with figure.
g Aluminum was
used to make this flat plate casting, and one of the gating ratios that has proven
successful for this type of casting is a 1:3:3 ratio. The first number refers to the
cross-sectional
ti l area off the
th sprue base,
b th secondd number
the b refers
f to t the
th total
t t l cross
section of all the runners from that sprue, and the third number refers to the total
cross-sectional area of the ingates.
g In other words,, the area of the sprue
p base is
1/3 that of the total area of the runners, and the total cross-sectional area of the
runners equals the total cross-sectional area of the ingates.
• The size of the ingate for this plate casting was selected to be 1/4 inch thick and
1-1/2 inches wide. The individual ingate then has an area of 3/8 square inch.
There are four ingates,
ingates so the total ingate area is 4 x 3/8 square inch,
inch or 1.5
1 5 square
inches. The total runner area is then also 1.5 square inches, as determined by the
gating ratio. Since there are two runners, each runner must have a cross-sectional
area of 0.75 square inches. In figure, this is shown by the runner dimensions of
3/4 inch thick by 1 inch wide. To complete the gating system, the sprue base
must have a cross-sectional area equal to 1/3 that of the runners.
runners This is equal to
1/2 square inch. A sprue with a base diameter of 4/5 inch will satisfy this
requirement.

Gating Ratio
• Sprue
p : runner : in-gate
g :: 1 : 4 : 4
• The disadvantages of unpressurised
gating are:
– The gating system needs to be
carefully designed to see that
all parts flow full.
full Otherwise
some elements of the gating
system
y mayy flow ppartially y
allowing for the air aspiration.
Tapered sprues are invariably
used with unpressurised
system. Also the runners are
maintained in dragg while the
gates are kept in cope to ensure
that the runners are full.
– Castingi yield
i ld gets reduced
d d
because of the large metal
involved in the runners and
gates.
6. Maintain Small Ingateg Contact. The area of contact between the ingate g and
the casting should be kept as small as possible.
7. Utilize Natural Channels. Ingates should be located so that the incoming flow
of metal takes place along natural channels in the mold and does not strike
directly on mold surfaces or cores. The continuous flow of metal against a mold
or core surface quickly burns out the binder and washes the loose sand into the
casting.
8. Use Multiplep Ingates.
g Unless a castingg is small and of simple p design,
g , several
ingates should be used to distribute the metal to the mold, fill it more rapidly,
and reduce the danger of hot spots.
9
9. A i Excessive
Avoid i Ingate Choke.
C Theh in-gate
i should
h ld not be
b choked
h k d at the
h mold
ld
so that it causes the metal to enter the mold at such a high speed that a shower
effect is produced. Besides excessive turbulence and oxidation of the metal, the
mold may not be able to withstand this eroding force. Choking of the ingate to
assist in gate removal is a proper procedure if a number of ingates are used to
allow
ll an adequate
d amount off metall to enter the
h moldld without
ih j action.
jet i

10. In-gate
g should not be located near a pprotrudingg ppart of the mould to avoid the
striking of vertical mould walls by the molten metal stream.
11. In-gates should preferably be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould
wall.
12. In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill.
13 In-gate cross sectional
13. i l area should
h ld preferably
f bl be b smaller
ll than
h the h smallest
ll
thickness of the casting so that the in-gates solidify first and isolate the castings
from the gating system. This would reduce the possibility of air aspiration
through the gating system in cases of metal shrinkage.


Example for gating calculations

RISERS
• The pprincipal
p reason for usingg risers is to furnish liquid
q metal to compensate
p for
solidification shrinkage in the casting. In addition to this main function, a riser
has other reasons for its use. It eliminates the hydraulic-ram effect (similar to
water
t "pound"
" d" when
h a valvel isi closed
l d suddenly),
dd l ) shown
h when
h theth mould
ld is
i full,
f ll
flows off cold metal, and vents the mould.
• Just at the time that a mould is completely filled with metal,
metal there can be a
sudden and large increase in pressure in the mould because of the motion of the
flowing metal. This added pressure may be enough to cause a run-out of the
casting or may produce a deformed casting. A riser permits the metal to flow
continuously into it instead of coming to a sudden stop. This reduces the pressure
or hydraulic-ram effect which produces these defects.
defects An open riser permits the
man pouring the mould to see how rapidly the mould is filling and provides him
with a means to regulate the flow of metal.

RISERS
• GENERAL RULES OF RISERING
• The most important function of a riser is that of a reservoir of heat and molten
metal. To be effective, it must be the last portion of the casting to
solidify. There are four primary requirements which a satisfactory riser should
meet:
1 The volume of the riser should be large enough to compensate for the metal
1.
contraction within the area of the casting it is designed to feed.\
2. Enough fluid metal must be in the riser to penetrate to the last cavity within its
feeding area.
3. The contact area of the riser with the casting must fully cover the area to be
fed, or be designed so that all the needed feed metal in the riser will pass into
the casting.
4 The
4. Th riser
i should
h ld be
b effective
ff ti in i establishing
t bli hi a pronouncedd temperature
t t gradient
di t
within the casting, so that the casting will solidify directionally toward the
riser.
Accordingly, the shape, size, and location of the riser must be effectively
controlled.

TYPES OF RISERS
• There are two ggeneral types
yp of risers,, the openp riser and the blind riser. The open
p
riser is open to the air while the blind riser is not cut through to the surface of the
mold. A blind riser cannot be seen when the mold is closed.
• Open Risers. Open risers are used widely because they are simple to mold. Their
greatest use is in large flat castings which have numerous heavy sections.
• Blind Risers.
Risers Blind risers are advantageous because:
• 1. They facilitate bottom gating into castings by feeding the hot spot at the point
of entry of metal. Gating into the riser also preheats the riser cavity and promotes
greater feeding efficiency as well as proper temperature gradients within the
casting.
• 2. They can be located at any position in a mold to feed otherwise inaccessible
sections.
• 3 They
3. Th are more efficient
ffi i t than
th open risersi b
because th can be
they b designed
d i d to t
closely approach the ideal spherical shape, thus substantially reducing the amount
of riser metal required
q for satisfactoryy feeding.
g In addition,, theyy are completely
p y
surrounded by sand, which eliminates the chilling by radiation to the air and
keeps the metal liquid longer.
• 4. They are easier to remove from castings than open risers because they can be
more strategically positioned.
RISERS
• Riser Shape.p The rate of solidification of a metal varies directlyy with the ratio of
surface area to volume. In other words, for a given weight of metal, the shape
which has the smallest surface area will take the longest time to solidify. The
ratio
ti off surface
f area to
t volume
l i obtained
is bt i d by
b dividing
di idi the
th surface
f area by
b the
th
volume.
• Riser Size.
Size Practical foundry experience has shown that the most effective height
of a riser is 1-1/2 times its diameter in order to produce maximum feeding for the
minimum amount of metal used. Any riser higher than this is wasteful of metal
and may be actually harmful to casting soundness.
• Riser Location. Heavy sections of a casting have a large amount of solidification
shrinkage which must be compensated for from an outside source. source Heavy
sections, therefore, are the locations for risers. An important point to remember in
the riseringg of a castingg is that the hottest metal must be in the riser if it is to be
effective.

RISER DESIGN

RISER DESIGN

RISER DESIGN
• MODULUS METHOD
• Another method for finding the optimum riser size is the 'modulus method‘,
extensively documented by Wlodawer. It has been empirically established that if
the modulus of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a factor of 1.2, the
feeding during solidification would be satisfactory.
• NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY METHOD
• This method which is essentially a simplification of the Caine's method, defines a
shape factor to replace the freezing ratio. The shape factor is defined as

RISER DESIGN

RISER DESIGN

RISER DESIGN

RISER DESIGN
• The function of a riser is to supply
pp y addition molten metal to a castingg to ensure a
shrinkage porosity free casting. Shrinkage porosity occurs because of the increase
in density from the liquid to solid state of metals. To be effective a riser must
solidify
lidif after
ft the
th casting
ti andd contain
t i sufficient
ffi i t metal
t l to
t feed
f d the
th casting
ti or
portion of a casting. Casting solidification time can be predicted using
Chvorinov’s Rule.
• Where tTS is the total solidification time of the part or riser, C is a mold constant,
V is the volume of metal, and Asurf is the total surface area of the part or riser.
• Chvorinov’s Rule provides guidance on why risers are typically cylindrical. The
longest solidification time for a given volume is the one where the shape of the
part has the minimum surface area.
area From a practical standpoint,
standpoint the cylinder has
the least surface area for its volume and is easiest to make. Since the riser should
solidify after the casting, we want it’s solidification time to be longer than the
casting. If we want the riser to take 20% longer than the riser then we can write
the following expression:

RISER DESIGN
• The term V/Asurf occurs so frequently
q y it is ggiven a special
p name. It is called the
casting modulus. By using the variable M to represent the casting modulus and
simplifying, the above equation can be reduced to.
• This expression is used for the simplest method for designing a riser. It is called
the modulus method.
method While modern computer methods make it easier to optimize
the riser, an initial guess of the correct geometry is needed. The modulus method
provides the best method for obtainingg that initial gguess. The modulus for a
p
cylindrical riser is given be the following equation.
• Where D is the riser diameter, and H is the riser height. Determining the final
riser dimensions will require an assumption about the relationship between the
riser height and diameter.
diameter Typically riser height is twice the diameter (H=2D).
(H=2D)
• To ensure a riser can feed a casting or casting section, it’s maximum feeding
volume should be checked against g the castingg or section volume. Equation
q
provides this check for a riser without an insulating sleeve.

RISER DESIGN
• Where Vmax is the maximum castingg volume that can be fed,, Vriser is the
volume of the riser, and S is the specific shrinkage of the alloy in percent. The
specific shrinkage for a specific allow is listed in Table 1.

RISER DESIGN EXAMPLE
• A single
g shifter lever ppart will be pplaced in a mold. Determine the required
q riser
for the shifter lever if it has a volume of 0.955 in3 and a surface area of 6.905 in2.
• It is best to produce this part with a single in-gate at the large boss on the part. To
create directional solidification and prevent shrinkage, the riser should directly
feed the cylindrical feature by being place at the in-gate.


• A cylindrical
y riser must be designed
g for a sand-castingg mold. The castingg
itself is a steel rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm x 2.0 cm.
Previous observations have indicated that the total solidification time (TST)
f this
for thi casting
ti = 1.6
1 6 min.
i The
Th cylinder
li d for
f theth riser
i will
ill have
h a diameter-to-
di t t
height ratio = 1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its TST = 2.0
min.
• Solution: First determine the V/A ratio for the plate.
• Its volume V = 7.5 x 12.5 x 2.0 =187.5 cm3
• and its surface area A =2(7.5 x 12.5 + 7.5 x 2.0 + 12.5 x 2.0) =267.5 cm2
• Given that TST = 1.6 min, we can determine the mold constant Cm using a value
of n = 2 in the equation.

RISER DESIGN EXAMPLE ((Contd
Contd….)
….)

RISER DESIGN

Solidification
• Much
uc oof tthee aartt aandd sc
science
e ce oof making
a g cast
castings
gs iss co
concerned
ce ed wwith
t co
control
to o of
the things that happen to metal as it solidifies. An understanding of how
metals solidify, therefore, is necessary to the work of the foundry-man. The
control of the solidification of metal to produce better castings is described in
later chapters on casting design, gating, risering, and pouring.The change
from hot molten metal to cool solid casting takes place in three main steps. steps
– The first step is the cooling of the metal from the pouring temperature to
the solidification temperature. The difference between the pouring
temperature and the solidification temperature is called the amount of
superheat. The amount of superheat determines the amount of time the
foundryman has available to work with the molten metal before it starts
to solidify.
– The
Th second d step is i the
h cooling
li off the
h metall through
h h the
h range off
temperature at which it solidifies. During this step, the quality of the final
casting is established.
established Shrink holes,
holes blow holes,
holes hot cracks,
cracks and many
other defects form in a casting while it solidifies.
– The third step p is the coolingg of the solid metal to room temperature.
p It is
during this stage of cooling that warpage and casting stresses occur.
SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
• Solidification involves the transformation of the molten metal back into the solid
state. The solidification process differs depending on whether the metal is a pure
element or an alloy.
• Pure Metals: A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its
freezing point, which is the same as its melting point. The melting points of pure
metals are well known and documented.
documented The process occurs over time as shown
in the plot of Figure, called a cooling curve. The actual freezing takes time, called
the local solidification time in casting, during which the metal’s latent heat of
fusion is released into the surrounding mould. The total solidification time is the
time taken between pouring and complete solidification.
FIGURE: Cooling curve for a pure metal

during casting.

SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
FIGURE ((a)) Temperature

p as a function of time for the solidification of pure
p metals. Note that
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METALS
After the castingg has completely
p y solidified,, coolingg continues at a rate indicated by y
the downward slope of the cooling curve. Because of the chilling action of the mould
wall, a thin skin of solid metal is initially formed at the interface immediately after
pouring.
i Thi k
Thickness off the
th skin
ki increases
i t form
to f a shell
h ll aroundd the
th molten
lt metal
t l as
solidification progresses inward toward the center of the cavity. The rate at which
freezing g pproceeds depends
p on heat transfer into the mould,, as well as the thermal
properties of the metal. It is of interest to examine the metallic grain formation and
growth during this solidification process. The metal which forms the initial skin has
b
been rapidly
idl cooled
l d by
b theth extraction
t ti off heat
h t through
th h the
th mould ld wall.
ll This
Thi cooling
li
action causes the grains in the skin to be fine and randomly oriented. As cooling
continues,, further ggrain formation and ggrowth occur in a direction awayy from the
heat transfer. Since the heat transfer is through the skin and mould wall, the grains
grow inwardly as needles or spines of solid metal. As these spines enlarge, lateral
b
branchesh form,
f andd as these
th b
branches
h grow, further
f th branches
b h form
f att right
i ht angles
l to t
the first branches. This type of grain growth is referred to as dendritic growth, and it
occurs not onlyy in the freezingg of ppure metals but alloys y as well. These treelike
structures are gradually filled-in during freezing, as additional metal is continually
deposited onto the dendrites until complete solidification has occurred. The grains
resulting
lti from
f thi dendritic
this d d iti growth th take
t k on a preferred
f d orientation,
i t ti t di to
tending t be b
coarse, columnar grains aligned toward the center of the casting.
SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METALS
FIGURE: Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal, showing randomly oriented grains
of small size near the mould wall,, and large
g columnar ggrains oriented toward the center of the casting.
g

Cooling for Sand mould
FIGURE: Temperature
p distribution at the mould wall and liquid-metal
q interface
during solidification of metals in casting.
SOLIDIFICATION OF ALLOYED METALS
• Most alloysy freeze over a temperature
p range
g rather than at a singleg temperature.
p
The exact range depends on the alloy system and the particular composition.
Solidification of an alloy can be explained with reference to Figure, which shows
th phase
the h di
diagram f a particular
for ti l alloy
ll system
t andd the
th cooling
li curve for
f a given
i
composition. As temperature drops, freezing begins at the temperature indicated
byy the liquidus
q and is completed
p when the solidus is reached. The start of
freezing is similar to that of the pure metal. A thin skin is formed at the mould
wall due to the large temperature gradient at this surface. Freezing then
progresses as before
b f th
through
h the
th formation
f ti off dendrites
d d it that th t grow away from
f th
the
walls. However, owing to the temperature spread between the liquidus and
solidus,, the nature of the dendritic ggrowth is such that an advancingg zone is
formed in which both liquid and solid metal coexist. The solid portions are the
dendrite structures that have formed sufficiently to trap small islands of liquid
metal
t l in
i the
th matrix.
t i This
Thi solid–liquid
lid li id region
i has
h a soft ft consistency
it th t has
that h
motivated its name as the mushy zone. Depending on the conditions of freezing,
the mushyy zone can be relativelyy narrow,, or it can exist through g outmost of the
casting. The latter condition is promoted by factors such as slow heat transfer out
of the hot metal and a wide difference between liquidus and solidus temperatures.
G d ll the
Gradually, th liquid
li id islands
i l d in
i the
th dendrite
d d it matrix
t i solidify
lidif as the
th temperature
t t off
the casting drops to the solidus for the given alloy composition.
• Another factor complicating
p g solidification of alloys
y is that the composition
p of the
dendrites as they start to form favors the metal with the higher melting point. As
freezing continues and the dendrites grow, there develops an imbalance in
composition
iti between
b t th metal
the t l that
th t has
h solidified
lidifi d andd the
th remaining i i moltenlt
metal. This composition imbalance is finally manifested in the completed casting
in the form of segregation
g g of the elements. The segregation
g g is of two types,
yp ,
microscopic and macroscopic. At the microscopic level, the chemical
composition varies throughout each individual grain. This is due to the fact that
th beginning
the b i i spine
i off eachh dendrite
d d it hash a higher
hi h proportion ti off one off the
th
elements in the alloy. As the dendrite grows in its local vicinity, it must expand
usingg the remainingg liquidq metal that has been ppartially y depleted
p of the first
component. Finally, the last metal to freeze in each grain is that which has been
trapped by the branches of the dendrite, and its composition is even further out of
b l
balance. Th we have
Thus, h a variation
i ti ini chemical
h i l composition iti withinithi single
i l grains
i
of the casting. At the macroscopic level, the chemical composition varies
throughout
g the entire casting.
g Since the regions
g of the castingg that freeze first ((at
the outside near the mould walls) are richer in one component than the other, the
remaining molten alloy is deprived of that component by the time freezing occurs
att the
th interior.
i t i Thus,
Th there
th is i a generall segregation
ti

FIGURE (a) Phase diagram for a
copper– nickel alloy system and
(b) associated cooling curve for a
50%Ni–50% Cu composition
during casting.
FIGURE : Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting,

showing segregation of alloying components in the center of
casting.

Formation of Dendrites
FIGURE: Schematic
FIGURE S h ti illustration
ill t ti off alloy
ll solidification
lidifi ti andd temperature
t t di t ib ti in
distribution i a
solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the semisolid (mushy) zone.
Preferred Texture At A mould Wall
FIGURE 5.9 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mould wall. Note that only
favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mould.

Three Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square

mould: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) the structure obtained by
h
heterogenous nucleation
l i off grains,
i using
i nucleating
l i agents. Source:
S G W Form,
G.W. F JF
J.F.
Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Gibula.
Solidification Patterns
• FIGURE 5.11 5 11 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180
180-mm
mm
(7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites
reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about
two hours for this casting to solidify completely.
completely (b) Solidification of
carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) moulds. Note the difference in
solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H.F.
Bi h andd W.
Bishop W S.
S Pellini.
P lli i

Microstructure Formation
• Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures

• (a) Columnar dendritic (b) equiaxed dendritic (c) equiaxed nondendritic

Solidified Skin on Steel Casting
FIGURE: Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is

poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative
j
objects are made by y a p process called slush casting,g, which is based on this
principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.

SOLIDIFICATION TIME
• Whether the castingg is p pure metal or alloy, y, solidification takes time. The total
solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring. This time is
dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship known as
Chvorinov’ss rule,
Chvorinov rule which states:
• Where TTS= total solidification time, min; V= volume of the casting, cm3 (in3); A=surface
area of the casting, cm2 (in2); n is an exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and Cm
is the mould constant. Given that n = 2, the units of Cm are min/cm2 (min/in2), and its
p
value depends on the pparticular conditions of the castingg operation,
p , includingg mould
material, thermal properties of the cast metal, and pouring temperature relative to the
melting point of the metal. The value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on
experimental data from previous operations carried out using the same mould material, material
metal, and pouring temperature, even though the shape of the part may be quite different.
Chvorinov’s rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will
cool and solidify
solidif more slowly
slo l than one with ith a lower
lo er ratio.
ratio This principle is put
p t to good use
se
in designing the riser in a mould. To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the
main cavity, the metal in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting.
In other words, the TTS for the riser must exceed the TTS for the main casting. Since the
mould conditions for both riser and casting are the same, their mould constants will be
q
equal. Byy designing
g g the riser to have a larger g volume-to-area ratio, we can be fairlyy sure
that the main casting solidifies first and that the effects of shrinkage are minimized.
Solidification Time : Sand Casting

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
• In order to minimize the damagingg g effects of shrinkage,
g , it is desirable for the regions
g of
the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification
to progress from these remote regions toward the riser(s). In this way, molten metal will
continually be available from the risers to prevent shrinkage voids during freezing.
freezing The
term directional solidification is used to describe this aspect of the freezing process and
the methods by which it is controlled. The desired directional solidification is achieved by
observing Chvorinov
Chvorinov’ss rule in the design of the casting itself,
itself its orientation within the
mould, and the design of the riser system that feeds it. For example, by locating sections
of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the riser, freezing will occur first in these
regions
i andd the
h supply
l off liquid
li id metall for
f the
h rest off the
h castingi willill remain
i open until
il
these bulkier sections solidify.
• Another way y to encourage
g directional solidification is to use chills—internal or external
heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting. Internal chills are
small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten metal will
solidify first around these parts.
parts The internal chill should have a chemical composition
similar to the metal being poured, most readily achieved by making the chill out of the
same metal as the casting itself. External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mould
cavity
it that
th t can remove heat
h t from
f th molten
the lt metalt l more rapidly
idl than
th the
th surrounding
di sandd
in order to promote solidification. They are often used effectively in sections of the casting
that are difficult to feed with liquid metal, thus encouraging rapid freezing in these
sections while the connection to liquid metal is still open.

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
• As important
p as it is to initiate freezing
g in the appropriate
pp p regions
g of the cavity,
y, it is also
important to avoid premature solidification in sections of the mould nearest the riser. Of
particular concern is the passageway between the riser and the main cavity. This
connection must be designed in such a way that it does not freeze before the casting, casting
which would isolate the casting from the molten metal in the riser. Although it is generally
desirable to minimize the volume in the connection (to reduce wasted metal), the cross-
sectional area must be sufficient to delay the onset of freezing.
freezing This goal is usually aided
by making the passageway short in length, so that it absorbs heat from the molten metal in
the riser and the casting.
FIGURE: (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section
of the casting; and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used.
Melting Furnaces
• Different types melting furnaces that are used :
• Cupola Furnace: They are used for producing molten cast iron.
• Crucible
C ibl F Furnace: They
Th are used d to
t melt lt non-ferrous
f metals
t l like
lik
bronze, brass, aluminium and zinc alloys. They are of two types:
– Pit
Pi Crucible
C ibl Furnace.
F
– Tilting Furnace.
• Electric Furnace: Any type of materials is melt using these
furnaces. These are used for high quality castings. They are of two
types:
– Direct arc furnace
– Indirect arc furnace.
• Induction Furnace: Any type of materials is melt using this
furnace.

Melting Furnaces (Cupola )

• Description
esc pt o o of a cupo
cupola:
a:
• The cupola is a shaft type furnace for
producing molten cast iron.
• It is a vertical cylindrical shell made of 6 to
12 mm thick steel sheets or plates riveted and
lined inside with refractory bricks.
• Diameters vary from 1 to 2 meters.
• The lining is generally thicker in the lower
region, where the temperatures encountered
are very high than in the upper region.
region
• The shell is mounted either on a brick work
foundation or on a steel column.
column
• The bottom of the shell is provided with
drop-bottom
p doors,, through
g which debris
consists of slag, coke etc. can be removed at
the end of the melt.

• In cupo
cupolas
as tthee wo
working
g botto
bottom iss bu
builtt up
with moulding sand, which covers the drop
doors.
• This bottom sand slopes towards the metal
tapping hole situated at the lowest point at
th front
the f t off the
th cupola.
l
• The tap hole is used to tap molten metal.
• Opposite
O it to
t this
thi tap
t hole,
h l andd slightly
li htl above,
b
is another hole, called the slag hole, which
enables the slag to be taken out.
• The air for combustion is blown with the
helpp of a motorized blower,, throughg a ppipep
called wind pipe to a circular jacket wound
around the shell called wind box. And
fi ll the
finally h air i goes in
i to the
h shell
h ll through
h ha
number of openings called tuyeres, which
are provided at above the bed of the cupola.
cupola

• The tuyeres are generally 4,6,
4 6 or 8 in
numbers depending on the size of the
cupola. They may be fitted in one or
more number of rows.
• A charging door is provided through
which metal, coke and flux are fed into
the furnace, and this is situated 3 to 6
m above the tuyerers, according to the
size of the cupola.
p
• At the top of the furnace a conical cap
called the spark arrester,
arrester prevents the
sparks from emerging outside.
• The spark arrester cools down the
sparks and allows only smoke to
escape from the opening.
opening

Melting Furnaces
• Zones in a Cupola:
p
• Crucible Zone: It is between the top of the
sand and the bottom of the tuyeres. The
molten metal comes here.
• Tuyeres Zone: It is between the bottom of
tuyeres to the top of tuyeres.
tuyeres
• Combustion or oxidizing Zone: This zone is
located above the tuyeres where the
combustion of the fuel occurs by oxygen of
the air blast and produces lot of heat in the
cupola.
l Heat isi also
l evolved
l d due
d to oxidation
id i
of silicon and manganese. The chemical
reactions which occurs in this zone are:
– C + O2 CO2 + Heat
– Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat
– 2Mn + O2 2MnO2 + Heat

Melting Furnaces
• Reduction Zone: This zone extends from
the top of the combustion zone to the top
of the coke bed. CO2 p produced in
combustion zone comes in contact with
hot coke and is reduced to CO. The
reaction taking place in this zone is:
– CO2 + C (coke) 2CO - Heat
• Melting Zone: It is the first layer of iron
above the coke bed. The temperature in
this
hi zone is hi h as 17000c. Iron is
i as high i
meted in this zone. A considerable carbon
is picked up by the molten metal in this
zone according to the following reactions;
– 3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

Melting Furnaces
• Preheating Zone or Charging Zone:
It is located above the melting zone to
the charging door. Iron and coke are
preheated in this zone.
• Stack zone: This zone carries gases
from preheating zone to atmosphere
and arrests sparks.

Melting Furnaces (Cupola Operation)
• Preparation
epa at o o of Cupo
Cupola: a:
• After each heat, the slag and refuse are cleaned as soon as the patching of the
lining is completed; the bottom doors are raised and held in position by metal
props. The sand bottom is made such that it slopes towards the tap hole.
• Firing the Cupola:
• Small pieces of wood are ignited on the sand bottom when the wood burns
well. Coke is then added. Air necessary for combustion is fed from the
t
tuyeres. C k is
Coke i added
dd d until
til the
th desired
d i d height
h i ht is
i reached
h d
• Charging of the Cupola:
• After
Aft theth cokek bed
b d is
i properly l ignited,
i it d coke
k and d pig
i iron
i are charged
h d in
i
alternative layers until the cupola is full.
• In addition of iron and coke,
coke a certain amount of limestone is added to first
metal charge. Besides that fluorspar (CaF2) and soda ash (Na2CO3) are also
used as fluxing g materials. A flux removes the impurities
p in the iron and
protects the iron from oxidation. Limestone reduces the meting point of the
slag and increases fluidity. Sometimes ferro-manganese is also used as
d idi
deoxidizer.
Melting Furnaces
• Soaking g of Iron:
• After the cupola is fully charged up to the charging door, the charge
should soak in the heat for about 45 minutes. The charge gets slowly
h
heatedd since
i the
h air
i blast
bl i kept
is k at a lower
l than
h normall blowing
bl i rate
during this time. This causes the iron to get soaked
• Opening the air blast:
• At the end of soaking full blast is turned on. After the blast has been on
for a few minutes, molten metal starts accumulating in the hearth.
• Tapping and Slagging:
pp g can be made 40 to 50 minutes after the full blast is
• The first tapping
turned on. Slag is first removed through the slag hole and then the molten
metal is collected in ladles and is carried to the moulds for pouring.
• Closing the Cupola:
• When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the
bottom door is knocked down so that the bottom plates swing open. open This
enables the cupola remains to drop on the floor or in to a bucket. They are
then q
quenched and removed from underneath the cupola. p

Melting Furnaces (Electric Arc furnaces )
• Direct arc furnace:
• Three-phase Direct arc furnace is the most popular one for melting steel
in the foundry. In operation, scrape steel is placed on the hearth of the
f
furnace. A arc is
An i drawn
d b
between the
h electrodes
l d and d the
h surface
f off the
h
metal charge by lowering the electrodes down till current jumps. Slag is
maintained on the molten metal to reduce oxidation.
oxidation Before pouring
liquid metal into the ladle, the furnace is tilted back and the slag is
removed from the charging doors. Now the furnace is tilted forward to
pour the
h molten
l metall into
i l dl
ladle.
• Advantages:
– The main advantage of this furnace over
cupola furnace is that purer production is
obtained and composition can be exactly
controlled during refining process.
– This furnace can operate on 100% scrape
steel which is cheaper than pig iron.
iron
• Disadvantage:
– This furnace involves high initial cost

Melting Furnaces (Electric Arc furnaces )
• Indirect arc furnace:
• This is a single-phase electric furnace. This differs from the direct arc furnace
that the electrodes do not come in contact with the molten metal, but form an arc
above the molten metal. The furnace is mounted on rollers, which is driven by
rocking unit to rock the furnace back and forth during melting. When the furnace
rocks liquid metal washes over the heated refractory linings and absorb heat
rocks,
from them. Thus the life of the refractory linings is also increased as the metal
takes some of its heat and prevents it from high temperatures. The charge is
heated by radiation from the arc and conduction from the lining.
• Advantages:
• The chamber beingg closed,, and the atmosphere
p above the
metal being arc, there is less loss of metal due to
oxidation.
• This furnace ggives higher
g production p
p per ton of molten
metal.
• Due to rocking action and absence of combustion gases,
the molten metal is free from blow holes,, inclusions etc.
As a result, this molten metal gives sound castings.
• Disadvantage:
• Due to indirect heating the furnace is suitable for metal
having low melting temperatures. Thus this furnace is
suitable for non ferrous metals only.
Melting Furnaces ( Electric Resistance Furnaces )

Melting Furnaces ( Induction furnaces )
• The induction furnaces are used for all types of materials, the chief
advantage being the heat source is isolated from the charge and the slag
and the flux would be getting the necessary heat directly from the charge
instead of the heat source.
• The stirring effect of the electric current would cause fluxes to be
entrained in the melt if they are mixed along with the charge. So flux is
generally added after switching off the current to the furnace.
• Then sufficient time must be allowed for the oxides to be removed by the
flux as slag before transferring the metal for pouring.
• High
Hi h frequencies
f i help
h l ini stirring
i i theh molten
l and
d thus
h help
h l ini using
i theh
metal chips. Low cost raw materials could, therefore, be used and at the
same time better control of temperature and composition can be achieved.
achieved
• Because of their very rapid melting rate and the relative ease of
controlling pollution,
pollution induction furnace has become a very popular means
of melting metal.
• They are of two types.
types

Melting Furnaces
• High Frequency or coreless induction furnace:
• This furnace consists of a crucible surrounded by water cooled coil of
copper tubing.
tubing A very high frequency electrical current passes through
the coil, creating an alternating magnetic field, inducing secondary
current in the metal beingg melted,, which bringg about a rapid
p rate of
heating.
• This furnace pprovides a g
good control of temperature
p and composition.
p
Because there is no contamination from the heat source, they produce
pure metals.

Melting Furnaces
• Low frequency or channel type:
• In this a small channel is surrounded by primary coil (which has
laminated steel core).
core) A secondary core is formed by channel of
molten metal which contains the metal to be melted. The metal
while circulating through the channel gets heated.
heated
• As temperature in the furnace can be easily controlled, this type of
furnace are used as holding furnace,
furnace where molten metal is
maintained at constant temperature for an extended period of time.

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Carbon Dioxide moulding)
• Thee p
process
ocess iss bas
basically
ca y a hardening
a de g pprocess
ocess for
o moulds
ou ds aandd co
cores.
es.
• The principle of working of the CO2 process is based on the fact that if CO2
gas is passed through a sand mix containing sodium silicate, the sand
immediately becomes extremely strongly bonded as the sodium silicate
becomes a stiff gel.
• This gel is responsible for giving strength to the mould.
• The chemical reaction can be represented in simplified form as:
• Na2O. (m)SiO2 . (x) H2O + CO2 Na2CO3 + (m)Si2 O.
(x) .H2O
• The
Th sodium
di silicate
ili t ini this
thi process is
i Na2O.
N 2O (m)SiO2
( )SiO2 . (x)
( ) H2O , where
h th
the
ratio of total alkalinity (Na2O) to soluble silica (SiO2) is called mass ratio
(m).
(m)
• The common sodium silicate used for the CO2 process in foundries should
have a mass ratio varying
y g from 2.1 to 2.3.
• The SiO2 obtained from the reaction contain certain number of water
molecules, and is called silica gel.
• This silica gel is responsible for giving the necessary strength to the mould.
• Thee sa
sand
d to be used for
o tthiss pprocess
ocess iss free
ee o
of cclay
ay aandd co
contains
ta s ve
veryy less
ess
moisture.
• This sand is thoroughly mixed with 3 to 5 % sodium silicate liquid base
binder in a muller for 3 to 4 mins.
• Suitable additives such as coal powder, wood flour, sea coal, dextrine may be
added to improve certain properties.
• The suitable sand mixture can then be packed around the pattern in the flask
or in
i the
th core box.
b
• When the process of mixing and packing is complete, CO2 is forced into the
mould or core at a pressure of about 1.45 1 45 kgf/sq.
kgf/sq cm for a pre determined
period of time.
• The reaction proceeds rapidly in the early stages of gasification and the
compressive strength of sand mixture reaches a maximum value when a
certain critical amount of gas is passed.
• The gassing can be carried out by a probe having number of holes at the base.
• The flow rate of CO2 gas depends on the depth of penetration desired.

• Advantages of CO2 moulding:
• It is a fast process of hardening the moulds.
• Removing of the pattern is easier since the mould may be hardened before
the withdrawal of the pattern.
• Accurate castings with sharp corners can be mould.
mould
• Surface finish of the casting is good.
• Semi-skilled
Semi skilled labour can be used.
used
• Reduces machining allowances.
• Limitations of CO2 moulding:
• The collapsibility of the moulding sand is reduced.
• Difficulty
Diffi lt in i reclaiming
l i i theth usedd sand.
d
• Bench life of sand mixtures is much shorter than most other mould and
core mixtures.
i t
• Applications: This process is used to cast parts of valves, pumps,
compressors machine tools,
compressors, tools railway components and engine parts.
parts

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Shell Molding)
• First a p
pattern is made of metal. The iron ppattern is heated to +/-200°C.
• The pattern is attached to a dump box and sprayed with a releasing agent;
similar to putting oil in a baking pan.
• The dump box contains fine sand mixed with thermo setting resin binder.
• The dump box is rotated with the pattern now at the bottom and the sand
th t was once att the
that th bottom
b tt i now on top.
is t
• The sand mixture falls against the pattern and gets heated in this manner,
the resin cures,
cures causing the sand grains to adhere to each other forming
sturdy shell that exactly conforms to the dimensions and shape of the
pattern and constitutes half of a mould.
• After a 5mm thick shell is formed, due to melting and solidifying of the
thermosetting binder, the dump box is rotated and the unused sand falls to
the bottom.
bottom
• The pattern and shell are then put in an oven at 350°C –400oC to cure the
resin.
resin
• The pattern is removed by the ejector pins.
• Typically, two pattern shells are used together. A backing material like
sand or steel shot is used and the metal is poured into the mould.
Shell Molding
• The sand used in shell mouldingg are dryy and fine sand;; silica sand and Zircon
sand or combination of the two are used.
• The sand is mixed with phenolic resin (phenol formaldehyde) and other additives
(to improve surface finish and avoid thermal cracking during pouring)
• The various additives used are (coal dust, manganese dioxide, calcium carbonate,
magnesium silicoflouride,
silicoflouride ammonium borofluoride etc.etc Some lubricants are also
added to increase the flowability of the sand (calcium stearate , zinc stearate)
• A silicon based releasing agent is normally sprayed on the heated metal pattern as
releasing agent.

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Shell molding)

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Shell molding)
(b) Pattern and dump box rotated

• Developed in the 1940’s
• Produces close dimensional
tolerances
• Good surface finish
• Low cost process
(c) Pattern dump box in position for the
investment
Common methods of making shell moulds.

(a) Pattern rotated and clamped
(d) Pattern and shell removed from dump box

Shell moulding

Shell moulding
Figures showing two different shell moulds

Shell moulding
• Advantages:
g
• Better surface finishes are obtained.
• Machining g of castings
g are reduced.
• The chances of blow holes or pockets are reduced since the holes are
highly permeable.
• Shells can be stored for long time.
• High dimensional accuracy can be obtained.
• Draft angles which are lower than the sand castings are required in
shell moulds. The reduction in draft angles may be from 50 to 75%
which considerably saves the material costs and the subsequent
machining costs.
• Also,, very
y thin sections ((upto
p 0.25 mm)) of the type yp of air cooled
cylinder heads can be readily made by the shell moulding because of
the higher strength of the sand used for moulding.
• Permeability
P bili off the
h shell
h ll is
i high
hi h and
d therefore
h f no gas inclusions
i l i occur.
• Very small amount of sand needs to be used.
• Mechanisation
M h i ti is i readily
dil possible
ibl because
b off the
th simple
i l processingi
involved in shell moulding.
Shell moulding
• Limitations:
• The metal pattern is costlier than the wooden one. The patterns are very
expensive and therefore are economical only if used in large scale
production.
d i
• The size of the casting obtained by shell moulding is limited. Generally
castings weighing upto 200 kg can be made,
made though in smaller quantity.
quantity
castings upto a weight of 450 kg were made.
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.
• More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling the shell
mouldings such as those required for heated metal patterns. High
equipment cost.
• High resin cost.
• Uneconomical
i l for
f small ll production
d i lots.
l
• Relative inflexibilities in gating and risering systems.
• Applications:
A li ti
• The most common application is for automobile parts castings in grey cast iron
and aluminum. Cylinder and cylinder heads of air cooled IC engines, small
crank shafts, automotive transmission parts, bevel gears, brake beam etc.
Expendable mould with single use pattern: Investment Casting-
Casting- lost
wax process

Casting- lost
wax process
FIGURE :Schematic illustration

of investment casting (lost-wax
process).
) Castings
C i b
by this
hi
method can be made with very
fine detail and from a variety of
metals. Source: Steel Founders’
Society of America.

Schematic illustration of investment casting
1. WAX INJECTION : Wax replicas p of the desired
castings are produced by injection moulding. These
replicas are called patterns.
2. ASSEMBLY : The patterns are attached to a central

wax stick, called a sprue, to form a casting cluster
or assembly.
bl
3 SHELL BUILDING : The

3. Th shell
h ll is
i built
b ilt by
b immersing
i i
the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and then into a
bed of extremelyy fine sand. Upp to eight
g layers
y mayy be
applied in this manner.
4. DEWAX : Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is melted

out, creating a negative impression of the assembly
within the shell.
shell

Schematic illustration of investment casting
• 5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING: In the
conventional process, the shell is filled with molten
metal by gravity pouring. As the metal cools, the
parts and gates, sprue and pouring cup become one
solid casting.
• 6. KNOCKOUT: When the metal has cooled and

solidified, the ceramic shell is broken off by vibration
or water blasting.
g
• 7. CUT OFF: The parts are cut away from the central
sprue using a high speed friction saw.
• 8. FINISHED CASTINGS: After minor finishing

operations the metal castings
operations, castings--identical
identical to the original
wax patterns--are ready for shipment to the customer.

Casting- lost
wax process
• IInvestment
t t casting
ti isi also
l known
k as the
th lost
l t wax process.
• This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes.
• The
Th Egyptians
E ti usedd it in
i the
th time
ti off the
th Pharaohs
Ph h to
t make
k gold
ld jewelry
j l
(hence the name Investment) some 5,000 years ago.
• Intricate shapes can be made with high accuracy.
accuracy
• In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates
for this process.
process
• It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing g techniques,
q , such as turbine blades that have complex
p shapes,
p ,
or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.
• The mould is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material
that can be melted away.
• This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern
and forms a skin.
• This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is repeated
until
til a robust
b t thickness
thi k i achieved.
is hi d

Casting- lost
wax process
• Aft
After this,
thi the
th entire
ti pattern
tt i placed
is l d in i an oven and
d the
th wax is i melted
lt d away.
• This leads to a mould that can be filled with the molten metal.
• Because
B th mould
the ld is
i formed
f d aroundd a one-piece
i pattern,
tt ( hi h does
(which d nott
have to be pulled out from the mould as in a traditional sand casting process),
very intricate parts and undercuts can be made.
made
• The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of Paris, a binder
and ppowdered silica,, a refractory,
y, for low temperature
p melts.
• For higher temperature melts, sillimanite an alumina-silicate is used as a
refractory, and silica is used as a binder.
• Depending on the fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of
sillimanite and ethyl silicate may be applied.
• The shell thickness varies from 6 to 15 mm.
• The mould thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be
reinforced by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it more slurry.
• Just before the pour, the mould is pre-heated to about 100-1000 ºC to remove
any residues
id off wax, harden
h d the
th binder.
bi d

Casting- lost
wax process
• Th
The pour ini the
h pre-heated
h d mouldld also
l ensures thath theh mould
ld will
ill
fill completely.
• Pouring can be done using gravity, pressure or vacuum conditions.
• Attention must be paid to mould permeability when using pressure,
to allow the air to escape as the pour is done.
• The types
yp of materials that can be cast are Aluminum alloys, y,
Bronzes, tool steels, stainless steels, Stellite, and precious metals.
• Parts made with investment castings g often do not requireq anyy
further machining, because of the close tolerances that can be
achieved.

Investment Casting
Casting-- lost wax process: A video

Casting- lost
wax process
• Ad
Advantages:
t
• High dimensional accuracy.
• A very smooth surface can be achieved.
• Extremelyy thin sections,, to the extent 0.75mm,, can be cast
successfully. Very fine details and thin sections can be produced
byy this p
process,, because the mould is heated before p
pouring.
g
• Complex shapes which are difficult to produce by any other
method are ppossible since the ppattern is withdrawn byy melting
g it.
• Suitable for mass production of small sized castings.
• Castings produced by this process are ready for use with little or
no machining required. This is particularly useful for those hard-
to machine materials such as nimonic alloys.
to-machine alloys

Casting- lost
wax process
• Li
Limitations:
it ti
• The process is normally limited by the size and mass of the
casting. The upper limit on the mass of a casting may be of the
order of 5 kg.
• This is a more expensive process because of larger manual labour
involved in the preparation of the pattern and the mould.
• Production rate is slow.
• Applications:
pp
• This process is used for casting of turbine blades and parts of
automobile wave guides for radars,
automobile, radars triggers for firearms,
firearms SS valve
bodies etc.

Expendable-Pattern Casting
• Polystyrene beads are placed in a preheated die
• The polystyrene bead expand to fix the die
• Th die
The di is
i cooled
l d andd the
h polystyrene
l pattern is
i removed d
• The polystyrene pattern is placed in a mould with support sand
• Thee po
polystyrene
ysty e e patte
pattern evapo
evaporates
ates w
with
t co
contact
tact o
of molten
o te metal
eta to form
o a cav
cavity
ty
Schematic illustration of the expendable pattern casting process also known as lost
foam or evaporative casting.
Evaporative Pattern /Lost Foam - Metal Casting
• Patterns are produced in EPS (Encapsulated Polystyrene), the pattern
receives a sprue or feeder system (also of EPS) and can be either
pplaced directlyy into loose dry
y sand,, or invested into a ceramic slurry. y
The slurry is air dried or in a low temp oven (but the foam pattern is
retained).
• In either case the pattern is surrounded by loose dry sand that is being
constantly agitated by a vibratory mechanism as the sand is added to
the container that holds the pattern. The vibratory motion creates a
degree of fluid movement within the surface of the sand that is able to
completely
l l fill all ll crevices,
i under-cuts,
d openings
i andd orifices
ifi thus
h
removing the requirement of otherwise complex cores.
• Once the pattern (and refractory coating) is completely held in a
container of sand, the metal is poured into the sprue. The heat of the
molten
lt metalt l evaporates
t the
th foam
f i it's
in it' path
th andd accurately
t l fills
fill ini
behind the foam as it advances down through the pattern. The
vapourized EPS is vented into the loose sand through the refractory
coating (if used).
Evaporative Pattern Casting
• Advantages - are (but not limited to...)
to ) coreless moulding,
moulding very high
casting complexity, comparatively low capital and operating
investment, simplified shakeout, ease of sand recovery and as
mentioned 0.120" wall thicknesses. The Video and notes reflect this
as a relativelyy environmentally y benign
g pprocess... ((I have concerns to
the contrary)
• Disadvantages - Pattern coating requires additional labour and
material costs, patterns require care as they can be fragile due to
construction,, Strict safetyyp
procedures to be followed when handling g
loose sand post pouring. The last item applies to all loose sand
handlingg with regard
g to the hazards of Silicosis,, but especially
p y when
handling sand that has burnt EPS covering the grains. The strong
chemical stench of the sand screams of future respiratory ailments
if caution is not exercised.

Plaster--mould Casting
Plaster
• mould is made of plaster

• Mixed with water and additives and
poured over a pattern
• After plaster sets,
sets pattern is removed
and the mould is dried at 120 C
• Have low permeability – gases can
not escape
• Patterns are made of:
– Al alloys,
alloys
– Thermosetting plastics
– Brass or Zinc alloys y
• Have fine details and good surface
finish
• F
Form off precision
i i casting
i

Plaster
• Plaster-mould casting g is similar to sand casting g except p that the mould is
made of plaster of Paris (gypsum, CaSO4–2H2O) instead of sand.
Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control
contraction
t ti andd setting
tti ti
time, reduce
d cracking,
ki and d increase
i strength.
t th To
T
make the mould, the plaster mixture combined with water is poured over a
plastic or metal p
p pattern in a flask and allowed to set. Wood p patterns are
generally unsatisfactory due to the extended contact with water in the
plaster. The fluid consistency permits the plaster mixture to readily flow
aroundd the
th pattern,
tt capturing
t i its it details
d t il and d surface
f fi i h Thus,
finish. Th th castt
the
product in plaster moulding is noted for these attributes. Curing of the
plaster mould is one of the disadvantages
p g of this p process,, at least in highg
production. The mould must set for about 20 minutes before the pattern is
stripped. The mould is then baked for several hours to remove moisture.
E
Even with
ith the
th baking,
b ki nott allll off the
th moisture
i t content
t t isi removed d from
f th
the
plaster. The dilemma faced by foundrymen is that mould strength is lost
when the p plaster becomes too dehydrated, y , and yyet moisture content can
cause casting defects in the product. A balance must be achieved
between these undesirable alternatives. Another disadvantage with the
plaster
l t mould ld is
i that
th t it isi nott permeable, bl thusth limiting
li iti escape off gases
fromthemould cavity.
Plaster
• This p
problem can be solved a number of ways: y ((1)) evacuatingg air from the
mould cavity before pouring; (2) aerating the plaster slurry prior to mould
making so that the resulting hard plaster contains finely dispersed voids;
andd (3) using
i a special
i l mouldld composition
iti andd treatment
t t t known
k as the
th
Antioch process. This process involves using about 50% sand mixed with
the pplaster,, heating
g the mould in an autoclave ((an oven that uses
superheated steam under pressure), and then drying. The resulting mould
has considerably greater permeability than a conventional plaster mould.
Pl t moulds
Plaster ld cannott withstand
ith t d the
th same highhi h temperatures
t t as sand d
moulds. They are therefore limited to the casting of lower-melting-point
alloys,
y , such as aluminum,, magnesium,
g , and some copper-base
pp alloys.
y
Applications include metal moulds for plastic and rubber moulding, pump
and turbine impellers, and other parts of relatively intricate geometry.
C ti sizes
Casting i range from
f about
b t 20 g (less
(l th 1 oz)) to
than t more than
th 100 kg k
(more than 220 lb). Parts weighing less than about 10 kg (22 lb) are most
common. Advantages g of p plastermoulding g for these applications
pp are g
good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy and the capability to make thin
cross-sections in the casting.

Ceramic--mould Casting
Ceramic
• Similar to plaster-mould
p • moulds are baked in an oven
process
• moulds can be used to cast high-
temperature alloys
• y mould materials
Uses refractory • Castings have good surface finishes
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Suitable for high temperature • Some what expensive to make
applications
pp
• Mixture made of:

– Fine grained zircon
– Aluminum oxide
– Silica
• Mixture is mixed with bonding

agents and poured over pattern
• Mixture is mixed with bonding

agents and poured over pattern

Ceramic--mould Casting
Ceramic
• Ceramic-mould castingg is similar to pplaster-mould casting,g, except
p that the mould
is made of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperatures
than plaster. Thus, ceramic moulding can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and
other
th high
hi h temperature
t t alloys.
ll It applications
Its li ti ( l ti l intricate
(relatively i t i t parts)
t ) are
similar to those of plaster-mould casting except for the metals cast. Its advantages
(good accuracyy and finish)) are also similar.
(g

Permanent-mould casting
Permanent-
• Advantages of permanent mould casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mould results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
Li it ti
– Generallyy limited to metals of lower meltingg ppoint
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mould
– High cost of mould

Steps in permanent-
permanent-mould casting
FIGURE Steps in permanent-mould casting: (1) mould is preheated and coated; (2) cores (if used) are
inserted, and mould is closed; (3) molten metal is poured into the mould; and (4) mould is opened.
Finished part is shown in (5).
Permanent--mould casting
Permanent
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/permanent-mold-casting
p p p g

Permanent
• Permanent mold castingg is a metal castingg pprocess that shares similarities to both
sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a
mold which is clamped shut until the material cools and solidifies into the desired
partt shape.
h H
However, sandd casting
ti uses an expendable
d bl moldld which
hi h is
i destroyed
d t d
after each cycle. Permanent mold casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold
((die)) that is typically
yp y made from steel or cast iron and can be reused for several
thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not forcibly
injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.
Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small,

simple
p metal pparts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically
yp y
used in this process, such as aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and copper
alloys. However, irons and steels can also be cast using graphite molds. Common
permanentt mold
ld parts
t include
i l d gears andd gear housings,
h i pipe
i fittings,
fitti andd other
th
automotive and aircraft components such as pistons, impellers, and wheels.

Permanent
• The ppermanent mold castingg pprocess consists off the ffollowingg steps:
p
• Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500°F (150-
260°C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is
applied to the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the
mold lifetime.
• Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves
and any cores used to form complex features. Such cores are typically made from
iron or steel,, but expendable
p sand cores are sometimes used. In this step, p, the
cores are inserted and the mold halves are clamped together.
• Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into the mold
through
h h a sprue at the
h top off the
h mold.
ld The
h metall flows
fl through
h h a runner system
and enters the mold cavity.
• Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the mold.
mold
• Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are opened
and the castingg is removed.
• Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue solidify
attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut away.

VARIATIONS OF PERMANENT-
PERMANENT-mould CASTING
• Slush Casting:g Slush castingg is a ppermanent-mould pprocess in which a hollow
casting is formed by inverting the mould after partial freezing at the surface to
drain out the liquid metal in the center. Solidification begins at the mould walls
b
because th are relatively
they l ti l cool,l andd it progresses over time
ti toward
t d the
th middle
iddl off
the casting. Thickness of the shell is controlled by the length of time allowed
before draining.
g Slush castingg is used to make statues,, lampp ppedestals,, and toys
y
out of low-melting-point metals such as zinc and tin. In these items, the exterior
appearance is important, but the strength and interior geometry of the casting are
minor
i considerations.
id ti
• Low-Pressure Casting: In the basic permanent-mould casting process and in
slush casting,
casting the flow of metal into the mould cavity is caused by gravity.
gravity In
low-pressure casting, the liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low
pressure—approximately 0.1 MPa (14.5 lb/in2)—from beneath so that the flow is
upward, as illustrated in Figure. The advantage of this approach over traditional
pouring is that clean molten metal from the center of the ladle is introduced into
the mould,
mould rather than metal that has been exposed to air. air Gas porosity and
oxidation defects are thereby minimized, and mechanical properties are
improved.

Slush Casting

Low--Pressure Casting
Low
FIGURE: Low-pressure casting.

The diagram shows how air
pressure is
i usedd to
t force
f th molten
the lt
metal in the ladle upward into the
mould cavity. Pressure is
maintained until the casting has
solidified.

VARIATIONS OF PERMANENT-
PERMANENT-mould CASTING
• Vacuum Permanent-mould Casting: g Not to be confused with vacuum
moulding, this process is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw the molten metal into the mould cavity. The general configuration
off the
th vacuum permanentt mould ld casting
ti process is i similar
i il to t the
th low-pressure
l
casting operation. The difference is that reduced air pressure from the vacuum in
the mould is used to draw the liquid
q metal into the cavity,
y, rather than forcingg it byy
positive air pressure from below. There are several benefits of the vacuum
technique relative to low-pressure casting: air porosity and related defects are
reduced,
d d andd greater
t strength
t th is
i given
i t the
to th castt product.
d t

Vacuum Casting
1. Mixture of fine sand and
urethane is moulded over
metal dies a cured with
amine vapor
2. The mould is partially
immersed into molten metal
h ld in
held i an induction
i d i furnace
f
3. The metal is melted in air or
in a vacuum
4. The molten metal is usually
55 C above the liquidus
temperature – begins to
solidify within a fraction of a
second
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of the vacuum-
vacuum
5. Alternative to investment,
casting process. Note that the mould has a
shell-mould, and green-sand bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion
casting of the mod into the molten metal.
metal Source: After
6. Relatively low cost R. Blackburn.

Pressure Casting
(a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite moulds for the productin of
steel railroad wheels. (b) Gravity pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note
that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
riser
•Used a graphite or metal mould
•Molten metal is forced into the mould by gas pressure
•The pressure
press re is maintained until
ntil the metal solidifies in the mould
mo ld
•Used for high-quality castings
Multi use moulds: Die casting
• The term die is used for permanent mould.
mould
• In this process the molten metal is forced into the permanent mould
(dies) under high pressure.
pressure
• The molten metal fills the entire die, including the minute details.
• On
O solidification
lidifi i the h casting
i isi taken
k out.
• Thus High pressure die casting uses a piston to inject the molten
metal into the die.
• This greatly speeds the process, and therefore increases production.
• This results in a more uniform part, generally good surface finish
and ggood dimensional accuracy, y, as g good as 0.2 % of casting g
dimension.
• For many parts, post
post-machining
machining can be totally eliminated, or very
light machining may be required to bring dimensions to size.
• There are two types of high pressure die casting: hot chamber and
cold chamber.
• Hot chamber die casting:
• The melting unit of the metal forms an integral part of the machine.
• Th plunger
The l i made
is d up off refractory
f t material.
t i l
• When the plunger is raised, it uncovers an opening in the cylinder
wall,
ll through
h h which
hi h molten
l metall enters, filling
filli the
h cylinder.
li d
• The molten metal is forced into the die either by hydraulic pressure
or by air pressure applied to the plunger.

• As soon as the metal solidifies,
solidifies the pressure on the metal is relieved
and the plunger travels upwards to its original position.
• The casting is ejected from the die by means of ejector pins.
pins
• This process is particularly suitable for lead, tin and zinc alloys.
• Hot
H chamber
h b die di casting
i cannot be b used d for
f metals l having
h i high hi h
melting temperatures.
• Also it cannot be used to cast metals like aluminum, copper etc.
which will react with steel at high temperature.

Die Casting in Hot-
Hot-Chamber Process
FIGURE: Sequence of steps in die casting of a part in the hot-chamber process.

Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
Hot chamber die casting

• Cold chamber die casting:
• In cold chamber die casting the plunger is horizontal and is driven
by air or hydraulic pressure to force the molten metal in to the die.
die
• As soon as the ladle is emptied, plunger moves forward and forces
the metal into the cavity of the die.
die
• After the metal solidifies, the core is with drawn, and then the die is
opened.d
• Ejector pins are employed to remove the casting automatically from
the
h die.
di

• The cold chamber die casting is particularly suitable for metal such
as aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper, which cannot be cast in
hot chamber machines due to reactivity with molten aluminum and
steel.
• High melting temperature alloys of non
non-ferrous
ferrous type are best die
cast in cold chamber die casting.

Die Casting in Cold-
Cold-Chamber Process
FIGURE: Sequence
q of operations
p in die casting
g of a ppart in the cold-chamber
process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.

Operation sequence of cold chamber process.

Construction of a cold chamber machine

Various types of cavities in a die casting die.
a) Single – cavity die
b) Multiple – cavity die
c) Combination die
d) Unit die

Die--Casting Alloys
Die
ALLOY ULTIMATE
ULTIMATE YIELD
YIELD ELONGA‐TION
ELONGA TION APPLICATIONS
TENSILE STRENGTH in 50 mm
STRENGTH (MPa) (%)
(MPa)
Aluminum 380
Aluminum 380 320 160 25
2.5 Appliances, automotive components, electrical
Appliances automotive components electrical
(3.5 Cu‐8.5 Si) motor frames and housings, engine blocks.
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Complex shapes with thin walls, parts requiring

strength at elevated temperatures
g p
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fixtures, lock hardware, bushings,
ornamental castings
Magnesium AZ91B (9 Al – 0.7 Zn) 230 160 3 Power tools, automotive parts, sporting goods
Zinc No 3 (4 Al)
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al) 280 ‐ 10 Automotive parts, office equipment, household
Automotive parts office equipment household
utensils, building hardware, toys
5 (4 Al – 1 Cu) 320 ‐ 7 Appliances, automotive parts, building hardware,
business equipment
TABLE : Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

• Advantages of die casting:
• Very high production rates are possible. Typical rate could be
200 pieces per hour since the process is completely automated.
automated
• Thin sections can be cast. Very small thicknesses can be easily
filled because the liquid metal is injected at high pressure.
pressure
Surface of about 0.8 microns can be achieved.
• Close
Cl di
dimensional
i l tolerances
t l off the d off ±0.0025mm
th order ±0 0025 i
is
possible.
• Because off the
h use off theh movable
bl cores, it
i is
i possible
ibl to obtain
b i
fairly complex castings.
• Fine details may be produced.
• Less floor space is required.

• Limitations of die casting:
• Not economical for small runs. The dies and the machines are
very expensive and therefore,
therefore economy in production is possible
only when large quantities are produced.
• Only economical for non-ferrous
non ferrous alloys.
alloys
• Due to high temperature of molten metal, die life decreases.
• The air in the die cavity gets trapped inside the casting and is
therefore a problem often with the diecastings.
• The maximum size of the casting is limited. The normal sizes are
under 4 kg with a maximum of the order of 15 kg because of the
limitation on the machine capacity.

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting
• Centrifugal casting are of three types:
– True centrifugal casting: Long moulds are rotated about a
horizontal axis.
axis This can be used to make long axial parts such
as seamless pipes.
– Semi centrifugal casting: Parts with a wide radial parts.
parts Parts
such as wheels with spokes can be made with this technique
– Centrifuging:
C t if i Th moulds
The ld are placed
l d a distance
di t f
from th
the
center of rotation. Thus when the poured metal reaches the
moulds there is a high pressure available to completely fill the
cavities. The distance from the axis of rotation can be increased
to change the properties

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (True
(True centrifugal casting)
• A mould is set up and rotated along a inclined or horizontal (200
(200-
1000 rpm) axis.
• The mould is coated with a refractory coating.
coating
• While rotating molten metal is poured in.
• The
Th metall that
h is i poured d in
i will ill then
h distribute
di ib i lf over the
itself h
rotating wall.
• During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise towards
the center of rotation.
• After the part has solidified, it is removed and finished.

Centrifugal Casting Process
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder

liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast by this process.

• Advantages:
• The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are better
compared to other processes,
processes because the inclusions such as slag
and oxides gets segregated towards the centre and can be easily
removed by machining.
machining Also,
Also the pressure acting on the metal
throughout the solidification, causes the porosity to be eliminated
giving rise to dense metal.
• Good uniform metal properties
• No sprues/gates to remove
• The outside of the casting is at the required dimensions
• Lower material usage
• No cores are required for making concentric holes in the case of
true centrifugal casting.

• Disadvantages:
• Extra equipment needed to spin mould
• The
Th inner
i metal
t l off the
th partt contains
t i impurities
i iti .
• Only certain shapes which are axi-symmetric and having
concentric
i holes
h l are suitable
i bl for
f true centrifugal
if l casting.
i
• The equipment is expensive and thus is suitable only for large
quantity production.

Semi--centrifugal and centrifuging Casting Process
Semi
FIGURE: (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of casting by centrifuging. The moulds are placed at the periphery of the machine,
and the molten metal is forced into the moulds by centrifugal forces.
forces

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Semi centrifugal casting)

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Semi centrifugal casting)
• In this method,, centrifugal
g force is used to pproduce solid castings,
g , as in Figure,
g ,
rather than tubular parts. The rotation speed in semi-centrifugal casting is usually
set so that G-factors of around 15 are obtained, and the moulds are designed with
risers
i att the
th center
t tot supplyl feed
f d metal.
t l Density
D it off metalt l in
i the
th final
fi l casting
ti is
i
greater in the outer sections than at the center of rotation. The process is often
used on pparts in which the center of the castingg is machined away, y, thus
eliminating the portion of the casting where the quality is lowest. Wheels and
pulleys are examples of castings that can be made by this process.
FIGURE: Semicentrifugal casting.

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Centrifuging)
(Centrifuging)

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Centrifuging)
(Centrifuging)
• In centrifuge
g casting,g, the mould is designed
g with ppart cavities located awayy from
the axis of rotation, so that the molten metal poured into the mould is distributed
to these cavities by centrifugal force. The process is used for smaller parts, and
radial
di l symmetryt off the
th partt is
i nott a requirement
i t as it is
i for
f the
th other
th twot
centrifugal casting methods.
FIGURE: (a) Centrifuge casting—centrifugal force causes metal to flow to the mould
cavities away from the axis of rotation; and (b) the casting.

Multi use moulds: Continuous casting
• The traditional method of making Steel and Aluminum includes
making ingots from molten metal.
• However,
However continuous casting has become very popular for
productivity reasons.
• Continuous steel casting produces higher quality steel and
aluminum at reduced cost; this is because there are:
– No
N ingots
i t with
ith uneven alloying;
ll i giving
i i a better
b tt product.
d t
– No moulds from which the ingot must be separated
– Continuous casting commonly takes place in processes where
long metal slabs must be created continuously.
– The process involves a ladle car that delivers molten steel to a
tundish. This large container then allows a continuous flow of
steel to exit into two or more container/”nozzles”.
– Water mist or spray p y coolingg is used to solidifyy the steel at
appropriate rates..



Comparison of casting processes

Casting defects
• Several types
yp of defects mayy occur duringg casting, g, considerably y reducing g the total
output of castings besides increasing the cost of their production.
• It is therefore essential to understand the causes behind these defects so that they may
b suitably
be it bl eliminated.
li i t d
• Casting defects may be defined as those characteristics that create a imperfection or
deficiency contrary to the quality specifications imposed by the design and service
requirements.
• Defects in castings do not just happen. They are caused by faulty procedure (1) in one
or more of the operations involved in the casting process, (2) in the equipment used,
or (3) by the design of the part. A casting defect is often caused by a combination of
co sw
factors which
c makeses rapid
p d interpretation
e p e o and d co
correction
ec o o of thee de
defect
ec ddifficult
cu
• The most common casting defects can be classified into the following categories:
– Gas defects
– Shrinkage cavities
– moulding material defects
– Pouring metal defects
– Metallurgical defects
– mould ld preparation
i defects.
d f

Casting defects (Gas defects)
• Blow holes and open blows:
– These are the spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside
the casting
g or on the surface. A blow or blowhole is a smooth cavity y
caused by gas in the molten metal.
– On the surface theyy are called open
p blows and inside,, they y are called
blow holes.
– It is an excessively smooth depression on the outer surface of a
casting. Blow holes are entrapped bubbles of gases with smooth walls.
– Causes:
• High moisture content in the moulding sand.
• Low ppermeability
y of mouldingg sand.
• Hard ramming of the sand.
• Improper venting.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper venting and
using proper moulding sand.
Casting defects: Blow
Figure. Blow. (Caused by high
moisture content)
Figure. Blow and expansion scab. (Caused

by hard ramming of the sand)

• Air inclusions or Gas Holes or Internal air pocket
– The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in
the furnace,
furnace in the ladle,
ladle and during the flow in the mould,
mould when
not allowed to escape, would be trapped inside the casting and
weaken it.
– This appears as small holes inside the casting and is caused by
rapid
p ppouringg of the molten metal.
– Causes:
• Higher pouring temperature which increases the amount of gas
absorbed.
• Poor gating system
• Excessively moist sand.
– Remedies:
R di
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper pouring
t
temperature,
t and
d by
b degasifying
d if i the
th molten
lt metal.
t l
• Pin hole porosity:
– A pinhole is a type of blow that is unusual because of its small
size These are numerous holes of small diameter,
size. diameter usually less
than 2mm, visible on the outer surface of the casting.
– These are caused by the absorption of hydrogen or carbon
monoxide when the moisture content of the sand is high.
– Causes:
C
• High moisture content in the moulding sand.
• Low permeability of moulding sand.
• Improper
p p melting g and fluxing
gppractices.
• Hydrogen can get entrapped by disassociation of moisture in
the moulding sand
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by using proper moulding sand
and using proper melting and fluxing practice.
Casting defects: Pin holes
Figure Pin holes.

Figure. holes (Caused by high moisture content of the sand)

Casting defects (Shrinkage
(Shrinkage cavities)
cavities)
• Shrinkage
g cavities:
– These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of
the casting. It is void or depression in the casting caused mainly by
uncontrolled and haphazard solidification of metal. A shrink or shrinkage
cavity is a rough cavity caused by contraction of the molten metal. It is quite
often impossible to tell whether a particular hole in a casting is a shrink or a
blow. Gas will aggravate a shrink defect, and shrinkage will aggravate a gas
defect. The distinction can usually be made that gas pressure gives a cavity
with smooth sides (blow) and contraction or lack of feeding gives a cavity
with rough sides (shrink).
– To compensate this,
this proper feeding of liquid metal is required as also proper
casting design.
– Causes:
• Incorrect metal composition.
• Incorrect ppouringg temperature.
p
• Improper location and size of gates and runner and riser.
– Remedies: This defect can be eliminated byy ensuringg pproper p mould design,
g ,
so that solidification rate is uniform. Achieving directional solidification
Casting defects: Shrinkage cavities
Figure. Surface shrink.

Figure shrink (Caused by
improper feeding)
Figure Gross shrink.

Figure. shrink (Caused by inadequate
feeding)

Casting defects (moulding material defects)
• Rat tail,, buckle,, and scab :
– A rat tail, buckle, and scab all originate in the same way and differ mainly in
degree. They are caused by uncontrolled expansion of the sand. If the condition
i nott too
is t bad,
b d a ratt tail
t il is
i formed.
f d The
Th surfacef off the
th sandd buckles
b kl up in i an
irregular line that makes the casting look as though a rat has dragged his tail
over it. If sand expansion
p is even ggreater,, the defect is called a buckle. If it is
still worse so that molten metal can get behind the buckled sand, it is a scab.
– Scabs are sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the
moldld face
f or core lifts
lift andd the
th metal
t l flows
fl b
beneath
th in
i thin
thi layer.
l
– During casting when sand face of the mold gets heated up and expands,
sometimes there occurs a crack.
– Molten metal enters the crack and flows behind the layer of sand, and causes
scabs.
– Causes:
C
• Using molding sand without cushion materials
• Usingg moldingg sand havingg high g coefficient of thermal expansion
p
• Using very fine sand having low permeability and moisture content.
– Remedies: This defect can be eliminated by mixing additives such as wood
fl
flour, sea coal.
l

Casting defects: Rat tail and scab
Figure A & B. Rattails. (Sand lacked good expansion properties)

Casting defects : Cut or wash
• A cut or wash is erosion of the sand by the stream of molten metal.
metal
It often shows up as a pattern around the gates and usually causes
dirt in some part of the casting.
• This may be caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength or the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
velocity

• Metal penetration:
– When the molten metal enters the gaps between the sand grains, the
result would be a rough
g casting
g surface.
– It occurs when molten metal being cast tends to penetrate into the sand
ggrains and causes a fused aggregate
gg g of metal and sand on the surface
of the casting.
– Metal penetration causes rough castings. The metal seeps in between
the sand grains and gives a rough surface on the casting. Such castings
are difficult to clean because sand grains are held by little fingers of
metal.
l
– Causes:
• Improper ramming of sand.
• Excessive pouring temperature which increases the fluidity of
metal.
– Remedies: This defect can be eliminated by fine sand and hard
rammingi the
h sand.d
Casting defects: Metal penetration
Fi
Figure. Metal
M t l penetration
t ti andd veining.
i i (Penetration
(P t ti causedd by b an open sandd veining
i i causedd
by metal penetration into cracked sand)
• Fusion:
– This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with the molten metal,
giving a brittle,
brittle glassy appearance on the casting surface.
surface
– Causes:
• Using moulding sand of low strength.
strength
– Remedies:
R d
• This defect can be eliminated by sand of proper strength and the
sandd should
h ld be b properly
l rammed d in.
i
• Runout :
– A run out is caused when the molten metal leaks out of the mould.
– Causes:
• This may be caused either due to faulty mould making or
because of the faultyy mouldingg flask.

• Drop:
– A crush or drop occurs when part of the sand mould is crushed or
drops into the mold cavity.
cavity
– The dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the
cope surface into the mould cavity is responsible for this defect.
defect
– This is essentially, due to improper ramming of the cope flask.
– Sometimes during casting upper surface of the mold cracks and
pieces of sands fall into the molten metal, this is known as drop.
– Causes:
C :
• Using moulding sand of low strength.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by sand of proper strength and the
sand should be properly rammed in.

• Swell:
– Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall
may move back causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
casting
– It is a localized enlargement of the casting due localized
enlargement of the mould by molten metal pressure.
pressure
– Causes:
• Defective or improper ramming of the sand.
• Insufficient weighting of the mould during casting.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper weight over
the moulding boxes and ramming the sand properly.

• Swell:

Casting defects (Pouring metal defects)
• Misruns and cold shuts
– A misrun is a defect which lacks
completeness of the casting due
to the molten metal not filling
the mould cavity completely.
completely
– A cold shut is caused when two
metal streams while meeting in
the mould cavity, do not fuse
together properly,
properly thus causing a
discontinuity or weak spot in the
casting.
casting
– A cold shut is an external defect
formed due to improper fusion
of two streams of molten metal
poured in the cavity.
cavity

• Misruns and cold shuts
– Causes:
• Improper
I gating
ti systems.
t
• Slow and intermittent
pouring.
i
• Poor fluidity of metal.
– Remedies:
• To eliminate these defects,,
the gating system should be
pproperly
p y designed
g and the
pouring should be controlled
suitably.

• Slag inclusions or Honey Combing:
– During the melting process, flux is added to remove the
undesirable oxides and impurities present in the metal.
metal
– It is an external defect consisting of number of small cavities in
close proximity.
proximity
– Causes:
• Suspended dirt in molten metal.
• Incorrect gating and poor fluxing of metal.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be avoided by preventing the slag from
entering along with the molten metal.

Casting defects (Metallurgical defects)
• Hot tears:
– Since metal has low strength at higher temperatures, any unwanted cooling
stress may cause the rupture of the casting.
– It is an external or internal cracks occurring immediately after the metal have
solidified, resulting from hindered contraction.
– Causes:
C
• Abrupt changes in sections of the casting.
• Poor
P collapsibility
ll ibilit off the
th mouldld andd core materials,
t i l which
hi h places
l extra
t stress
t
on certain parts.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper casting design and using
mould and core material havingg pproper
p collapsibility.
p y

Casting defects: Hot tears
Figure Hot tear.

Figure. tear (Caused by too high hot strength of the molding sand)

Casting defects (mould preparation defects)
• mould Shifts:
f
• It is an external defect due to mismatching of the top and bottom half of the casting,
usually at the parting line.
– Causes:
• Misalignment of pattern parts.
• Misalignment
Mi li t off moulding
ldi box.
b
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern,
pattern
moulding boxes.
• Core Shifts:
– It is an variation of the dimensions of the casting due variation in position or size
of the core.
– Causes:
C
• Misalignment of cores.
• Undersized or oversized core or core prints.
prints
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by placing the core properly in the mould and
using accurate size cores or core prints.
Casting defects
excessive flash

Cleaning of casting
• After the metal has solidified and cool in the mold.
• These molds go to a shake out station where the sand and casting are dumped
from the flask.
• The casting are shaken free from the molding and some dry sand cores are
knocked out.
• This
hi process off shake
h k out is
i called
ll d the
h cleaning
l i off castings.
i
• Actually shake out is done by two methods, manually or mechanically.
• G
Generally
ll mechanical
h i l shake
h k outt are usedd for
f large
l scale
l work.
k
• This unit consists of heavy mesh screen fixed to a vibrating frame.
• The screen vibrate mechanically and quick separation of sand from other parts.
parts

FETTLING
• FETTLING.
• The complete process of cleaning of castings called fettling.
• It involves the removal of the cores, ggates, sprues,
p runners, risers and chipping
pp g of
any of unnecessary projections on the surface of the castings.
• The fettling operation may be divided in to different stages.
• Knocking out of dry sand cores. Dry sand cores may be removed by knocking
with iron bar.
• F quick
For i k knocking
k ki pneumatic ti or hydraulic
h d li devices
d i are empolyed,
l d this
thi method
th d is
i
used for small, meduim work. For large castings the hydro blast process is mostly
employed.
p y
• Fettling - the removal of feeders and excess material from a casting - is the first
stage of finishing a casting. The metal removal is often achieved using manual
cutting or grinding. However, more emphasis is being placed on automatic
fettling, whereby the casting is placed in a machine programmed to remove
materials from specific areas.
areas The method of fettling must be taken into account
at the initial casting design stage, so that the process is fast and efficient.

Removal of gates and risers
• With chipping
pp g hammer. It is pparticularlyy suited in case of ggrey
y iron castings
g and
brittle materials.
• The gates and risers can easily be broken by hitting the hammer.
• With cutting saw. These saws may be hand saw and power saw are used for
cutting the ferrous like steel, melable iron and for non ferrous materials except
aluminum.
aluminum
• Mostly the hand saws are used for small and medium but when power and used
for large work.
• With flame cutting. This type of method is specially used for ferrous materials of
large sized castings where the risers and gates are very heavy.

For sprue cutting.
• The shear is specially
p y made tool on ppunch ppress base .
• In this there is heavy matching steel jaws are fitted. It is mostly used for melable
iron soft and medium , hard steel brass bronze Al, Mg. Shears are limited to small
work ,but are very fast and economical.
• With abrasive cut of machine. These machines can work with all metals but are
specially designed for hard metals which can not saw or sheared also where
flame cutting and chipping is not feasible. It is more expensive than other
methods.

Removal of fins, rough spots and un wanted projections.
• The fins and other small pprojections
j mayy easily
y be chipped
pp off with the helpp of
either hand tools or pneumatic tools.
• But for smoothing the rough cut gate edges either the pedestal or swing frame
grinder is used depends upon the size of castings.
• For cleaning the sand particles sticking to the casting surface sand blasting is
normally used.
used
• In this method the casting is kept in a closed chamber and a jet of compressed air
with a blast of sand grains or steel grit is directed against the casting surface
which thoroughly cleans the casting surface.
• The shots used are either chilled cast iron grit or steel grit. Chilled iron is less
expensive but is likely to be lost quickly by fragmentation.
• An other use full method for cleaning the casting surface is the tumbling. This is
an oldest
ld t machine
hi method
th d for
f cleaning
l i the th casting
ti surfaces.
f I this
In thi method
th d the
th
castings are put in large sheet shell or barrel along with the castings and small
piece of white cast iron called stars. The barrel is supported
p pp on horizontal turn
ions and is related at the speed varying from 25-30rpm for 15-30 minutes. It
causing the castings to tumble over to another, rubbing against the castings and
th stars.
the t Th by
Thus b continuous
ti peeing
i action
ti nott only
l are the
th castings
ti cleaned
l d but
b t
also sharp edges are eliminated.
NON--DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
NON
• Non-destructive testingg ggives the metal castingg facilityy the capability
p y of assuringg
the quality of a casting without destroying it. A metal casting facility may have
internal standards regarding nondestructive testing, but it is up to the customer to
specify
if specific
ifi tests
t t or frequency
f off testing.
t ti Whil various
While i methods
th d off
nondestructive testing exist to measure mechanical properties, chemical
composition,
p , castingg soundness or maximum service loads,, a single g test that
encompasses all these factors does not exist. A combination of nondestructive
methods may be required to document the soundness and quality of a casting.
• Visual Inspection
• Dye Penetrant and Fluorescent Powder Testing
• Magnetici Particle
i l Inspection
i
• Ultrasonic Testing
• R di
Radiographic
hi Inspection
I ti (X rays andd gamma rays))
• Eddy Current Inspection

mould Filling

Casting Design Rules
•Decrease
Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (cooling time
specifically) and reduce the part volume
INCORRECT CORRECT
Part with thick walls Part redesigned with thin walls
•Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects. A thick section,
often referred to as a hot spot, causes uneven cooling and can result in shrinkage, porosity, or
cracking.
INCORRECT CORRECT
Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 ≠ t2) Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)
•Corners : Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture
•Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls
INCORRECT CORRECT
Sharp corner Rounded corner

•Draft : Apply
pp y a draft angle
g of 2° - 3° to all walls p
parallel to the parting
p g direction to facilitate
removing the part from the mould.
INCORRECT CORRECT
No draft angle Draft angle (θ)

• Be Careful With Consideration To L,T,V,Y , , , and + jjunctions: Due to the nature of the
geometry of these sections it is likely that they will contain an area where the metal
casting's solidification is slower than the rest of the junction. These hot spots are circled in
red in Figure 18.
18 They are located such that the material around them,
them which will undergo
solidification first, will cut off the hot spots from the flow of molten metal. The flow of
casting material must be carefully considered when manufacturing such junctions. If there
is some flexibility in the design of the metal casting and it is possible you may want to
think about redesigning the junction. These should reduced the likelihood of the formation
of hot spots.

• Heat Masses: Avoid large g heat masses in locations distant to risers. Instead,,
locating sections of the casting with low V/A ratios further away from the risers
will insure a smooth solidification of the casting.
Source: http://thelibraryofmanufacturing
http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/metalcasting_troubleshooting.html
com/metalcasting troubleshooting html

• Sections of the Casting:g The flow of material is veryy importantp to the
manufacturing process. Do not feed a heavy section through a lighter one.

• Prevent Planes of Weakness: When metal castings g solidify,
y, columnar ggrain
structures tend to develop, in the material, pointing towards the center. Due to
this nature, sharp corners in the casting may develop a plane of weakness. By
rounding
di the
th edges
d off sharp
h corners this
thi can be
b prevented.
t d

• Reduce Turbulence: When manufacturingg a metal casting, g, turbulence is always
y
a factor in our flow of molten metal. Turbulence, as covered earlier in the pouring
section, is bad because it can trap gases in the casting material and cause mould
erosion.
i Alth
Although h nott altogether
lt th preventablet bl ini the
th manufacturing
f t i process,
turbulence can be reduced by the design of a gating system that promotes a more
laminar flow of the liquid
q metal. Sharpp corners and abrupt
p changesg in sections
within the metal casting can be a leading cause of turbulence. Their affect can be
mitigated by the employment of radii.

• Connection Between Riser and Castingg Must Stayy Open: p Riser design
g is veryy
important in metal casting manufacture. If the passage linking the riser to the
metal casting solidifies before the casting, the flow of molten metal to the casting
will
ill be
b blocked
bl k d andd the
th riser
i will
ill cease to
t serve its
it function.
f ti If the
th connection
ti has
h
a larger cross sectional area it will decrease its time to freeze. Good
manufacturingg design, g , however,, dictates that that we minimize this cross section
as much as possible to reduce the waste of material in the casting process. By
making the passageway short we can keep the metal in its liquid state longer
since
i it will
ill be
b receiving
i i more heat
h t transfer
t f from
f b th the
both th riser
i andd the
th casting.
ti

• Tapered
p Down Sprue:
p
• Flow considerations for our metal casting manufacture begin as soon as the
molten metal enters the mould. The liquid metal for the casting travels from the
pouring basin through the down sprue,. As it goes downward it will pick up
speed, and thus it will have a tendency to separate from the walls of the mould.
The down sprue must be tapered such that continuity of the fluid flow is
maintained. Remember the fluid mechanics equation for continuity A1V1=A2V2.
Where V is the velocity of the liquid and A is the cross sectional area that it is
traveling through. If you are casting for a hobby and/or just can not make these
measurements, just remember it would be better to err on the side of making A2
smaller provided your pouring rate does not become too slow.
smaller, slow In other words
taper a little more and just adjust your pouring of the casting so that you keep a
consistent flow of liquid metal.

• Ingate
g Design:
g The ingateg is another aspectp of manufacturingg design g that relates
to the flow of metal through the casting's system. The ingate, is basically where
the casting material enters the actual mould cavity. It is a crucial element, and all
other
th factors
f t off the
th metalt l casting's
ti ' mould ld design
d i are dependent
d d t on it.
it In
I the
th
location next to the sprue base the cross sectional area of the ingate is reduced
((choke area).
) The cross sectional reduction must be carefullyy calculated. The
flow rate of casting material into the mould can be controlled accurately in this
way. The flow rate of the casting metal must be high enough to avoid any
premature
t solidification.
lidifi ti H
However, you wantt to
t be
b certain
t i that
th t the
th flow
fl off molten
lt
material into the mould does not exceed the rate of delivery into the pouring
basin and thus ensure that the casting's g ggatingg system
y stays
y full of metal
throughout the manufacturing process.
Source: http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/metalcasting_troubleshooting.html
• Use of Chills: Sometimes we mayy have an area of the metal castingg that will
need to solidify at a faster rate in order to ensure that directional solidification
occurs properly. Manufacture planning, and design of flow and section locations
within
ithi the
th mould ld may nott beb sufficient.
ffi i t To
T accelerate
l t the th solidification
lidifi ti off a
section like this in our casting, we may employ the use of chills. Chills act as heat
sinks,, increasingg the coolingg rate in the vicinityy where theyy are pplaced.
• Chills are solid geometric shapes of material, manufactured for this purpose.
They are placed inside the mould cavity before pouring. Chills are of two basic
types. Internal chills are located inside the mould cavity and are usually made of
the same material as the casting. When the metal solidifies the internal chills are
fused into the metal casting itself.
itself External chills are located just outside of the
casting. External chills are made of a material that can remove heat from the
metal casting faster than the surrounding mould material. Possible materials for
external chills include iron, copper, and graphite.
• Insulate Risers: Since the riser is the reservoir of molten material for the casting,
g,
it should be last to solidify. Insulating the top will greatly reduce cooling in the
risers from the steep temperature gradient between the liquid metal of the casting,
andd the
th the
th room temperature
t t air.
i
• Consider V/A Ratios: In casting manufacture, V/A ratio stands for volume to
surface area or mathematically (volume/surface area). area) When solidification of a
casting begins a thin skin of solid metal is first formed on the surface between the
casting and the mould wall. As solidification continues the thickness of this skin
increases towards the center of the liquid mass. Sections in the casting with low
volume to surface area will solidify faster than sections with higher volume to
surface area.
area When manufacturing a part by metalcasting consideration of the of
V/A ratios is critical in avoiding premature solidification of the casting and the
formation of vacancies.



Casting processes, and their advantages and limitations
PROCESS ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Sand Almost any metal is cast; no limit to Some finishing required; somewhat coarse finishl
size, shape or weight; low tooling wide tolerances.
cost.
Shell mould Good dimensional accuracy and Part size limited; expensive patterns and
surface finish; high production rate. equipment required.
Expendable pattern Most metals cast with no limit to Patterns have low strength and can be costly for
size; complex shapes low quantities
quantities.
Plaster mould Intricate shapes; good dimensional Limited to nonferrous metals; limited size and
accuracy and finish; low porosity. volume of production; mould making time
relatively long.
Ceramic mould Intricate shapes; close tolerance Limited size.
parts; good surface finish.
Investment Intricate shapes; excellent surface Part size limited; expensive patterns, moulds, and
finish and accuracy; almost any labor
labor.
metal cast.
Permanent mould Good surface finish and High mould cost; limited shape and intricacy; not
dimensional accuracy; low porosity; suitable for high-melting-point metals.
high production rate.
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy and Die cost is high; part size limited; usually limited
surface finish; high production rate. to nonferrous metals; long lead time.
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with good Equipment is expensive; part shape limited.
quality; high production rate.

Casting Process Comparison

General Characteristics of Casting
Sand Shell Evaporative Plaster Investment Permanent Die Centrifugal
pattern mould
Typical materials cast All All All Nonferrous All All Nonferrous All
(Al, Mg, (Al, Mg, Zn,
Zn, Cu) Cu)
Weight (kg):
minimum 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.1 <0.01 0.01
maximum No limit 100+ 100+ 50+ 100+ 300 50 5000+
yp. surface
Typ. su ce finish
s (µm
(µ Ra) 5-25 1-3 5-25 1-2 0.3-2
. 2-6 1-2 2-10
Porosity 1 3-5 4-5 3-5 4-5 5 2-3 1-3 1-2
Shape complexity1 1-2 2-3 1-2 1-2 1 2-3 3-4 3-4
Dimensional accuracy1 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 3
Section thickness (mm):
( )
minimum 3 2 2 1 1 2 0.5 2
maximum No limit - - - 75 50 12 100
Typ. dimensional tolerance 1.6-4 mm ±0.00 ±0.005- ±0.005 ±0.015 ±0.001-0.005 0.015
(mm/mm) (0.25 mm 3 0.010
for small)
Cost1,2
Equipment 3-5 3 2-3 3-5 3-5 2 1 1
Pattern/die 3-5 2-3 2-3 3-5 2-3 2 1 1
Labor 1-3 3 3 1-2 1-2 3 5 5
Typical lead time2,3 Days Week Weeks Days Weeks Weeks Weeks- Months
s months
Typical production rate2,3 1-20 5-50 1-20 1-10 1-1000 5-50 2-200 1-1000
(parts/mould-hour)
Minimum quantity2,3 1 100 500 10 10 1000 10,000 10-10,000
Notes: 1. Relative rating,

g 1 best, 5 worst. For example,
p die casting g has relativelyy low porosity,
p y mid- to low shape
p complexity,
p y high
g dimensional accuracy,
y
high equipment and die costs and low labor costs. These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur depending on the manufacturing methods used.
2. Data taken from Schey, J.A., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd ed, 2000.
3. Approximate values without the use of rapid prototyping technologies.

Typical applications and characteristics for castings
TYPE OF ALLOY APPLICATION CASTABILITY* WELDABILITY* MACHIN‐ABILITY*
Aluminum Pistons, clutch housings, intake G‐E F G‐E
manifolds, engine blocks, heads, cross
members, valve bodies, oil pans,
suspension components
i
Copper Pumps, valves, gear blanks, marine F‐G F G‐E
propellers
Gray Iron
y Engine blocks, gears, brake disks and
g ,g , E D G
drums, machine bases
Magnesium Crankcase, transmission housings, G‐E G E
portable computer housings, toys
M ll bl i
Malleable iron F
Farm and construction machiner,
d i hi G D G
heavy‐duty bearings, railroad rolling
stock
Nickel Gas turbine blades, pump and valve
,p p F F F
components for chemical plants
Nodular iron Crankshafts, heavy‐duty gears G D G
Steel (carbon and Die blocks, heavy‐duty gear blanks, F E F‐G
l
low alloy)
ll ) aircraft undercarriage members,
i ft d i b
railroad wheels
Steel (high alloy) Gas turbine housings, pump and valve F E F
components, rock crusher jaws
p j
White iron (Fe3C) Mill liners, shot blasting nozzles, G VP VP
railroad brake shoes, crushers and
pulverizers
Zinc Door handles radiator grills
Door handles, radiator grills E D E
*E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.

References
1. Kalpakjian,
p j , Schmid,, Manufacturing g Processes for Engineering
g g Materials,, 4th edition,,
Prentice Hall 2003
2. DeGarmo, E. P., J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in
Manufacturing PHI.
Manufacturing, PHI
3. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology, vol I, TMH.
4. Amstead, B. H., P. F. Ostwald, and M. L. Begeman, Manufacturing Processes, 8th ed.,
Wiley New York,
Wiley, York 1988.
1988
5. Schey, J. A., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977.
6. Lindberg, R. A., Processes and Materials of Manufacture,
7. O W Boston, Metall Processing,i 2nd 2 d edition
di i 1951,
19 1 John
h Wiley
l andd Sons
S
8. B.S.Raghuwanshi, A course in Workshop Technology-Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
9. Hajra Choudhury, Elements of Workshop Technology–Vol.-II, Media Promoters and
Publishers.
10. HMT, Production Technology, HMT
11. Lecture notes of Professor J. Jeswiet, Mechanical Engg. Dept., Queen
Queen’ss University,
Ontario, Canada
12. Lecture notes on ME 6222: Manufacturing Processes and Systems of Prof. J.S. Colton,
Georgia Institute of Technology
13. Lecture notes on Design & Manufacturing of Prof. S. Kim
14. Lecture notes on ME505/MFS505 Modeling of Manufacturing Processes & Machines of
P f I.
Prof. I S
S. Jawahir,
J hi Department
D t t off Mechanical
M h i l Engineering,University
E i i U i it off Kentucky
K t k

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Vth Semester Mechanical/ Production Engineering

MODULE Lecture Notes on

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Ductile Iron Brackets Tractor Gearbox Ductile Iron Auto Parts

Machined Ductile Iron Castings Automotive Casting

Ductile Iron Compressor

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE: Aluminum piston for an internal combustion engine. (a) As

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Shell moulding Vacuum Permanent

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Investment Hot chamber die True centrifugal

Lost Low pressure Cold chamber Semi-centrifugal

Shell mould Vacuum casting centrifuging

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Melting Pouring Heat Cleaning &

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Casting super imposed on

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

– Quantity: No. of castings to be produced.

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Figure : Split pattern.

Figure. One piece pattern.

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose