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INDIAN GEOGRAPHYE U R A S I A N P L A T E
INDIA
TODAY
10 milion
years ago
SRI LANKA
38 million
years ago
Equator
55 million
years ago
INDIAN
OCEAN
71 million
years ago
“INDIA”
Land Mass
SRI LANKA
INDIA-LOCATION
I
India is an ancient country, known Andaman and Nicobar has longest
as Bharatvarsh. It is surrounded by coastal line.
the sea on three sides and The southernmost point of the
separated from the rest of Asia by country as a whole lies further
lofty mountain chain. south in Andaman and Nicobar
The Arabian Sea lies to its Islands. It is now called Indira Point.
southwest, the Bay of Bengal to its It is situated at 6°45’N latitude. The
southeast and the Indian Ocean to westernmost point of India lies in
its south. This well-defined South Gujarat and the eastern most in
Asian landmass is called Indian Arunachal Pradesh.
sub-continent (consists of the The Tropic of Cancer passes almost
countries of India, Pakistan, halfway through the country. Thus
Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri half of the country to the south of
Lanka). the Tropic of Cancer is situated in
India lies wholly in the Northern the Tropical or Torrid Zone and the
Hemisphere, it extends between other half lying north of the Tropic
6°45’N to 37°6'N latitudes and from of Cancer falls in the Sub-tropical
68°7' E to 97°25' E longitudes. zone.
In area India is the seventh largest India has common boundary with
country in the world but in many neighboring countries like
population it stands next only to Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan,
China. Myanmar, Bangladesh and Sri
In area Rajasthan is the largest Lanka.
state but in population Uttar The border between India and
Pradesh has first position in India. Pakistan is known as Radcliffe line.
It measures about 3,214 km from The Indian states Gujarat,
north to south, and 2,933 km from Rajasthan, Punjab and Jammu and
east to west. The northern most Kashmir shares boundary with
point of the Indian mainland lies in Pakistan.
the state of Jammu and Kashmir The Indian states Jammu and
and the southernmost point is Kashmir, Himanchal Pradesh,
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. Uttrakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Pradesh shares its boundary with
Karnataka, Kerala are along the China. The boundary line is known
western coast and West Bengal, as Mac Mohan line.
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil The Nepal shares boundary with
Nadu are along the eastern coast. Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Gujarat has longest coast line and Sikkim and West Bengal.
Goa has smallest coast line in The Bhutan shares boundary with
mainland but when Union Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam
territories of India are included the and West Bengal.
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The Indian states Arunachal and Mizoram share its boundary
Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and with Bangladesh.
Mizoram shares its boundary with The Palk Strait separates Indian
Myanmar. mainland from Sri Lanka.
The India has longest sharing Structurally, Sri Lanka is an
border with Bangladesh. West extension of the peninsular block of
Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura India.
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CHAPTER
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA
II
‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of (1) The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
structure, process and the stage of (2) The Northern Plain
development. Based on the macro (3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
variations, India can be divided into the
(5) The Coastal Plains
following physiographic divisions: (6) The Islands.
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(1) The Northern and North-eastern The folds of Great Himalayas are
Mountains: Geographically the entire asymmetrical in nature. The core of
Northern mountain system can be divided this part of Himalayas is composed
into- of granite.
Important mountain peaks of the
(a) The Himalayan Ranges Great Himalayas are- Mount Everest
(b) The Trans-Himalayas (8848m :Highest peak of the world),
(c) The Poorvanchal Kanchenjunga(8598m), Lhotse
(8516m), Makalu(8481m), Dhaulagiri
The Himalayan Ranges- The Himalayas, (8172m), Nanga Parbat (8126m),
geologically young and structurally fold Annapurna(8076m), Nandadevi
mountains stretch over the northern (7817m), Badrinath, Kedarnath
borders of India. The Ganga and the Yamuna, two
rivers originate from this Himalaya.
General Characteristic: Important passes-
Extent: It extends from the Ganga delta in They are separated by a water body
the north to Kanyakumari in south. which is called the Ten degree
channel.
Features: The Duncan Passage separates Little
Andaman and Great Andaman.
The eastern coastal plain is broader
and is an example of an emergent The coastal line has some coral
coast. deposits, like Car Nicobar island.
There are well developed deltas here, Some important mountain peaks in
formed by the rivers flowing eastward Andaman and Nicobar islands are
in to the Bay of Bengal. Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738
Because of its emergent nature, it has m), Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman
less number of ports and harbours. – 515 m), Mount Koyob (South
The continental shelf extends up to Andaman – 460 m) and Mount
500 km into the sea, which makes it Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m).
difficult for the development of good
ports and harbours.
Lake Chilka and Pulicat are the (b) Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands:
famous brackish water lakes while
Kolleru is the fresh water lake The islands of the Arabian Sea include
between Krishna- Godavari deltas. Lakshadweep and Minicoy.
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CHAPTER
West flowing rivers of Peninsular India East flowing rivers of Peninsular India
Flows into Arabian sea Flows into Bay of Bengal
Do not have extensive network of tributaries Have extensive network of tributaries
Small catchment area Large catchment area
Valley floors are above sea level Valley floors are at sea level
Form estuaries Form Deltas
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Nasik district, Maharashtra and Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
discharges its water into the Bay Puducherry.
of Bengal. Its important tributaries joining
Its tributaries run through the from left are the Harangi, the
states of Maharashtra, Madhya Hemavati, the Shimsha and the
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Arkavati whereas the
Andhra Pradesh. Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the
The Penganga, the Indravati, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, and the
Pranhita, and the Manjra are its Amaravati joins from right.
principal tributaries. The river descends from south
The Godavari is subjected to heavy Karnataka plateau to Tamil Nadu
floods in its lower reaches to the plains through the famous
south of Polavaram, where it forms Sivasamundram waterfall.
a picturesque gorge.
The river after Rajamundri splits 5. River Subarnrekha:
into several branches forming a
large delta. It originates near Nagri village in
Ranchi district of Jharkhand at an
3. River Krishna: elevation of 600 m.
Its principal tributaries joining from
The Krishna is the second largest right are the Kanchi, the Karkari
east flowing Peninsular river which and the Kharkai.
rises near Mahabaleshwar in
Sahyadri.
6. River Bhatarni:
The Koyna, the Tungbhadra, Musi,
Malaprabha, Ghataprabha and the
Originates from the hills of
Bhima are its major tributaries.
Keonjhar, Odisha.
The catchment area of the Krishna,
lies in Maharashtra, Karnataka, 7. River Brahmani:
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
The river South Koel and Sankh join
4. River Kaveri:
together near Rourkela(Odisha) to
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills become Brahmani river. It drains
(1,341m) of Kogadu district in into Bay of Bengal.
Karnataka.
8. River Vamsadhara:
Since the upper catchment area
receives rainfall during the It originates in the southern part
southwest monsoon season of Odisha and flows through Andhra
(summer) and the lower part during Pradesh and drains into Bay of
the northeast monsoon season Bengal.
(winter), the river carries water
throughout the year with Note: River Penner and Palar originating
comparatively less fluctuation than in Karnataka and River Vaigai originating
the other Peninsular rivers. in Tamil Nadu are other important East
The Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, flowing rivers of Peninsular India.
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West flowing rivers of Peninsular India: branches, i.e. the Saraswati and
the Sabarmati, which join with each
River Narmada: other at Govindgarh. From here,
the river comes out of Aravali and
The Narmada originates on the
is known as Luni.
western flank of the Amarkantak
It flows towards the west till Telwara
plateau.
and then takes a southwest
Flowing in a rift valley between the
direction to join the Rann of
Satpura in the south and the
Kuchchh.
Vindhyan range in the north, it
The entire river system is
forms a picturesque gorge in marble
ephemeral.
rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall
near Jabalpur.
4. River Sabarmati:
After flowing a distance of about
1,312 km, it meets the Arabian sea
It is the combined stream of Sabar
south of Bharuch, forming a broad
and Hathmati, rising from the hills
27 km long estuary.
of Mewar in Aravali range.
There are several island in the
The Sabarmati basin extends over
estuary of which Aliabet is the
states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
largest.
Ahmedabad is an industrial city
Since the river flows through a situated on the banks of Sabarmati.
narrow valley. It does not have major
tributaries with the exception of 5. River Mahi:
Hiran river on its right bank.
It originates in the northern slopes
2. River Tapi: of Vindhyas.
The Mahi basin extends over states
It originates from Multai in the of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat
Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies
in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Note: Other small but important west
Madhya Pradesh and the remaining flowing rivers of peninsular India are-
6 per cent in Gujarat.
Purna river is the major tributary Shetruniji, Bhadra, in Gujarat
Vaitarna, Ulhas in Maharastra
3. River Luni: Mandovi in Goa
Bedti, Sharavati (Jog/Gersoppa fall
Luni is the largest river system of is made by this river), Netravati in
Rajasthan, west of Aravali. Karnataka
It originates near Pushkar in two Bharatapunzha, Periyar and Pamba
in Kerala
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CHAPTER
INDIAN CLIMATE
IV
India’s climate is controlled by a number interior of India are far away from the
of factors which can be broadly divided into moderating influence of the sea. Such
two groups — factors related to location areas have extremes of climate.
and relief, and factors related to air
pressure and winds. (5)Altitude :
Factors related to Location and Relief Temperature decreases with height. Due
to thin air, places in the mountains are
(1) Latitude: cooler than places on the plains.
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the
(6)Relief :
central part of India in east-west direction.
Thus, northern part of the India lies in The physiography or relief of India also
sub-tropical and temperate zone and the affects the temperature, air pressure,
part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer direction and speed of wind and the
falls in the tropical zone. The tropical zone amount and distribution of rainfall.
being nearer to the equator, experiences
high temperatures throughout the year Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind
with small daily and annual range. Area
The pressure and wind conditions
north of the Tropic of Cancer being away
over India are unique. During
from the equator, experiences extreme
winter, there is a high-pressure
climate with high daily and annual range
area north of the Himalayas. Cold
of temperature.
dry winds blow from this region to
(2)The Himalayan Mountains: the low-pressure areas over the
oceans to the south.
The Himalayas protect the subcontinent
In summer, a low-pressure area
from the cold northern winds The
develops over interior Asia as well
Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds,
as over northwestern India. This
forcing them to shed their moisture within
causes a complete reversal of the
the subcontinent.
direction of winds during summer.
(3)Distribution of Land and Water : Air moves from the high-pressure
area over the southern Indian
The differential heating of land and sea Ocean, in a south-easterly
creates different air pressure zones in direction, crosses the equator, and
different seasons in and around the Indian turns right towards the low-
subcontinent. Difference in air pressure pressure areas over the Indian
causes reversal in the direction of monsoon subcontinent. These are known as
winds. the Southwest Monsoon winds.
(4)Distance from the Sea : These winds blow over the warm
oceans, gather moisture and bring
With a long coastline, large coastal areas widespread rainfall over the
have an equable climate. Areas in the mainland of India.
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Upper air circulation : years. The changes in pressure
conditions are connected to the El
Subtropical westerly jet streams.
Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is
Over India, these jet streams blow
referred to as ENSO (El Nino
south of the Himalayas, all through
Southern Oscillations).
the year except in summer. The
western cyclonic disturbances Indian Monsoon:
experienced in the north and north-
The climate of India is strongly influenced
western parts of the country are
by monsoon winds. The southwest monsoon
brought in by this westerly flow.
is a continuation of the southeast trades
In summer, the subtropical westerly
deflected towards the Indian subcontinent
jet stream moves north of the
after crossing the Equator. Following factors
Himalayas with the apparent
affect the Indian Monsoon:
movement of the sun. An easterly jet
stream blows over peninsular India, (a) The differential heating and cooling of
approximately over 14°N during the land and water creates low pressure on the
summer months. landmass of India while the seas around
experience comparatively high pressure.
Tropical Cyclone:
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical
The frequency and direction of tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over
cyclone, developed in Bay of Bengal
the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial
influence the weather conditions during
trough normally positioned about 5°N of the
southwest monsoon over most parts of India.
equator. It is also known as the
ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations): monsoontrough during the monsoon
season).
There is a reversal in the pressure
conditions in southern oceans and (c) The presence of the high-pressure area,
the eastern Pacific has lower east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S
pressure in comparison to the over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and
eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic position of this high-pressure area affects
change in pressure conditions is the Indian Monsoon.
known as the Southern Oscillation
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely
or SO.
heated during summer, which results in
The difference in pressure over Tahiti
strong vertical air currents and the
in Pacific Ocean and Darwin in
formation of low pressure over the plateau
northern Australia is computed to
at about 9 km above sea level.
predict the intensity of the
monsoons. If the pressure (e) The movement of the westerly jet
differences were negative, it would stream to the north of the Himalayas and
mean below average and late the presence of the tropical easterly jet
monsoons. stream over the Indian peninsula during
A feature connected with the SO is summer.
the El Nino phenomenon in which a
warm ocean current that flows past (f) Changes in the pressure conditions over
the Peruvian Coast, in place of the the southern oceans (ENSO) also affect
cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 the monsoons.
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THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON: differential heating of land and sea (thus
pressure difference) is the trigger for the
Onset of the Monsoon: The northward birth of Monsoon which is further affected
shift in the position of the ITCZ due to by other above mentioned factors.
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Advance/Path of Monsoon in India: due to different reasons:
(i) In northern India rains are likely to fail
The monsoon arrives at the southern if the rain-bearing storms are not very
tip of the Indian peninsula generally frequent along the monsoon trough or the
by the first week of June. ITCZ over this region.
Subsequently, it proceeds into two –
the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay (ii) Over the west coast the dry spells are
of Bengal branch. associated with days when winds blow
The Arabian Sea branch reaches parallel to the coast.
Mumbai about ten days later on
approximately the 10th of June. This
Retreat of Monsoon:
is a fairly rapid advance.
The Bay of Bengal branch also
advances rapidly and arrives in In September, the sun is again at
Assam in the first week of June. The equator therefore shifting of
lofty mountains causes the monsoon pressure belt to normal position and
winds to deflect towards the west thus no S-W monsoon winds. Rather
over the Ganga plains. the gradient of pressure is from land
By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch to sea (as sea is warm as compared
to land). Thus a N-W wind blow called
of the monsoon arrives over
Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central retreating monsoon.
part of the country. Withdrawal or the retreat of the
The Arabian Sea and the Bay of monsoon is a more gradual process.
Bengal branches of the monsoon The withdrawal of the monsoon
merge over the north-western part of begins in north-western states of
the Ganga plains. Delhi generally India by early September. By mid-
receives the monsoon showers from October, it withdraws completely
the Bay of Bengal branch by the end from the northern half of the
of June (tentative date is 29th of peninsula. The withdrawal from the
June). southern half of the peninsula is
By the first week of July, western fairly rapid. By early December, the
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and monsoon has withdrawn from the
eastern Rajasthan experience the rest of the country.
monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon
reaches Himachal Pradesh and the Meteorological seasons over India are:
rest of the country.
Winter Season/ the cold weather
Break in the Monsoon: season: December – February
Pre Monsoon Season/ the hot
During the south-west monsoon period after weather season: March – May
having rains for a few days, if rain fails to Southwest Monsoon Season: June -
occur for one or more weeks, it is known as September
break in the monsoon. These dry spells are
Post Monsoon Season/retreating
quite common during the rainy season.
Monsoon season: October –
These breaks in the different regions are
November
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(1) Winter Season/ the cold weather of snow to the Himalayan glacier It
season: January – February is this snow that sustains the flow of
water in the Himalayan rivers during
The mean daily temperature remains the summer months.
below 21°C over most parts of
northern India. The night (2) Pre Monsoon Season/ the Hot weather
temperature may be quite low, season: March – May
sometimes going below freezing point
in Punjab and Rajasthan. With the apparent northward
The Peninsular region of India, movement of the sun towards the
however, does not have any well- Tropic of Cancer in March,
defined cold weather season because temperatures start rising in north
of moderating influence of the sea and India and in the north-western part
the proximity to equator. of India, temperatures around 48°C
The weather in this season is are not uncommon in month of May.
characterised by feeble high The hot weather season in south
pressure conditions over the India is mild and not so intense as
northern plain. In south India, the air found in north India.
pressure is slightly lower. As a result, The summer months are a period of
winds start blowing from north- excessive heat and falling air
western high pressure zone to the pressure in the northern half of the
low air pressure zone over the Indian country. Because of the heating of the
Ocean in the south. subcontinent, the ITCZ moves
Western Disturbances: The pleasant northwards occupying a position
weather conditions, however, at centred at 25°N in July.
intervals, get disturbed by shallow In the heart of the ITCZ in the
cyclonic depressions originating over northwest, the dry and hot winds
the east Mediterranean Sea and known as ‘Loo’, blow in the afternoon,
travelling eastwards across West and very often, they continue to well
Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan into midnight.
before they reach the north-western Dust storms in the evening are very
parts of India. On their way, the common during May in Punjab,
moisture content gets augmented Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and
from the Caspian Sea in the north Uttar Pradesh. These temporary
and the Persian Gulf in the south. storms bring a welcome respite from
Rainfall in N-W India due to western the oppressing heat since they bring
disturbances, locally known as with them light rains and a pleasant
‘mahawat’. cool breeze.
Also the S-E coast of India (coast of
Heat Wave: continuous spell of abnormally
Tamil Nadu etc) receives rain from
hot weather. Heat Waves typically occur
the N-E monsoon.
between March and June, and in some rare
Importance of Western Disturbances for cases even extend till July. The extreme
India: temperatures and resultant atmospheric
conditions adversely affect people living in
It is highly beneficial for rabi crops. these regions as they cause physiological
They are the most important source stress, sometimes resulting in death.
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a) When normal maximum temperature of Its spatial distribution is also uneven
a station is less than or equal to 40º C: Heat which ranges from 12 cm to more
Wave Departure from normal is 5º C to 6º than 250 cm.
C and Severe Heat Wave Departure from The beginning of the rains sometimes
normal is 7º C or more. is considerably delayed over the
whole or a part of the country.
b) When normal maximum temperature of
The rains sometimes end
a station is more than 40º C : Heat Wave
considerably earlier than usual,
Departure from normal is 4º C to 5º C and
causing great damage to standing
Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal
crops and making the sowing of
is 6º C or more.
winter crops difficult.
c) When actual maximum temperature
DROUGHT:
remains 45ºC or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat wave should Drought is the consequence of a natural
be declared. reduction in the amount of precipitation over
an extended period of time, usually a season
Heat wave need not be considered till
or more in length, often associated with other
maximum temperature of a station reaches
climatic factors (viz. high temperatures,
at least 40º C for Plains and at least 30º C
high winds and low relative humidity) that
for Hilly regions.
can aggravate the severity of the drought
(3) Southwest Monsoon Season: June - event.
September
The different types of drought are:
The shift of ITCZ triggers the South- Meteorological Drought - according to India
west monsoon in India. It approaches Meteorological Department, meteorological
the Indian landmass in two branches- drought over an area is defined as a situation
The Arabian Sea branch and The Bay when the seasonal rainfall received over the
of Bengal branch and causes rainfall area is less than75% of its long term average
nearly all over India. value. It is further classified as “moderate
Monsoonal rainfall is largely drought” if the rainfall deficit is between 26-
governed by relief or topography. 50% and “severe drought” when the deficit
The monsoon rainfall has a declining exceeds 50% of the normal
trend with increasing distance from
Hydrological Drought - Hydrological
the sea.
Drought can be defined as a period during
The monsoon rains occur in wet spells
which the stream flows are inadequate to
of few days duration at a time. The
supply established use of water under a
wet spells are interspersed with
given water management system.
rainless interval known as ‘breaks’.
The summer rainfall comes in a heavy Agricultural Drought - It occurs when
downpour leading to considerable available soil moisture is inadequate for
run off and soil erosion. healthy crop growth and cause extreme
Monsoons play a pivotal role in the stress and wilting.
agrarian economy of India because
over three-fourths of the total rain in Socio-Economic Drought- Abnormal water
the country is received during the shortage affects all aspects of established
southwest monsoon season. economy of a region. This in turn adversely
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affects the social fabric of the society The widespread rain in this season
creating unemployment, migration, is associated with the passage of
discontent and various other problems in the cyclonic depressions which originate
society. Thus, meteorological, hydrological over the Andaman Sea and manage
and agricultural drought often lead to what to cross the eastern coast of the
is termed as Socio-economic drought‘. southern Peninsula. These tropical
cyclones are very destructive. The
How India Meteorological Department thickly populated deltas of the
declares a year as a Drought Year? In our Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are
country, a year is considered to be a Drought their preferred targets.
Year in case the area affected by moderate
and severe drought, either individually or Distribution of Rainfall
together, is 20-40% of the total area of the
country and seasonal rainfall deficiency The average annual rainfall in India is about
during south-west monsoon season for the 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
country as a whole is at least 10% or more.
Areas of High Rainfall : The highest rainfall
When the spatial coverage of drought is more
occurs along the west coast, on the Western
than 40% it will be called as All India Severe
Ghats, as well as in the sub-Himalayan
Drought Year.
areas is the northeast and the hills of
Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200
(4) Post Monsoon Season/Retreating
cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills,
Monsoon season: October – November
the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the
By the end of September, the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills,
southwest monsoon becomes weak the rainfall is less than 200 cm.
as the low pressure trough of the
Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between
Ganga plain starts moving southward
100-200 cm is received in the southern parts
in response to the southward march
of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, northeastern
of the sun.
Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand,
The retreating southwest monsoon
Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern
season is marked by clear skies and
Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and
rise in temperature. The land is still
the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
moist. Owing to the conditions of high
temperature and humidity, the Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar
weather becomes rather oppressive. Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
This is commonly known as the and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat
‘October heat’. and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between
In the second half of October, the 50-100 cm.
mercury begins to fall rapidly,
particularly in northern India. The Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the
weather in the retreating monsoon Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
is dry in north India but it is Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and
associated with rain in the eastern most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall
part of the Peninsula. Here, October below 50 cm.
and November are the rainiest
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan
months of the year.
region.
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FIG. India : Annual Rainfall
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FIG. India : Varinability of Annual Rainfall
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Climatic Regions of India: Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic
classification on monthly values of
Major climatic types of India based on temperature and precipitation. He
Koeppen’s scheme have been described identified five major climatic types, namely:
below-
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CHAPTER
SOILS
V
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and 3. Climate: It is the most important factor
organic materials which develop on in Pedogenesis.
the earth’s surface.
Pedology is the study of soils in their Climate affects both vegetative
natural environment. production and the activity of
Pedogenesis is the natural process organisms.
of soil formation that includes a Hot, dry desert regions have sparse
variety of processes such as weather- vegetation and hence limited organic
ing, leaching, calcification etc. material available for the soil. The
The major factors affecting the formation of lack of precipitation inhibits
soil are relief, parent material, climate, chemical weathering leading to
vegetation and other life-forms and time. coarse textured soil in arid regions.
Besides these, human activities also Bacterial activity is limited by the
influence it to a large extent. cold temperatures in the tundra
causing organic matter to build up.
Factors :
In the warm and wet tropics, bacterial
1. Relief: Height and the Slope are the two activity proceeds at a rapid rate,
important factor governing soil formation thoroughly decomposing leaf litter.
process. The high annual precipitation also
Angle of slope decides the rate and flushes some organic material from
type of weathering, say at steep the soil. These factors combine to
slopes physical weathering takes create soils lacking much organic
place at high rate resulting in thin matter in their upper horizons.
layer of soil formation whereas Climate, interacting with vegetation,
gentle slope supports chemical also affects soil chemistry.
weathering at slow rate and results Quantity and quality of vegetation
in thick layer of soil. also affect the soil formation process,
Direction of slope also affect the soil say roots of some trees goes deep into
formation process as solar insolation the soil and enters the fracture of the
depends on this say in northern rock and widens it leading to physical
hemisphere the south facing slopes weathering of rock. Adds dead litter
a hill in high latitude receives solar to the soil.
energy.
2. Parent material: the parent material 4. Geological time: Pedogenesis process for
determines the colour, mineral composition longer period will give mature (not having
and texture of the derived soils. Say parent property of parent rocks) and thick layer of
material resistant to weathering produces soil.
a coarse grain soil and the fine grain soils
are formed when parent material readily Soil forming processes: It depends mainly
weathers like sedimentary rocks. on the climatic conditions.
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1. Laterization: Rich in water soluble salts brought
to surface by capillary action.
In hot and humid climate. No humus as deserted condition.
Strong chemical reactions dissolves Immature soils as generated by
the rocks thoroughly leaving behind physical weathering only.
only insoluble salts like Fe and Al.
Soil Horizon:
No humus as it is leached away.
Only have residual of rocks i.e Fe O1- undecomposed
oxide and Al oxide.
organic matter
Soil formed is Laterite. O2- Partly decomposed
Infertile for agriculture as no plant organic matter
nutrient.
A – Have humus Also called elluvial
and plant horizon
2. Podsolization:
nutrients called
Cold and humid climate (in regions top soil
of conifer vegetation). B- Mixture of soil Also called Illuvial
No chemical reaction as absence of particle and horizon as it
heat so immature soil formed by mineral grain, receives
physical weathering. called sub-soil the elluviation
Lot of litter as no bacterial action in particles
cold climate. C- Regoliths
Soil formed is Podsol. D- Rock bed
Agriculturally infertile as minerals
are not broken down therefore no
release of nutrients. Classification of Indian soils:
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CHAPTER
NATURAL VEGETATION
VI AND WILDLIFE
Natural vegetation refers to a plant They are well stratified forest with
community that has been left undisturbed dense undergrowth growth followed
over a long time, so as to allow its individual by short structured trees and tall
species to adjust themselves to climate and
trees.
soil conditions as fully as possible.
Mahagony, ebony, rosewood are
Natural vegetation adapts itself to the index species.
factors of natural environment such as
climate, soil, altitude, relief, etc and this (b) Tropical Semi Evergreen forest:
is visible in the great variety of natural
vegetation found in India. The semi evergreen forests are found
in the less rainy parts of Western
On the basis of certain common features Ghats, hills of N-E region and
such as predominant vegetation type and Andaman and Nicobar Island.
climatic regions, Indian forests can be Such forests have a mixture of
divided into the following groups: evergreen and moist deciduous
trees.
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi The under growing climbers provide
Evergreen forests an evergreen character to these
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests forests.
(iii)Tropical Thorn forests Main species are white cedar, hollock
(iv) Montane forests and kail.
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
(c) Tropical Dry Evergreen forest:
1.Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen
forests: Confined to coastal Tamil Nadu.
As they get rainfall from retreating
(a) Tropical Evergreen forests: south-west monsoon and North-east
monsoon and remains dry in South
These forests are found in the west monsoon season therefore
western slope of the Western Ghats, called Dry evergreen forest.
hills of the north-eastern region and Species- Tamarind, Neem,
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Casuarina.
They are found in warm and humid
areas with an annual precipitation of 2. Tropical Deciduous forest: These are the
over 200 cm and mean annual most widespread forests in India. They are
temperature above 22oC. also called the monsoon forests.
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(a) Tropical Moist Deciduous forest: pronounced in the regions which
record rainfall between 100-200 cm.
The Moist deciduous forests are more These forests are found in the
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northeastern states along the areas which receive rainfall less
foothills of Himalayas, eastern than 50 cm.
slopes of the Western Ghats and These consist of a variety of grasses
Odisha. and shrubs.
Teak, sal, shisham, mahua, amla,
It includes semi-arid areas of south
semul, and sandalwood etc. are the
west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
main species of these forests.
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
(b) Tropical Dry Deciduous forest: Pradesh.
In these forests, plants remain
Dry deciduous forest covers vast
leafless for most part of the year and
areas of the country, where rainfall
give an expression of scrub
ranges between 70 -100 cm.
vegetation.
On the wetter margins, it has a
transition to the moist deciduous, Important species found are babool,
while on the drier margins to thorn ber, an wild date palm, khair, neem,
forests. khejri, palas, etc
These forests are found in rainier
areas of the Peninsula and plains of 4. Montane forests: In mountainous areas,
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. the decrease in temperature with
They show Parkland appearance as increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
vegetation is scattered with open change in natural vegetation. Mountain
growth having grass. forests can be classified into two types:
They are also called Savannahs of
India. (a) Himalayan Montane forests:
Species- Teak, Sal, Shisam, Mahua
Tendu, Palas etc.
The Himalayan ranges show a
succession of vegetation from the
3. Tropical Thorn forests:
tropical to the tundra, which change
Tropical thorn forests occur in the in with the altitude.
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(b) Peninsular Montane forests: water level of the spring tide in the tropical
and subtropical region. They survive in the
The southern mountain forests
harsh environment say lack of oxygen, high
include the forests found in three salinity and diurnal tidal inundation.
distinct areas of Peninsular India viz;
the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas, How they adapt to this harsh
Satpura and the Nilgiris. environment?
As they are closer to the tropics, and
The adaptation includes succulent leaves,
only 1,500 m above the sea level,
sunken stomata, aerial breathing roots
vegetation is temperate in the higher
called ‘pneumatophores’, higher cellular
regions, and subtropical on the lower
salt concentration, vivipary, support
regions of the Western Ghats,
structure likes stilt roots and buttresses etc.
especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka. Role of Mangroves:
The temperate forests are called
Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal
Palani hills. floods and reduce inundation of
These Shola forests are India’s oldest coastal lowlands.
forests and show special They prevents coastal soil erosion.
characteristic- as they have stunted They protects coastal lands from
Tropical forest ( very dense, tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
hardwood, evergreen )in the Mangroves enhance natural
temperate climate. recycling of nutrients.
Species- Laurel, chincona, wattle. Mangrove supports numerous flora,
avifauna and wild life.
5. Littoral and Swamp forests: Provide a safe and favorable
environment for breeding, spawning,
They can survive and grow both in
rearing of several fishes.
fresh as well as brackish water and
They supplies woods, fire wood,
are also called wetland forest. Occur
medicinal plants and edible plants to
in and around the deltas, estuaries
local people.
and creeks prone to tidal influences
They provides numerous employment
(delta or tidal forests).
opportunities to local communities
Mangroves grow along the coasts in
and augments their livelihood.
the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud
flats and estuaries. Threats: They are increasingly threatened
They consist of a number of salt- by biotic pressure, changing land use
tolerant species of plants. pattern and natural calamities.
Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant Mangrove cover in India:
water and tidal flows, these forests
give shelter to a wide variety of birds. Mangroves are spread over an area of 4921
They are highly developed in the sq km (0.15 % of total geographical area) in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and India, which is nearly 3.3% of the world’s
the Sunderbans of West Bengal. mangrove vegetation. Sunderbans in West
Other areas of significance are the Bengal accounts for half of the mangrove
Mahanadi, the Godavari and the cover in India.
Krishna deltas. According to 2017 Forest Report there has
been increase of 181 sq km in Mangrove cover
Mangroves: Mangroves are the halophytic of the country as compared to 2015
trees and bushes growing below the high assessment.
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Figure: Mangrove cover in India
Bamboo Resources of the country: conditions varying from organically
poor to mineral rich soil and moisture
Bamboo belonging to the family of
to drought to flooding which makes
poaceae grows in tropical, sub tropical
it effective for reclaiming degraded
and temperate regions of the world.
lands.
In India they are found in almost all
part of India except Kashmir. Bamboo also plays an important role
Bamboo is one of the fastest growing in carbon sequestration and biodiver-
plants with ability to survive in wide sity conservation.
variety of climatic and edaphic
conditions. Their diversity in size, being light yet
It is capable of growing under soil strong, hard and straight, fast growth
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and abundance makes it amenable list {transferred from the State List to the
to versatility of use. Concurrent List in 1976} of the constitution
so both centre and state governments are
It is a non wood forest produce used
enabled to legislate on these matters. While
in furniture, construction, shoots as
central government can make laws,
food, pulp and paper industry,
implementation of these laws is with states.
handicraft and even in channelizing
Due to this, prevention and mitigation of
water instead of pipes.
wildfires is primarily duty of the state
Bamboo is therefore known as green governments while policy, planning and
gold, poor man’s timber etc. financing comes under Central
· The total area under bamboo Government.
cultivation has shown a increase in In states, there are no separate departments
2017 forest survey but with regional for wildfires and the regular forest
variations say Mizoram shown department staff carries out the activities
highest decrease whereas Madhya of forest fire management. However, during
Pradesh and Maharashtra have the forest fire seasons, the state government
shown considerable increase. recruit the fire watchers.
Andhra Pradesh
1 Papikonda NP 2008 1012.86 East & West
Godavari
2 Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) NP 2005 2.40 Kadapa
3 Sri Venkateswara NP 1989 353.62 Chittoor &
Cuddapah
Arunachal Pradesh
1 Mouling NP 1986 483.00 Upper Siang
2 Namdapha NP 1983 1807.82 Changlang
Assam
1 Dibru-Saikhowa NP 1999 340.00 Tinsukia &
Dibrugarh
2 Kaziranga NP 1974 858.98 Golaghat,
Nagaon &
Sonitpur
3 Manas NP 1990 500.00 & Barpeta
Bongaigaon
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4 Nameri NP 1998 200.00 Sonitpur
5 Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP 1999 78.81 Darrang
& Sonitpur
Bihar
1 Valmiki NP 1989 335.65 West
Champaran
Chhattisgarh
1 Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) NP 1981 1440.71 Surguja
& Koria
2 Indravati (Kutru) NP 1982 1258.37 Dantewada
3 Kanger Valley NP 1982 200.00 Bastar
Goa
1 Mollem NP 1992 107.00 North Goa
Gujarat
1 Vansda NP 1979 23.99 Navasari
2 Blackbuck (Velavadar) NP 1976 34.53 Bhavnagar
3 Gir NP 1975 258.71 Junagadh
4 Marine (Gulf of Kachchh) NP 1982 162.89 Jamnagar
.
Haryana
1 Kalesar NP 2003 46.82 Yamuna
Nagar
2 Sultanpur NP 1989 1.43 Gurgaon
Himachal Pradesh
1 Great Himalayan NP 1984 754.40 Kullu
2 Inderkilla NP 2010 104.00 Kullu
3 Khirganga NP 2010 710.00 Kullu
4 Pin Valley NP 1987 675.00 Lahul & Spiti
5 Simbalbara NP 2010 27.88 Sirmaur
Jharkhand
1 Betla NP 1986 226.33 Latehar
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Karnataka
1 Anshi NP 1987 417.34 Uttara
Kannada
2 Bandipur NP 1974 874.20 Mysore &
Chamarajanagar
3 Bannerghatta NP 1974 260.51 Bangalore
4 Kudremukh NP 1987 600.32 Dakshin
Kannada,
Udipi &
Chikmagalur
5 Nagarahole (Rajiv Gandhi) NP 1988 643.39 Kodagu &
Mysore
Kerala
1 Anamudi Shola NP 2003 7.50 Idukki
2 Eravikulam NP 1978 97.00 Idukki
3 Mathikettan Shola NP 2003 12.82 Idukki
4 Pambadum Shola NP 2003 1.32 Idukki
5 Periyar NP 1982 350.00 Idukki &
Quilon
6 Silent Valley NP 1984 89.52 Palakkad
Madhya Pradesh
1 Bandhavgarh NP 1968 448.85 Umaria &
Katni
2 Fossil NP 1983 0.27 Mandla
6 Indira Priyadarshini Pench NP 1975 292.85 Seoni &
Chhindwara
3 Kanha NP 1955 940.00 Mandla,
Balaghat &
Dindori
4 Madhav NP 1959 375.22 Shivpuri
5 Panna NP 1981 542.67 Panna &
Chhatarpur
7 Sanjay NP 1981 466.88 Sidhi
8 Satpura NP 1981 585.17 Hoshangabad
9 Van Vihar NP 1979 4.45 Bhopal
Maharashtra
1 Chandoli NP 2004 317.67 Sangli,
Satara,
Kolhapur,
Ratnagiri
2 Gugamal NP 1975 361.28 Amravati
3 Nawegaon NP 1975 133.88 Bhandara
(Gondia)
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4 Pench (Jawaharlal Nehru) NP 1975 257.26 Nagpur
5 Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli) NP 1983 86.96 Thane &
Mumbai
6 Tadoba NP 1955 116.55 Chandrapur
Manipur
1 Keibul-Lamjao NP 1977 40.00 Bishnupur
Meghalaya
1 Balphakram NP 1985 220.00 South Garo
Hills
2 Nokrek Ridge NP 1986 47.48 East Garo
Hills
Mizoram
1 Murlen NP 1991 100.00 Champhai
2 Phawngpui Blue Mountain NP 1992 50.00 Lawngtlai
Nagaland
1 Intanki NP 1993 202.02 Dimapur
Odisha
1 Bhitarkanika NP 1988 145.00 Kendrapara
2 Simlipal NP 1980 845.70 Mayurbhanj
Rajasthan
1 Mukundra Hills NP 2006 200.54 Kota &
Chittourgarh
2 Desert NP 1992 3162.00 Barmer &
Jaisalmer
3 Keoladeo Ghana NP 1981 28.73 Bharatpur
4 Ranthambhore NP 1980 282.00 Sawai
Madhopur
5 Sariska NP 1992 273.80 Alwar
Sikkim
1 Khangchendzonga NP 1977 1784.00 North Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
1 Guindy NP 1976 2.82 Chennai
2 Gulf of Mannar Marine NP 1980 6.23 Ramanathpuram
& Tuticorin
3 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) NP 1989 117.10 Coimbatore
4 Mudumalai NP 1990 103.23 Nilgiris
5 Mukurthi NP 1990 78.46 Nilgiris
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Telangana
1 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy NP 1994 1.43 Hyderabad
2 Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali NP 1994 14.59 Ranga Reddy
3 Mrugavani NP 1994 3.60 Ranga Reddy
Tripura
1 Clouded Leopard NP 2007 5.08 West Tripura
2 Bison (Rajbari) NP 2007 31.63 South
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
1 Dudhwa NP 1977 490.00 Lakhimpur
-Kheri
Uttarakhand
1 Corbett NP 1936 520.82 Nainital &
Pauri Garhwal
2 Gangotri NP 1989 2390.02 Uttarkashi
3 Govind NP 1990 472.08 Uttarkashi
4 Nanda Devi NP 1982 624.60 Chamoli
5 Rajaji NP 1983 820.00 Dehradun,
Pauri Garhwal
& Haridwar
6 Valley of Flowers NP 1982 87.50 Chamoli
West Bengal
1 Buxa NP 1992 117.10 Jalpaiguri
2 Gorumara NP 1992 79.45 Jalpaiguri
3 Jaldapara NP 2014 216.51 Jalpaiguri
4 Neora Valley NP 1986 159.89 Darjeeling
5 Singalila NP 1986 78.60 Darjeeling
6 Sunderban NP 1984 1330.10 North &
South
24 Paraganas
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Tiger Reserves: country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in
Project Tiger was launched by the 1973-2016 the number is grown up to fifty
Government of India in the year 1973 to save (50). A total area of 71027.10 km2 is covered
the endangered species of tiger in the by these project tiger areas.
l. No. Name of
Area of Area of
Tiger Reserve
the core / the buffer
critical /
State tiger peripheral Total
habitat (In (In Sq. area(In
Sq. Kms.) Kms.) Sq.Kms.)
1 Nagarjunsagar
Srisailam (part)* Andhra Pradesh 2595.72* 700.59* 3296.31*
2 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 1807.82 245 2052.82
3 Kamlang TigerReserve Arunachal Pradesh 671.00 112.00 783.00
4 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh 683.45 515 1198.45
5 Manas Assam 840.04 2310.88 3150.92
6 Nameri Assam 200 144 344
7 Orang Tiger Reserve Assam 79.28 413.18 492.46
8 Kaziranga Assam 625.58 548 1173.58
9 Valmiki Bihar 598.45 300.93 899.38
10 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh 851.09 991.45 1842.54
11 Achanakmar Chattisgarh 626.195 287.822 914.017
12 Indravati Chhattisgarh 1258.37 1540.7 2799.07
13 Palamau Jharkhand 414.08 715.85 1129.93
14 Bandipur Karnataka 872.24 584.06 1456.3
15 Bhadra Karnataka 492.46 571.83 1064.29
16 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 814.884 282.63 1097.514
17 Nagarahole Karnataka 643.35 562.41 1205.76
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18 Biligiri Ranganatha
Temple Karnataka 359.1 215.72 574.82
19 Periyar Kerala 881 44 925
20 Parambikulam Kerala 390.89 252.772 643.662
21 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 917.43 1134.361 2051.791
22 Pench Madhya Pradesh 411.33 768.30225 1179.63225
23 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 716.903 820.03509 1598.1
24 Panna Madhya Pradesh 576.13 1021.97** 1578.55
25 Satpura Madhya Pradesh 1339.264 794.04397 2133.30797
26 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 812.571 861.931 1674.502
27 Melghat Maharashtra 1500.49 1268.03 2768.52
28 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra 625.82 1101.7711 1727.5911
29 Pench Maharashtra 257.26 483.96 741.22
30 Sahyadri Maharashtra 600.12 565.45 1165.57
31 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra 653.674 - 653.674
32 Bor Maharashtra 138.12 - 138.12
33 Dampa Mizoram 500 488 988
34 Similipal Odisha 1194.75 1555.25 2750
35 Satkosia Odisha 523.61 440.26 963.87
36 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1113.364 297.9265 1411.291
37 Sariska Rajasthan 881.1124 332.23 1213.342
38 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 417.17 342.82 759.99
39 Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu 895 706.542 1601.542
40 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 958.59 521.28 1479.87
41 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 321 367.59 688.59
42 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 793.49 614.91 1408.4
43 Kawal Telangana 893.23 1125.89 2019.12
44 Amrabad Telangana 2166.37* 445.02* 2611.39*
45 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 1093.79 1107.9848 2201.7748
46 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh 602.798 127.4518 730.2498
47 Amangarh (buffer of
Corbett TR) Uttar Pradesh - 80.6 80.6
Corbett Uttarakhand 821.99 466.32 1288.31
48 Rajaji TR Uttarakhand 255.63 819.54 1075.17
49 Sunderbans West Bengal 1699.62 885.27 2584.89
50 Buxa West Bengal 390.5813 367.3225 757.9038
TOTAL 40340.12 30686.98 71027.10
Conservation Area
Goa,Karnataka,
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of mammals, 10 sp of reptiles,
165 sp of birds and 530 sp of
plants) which needs to be
protected nurtured to posterity.
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CHAPTER
AGRICULTURE
VII
Agriculture is predominant economic interior parts of country,
activity in India, engaging nearly three-fifths namely kharif, rabi, and zaid.
of its working population. Though the share The kharif season largely coincides
of agricultural sector in gross domestic with Southwest Monsoon under
product has considerably declined to about which the cultivation of tropical
one-fourth yet the importance of agriculture crops such as rice, cotton, jute,
as employment provider to workforce jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
especially in the countryside is very high. The rabi season begins with
Agriculture involves not only crops raising the onset of winter in October-
but also animal ranching and fishing. November and ends in March-
April. The low temperature
The total land area on which crops are
conditions during this season
grown in a region is called net sown
facilitate the cultivation of tempe-
area (NSA). The net sown area and
rate and subtropical crops such as
the area sown more than once
wheat, gram and mustard.
together are called gross cultivated
Zaid is a short duration summer
area. This implies that if we deduct
cropping season beginning after
net sown area from gross cropped
harvesting of rabi crops, the
area; what we find is those areas
cultivation of watermelons,
where crops are cultivated for more
cucumbers, vegetables and
than once in a particular agriculture
fodder crops during this season is
year.
done on irrigated lands.
States namely Punjab, Haryana,
However, this type of distinction in
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, have the
the cropping season does not exist
high proportional share of NSA than
in southern parts of the country.
the national average.
Here, the temperature is high
enough to grow tropical crops
INDIAN CROPPING SEASONS
during any period in the year
There are three distinct crop provided the soil moisture is
seasons in the northern and available. Therefore, in this region
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same crops can be grown thrice in an Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.
agricultural year provided there is In northeast, such type of cultivation
sufficient soil moisture. is known as “Jhuming”.
Eco-Farming or Organic Farming: This Growing Crops two crops may also be
farming avoids the use of synthetic possible if there are two rainy seasons, or
fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulator and if there is enough moisture left in the soil
livestock feed additives. These types of to grow a second crop.
farming rely on crop rotation, crop residues,
Intercropping: Examples- Planting
animal manure, off-farm organic wastes and
alternating rows of maize and beans, or
biological pest control to maintain soil
growing a cover crop in between the cereal
productivity.
rows. Intercropping means growing two or
more crops in the same field at the same
A few farmers from Rajasthan,
time.
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Pondicherry and Punjab are adopting Mixed Intercropping: Distribution of the
this types of agriculture. seeds of both the crops, or dibbling the seeds
without any row arrangement. This process
Type of Cropping System:
is called mixed intercropping. It is easy to
Monocropping: Example Planting Wheat do but makes weeding, fertilization and
year after year in the same field. harvesting difficult. Individual plants may
Monocropping is when the field is used to compete with each other because they are
grow only one crop season after season. too close together.
Disadvantages: it is difficult to maintain Planting the main crop in rows and then
cover on the soil; it encourages pests, spreading the seeds of the intercrop (such
diseases and weeds; and it can reduce the as a cover crop).
soil fertility and damage the soil structure. Row Intercropping: Planting both the main
crop and the intercrop in rows. This is called
Crop Rotation: Example Planting maize one row intercropping. The rows make weeding
year, and beans the next. Crop Rotation and harvesting easier than with mixed
means changing the type of crops grown in intercropping.
the field each season or each year (or
changing from crops to fallow). Stir Cropping: Example Planting
alternating strips of maize, soybean and
Crop rotation is a key principle of agriculture finger millet. Stir Cropping involves planting
conservation because it improves the soil broad strips of several crops in the field. Each
structure and fertility, and because it helps strip is 3–9 m wide. On slopes, the strips can
control weeds, pests and diseases. be laid out along the contour to prevent
erosion. The next year, the farmer can rotate
Sequential Cropping: Example- Planting
crops by planting each strip with a different
maize in the long rains, then beans during
crop.
the short rains. Sequential Cropping
involves growing two crops in the same field, Advantages:
one after the other in the same year.
It produces a variety of crops, the
In some places, the rainy season is long legume improves the soil fertility, and
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rotation helps reduce pest and weed intercrop. It also uses the field for a longer
problems. time, since the cover crop usually continues
The residues from one strip can be to grow after the main crop is harvested.
used as soil cover for neighbouring
strips.
Cropping Pattern in India:
At the same time, strip cropping
avoids some of the disadvantages of Cropping Pattern mean the proportion of
intercropping: managing the single area under different crops at a point of time,
crop within the strip is easy, and changes in this distribution overtime and
competition between the crops is factors determining these changes.
reduced.
Factors affecting cropping pattern in India
are-
Relay Cropping: Example- Planting maize,
then sowing beans between the maize rows
1. Natural factors like rainfall, soil and
four weeks later.
climate.
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MAJOR CROPS IN INDIA: like Gangetic plain, it is also grown
below sea level at Kuttanad (Kerala),
FOODGRAINS hill terraces of north eastern part of
India and valleys of Kashmir.
The importance of foodgrains in Indian Labor: Rice cultivation
agricultural economy may be gauged from requires easily available
the fact these crops occupy about two-third labour because, most of the activities
of total cropped area in the country. associated with it are labor
Foodgrains are dominant crops in all parts oriented and are not very well
of the country whether they have suited for mechanization.
subsistence or commercial agricultural Distribution: Rice is grown in almost
economy. On the basis of the structure of all the states of India.
grain the food grains are classified
as cereals and pulses.
2. WHEAT: Wheat is the second most
CEREALS important food crop of India next to rice. It
is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the
Cereals occupy about 54 percent of total beginning of winter and harvested in the
cropped area in India. India produces a beginning of summer.
variety of cereals, which are classified
as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse Temperature: It is primarily a crop
grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi). of mid-latitude grassland. It
requires cool climate. The ideal
1. RICE: It is the most important food crop temperature is between 10 0 C to
of India. It is predominantly a Kharif crop . 150C at the time of sowing and 210C
It covers about one third of total cultivated to 26 0 C at the time
area of the country and is staple food of more of ripening and harvesting.
than half of the Indian population.
Temperature: Rice requires hot and Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas
humid conditions. The temperature receiving annual rainfall of about
should be fairly high i.e. 240C mean 75cm. Annual rainfall of about 100
monthly temperature with average cm is the upper limit for wheat
temperature of 220C to 320C. cultivation. Light drizzles at the time
of ripening help in increasing the
Rainfall: Rainfall ranging yield. But on the other hand, frost at
between 150 and 300 cm is suitable the time of flowering and hailstorm
for its growth. In areas of Punjab, at the time of ripening can cause
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh heavy damage to the wheat crop.
where rainfall is less than 100cm;
rice is cultivated with the help of Soil: well drained fertile loamy and
irrigation. clayey loamy soil is best suited for
wheat cultivation.
Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil
conditions but deep clayey and loamy Distribution: The largest wheat
soil provides the ideal conditions. producing states are U.P, Punjab
Rice is primarily grown in plain areas and Madhya Pradesh.
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3. MILLETS: Millets are short are coarse grain crops and are used for
duration warm weather crops. These both food and fodder. These are Kharif crops
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though sometimes grown in rabi seasons too. India. Though, these are known as coarse
These are sown in May-August and grains, they have very high nutritional
harvested in October-November. Today value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron,
millets are mostly consumed by poor people calcium, other micro nutrients and
as their staple food. In India, lots of millet roughage.
is grown and these are known by various local Maize is a crop which is used both as food
names. Some of these are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires
Korra, Kodon, Kutki, Hraka, Bauti and temperature between 21°C to 27°C and
Rajgira. In India, Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are grows well in old alluvial soil. In some states
grown on large areas but unfortunately area like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season
under these crops has drastically reduced also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV
over the years. Some of the geographical seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have
conditions for growing these crops are as contributed to the increasing production of
follows: maize. Major maize-producing states
are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Temperature: These crops are grown Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
where the temperature Telangana and Madhya Pradesh.
is high which ranges between 27 0C
PULSES
to 320C.
Rainfall: As mentioned earlier that India is the largest producer as well as the
millets are ‘dry land crop’, therefore, consumer of pulses in the world. These are
rainfall ranging from 50 to 100 cm is the major source of protein in a vegetarian
ideal for their cultivation. These diet. Pulses need less moisture and survive
crops are rain-fed. even in dry conditions. Being leguminous
Soil: Millets are less sensitive to soil crops, all these crops except arhar(pigeon
deficiencies. They can be grown pea) helps in restoring soil fertility by fixing
in inferior alluvial or loamy soil. nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these
Distribution: Jowar and Bajra are are mostly grown in rotation with other
grown both in north and south crops. Most of these are green manure
India whereas ragi is generally crops too. Major pulse producing statesin
concentrated in the southern India. India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Jowar and Bajra are grown in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka.
Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
Karanataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Though gram and tur (arhar or pigeon pea/
Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Ragi red gram) are the more important pulses,
is mostly concentrated in the several other pulses such as urd (black
southern India i.e. Tamil Nadu, gram), mung (green gram), masur (lentil),
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In kulthi (horse gram), matar(peas), khersi,
total, coarse cereals can be found cow pea(black-eyed gram) and moth are also
in Rajasthan, Karnataka and grown. Pulses are generally fodder
Andhra Pradesh. crops too.
Gram: It is the most important of all the
Jowar(sorghum), Bajra (Pearl millet/Bull
pulses. It accounts for about 37% of the
Rush millet) Ragi (Finger millet/Buck
production and about 30% of the total area
wheat) are the important millets grown in
of pulses in India. It is a Rabi cropwhich is
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sown between September and November and known Cluster Bean (guar gum) got a big
is harvested between February and April. export market. The new market was due
It is either cultivated as a single crop or to the multibillion shale and oil gas drilling
mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or business in U.S, which has found the gel or
mustard. Some of the geographical hydrocolloid produced from cluster beans to
conditions are as follows: be an excellent lubricant for the ‘fracking’
process. Fracking is used to extract gas
Temperature: It is grown in a wide
trapped some 6,000 to 10,000 feet beneath
range of climatic condition. Mild cool
the surface making hard shale rock more
and comparatively dry climate
porous. Large amounts of water, typically
with 200C -250C temperature.
three to five million gallons, are mixed with
Rainfall: 40-45 cm rainfall is
small amounts of chemical additives, sand
favorable for gram cultivation.
and pressure injected into holes in the well
Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.
bore forcing cracks in the surrounding rocks,
Distribution: Although gram is
allowing much more gas to flow back into the
cultivated in several parts of the
well bore. It has also turned guar into a
country, however, 90% of the total
precious commodity, farmers now
production comes from 5 states.
call ”black gold”. In 2011, India exported
These states are Madhya Pradesh,
guar worth $915 million to the United States,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar
with most of product intended for oil and gas
Pradesh, and Haryana
industry use. It was India’s largest
Green Manure Crops: Crops grown for the agricultural export to the United States.
purpose of restoring or increasing the organic India accounts for 80% of the total guar
matter content in the soil are called Green produced in the world. 70% of India’s
manure crops. Use of Green manure crops production comes from Rajasthan. The
in cropping system is called ’Green other producers are Gujarat, Haryana,
Manuring’ where the crop is grown in situ or Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
brought from outside and incorporated when Pradesh. The cheapest legume, grown in dry
it is purposely grown. Green manuring and arid lands by poor farmers was priced
are low cost and effective technology in low till few years back then.
minimising cost of fertilizers and
Uses of Guar:
safeguarding productivity. Green Leaf
Manuring consists of gathering green The leaves and beans of the guar plant
biomass from nearby location and adding to have traditionally been used as
the soil. Objectives of green manuring are an animal feed and as a vegetable for
to add Nitrogen to the companion or human consumption.
succeeding crop and add or sustain organic Farmers take advantage of the
matter in the soil. Examples of leguminous nitrogen fixing abilities of the guar
Green Manures are as follows: Local name- plant by using it as a green manure
Cowpea, Cluster bean (Guar), Green gram crop.
(Mung bean), Sesbania, Dhaincha, Guar gum is used in baking as a
Sunhemp, Wild Indigo, Pillipesara, dough thickener. It is used to thicken
Berseem, Madras Indigo etc. dairy products such as milk, yogurt,
cheese, ice cream and sherbet.
Cluster Bean (guar gum): After 2010,
In processed foods guar gum is used
India’s much neglected and little-
as a thickener in salad dressing,
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sauces, ketchup, soupand many heavy manures and fertilizers
other products. because it exhausts the fertility of
Guar gum has medicinal uses which soils quickly and extensively.
include: water-soluble fiber, bulk- Labour: It is a labour oriented
forming laxative and creating a cultivation and required cheap labour.
feeling of satiety. Industrially it is Ample human hands are required at
used in mining, petroleum drilling every stage, i.e. sowing, hoeing,
and textile manufacturing. weeding, irrigation, cutting and
carrying sugarcanes to the factories.
COMMERCIAL/CASH CROPS
Distribution: India has the largest
Cash crops are those crops which are grown area under sugarcane cultivation in
for sale either in raw form or semi processed the world and the second largest
form. Major of them are as follows: producer next to Brazil. As far as
distribution of sugarcane cultivation
SUGARCANE: Sugarcane is a Kharif crop. in India is concerned, there are three
It is the main source of sugar, gur and distinct geographical regions in the
khandsari. It also provides raw material for country. These regions are:
the manufacturing of alcohol.Bagasse, the
crushed cane residue, has also multiple 1. The Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to
uses. It is used for manufacturing of paper. Bihar containing 51% of the total area and
It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum 60% of the country’s total production. Uttar
products and a host of other chemical Pradesh is the largest producer of sugar in
products. A part of it is also used as fodder. India.
Some of the geographical conditions for the 2. The black soil belt from Maharashtra to
growth of sugarcane are as follows: Tamil Nadu along the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats.
Temperature: It requires hot and
humid climate with an average 3. Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna
temperature of 21 0C to 27 0C. river valley.
Rainfall: 75-150 cm rainfall is
COTTON: Cotton is the most important fibre
favorable for sugarcane
crop not only of India but also of the entire
cultivation. Irrigation is required in
world. It not only provides raw material for
those areas where rainfall is less
cotton textile industry but also its seed
than the prescribed limit.
is used in Vanaspati oil industry. The cotton
Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils.
seed is also used as part of fodder for milch
In fact sugarcane can tolerate any
cattle for better milk production. Cotton is
kind of soil that can retain moisture.
basically a kharif crop.
But deep rich loamy soil is ideal for
its growth. The soil should be rich in Distribution: The main states for
nitrogen, calcium and cotton production are Andhra
phosphorous but neither it should Pradesh, Telegana, Maharashtra,
be too acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.
and level pleatue is an advantage for Labour: As picking of cotton has not
sugarcane cultivation because it been made mechanized till now,
facilitates irrigation and transporta- therefore a lot of cheap and efficient
tion of cane to the sugar mills. labour is required at the time of
Sugarcane cultivation requires picking.
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Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely grows well in alluvial soils of the
related to Black soils of Deccan and Sutlej plain and red and laterite soils
Malwa plateau. However, it also of the peninsular region.
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Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas Further attraction of Jute lies in
having at least 210 frost free days in its easy availability, inexhaustible
a year. It requires modest amount of quantity at a comparatively cheaper
rainfall of 50 to 100 cm. However, rate. Moreover, it can easily be
cotton is successfully grown with blended with other natural and
the help of irrigation in the areas manmade fibres.
where rainfall is less than 50
Jute cultivation is mainly concentrated in
cm. High amount of rainfall in
the eastern and north eastern
the beginning and sunny and dry
India especially in Gangetic Plain Major
weather at the time of ripening are
jute and mesta producing states are West
very useful for a good crop.
Bengal, Bihar and Assam.
Temperature: Cotton is the crop of
tropical and sub-tropical areas and OILSEEDS: It is one of the important groups
requires uniformly high tempera- of commercial crops in India. Oil extracted
ture varying between 210C and 300C. from oilseeds not only forms an important
item of our diet but also serves as raw
material for the manufacturing of
JUTE hydrogenated oils, paints, varnishes, soaps,
lubricants etc. Oil-cake (the residue after
the oil is extracted from the oilseeds) form
is an important natural fibre crop in an important cattle feed and manure.
India next to cotton.
Drylands of Malwa plateau (Madhya
It is a kharif crop. It requires hot and Pradesh), Marathwada (Maharashtra),
humid climate with 120-150cm Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and
rainfall for its growth. Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and
Light sandy or clayey soils is best Karnataka plateau are oilseeds growing
for its cultivation. It is labour regions of India. These crops together
intensive. occupy about 14 percent of total cropped
area in the country. Groundnut, rapeseed
In trade and industry, jute and mesta
and mustard, sesamum, linseed, castor
crop together known as raw jute as
seed, soyabean and sunflower are the main
their uses are almost same.
oilseed crops grown in India.
It has now emerged as a versatile raw Groundnut: It is the most important oilseed
material for diverse applications, of India. Groundnut is grown both as kharif
such as, textile industries, paper and Rabi crop but 90-95% of the total area is
industries, building and automotive devoted to kharif crop. It is a rainfed crop.
industries, use as soil saver, use as Some of the geographical conditions are as
decorative and furnishing materials, follows:
etc.
Raw jute being bio-degradable and Temperature: It thrives best in the
annually renewable source, it is tropical climate and requires 200C to
considered as an environment- 30 0C temperature.
friendly crop and it helps in the Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfall is
maintenance of the environment and favorable for groundnut cultivation.
ecological balance. It is highly susceptible to frost,
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prolonged drought, continuous rain Soil: Well drained light sandy loams,
and stagnant water. Therefore, dry red, yellow and black soils are well
winter is needed at the time of suited for its cultivation.
ripening. Distribution: It is the most important
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oilseed of India and accounts Sunflower: Sunflower as an oilseed is
for about half of the major oilseeds a newly introduced crop in the country. Due
produced in the country. India is to source of high quality edible oil,
the largest producer of groundnut in sunflower oil is used as cooking oil in
the world. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil different recipes. Its importance increases
Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat are as sunflower oil is considered as a heart
the main producer of groundnut in friendly oil. Besides oil, almost every part
India and account for about 60% of of sunflower has commercial value. This crop
the total production. Another 30% of has gained importance due to its short
the total production comes from duration of maturity, containing of excellent
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa. quality of oil, photo-insensitivity, wide
adaptability into different kinds of cropping
Soybean: Soybean is known as the ”Golden pattern, high-energy hull and drought
Bean” of the 20 th Century. Though, tolerance. It is a short duration crop and
Soybean is a legume crop, yet it is widely completes its life cycle in about three
used as oilseed. Due to very poor cookability months. Hence can be incorporated
on account of inherent presence of trypsin in different type of cropping pattern. Since
inhibitor, it cannot be utilized as a pulse. It it is a photo-insensitive crop, it can be grown
is now the second largest oilseed in throughout the year. Sunflower is cultivated
India after groundnut. It grows in varied as both kharif and rabi seasons but, two-
agro-climatic conditions but it is best crop thirds of production comes from rabi
in Kharif season. It has emerged as one of season crop. In addition, sunflower is also
the important commercial crop in many cultivated as summer crop in Punjab and
countries. Due to its worldwide popularity, West Bengal. Oil cake is rich in high quality
the international trade of Soybean is spread protein (40 – 44 percent) and used as cattle
globally. Several countries such as Japan, and poultry feed. This crop is considered
China, Indonesia, Philippines, and European valuable from economic as well as
countries are importing Soybean to ornamental point of view. Karnataka,
supplement their domestic requirement Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are the major
for human consumption and cattle feed. sunflower producing states.
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HORTICULTURE CROPS On the basis of some homogeneity and
commonness, major crop regions in India
In simple terms, horticulture can
may be divides as follows:
be defined as the science of growing fruits,
vegetables, and flowers. India is a producer 1. Rice Region
of tropical as well as temperate 2. Wheat Region
fruits.Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra 3. Jowar-Bajra Region
Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and 4. Cotton Region
West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and 5. Millet and Maize Region
Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of
6. Fruit and Spice Region
Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of THE RICE REGION
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and Rice is considered as the first-ranking
walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and crop in the vast region stretching from lower
Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the Gangetic Plain to Brahmaputra Valley in
world over. Major flower growing states are the east and the circum-coastal alluvial
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh tracts of the peninsula region. Rice
in South, West Bengal in East, Maharashtra cultivation is done around Bay of Bengal,
in West and Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana barring isolated pockets bordering the
in North. Major exporting flower Arabian Sea. The isohyets line (a line on a
like orchid covers the entire region map connecting points having the same
of North-Eastern region especially in the amount of rainfall in a given period) 150 cm
state of Arunanchal Pradesh which is also demarcates the lower boundary of rice,
known as Orchid State of India. India except in some edges where rice grows even
produces about 13 per cent of the world’s in 100 cm of annual rainfall. Though rice
vegetables.. It is an important producer displays overall dominance, considering the
of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, secondary importance of other crops, this
brinjal and potato. region may be subdivided into following
zones:
CROP COMBINATIONS
1. Rice-Jute-Tea: This association of
The study of crop combinations constitutes
crops occurs in farthest east,
an important aspect of agricultural
near Assam Valley northern West
geography. In fact, it provides a good
Bengal and lower Gangetic plains.
basis foragricultural regionalization
and helps in the formulation of 2. Rice-Pulses-Millets-: This
strategy for agricultural development. association occurs in the western
Crops are generally grown in combinations section of the former zone,
and it is rarely that a particular crop occupies covering central Bihar, eastern
a position of total isolation. The distribution Madhya Pradesh and eastern Uttar
maps of and their concentrationare Pradesh.
interesting and helps in knowing the
density and concentration of individual 3. Rice-Millets: This zone comprises
crops, but it is even more important to view the entire Andhra Pradesh, south
theintegrated assemblage of the various Orissa and some parts of Tamil
crops in a region. Nadu.
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4. Rice-Coffee-Spices: This zone is River Valleys are basically heartlands of
found in the southern extremity of cotton cultivation. As a cash-crop, cotton
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. cultivation is always associated with one
food grain cultivation, preferably Jowar,
THE JOWAR-BAJRA REGION Bajra or oil seeds. The different sub-regions
are:
This crop combination occurs relatively
in less rainfall region of 50-100 cm in red 1. Cotton-Jowar-Bajra grows in close
soil region. As the region is drought association with one another in
prone, Jowar-Bajra is more popular. the Maharashtra and Western
Madhya Pradesh.
1. Jowar-Cotton in Maharashtra. 2. Cotton-Oilseeds-Combination
2. J o w a r - C o t t o n - O i l s e e d s - developed in Gujarat.
Millets in Karnataka and Maharashtra. 3. C o t t o n - P u l s e s - R i c e - R e g i o n
3. Jowar-Wheat in entire Rajasthan, developed in Narmada banks and
Haryana and some parts of Uttar eastern Gujarat.
Pradesh.
4. Bajra-Jowar-Pulses in Rajasthan THE MILLET-MAIZE REGION
desert and semi-desert areas.
The cultivation of millet, maize and ragi are
THE WHEAT REGION found in close association with other major
cereals like bajra, wheat, rice etc. Maize
This region covers the entire north-western cultivation dominates in Rajasthan,
India including the state of Punjab, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. In Himachal
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Pradesh, Maize-Barley-wheat
The major sub-regions are: combination has developed, particularly in
the foothills of the Himalayas. Some parts
1. Wheat-Maize-Sugar Cane: This of the Aravalli have the peculiar crop
region comprises a combination of Maize-Cotton-Oilseeds-
greater part of wheat regions, Millets-Wheat. Ragi cultivation
covering West Uttar Pradesh, predominates in South of Karnataka.
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu.
2. W h e a t - J o w a r - B a j r a i n I n d u s THE FRUIT & SPICE REGION
Plain covering Punjab and Haryana.
3. Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Vindhyan This is the smallest region among the
scarp land and Malwa Bundel- different crop regions. High-altitude hilly
khand plateau. areas come under the territory of this
region. The ‘Duns’and valleys in Himalayas,
foothills of Nilgiri, Annamalai, Palni and
THE COTTON REGION
Cardamom hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala
may be classified as fruit and spice region.
In the black cotton soil as regur region in Here, the dominant agricultural activity
the North West India, cotton cultivation is fruit orchards and plantations.
predominates. The cotton cultivation covers
the Deccan trap region and Gujarat Plain. CATTLE REARING:Cattle rearing are an
The Narmada, Tapti, Purna, Sabarmati important economic activity in India. Milk
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and milk products (Butter, Ghee etc.) meat, Pradesh are major states where
eggs, leather, and silk are raw materials for sheep are in large numbers.
industries. Animals provide a large
proportion of energy required in the farm FISHING:Fishing has been an important
sector. The bullocks, buffaloes, horses, occupation of the people in the coastal
ponies, camel etc. are used as draught areas.Fisheries are of two types (i) the inland
animals. and (ii) the open sea. The inland fishing is
done in rivers, tanks, ponds and canals. The
major rivers like Brahmaputra, Ganga,
India is leading producer of milk in
Satluj, Narmada, Mahanadi and Godavari;
the world. It is due to initiative taken
and numerous tanks and ponds are tapped
by government through ‘Operation
for fishing.
Flood’.
The largest number of livestock is
The rapid increase in the production
found in Uttar Pradesh followed by the
of fish in the country is called Blue
states of Rajasthan, Bihar and
Revolution. This is synonymous with
Madhya Pradesh.
shrimp farming or Aquaplosion.
Sheep are found mostly in the cold
and dry regions of the country. They
Open sea fishing or marine fishing,
develop hoof diseases in hot and
done in sea water, is caught in
humid climate. Rajasthan, Tamil
shallow water in our country. More
Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
than two-thirds of marine fish is
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar
landed on western coast of India.
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CHAPTER
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF INDIA
VIII
India is a country with oldest geological that of Schist includes mica, talc,
bodies and features. It has a very unique hornblende etc.
geological and structural conditions of
The Dharwar System
almost all ages of the geological time scale.
All kinds of rock masses, mineral deposits, The weathering of the Archaean
mineral fuels including coal and oil rocks yielded the earliest sediments
resources occur in India. and formed the oldest sedimentary
Based on this complex and varied geological strata, the Dharwar system.
history, the Geological Survey of India has These are found today in
classified rock systems of the country into metamorphic forms and do not
4 major divisions: contain fossils.
These rocks occur in Dharwar-
The Indian Corresponding Bellary-Mysore belt of Karnataka,
Classification period of earth’s Ranchi and Hazaribagh in
h’s Jharkhand, Meghalaya plateau,
Geological time scale
Balaghat and Rewa in Madhya
Archean Early Precambrian Eon
Pradesh, Bastar and Dantewara in
Purana Later Precambrian Eon Chattisgarh, Sundergarh and
Dravadian 600-400 myr Keonjhar in Odisha, Aravalis,
Himalayan region etc
Aryan 400 myr to present
The Dharwar rocks are economically
The Archaean rock system (Early Pre- the most important rocks because
Cambrian) they possess valuable minerals like
The Archaean group of rocks consists of two high-grade iron ore, manganese,
systems- copper, lead, gold, quartzite, slates,
mica, etc.
(a) The Archaean granites and gneisses
(b) The Dharwar System The Purana Rock System (Late Pre-
cambrian):
The Archaean Gneisses and Schists
The Archean System contains the The Archaean gneiss and the Dharwar rocks
first formed rocks of the earth. underwent further erosion leading to the
formation of the Purana Rock system.
The rocks are primarily gneisses and
The Purana rock system is further
granites, having no marks of fossils.
subdivided into (i) the Cuddapah and (ii) the
The system is generally known as Vindhyan
the basement complex or
fundamental gneisses. The Cuddapah
The Archaean rocks cover two-thirds These rocks are generally without
of the peninsular India. fossils
The mineral composition of Gneiss These formations, named after the
varies from granite to gabro whereas Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh
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are sedimentary metamorphic Chhattisgarh (Dantewara, Bastar,
formations. etc), Jharkhand and Odisha and
These are found in Andhra Pradesh along the main axis of Aravallis.
(Cuddapah, Kurnool), southern The principle rocks of the Cuddapah
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System are inferior quality of iron- purpose quartzite and cement grade
ore, manganese ore, asbestos, limestone.
copper, nickel, cobalt (Delhi System), The metallic content in ores of
marble, jasper, deposits of building Cuddapah rocks is low and at places
uneconomical for extraction.
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The Vindhyan System rocks are buried under the Deccan
lava.
This system derives its name from
It stretches from Sasaram in Bihar
the Vindhyan mountains
to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan with the
Consists of enormous sedimentary
exception of the central tract of
deposits. In some tracts, Vindhyan
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Bundelkhand gneiss which makes a Panna and Golconda lie in the
gap in this belt. Teses rocks are also Vindhayan region.
found in Chattisgarh, Bhima valley
of Karnataka andKurnool district of This rock system is well known for red
Andhra Pradesh. sandstone, sandstone, durable
stones, ornamental stones, raw
The well-known diamond mines of materials for lime, glass, cement and
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chemical industries but they are Odisha, the Godavari valley.
devoid of metalliferous minerals.
Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98
The Dravidian Rock system (Cambrian to percent of India’s coal reserves.
middle carboniferous) Gondwana coal is much younger than
the Carboniferous coal and hence its
The formations of this period are carbon content is low.
almost absent in the Peninsular They also have deposits of Iron ore,
India except near Umaria in Rewa. copper, uranium and antimony.
These formations exist in the Pir-
Panjal, Handwara, Lidder-Valley,
The Deccan Trap:
AnantnagofKashmir Uammu &
Kashmir), Spiti, Kangra, Shimla
region (Himachal Pradesh), and Towards the end of the Mesozoic era,
Garhwal and Kumaun intensive volcanic activity took place,
(Uttarakhand). which flooded with lava vast areas of
It was during this period that the Maharashtra and other parts of the
Pangaea was broken and the Tethys Deccan known as the Deccan traps.
Sea came into existence. Present Deccan Trap covers about 5
The Cambrian rocks include shales, lakh sq km mainly in parts of
sandstones, clays, quartzites slates, Kuchchh, Saurashtra, Maharashtra
salts, marble, etc. the Malwa plateau and northern
Karnataka.
They are source of quartz, agate and
The Aryan Rock system (Upper
road building material.
Carboniferous to recent)
The weathering of these rocks for a
long time has given birth to black
The Gondwana System: cotton soil known as ‘regur’.
The peninsula during the Upper
Carboniferous period experienced
crustal movements, which led to the
formation of basin-shaped
depressions. These depressions had
countless terrestrial plants and
animals, which were buried to from
coal deposits in India known as the
Gondwana Rocks.
These rocks have also marks of
climatic changes from arctic cold to
tropical and desert conditions.
These Rocks are found mainly in the
Damodar and Son valley, the
Mahanadi valley in Chattisgarh and
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Tertiary System The tertiary is the most significant
Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 period in India’s geological history
million years ago. because the Himalayas were born
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and India’s present form came into very recent deposits, which contains
being in this period. fossils of species with living
representatives
The Pleistocene and recent formations
These include Satluj-Ganga-
(The quaternary period)
Brahmaputra plains and Karewa
Quaternary is the name proposed for formations of the Kashmir valley.
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CHAPTER
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Other producer of copper are Non-Metallic minerals:
Agnigundala in Guntur District
(Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg and 1. Mica:
Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South
Arcot district (Tamil Nadu). Mica is mainly used in the electrical
and electronic industries. It can be
5. Gold: split into very thin sheets which are
tough and flexible. India is largest
India is poor in Gold reserves.There producer and exporter of mica.
are three main areas- Kolar district a) Jharkhand- A belt existing over 150
of Karnataka, Hutti mines in km in length and 20-22 km in width in
Raichur district of Karnataka and lower Hazaribagh plateau. Kodarma
Ramgiri gold mines in Anantpur mines are one of the most important
district in Andhra Pradesh. mica producing region of India.
Negligible amount of gold is also
obtained from the sands of river b) Bihar- Gaya district
Subarnarekha. c) Andhra Pradesh- Gudur , Sangam
& Nellore are the main producing
6. Silver: regions of Green- mica, also called
Electrical- mica (lightest of all types).
India is poor in Silver reserves.
d) Rajasthan- mica belt extends for
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Jharkhand
about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara
and Tamil Nadu have deposits of
and around Udaipur.
silver. Galena and the Lead-Zinc
ores of Zawar are the principle
source of silver. 2. Limestone
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hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous large amount, thus considered
states varying in chemical perpetual energy resource and is
composition, colour and specific considered major future source of
gravity. energy.
Solar energy influences earth’s climate.
It is an essential source of energy for
Wind energy, biomass and hydropower
all internal combustion engines in
are the resultant of solar energy.
automobiles, railways and aircraft.
Its numerous by-products are Applications of Solar energy
processed in petrochemical industries
such as fertiliser, synthetic rubber, A. Photovoltaic: Conversion of Solar Energy
synthetic fibre, medicines, vaseline, of Electricity
lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.
Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary Semiconductors when irradiated with
rocks of the tertiary period. sunlight, electrons present in their ground
state get energized to jump to an excited state
i.e. flow of electrons occur and generates
Distribution of Oilfield: electricity. The phenomenon is known as
Photovoltaic’s (PVs).
Assam- Digboi, Naharkatia, Moran-
Hugirijang, Surma valley oilfields are Thus, Photovoltaic’s are the arrays of cells
major oilfields. consisting of semiconductors that effectively
Gujarat- Ankaleshwar, Khambat, converts solar radiation into electricity (Direct
Kallol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba Current), used to power bulb or equipment
oilfields. or to recharge a battery. An inverter converts
Western offshore oilfields- Bombay DC to AC for, grid connected power
High, Bassein, Aliabet oilfields. generation.
Eastern coast oilfields- In Krishna-
Godavari river basin, Cauvery basin B. Solar Thermal
(Narimanam, Kovilappal)
Solar Thermal Power systems, also known
3. Natural Gas as Concentrating Solar Power systems, use
concentrated solar radiation as a high
It is obtained alongwith oil in all the oil temperature energy source to produce
fields but exclusive reserves have been electricity using thermal route.
located along the.
eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, C. Other Applications of Solar Energy
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura,
Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Solar cooker, Solar water heater, Solar
furnace, Solar toys, Solar air-conditioning,
Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Solar vehicle, Day lighting (solar street lights
and traffic lights etc.
Renewable Energy Resources
Advantages of Solar Energy
1. Solar Energy
(i) It is renewable energy resource.
Solar energy is available in very (ii) Solar power is pollution free.
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(iii)Solar powered instruments are easy The main criteria for a tidal power
to install and use e.g. solar panels, generation site are that the mean tidal
solar water heaters, solar lighting, range must be greater than 5 metres.
solar Pumps, solar fountains. The tidal power is harnessed by
(iv) Long life and low maintenance. building a dam across the entrance to
(v) Solar Photovoltaics are used for the a bay or estuary creating a reservoir.
electricity generation in remote and As the tide rises, water is initially
isolated areas e.g. forest, hills, prevented from entering the bay. Then
deserts. PV is frequently used in when tides are high and water is
watches, pocket calculators and sufficient to run the turbines, the dam
toys. is opened and water flows through it
into the reservoir (the bay), turning
2. Wind Energy the blades of turbines and generating
electricity.
Wind energy is absolutely pollution
Again when the reservoir (the bay) is
free, inexhaustible source of energy.
filled, the dam is closed, stopping the
The kinetic energy of wind, through
flow and holding the water in reservoir
turbines is converted into electrical
when the tide falls (ebb tide), the water
energy.
level in the reservoir is higher than
The permanent wind systems such the
that in the ocean.
trade winds, westerlies and seasonal
The dam is then opened to run the
wind like monsoon have been used as
turbines (which are reversible),
source of energy. Besides these, local
electricity is produced as the water is
winds, land and sea breezes can also
let out of the reservoir.
be used to produce electricity.
The dams built to harness the tidal
The Indian wind energy sector has an
power adversely affect the vegetation
installed capacity of 32,380.18 MW (as
and wildlife.
on March 31, 2017). I
n terms of wind power installed
4. Geothermal Energy
capacity, India is ranked 5th in the
World. Today India is a major player
Geothermal energy is natural heat
in the global wind energy market.
from the interior of the earth that can
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
be used to generate electricity as well
Rajasthan and Karnataka have the
as to heat up buildings.
large share of installed windenergy.
The core of the earth is very hot and it
3. Tidal and Wave Energy is possible to make use of this
geothermal energy.
Ocean currents are the store-house These are areas where there are
of infinite energy. Large tidal waves volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers,
are known to occur along the west and methane under the water in the
coast of India. Hence, India has oceans and seas.
great potential for the development In some countries, such as in the
of tidal energy along the coasts. USA water is pumped from
Tidal power projects attempt to underground hot water deposits and
harness the energy of tides as they used for heating of houses.
flow in and out. Geothermal energy in India
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In India, Northwestern Himalayas includes agricultural residues,
and the western coast are municipal, industrial and other
considered geothermal areas. wastes.
The Geological Survey of India has Bioenergy is a potential source of
already identified more than 350 hot energy conversion. It can be
spring sites, which can be explored converted into electrical energy,
as areas to tap geothermal energy. heat energy or gas for cooking.
The Puga valley in the Ladakh region It will also process the waste and
has the most promising geothermal garbage and produce energy.
field.
This will improve economic life of
rural areas in developing countries,
5. Bio-energy
reduce environmental pollution,
enhance self-reliance and reduce
Bio-energy refers to energy derived
pressure on fuel wood.
from biological products which
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CHAPTER
X INDUSTRY
Industry implies the transformation of owned by the state and its agencies,
existent materials into something new, into like Bharat heavy Electricals Ltd. or
goods that are used as end-products Bhilai Steel Plant or Durgapur Steel
themselves, or are utilized to manufacture Plant and Integral Coach Factory at
more goods. Kapurthala are public sector
industries.
Industries can be classified into several (iii)Joint Sector Industries: Industries
groups. A brief account is given below: owned jointly by the private firms and
the state or its agencies, such as
1. On the basis of strength of Labour: Gujarat alkalies Ltd. or Oil India Ltd.,
fall in the group of joint sector
(i) Large-scale Industries industries.
(ii) Medium-scale Industries
(iii) Small-scale Industries 4. On the basis of source of Raw Material:
2. On the basis of Raw Material and Finished (i) Agro-based Industries: Agro-based
Goods: industries are those industries which
obtain raw material from agriculture.
(i) Heavy Industries: Industries, which Cotton textile, jute textile, silk, sugar,
use heavy and bulky raw materials and vegetable oil and paper industry are
produce products of the same representative industries of agro-
category, are called heavy industries. based group of industries.
Iron and steel industry presents a (ii) Mineral-based Industries: The
good example of heavy industries. industries that receive raw material
(ii) Light Industries: The light industries primarily from minerals such as iron
use light raw materials and produce and steel, aluminium and cement
similar finished products. Textile industries fall in this category.
industry, electronics, fans, sewing (iii)Pastoral-based Industries: These
machines are light industries. industries depend upon animals for
their raw material. Hide, skin, bone,
3. On the basis of Ownership: Since the horn, shoes, dairy, etc., are some of
beginning of the planned development of the pastoral-based industries.
Indian economy in 1951, industries are (iv) Forest-based Industries: The
divided into the following three classes: industries which use forest products
as their raw materials are known as
(i) Private Sector Industries: Industries forest-based industries. Paper, card-
owned by individuals or firms such as board, lac, rayon, resin, basket, etc.
Bajaj Auto or TISCO situated at are examples of forest based
Jamshedpur are called private sector industries:
industries.
(ii) Public Sector Industries: Industries 5. Miscellaneous Industries: Industries can
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also be classified into the following categories: However, recent technological
developments in transport as well as
(i) Village industries: Village industries processing, the use of scrap as raw
are located in villages and primarily material and agglomeration economies
cater to the needs of the rural people. make market location, especially
They usually employ local machinery coastal, advantageous as well.
such as oil extractor, flour-grinding The steel manufacturing centers all the
and agricultural implements. world over, exhibit different sorts of
(ii) Cottage Industries: Industries which locational orientation, viz,
artisans set up in their own houses,
a) Near coal deposits or iron ore mining
work with wood, cane, brass, stone,
areas, especially for inland location;
etc., are called cottage industries.
Handloom Khadi and leather work at b) Near the major steel consuming
centers; or
the artisans’ house fall in this category.
(iii)Consumer Industries: Consumer c) Sea port locations.
industries convert raw materials or
primary products into commodities Distribution
directly used by the people. Textile
industry, bakeries, etc., are some of a) TISCO: Jamshedpur (Singhbhum
the consumer industries. district, Jharkhand),
(iv) Basic Industries: Industries, on which b) IISCO (Burnpur, Hirapur, Kalti)
depend many other industries for their c) VISL (Bhadravati): (1923) on Bhadra
manufacturing processes, are called River in Karnataka, Shimoga district
basic industries. Iron and steel d) HSL-Bhilai: Largest plant in India
industry and power generating established with Soviet assistance in
industry are included in this category. 1959 in Raipur district of M.P.
(v) Capital-intensive Industries: e) HSL-Rourkela: established in 1965
Industries requiring huge investments with German assistance in
are called capital-intensive industries. Sundargarh district of Odisha.
Iron and steel, cement and aluminium f) HSL-Durgapur: established in 1962
are capital-intensive industries. with British assistance in Burdwan
(vi) Labour-intensive Industries: Such district of West- Bengal.
industries which require huge labour g) BSL-Bokro: established in 1972 with
force for running them are called Soviet collaboration in Hazaribag
labour-intensive industries. In these district on the confluence of Bokaro
industries, labour is more important and Damodar rivers.
than capital. Shoe- manufacturing and h) Salem: Tamil Nadu
bidi making, etc. are included in these i) Vishakhpatnam: first integrated plant
industries. in the coastal area
West Bengal: 13% of the country’s production, Locational factors for high concentration
mostly mulberry. of jute mills in Hugli basin are as follows:
Sugar industry is the second largest agro- 1) The production of sugarcane per
based industry of India. If we take Gur, hectare is higher is Peninsular India.
Khandsari and Sugar together, then India In fact, sugarcane crop grows well in
becomes the largest producer of sugar the tropical climate of south India.
product in the world. This industry employs 2) The sucrose content is higher in the
about 2.5 lakh people. tropical variety of sugarcane grown in
the south.
Distribution
3) The crushing season in south India is
longer than in north India.
Most of the sugar mills are concentrated in
4) In south India most of the mills have
six states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and modern machinery.
Andhra Pradesh. 5) Most of the mills in Peninsular India
are in cooperative sector, where profit
Localization Factors maximization is not the sole objective.
The cities which will covered by the ADKIC 1. Kolkata – Hooghly Belt
Project are Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana,
Ambala, Saharanpur, Delhi, Roorkee, It is an old and important region of the country
Moradabad,Muzaffarnagar, Bareilly,Aligarh, stretching along the either side of the river –
Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, from Naihati to Budge- Budge along the left
Patna, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Asansol, Bank and from Tribeni to Nalpur in the right
Durgapur and Kolkata bank.
The initial advantage was the availability of The capital city has predominance of
raw cotton from the hinterland and the engineering, electronic, chemical, glass and
transport network along with the Kandla port. consumer industries.
Developed agriculture and rich mineral The region is located far away from the mineral
resources in the hinterlands of these ports belt of the country as a result of which the
provide solid base to the industrial growth in industrial scene here is dominated by
this region. Coal fields of the Godavari basin agricultural products processing and market
are the main source of energy. oriented light industries.
The other industries of this region include Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity
sugar, textiles, paper, fertilizers, cement, provide the industrial base to this region.
aluminium and light engineering.
The main industries are textiles, sugar,
The important industrial centres of this region rubber, match box, glass, chemical fertilizers,
are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada, Vijaynagar, food and fish processing, paper, coconut coir
Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and Guntur. products, aluminium and cement.
Recent discovery of natural gas in Krishna-
Godavari basin is likely to provide much Important industrial centres are Kollam,
needed energy and help in accelerated growth Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi,
of this industrial region. Alappuzha and Punalur.
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CHAPTER
XI WATER RESOURCES
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CHAPTER
XII TRANSPORT
Transport carries the people and goods from make railway line from Jammu to
one place to another. It helps both the Baramula via Katra. At this line the
production, distribution as well as highest railway bridge of the world
consumption processes. Transport consists made.
of three different modes - land, water and
The metro rail project has been
air. Each one of them has some advantages
launched in many cities like Delhi,
and disadvantages. They all compete with one
Mumbai, Bengaluru, Chennai,
another. More importantly they complement
Lucknow etc.
each other and in the process constitute a
single integrated network. Between Mumbai to Ahmadabad the
Bullet train proposed with the help of
Japan.
RAIL TRANSPORT: Indian railway network
is the fourth largest in the world after Russia,
Railway Zones: Indian railway has 17 zones
the U.S.A. and Canada. Indian railways have
namely
taken several measures to improve their
efficiency and usefulness to the public:
Zone Head Quarter
There are certain advantages of pipe Petroleum pipe lines in Assam connect
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oil fields with the oil refineries of Assam line (1220 km). There are several pipe
and Bihar. Pipe line between Kandla lines in the Gujarat and Maharashtra
and Mathura is the longest oil pipe connecting the oil fields, refineries and
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marketing centers. The longest gas natural gas to six fertilizer plants and
pipe line has been laid from Hazira two thermal power plants.
(Gujarat) to Jagdishpur (UP) via
Bijaipur (MP). This HBJ pipe line is Air transport:Air transport becomes very
1730 km in length and supplies important in the regions where surface
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meansof transport are difficult forests, marshy land, hilly terrain and high
todevelop.These regions may have dense mountains.
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CHAPTER
POPULATION
XIII
MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF CENSUS-2011
1. Population 17.7 per cent during 2001-11,
against 21.5 per cent in the
India’s total population stands at previous decade.
1.21 billion, which is 17.7 per cent Among the major states, highest
more than the last decade, and decadal growth in population has been
growth of females was higher than recorded in Bihar (25.4 per cent) while
that of males. 14 states and Union Territories have
There was an increase of 90.97 million recorded population growth above 20
males and increase of 90.99 million per cent.
2females. The growth rate of
females was 18.3 per cent which is 2. Rural and urban population
higher than males — 17.1 per
cent. India’s population grew by Altogether, 833.5 million persons
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live in rural area as per Census per cent — an increase of 10.9 per
2011, which was more than two- cent than 2001.
third of the total population, while The highest increase took place in
377.1 million persons live in urban Dadra and Nagar Haveli by 18.6
areas. Urban proportion has gone points (from 57.6 per cent to 76.2
up from 17.3 per cent in 1951 to per cent), Bihar by 14.8 points (from
31.2 per cent in 2011. Empowered 47.0 per cent to 61.8 per cent),
Action Group (EAG) states have Tripura by 14.0 points (from 73.2
lower urban proportion (21.1 per per cent to 87.2 per cent)
cent) in comparison to non-EAG
Improvement in female literacy is
states (39.7 per cent).
Highest proportion of urban higher than males in all states and
UTs, except Mizoram (where it is
population is in NCT Delhi (97.5 per
same in both males and females)
cent). Top five states in share of urban
population are Goa (62.2 per cent), during 2001-11.
Mizoram (52.1 per cent), Tamil Nadu The gap between literacy rate in
(48.4 per cent), Kerala (47.7 per cent) urban and rural areas is steadily
and Maharashtra (45.2 per cent). declining in every census. Gender
gap in literacy rate is steadily
3. Literacy declining in every census. In
Census 2011, the gap stands at 16.3
Literacy rate in India in 2011 has points.
increased by 8 per cent to 73 per cent Top five states and UTs, where
in comparison to 64.8 per cent in 2001. literacy rate is the highest, are
While male literacy rate stands at 80.9 Kerala (94 per cent), Lakshadweep
per cent – which is 5.6 per cent more (91.8 per cent), Mizoram (91.3 per
than the previous census, the cent), Goa (88.7 per cent) and
female literacy rate stands at 64.6 Tripura (87.2).
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The bottom five states and UTs are 4. Density –
Bihar (61.8 per cent), Arunachal
Pradesh (65.4 per cent), Rajasthan The density of population in the
(66.1 per cent), Jharkhand (66.4 per country has also increased from 325
cent) and Andhra Pradesh (67 per in 2001 to 382 in 2011 in per sq
cent). km. Among the major states, Bihar
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occupies the first position with a followed by Jammu and Kashmir
density of 1106, surpassing West (889 female) and Punjab (895
Bengal which occupied the first females).
position during 2001. The other two worst-performing
Delhi (11,320) turns out to be the most states in terms of skewed sex ration
densely inhabited followed by are Uttar Pradesh (912 females)
Chandigarh (9,258), among all states and Bihar (918 females).
and UT’s, both in 2001 and 2011 Five top performing states in terms of
Census. The minimum population sex ratio were Kerala (1,084 females),
density works out in Arunachal Tamil Nadu (996), Andhra Pradesh
Pradesh (17) for both 2001 and 2011 (993), Chhattisgarh (991), Odisha
Census. (979).
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authorities tried to bring out the The best performing states are
recent changes in the society in its Chhattisgarh (969), Kerala (964),
attitude and outlook towards the Assam (962), West Bengal (956)
girl child. It was also an indicator Jharkhand (948) and Karnataka
of the likely future trends of sex (948).
ratio in the population.
There has been a decline of 8 per 7. SC/ST data
cent in the sex ratio of 0-6 age
group. In 2011, the child sex ratio
(0-6) stands at 919 female against According to the Census, Scheduled
1000 male in comparison to 927 Castes are notified in 31 states and
females in 2001. UTs and Scheduled Tribes in 30
Male child (0-6) population has states. There are altogether 1,241
increased whereas female child individual ethnic groups, etc. notified
population has decreased during as SC’s in different states and UT’s.
2001-11. Eight states, Jammu and The number of individual ethnic
Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, groups, etc. notified as ST’s is 705.
Bihar, Jharkhand, Arunachal There has been some changes in the
Pradesh, Mizoram, and Meghalaya list of SC’s/ST’s in states and UT’s
have proportion of child population during the last decade.
more than 15 per cent.
The SC population in India now
The worst performing states in
stands at 201.4 million, which is 20
regard to sex ration in the age group
per cent more than the last census.
of 0 to 6 years are Haryana (834
The ST population stands at 104.3
females), Punjab (846), Jammu and
million in 2011 – 23.7 per cent more
Kashmir (862), Rajasthan (888) and
than 2001.
Gujarat (890).
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8. Religious demographics – The religious in the 2011 census. – 0.24% of India’s
data on India Census 2011 was released population of 1.21 billion. Given below is
by the Government of India on 25 August the decade-by-decade religious
2015. Hindus are 79.8% (966.3 million), composition of India till the 2011 census.
while Muslims are 14.23% (172.2 million)
There are six religions in India that have
in India. For the first time, a “No religion”
been awarded “National Minority” status
category was added in the 2011
– Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains,
census. 2.87 million Were classified as
Buddhists and Parsis.
people belonging to “No Religion” in India
OOOOOOOO
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