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CHAPTER I
Rationale
Quality education is very much dependent on the quality of the teacher. For Roxas
(2005), the teacher determines to a large extent what is taught, how it is taught and how
learning is measured. But, no teacher can impart what he/she does not know.
The word competence as used in education circles today refers to one’s ability
and measure of one’s performance. It can be defined in terms of one’s knowledge, skills
and behaviors. Teaching competence is about how a teacher or a professor carries his/her
factors which determine school effectiveness and learning outcomes. Teachers are the
most critical component of any system of education. How well they teach depends on
motivation, qualification, experience, training, aptitude and a mass of other factors, not
the least of these being the environment and management structures within which they
perform their role. Teachers must be seen as part of the solution, not part of the problem
(Nair, 2017).
teaching, schools need quality teachers who have the appropriate knowledge about the art
of teaching. Without doubt, teachers are one of the most powerful influences on students’
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Bottoms, Bottoms, Feagin, and Bearman (2003), “create experiences that help students
make sense of the knowledge and skills being studied”. According to Turnuklu and
Yesildere (2007), “… although a number of factors may influence the effective teaching
of a particular subject, teachers play an important role in that success”. Good teachers,
Attard (2011) claims, can achieve high and consistent levels of engagement and effective
learning. Contrary to common belief in society that a teacher who knows a particular
subject very well is best suited to teach such a subject, research has shown that this belief
is not necessarily true. Various researchers such as Hill, Rowan and Ball (2005) and
Etkina (2010) emphasize that “teachers of a specific subject should possess special
understandings and abilities that integrate their knowledge of the content of the subject
that they are teaching as well as having knowledge of the learners who are learning the
content”. Also, number of years in teaching a certain subject should be taken into
consideration, teachers with a longer length of teaching a particular subject could make
them more competent in terms of content knowledge and more confident in teaching the
Aside from the teaching competency of the teachers, another factor to consider to
develop the education system of the Philippines is the curriculum. Hence, in the school
year 2012-2013, the education system of the Philippines was enhanced from the ten years
of basic education to a 12-year program through an initiative called the K-12 Education
Plan sponsored by the Department of Education. The K-12 program offers a decongested
12-year program that gives students sufficient time to master skills and absorb basic
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Article XIV, Section 2 of the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines states that the
State shall establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system
relevant to the needs of the people and the society. This stipulation in the country’s
highest law is one of the legal bases of the Republic Act 10533, also known as the
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 which paved the way for upgrading the 10 – year
basic education to a 12 – year program. It introduced Senior High School which is from
Senior High School students have to take two compulsory Mathematics subjects
in Grade 11. These subjects are General Mathematics which is offered in the first
semester, and Statistics and Probability, offered in the second semester. The Department
of Education Curriculum Guide lists the following as the covered topics under General
functions, basic business mathematics, and logic (Herrera & Dio, 2016).
Herrera and Dio (2016) studied the readiness of the Grade 10 students in the
general mathematics of senior high school where competencies of the said respondents
were determined in the different areas of general mathematics in senior high school.
Their study reveals that among the topics in General Mathematics, it was in logic where
Logic is often used, but not always in its technical sense. According to Bayot and
Damayon (2010), logic was introduced by Zeno, the founder of the Stoic School and is
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derived from the Greek word logike which means “systematized and intelligible”.
intelligible when it is clear and easily understood. As defined also by Andrew Bachhuber
(1957 as cited by Bayot & Damayon, 2010), logic is the science and art of correct
thinking.
(or statements) and arguments. Through the use of symbolic logic, learners should be
able to recognize equivalent propositions, identify fallacies, and judge the validity of
learners are taught to write their own justifications to mathematical and real-life
This study attempted to analyze the competency level of the senior high school
aimed to:
1. Describe the Senior High School mathematics teachers in terms of the following
(b) confidence
(c) difficulties
(e) strategies
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From the objectives stated above, the null hypotheses below are tested:
The results of the study could give a picture of the current status of senior high
school math teachers’ level of knowledgeability of the content standards in logic and
could point the specific least mastered competencies in logic. Result of the study could
also prove useful in predicting the performance and achievement of Grade 11 students
DepED Curriculum Planners. With this study, they can plan and implement
reforms for more effective and relevant logic instruction in the senior high school or they
can even include logic in the curriculum as early as in the junior high school.
information regarding the current competencies of senior high school math teachers
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which they can use as their basis for effective planning and implementing program in the
development of their school. They will use this information in formulating their policies
Senior High School Mathematics Teachers. This study will provide them
awareness on their competency level on the different content standards in logic. Result of
the study could make them reflect on their current performance on the content standards
in logic on the general mathematics of senior high school. This will form a basis in
Senior High School Students. They will be highly benefited from the improved
specifically in logic will be higher as a result of the awareness of their teachers on their
competency level.
Book Publishers. This study may guide them in publishing valuable resources
about the different competencies in Logic for the teachers and students to improve their
Future Researchers. It may serve as basis on areas allied to the problems of this
research. Also, with this study, they may have a basis for further investigation as they
explore many variables or factors that may affect the competency level of the
respondents.
The study was centered on the teaching competency of senior high school math
teachers which includes their content knowledge, confidence, difficulties, factors that
limit their competence, and strategies they have used in teaching the 11 learning
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Grade 11 allotted for four weeks equivalent to 16 hours. The competencies include key
methods of proof and disproof in real-life situations. The study involved all senior high
school math teachers in the nine (9) public national high schools in the Division of
achievement test on logic and the factors on teaching logic were measured through an
assessment on teaching logic. The difficulties of the teachers were the basis of the content
correlation of the number of years of teaching with content knowledge and with teachers’
Conceptual Framework
Teaching Competency
1. The Senior High School Mathematics
Content Knowledge on Logic Teachers in terms of:
• key concepts of (a) confidence
propositional logic; (b) difficulties
(c) factors that limit the competence
syllogisms and fallacies.
(d) strategies
• Appropriately apply a 2. Relationship between number of years
method of proof and and
disproof in real- life (a) teachers’ content knowledge
situations (b) teachers’ confidence in teaching
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in the logic of Grade 11 senior high school was determined. The following have been
the respondents, and strategies used in teaching. The learning competencies in which the
teacher respondents were found to be poor were the bases in developing the
and confidence in teaching logic were correlated with the number of years of teaching
logic. The difficulties of the teachers were the basis of the content of modules on the
Education (MATHTED), Inc. have established principles in teaching and learning the K
mathematically competent means more than having the ability to compute and perform
mathematics must be valued for the sake of knowing what and how students learn or fail
to learn mathematics; students’ attitudes and beliefs about mathematics affect their
learning; and, mathematics learning needs the support of both parents and other
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The Rules and Guidelines of R.A. No. 7722, otherwise known as the Higher
Education Act of 1994 in the Philippines stipulate the following competency standards of
comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter they will teach; ability to apply a wide
and innovation in thinking of alternative teaching approaches and ability to evaluate the
Definition of Terms
For better understanding of the study, the following terms are defined:
Confidence in Teaching Logic as used in this study refers to the teacher’s belief
and perceptions of their knowledge and skill to teach the different learning competencies
teachers teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area. It
generally refers to the facts, concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned
in a specific and academic course (Glossary of the Education Reform, 2014). In this
study, it refers to the knowledge of teachers in teaching the content standard on logic in
Content Standard refers to what students should be able to do, should know and
what they should care about. They are broad statements that describe specific content
areas that students should learn at each grade level (Quizlet, Inc., 2016). In this study, it
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refers to the key concepts of propositional logic, syllogisms and fallacies; and
appropriately applying a method of proof and disproof in real-life situations where senior
high school mathematics teachers should master in order for them to teach well to the
Grade 11 students.
Difficulties Encountered refer to the barriers the teachers have been encountered
in teaching logic.
Factors that Limit the Competence refer to the different reasons that affect the
ways that apply to practical problem (Darwin High School, 2016). In this study, it refers
to one of the core subjects required in the first semester subjects Grade 11 senior high
school which includes the following topics: rational functions; exponential, inverse and
and reasoning. It is a discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning (DepEd, 2013).
In this study, it has the content standards: key concepts of propositional logic, syllogisms
and fallacies; and appropriately apply a method of proof and disproof in real-life
situations.
Number of Years in Teaching refers to the number of school years the teacher
Senior High School (SHS) covers the last two years of the K to 12 program and
includes Grades 11 and 12. In SHS, students go through a core curriculum and subjects
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Strategies as used in the study refers to the different teaching approaches used by
the teachers, also these are the teaching strategies incorporated in their Daily Lesson Log.
Dictionary of Education, 1997). In this study, the teaching competencies refer to the
content knowledge, confidence, and strategies of senior high school mathematics teachers
in teaching logic.
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CHAPTER II
such that much emphasis and focus are given to its learning. Mathematics is undoubtedly
one of the subjects most studied, taken up from the Pre-K level to the tertiary level. The
revisions over the years. The New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC) was
implemented in 1983, then the New Secondary Education Curriculum (better known as
1988. Curricular reviews that began in 1995 made the Department of Education, Culture
and Sports (DECS, now Department of Education) to adopt the Refined Basic Education
Education System. Republic Act 10533 (RA 10533) also known as the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013 was created and implemented in the school year 2012 – 2013. It
sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare
Despite the many changes to the curriculum, the goals of mathematics education
at the basic education level remain more or less the same: “to provide opportunities for
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individuals to develop skills and attitudes needed for effective participation in everyday
living and prepare them for further education and the world of work so that they make
worthwhile contributions to the society at large” (Pascua, 1993). Mathematics has the
More than just a set of isolated facts and concepts, mathematics provides ways of
logical thought and trains students to think both critically and creatively. In school,
students usually encounter specific problems that apply to the topic at hand, in addition,
the thought process that goes into understanding the problem, differentiating what is
essential from what is not, being able to make connections among the given information
to generate a solution and verifying its accuracy is surely something that students can
essential skills in reasoning, decision-making and problem solving to help them make
sense of many aspects of our rapidly changing world (FAPE, 1988). In short,
Education (MATHTED), Inc. have established principles in teaching and learning the K
mathematically competent means more than having the ability to compute and perform
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mathematics is best learned when students are actively engaged; fourth, a thorough
mathematics must be valued for the sake of knowing what and how students learn or fail
to learn mathematics; students’ attitudes and beliefs about mathematics affect their
learning; and, mathematics learning needs the support of both parents and other
It is important for the teachers to deeply know the curriculum, however, teachers
must also have some deeper amount of pedagogical content knowledge (Ball, Thames, &
Phelps, 2008).
Teaching Competency
Teachers as the education providers play a vital role in bridging the gap between
the curriculum and the demands of the real world. Hence, teachers should therefore react
to the changing scenario and equip themselves to meet the present need. The theory
being, the more effective the teacher the better prepared the student is for tomorrow’s
Spencer and Spencer (1993 cited in Cerinsek & Dolinsek, 2009) define
underlying characteristic which means that competency is a fairly deep and enduring part
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teaching, competency refers to the characteristic of a teacher that includes knowledge and
quality which involves the effective use of knowledge and different skills in different
situations.
composite skills required for student teaching like introducing a lesson, fluency in
learning task. The Encyclopedia of Teacher Training and Education (1998) defines
Content Knowledge
Understanding of the subject matter or the content of what teachers are teaching
really matters. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry and
structures of the discipline. Content knowledge is what teachers feel most confident about
upon entering the profession. Connecting that content knowledge to the learner is the
challenge. Collaborating often and deeply with colleagues, from less experienced to more
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teaching and learning, attention to its development and study has been uneven. Scant
attention has been given to how teachers need to understand the subjects they teach.
Further, the assumption has often been that advanced study in the subject is what matters.
Debates have focused on how much preparation teachers need in the content strands
rather than on what type of content they need to learn (Baumert & Kunter, 2006).
topic being taught to topics from prior or future years, explaining mathematical goals and
developing useable definitions, using mathematical notation and language and critiquing
its use, asking productive mathematical questions, selecting representations for particular
purposes, and inspecting equivalencies. Teaching requires knowledge beyond that being
that might be taught directly to students as they develop understanding (Ball et al., 2008).
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practices, beliefs and attitudes are essential in analyzing, understanding and improving
the educational process. Content knowledge is the knowledge of the actual subject matter
Teachers should be able to know and understand the subject they teach and they should
have in-depth knowledge and facts that are not only limited on concepts, procedures, and
Angel (2000 as cited by Guiaoan, 2010) stated that the learning and teaching of
math and science involves working with students in frequently related areas, namely:
concept, skills, and application. Math teachers must be thoroughly grounded in the
subject matter of math and science well beyond the level of any material which he is
expected to teach in order that he may inspire the confidence and respect of his/her
students. Angel further stressed that teachers play a very important role in developing the
mathematical concepts and skills of the learners, therefore, he/she must be guided with
these commandments: know your subject matter, know your learners, master your lesson,
Confidence in Teaching
(2014) mentioned that if the self-confidence toward mathematics is low it will defeat the
According to Kenny (2010) and Kind (2009), three major variables that can
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subject matter knowledge, enhancing the readiness and preparation, and engaging
helps to improve the schooling experience of low progress learners. Teachers’ confidence
can be one of the few characteristics that can reliably predict students’ learning outcomes.
Confident teachers know how to perceive, approach and teach their students (Wang,
2016).
Teaching Strategies
effective when students are treated as individuals with different learning strategies,
make his/her lesson interesting in order to decrease learning problems such as boredom,
Teaching strategies vary from one age group to another and on the learning style
of the learners. No one method or strategy is the best. Teacher must understand that the
amount of students’ learning in a class also depends on their native ability of cognition
teaching are related to each other. Content knowledge and teaching skills are related to
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Related Studies
(TIMSS) in 2003 where Philippines was ranked 42nd out of 46 participating countries
in mathematics showed that Filipino Grade 8 (equivalently Second Year High School)
students performed low probably because they could not go beyond simple recall. They
could not also fully comprehend the questions thus leading to a wrong answer (Villaver,
2014).
Howie and Plomp (2005) reported in their study that the competence of a teacher
is the most important factor in the educational process as a teacher can make up the
(Kunter, Kleickmann, Klusmann, & Richter, 2013). Steyn (1999) confirms the
relationship between quality of pupil performances and competence of teacher. Bothe and
Hite (2000) suggest that a competent teacher focuses on predetermined outcomes that are
In the study of Ramos (2015), discussion was the most frequently used strategy
explore and view other effective teaching strategies, find more ways to entice students to
challenge themselves to create their own strategies to use in the field ,and to become
Llano (2000 as cited by Campo, 2010) stressed that teachers’ content knowledge
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specification had higher student performance than teachers who teach subject which is
logarithms of high school mathematics teachers in the Catholic schools of the Diocese of
San Jose reveals that mathematics teachers have a poor performance on the said topics in
and critical thinking as these would eventually lead them to function effectively in
society.
the criteria for the success of a teacher. An effective teacher would go extraordinary
lengths to understand their student and they put the relationship between teacher and
factors determining school effectiveness and learning outcomes. As cited by Ball et al.
(2008), teaching requires knowledge beyond that being taught to students. Teaching
involves the use of decompressed mathematical knowledge that might be taught directly
to students as they develop understanding and other different aspects to consider factors
affecting the competence of the teacher in order to have a successful achievement not
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effectiveness. All the above-mentioned factors were found to strongly influence teacher
teachers was investigated by Lopez (1995) and concluded that six to seven years of
classroom experience is required for the development of teaching skills and teacher attain
(2000) revealed that teachers with a longer period of teaching a particular subject could
make them more competent in terms of content knowledge. Similarly, Sadler (2013)
found that having more years of teaching a specific course or a topic makes one more
confident in teaching that certain topic. For exercising to teach a certain topic makes you
male teachers are professionally more competent than female teachers; teachers with high
educational qualification and high designation are highly competent; age, locality and
Farah (2001) compared the teaching competencies of teachers trained through the
formal studies and those through distance education and concluded that teachers
trained through distance education had better attitude towards teaching. In another study,
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(1995) reported that teachers’ knowledge has direct link to the teachers’ competencies.
Teachers’ knowledge includes subject matter knowledge and general pedagogy and lack
Synthesis
As related studies and literature are carefully reviewed, the researcher came to
arrive at the following similar aspects to the present study: (a) teachers’ content
knowledgeability (Campo, 2010); (c) more number of years in teaching a certain topic
could lead to a more confident and skillful teacher (Lopez, 1995); (d) suitable or
teacher, 1998); (e) one aspect to consider are the factors like content knowledge,
confidence and strategies used affecting the competence of the teacher in order to have a
successful achievement not only on specific area like logic but in mathematics as a whole
However, this study is different from the cited studies since it only considered the
used in teaching in determining the teaching competency while other studies considered
intellectual, and social aspects (Jayaramanna, 2001), and general pedagogy (Grossman,
1995).
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Moreover, the present study determined and correlated the content knowledge and
presumed that the result and findings would enhance the readiness and performance of
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
because it described the teaching competency of the senior high school mathematics
difficulties, factors limiting their competence, and strategies used in teaching. The study
was also correlational as it determined the relationship of the number of years of teaching
logic with teachers’ content knowledge on logic, and teachers’ confidence in teaching
logic.
Research Environment
Nine (9) public national high schools in the Schools Division of Quirino
participated in this study. These were Aglipay High School (AHS), Cabarroguis National
School of Arts and Trades (CNSAT), Diffun National High School (DNHS), Maddela
Diffun, Nagtipunan National High School (NNHS), Pinaripad National High School
(PNHS) in Aglipay, Quirino General High School (QGHS) in Cabarroguis, and Saguday
National High School (SNHS). All of these schools offer senior high school curriculum.
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Research Respondents
Respondents included all senior high school mathematics teachers of the nine
national and comprehensive high schools in the Schools DIvision of Quirino. The table
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SHS math teachers, the greatest in the province of Quirino, followed by Cabarroguis
National School of Arts and Trades, Diffun National High School, and Quirino General
High School having two teachers each (11.76%) and the rest of the schools have one
Table 2 presents the profile of the teacher respondents in terms of sex, age, and
Among the 17 respondents, 70.6% were males and 29.4% were females. This
Five respondents constituting 29.4% were under the age bracket of 23 – 29 and
another 29.4% are 30 – 34 years old, 23.5% belonged to age bracket 40 – 48 years, and
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17.6% belonged to age bracket 35 – 39 years. The youngest respondent was 23 years old
and the oldest was 48 years old, while the mean age was 34.35 (SD = 7.15).
have been teaching logic for 2 years, 3 teachers (29.4%) have taught for 3 years, 2
(11.8%) for 1 year only and 1 (5.9%) have been teaching logic for 5 and 7 years,
respectively. The teachers have been teaching for an average period of 2.65 or almost 3
years (SD=1.46). It can be noted that respondents have taught mathematics since the
Research Instruments
To gather pertinent data and information for this study, the researcher used a
in teaching, factors affecting the competence level of the respondents in teaching the
different content standards with the different learning competencies in logic in the
general mathematics of senior high school, and appropriate teaching strategy for each
the content standard in logic which is cited in the senior high school core curriculum
guide. A total of 50 items were used in the original form. A pilot test was conducted to
senior high school math teachers at Saint Mary’s University Senior High School and
three schools in Santiago City namely, Patria Sable Corpus College, Sagana Integrated
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After pilot testing of the instrument, an item analysis was conducted where items
which were found to be moderately difficult or difficult and with satisfactory or highly
discarded and items which were moderately difficult and poorly discriminating were
revised. The test was also subjected to reliability testing. The obtained Cronbach alpha
coefficient is 0.857 which implies good internal consistency. (See Appendix B for the
results). The final assessment test includes 35 items that composed of two types, multiple
choice and supply test. The test is found in Appendix A and the Table of Specifications
Pilot Testing
Item Analysis
Follow-up Interview
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The researcher prepared the needed instruments for gathering of data. The adviser
and the panel members examined and checked the prepared tools for finalization.
After the finalization of the tool, the assessment test part was pilot tested to senior
high school math teachers at Saint Mary’s University, Patria Sable Corpus College,
Sagana Integrated High School, Senior High Department, and Santiago City National
Permission was sought from the Schools Division Superintendent of Quirino and
the school principals before the administration of the tool to the teacher respondents. The
researcher asked the respondents an hour to finish answering the tool. The gathered data
were then encoded and analyzed. Due to some unclear answers, a follow-up interview
was conducted.
Treatment of Data
In descriptively analyzing the data in this study, mean, standard deviation and
standards in logic was measured from the ratings made by the respondents on the items
and was described as outstanding, very satisfactory, satisfactory, fair and poor. The result
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was based on the ratings on the items as very confident, confident, moderately confident,
slightly confident, not confident and extremely not confident as shown in Table 4.
Rating Level
1.00 – 1.49 Extremely Not Confident
1.50 – 2.49 Not Confident
2.50 – 3.49 Slightly Confident
3.50 – 4.49 Moderately confident
4.50 – 5.59 Confident
5.50 – 6.00 Very Confident
The extent by which the different content standards put limit on their competence
as logic teachers may be described as to almost none, small extent, some extent, moderate
extent, large extent and very large extent. The level and the corresponding rating are
reflected in Table 5.
Rating Level
1.00 – 1.49 Almost None
1.50 – 2.49 Small Extent
2.50 – 3.49 Some Extent
3.50 – 4.49 Moderate Extent
4.50 – 5.49 Large Extent
5.50 – 6.00 Very Large Extent
The Pearson moment coefficient of correlation r was used to relate the teachers’
number of years of teaching with content knowledge and confidence in teaching logic.
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were based on the competencies in which the respondents performed poorly in the
assessment test.
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CHAPTER IV
Level of
Content Standards Learning Competencies Mean SD Content
Knowledge
Key concepts of 1. Illustrates a proposition 74.51 18.74 Fair
propositional logic; 2. Symbolizes propositions 60.79 21.20 Poor
syllogisms and 3. Distinguishes between simple and 94.12 16.61 Very
fallacies compound propositions Satisfactory
4. Performs the different types of 94.12 10.93 Very
operations on propositions Satisfactory
5. Determines the truth values of 77.65 17.15 Satisfactory
propositions
6. Illustrates the different forms of 77.13 14.42 Satisfactory
conditional propositions
7. Illustrates different types of tautologies 54.90 15.33 Poor
and fallacies
8. Determines the validity of categorical 52.94 26.51 Poor
syllogisms
9. Establishes the validity and falsity of 16.18 9.65 Poor
real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.
Appropriately apply 10. Illustrates the different methods of 37.65 20.94 Poor
a method of proof proof (direct and indirect) and disproof
and disproof in real- (indirect and counterexample).
life situations 11. Justifies mathematical and real-life 44.12 22.65 Poor
statements using the different methods
of proof and disproof
Overall 54.07 11.68 Poor
Legend: Poor: 1.00 – 64.99, Fair: 65.00 – 74.99, Satisfactory: 75.00 – 84.99, Very Satisfactory: 85.00 –
94.99, Outstanding: 95.00 – 100
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determining the validity of categorical syllogisms, establishing the validity and falsity of
real-life arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies, illustrating the
different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof (indirect and
It is for the reason that three modules were prepared in Section 3 to address the
Content Module
Symbolizing Propositions 1
Logical Fallacies, Tautologies, Contradiction and Contingency
2
Validity of categorical syllogisms
Different Methods of Proof and Disproof 3
Based from their answer sheets, many of the respondents did not have answers on
the proving part of the assessment which resulted to their poor performance on the
methods part of the content standard in logic. In the study of Herrera and Dio (2016),
LC 2: Symbolizes propositions
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It can be gleaned from the answers that the respondents got confused on the right
symbol for but. They were in a quandary as to the type of statement is the given –
whether a conjunction (and) or a disjunction (or). For item number 7, most of the
respondents (52.94%) answered letter C instead of the correct answer which is letter B
For item number 22, majority (9 or 52.94%) of the teachers answered letter C
which includes the symbol not usually used in logic and 3 (17.65%) answered letter A
which is an example of a disjunction. Four (23.53%) chose letter B which is the correct
contrapositive. Maybe the respondents forgot or were not aware that a tautology is always
a true statement.
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There were only two respondents who answered item number 24 correctly, others
just left it blank and others just wrote “no idea”. Respondents were confused on the
fallacy argument given. Those two who got the correct answer wrote “Nobody has ever
There were six (35.29%) who answered that the syllogism is invalid and 11
(64.71%) who answered it is valid. The teachers did not justify their answers which was
required for them to do. It is invalid for it violates one of the rules indicated in the
categorical syllogisms. Major term is “God” since it is the predicate of the conclusion and
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For item number 23, there were seven who simply answered “invalid” with no
further justification as what was given in the direction while some left it blank, and others
wrote “no idea”. It is not valid for the conclusion is not logically true.
LC 10: Illustrates the different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof
(indirect and counterexample)
For item number 30, there was one who answered correctly but the solution was
not complete. Others just left it blank for they said that they do not know how to answer
the item and some just wrote “no idea”. Some of the respondents revealed during the
follow-up interview that it was hard for them to answer the proving part because they
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could no longer remember how to do so. The answers indicate that the teachers are poor
in proving.
For item number 30, there is one who got the item number 32 correctly while
others had no answer and one wrote “no idea”. For almost all respondents, they could not
implementation of the K to 12 program where teachers as well as students are still in the
process of adjusting.
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activity to gain a new knowledge linking symbols and connecting structures to gain
important for a teacher to be knowledgeable in all basic concepts in order for him/her to
prove mathematical arguments. The study of Campo (2010) also reveals that poor
Table 11 shows the overall rating of the content knowledge of the respondents
Table 11 reveals that 76.5% of the respondents were poor and an equal percent of
11.8% of the respondents have fair and satisfactory ratings. Many of the respondents did
not have answers on the proving part of the assessment. The overall rating of 54.07%
indicates that the respondents are generally poor in terms of their content knowledge in
logic.
and/or poor attitudes toward the subject often exacerbate the problems that students
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Table 12 below shows the level of confidence of the respondents in teaching the
Table 12 reveals that the overall level of confidence of the senior high school
standard of logic in the general mathematics subject is moderate. In terms of the specific
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tautologies and fallacies and determining the validity of categorical syllogisms; slightly
confident in teaching how to establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using
logical propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies; lastly, they are not confident in teaching
how to illustrate the different methods of proof and disproof and on how to justify
mathematical and real-life statements using the different methods of proof and disproof.
Table 13 reveals that that more than half (9 or 52.9%) of the respondents are
who are confident, and 3 (17.6%) who are slightly confident. It has a mean of 4.07
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This may be attributed to the relatively low number of years of teaching experience in
logic. There is a need for the teachers to strengthen their confidence by gaining additional
(2014) mentioned that low self-confidence toward mathematics defeats the purpose of
learning in mathematics.
According to Kenny (2010) and Kind (2009), three major variables that
subject matter knowledge, enhancing the readiness and preparation, and engaging
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Most of the respondents (9 or 52.9%) listed that their difficulty is that, they did
not have time to discuss the topic logic at all while five of them indicated that there is no
plenty of time to further discuss the different learning competencies. It can be inferred
that the 11 learning competencies on logic may be too many to be accomplished for a
Two of the respondents stated that their difficulty arises from the lack of time due
to many seminars they have attended and lastly, one of them expressed that she found it
difficult to teach the last competency which is to justify mathematical and real life
As can be seen from the answers of the respondents, insufficient time to discuss
topics in logic is a main difficulty arising from disruptions of classes due to their
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interview revealed that the disruptions or suspensions of classes are also caused by
typhoons, town and provincial fiestas, and sports activities like provincial meet.
From DepEd Order 25, s. 2017 on the implementing guidelines on the calendar of
activities which enable the schools effectively and efficiently implement the school
events and activities, schools may observe national and local celebrations/activities and
holidays other than those indicated by the office, provided that the activities are
beneficial to the teaching-learning process, and that the total number of class days shall
not be compromised. Make-up classes are recommended in lieu of class cancellations due
to celebrations and holidays, as well as natural and man-made causes. The schools were
Table 15 shows the extent to which the cited factors put limits on the competence
of the respondents.
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There are a number of factors that influence the performance of the teachers. As
shown in Table 15, too much paper work, poor ability in managing time, shortage of
other instructional materials for students’ use, inadequate library facilities, inadequate
time to perform lesson plans and teaching aids, high student/teacher ratio, heavy teaching
load put a limit on their competence in handling logic to a large extent; while difficulty in
engage students in class activities, assessing students’ needs, interest and difficulties,
students, students who come from a wide range of backgrounds limit the respondents to a
to relate with other co-teachers in school put a limit on their competency to some extent.
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class activities, assessing students’ needs, interest and difficulties, and students who come
knowledgeable co-teacher to seek help, and inability to relate with other co-teacher in
student/teacher ratio, too much paper work, heavy teaching load and unreasonable
Teacher competence is one aspect that affects the educational quality in many
countries all over the world and it can be affected by some factors. Competent and
professional teachers are teachers who are skilled in performing their duties, but they are
influenced by many factors. Some are the expectations of the community, the particular
school system in which the teacher is employed, the school itself the grade policies
(paper works), the parents and the students, the individual teacher’s beliefs about how
children learn most effectively, how to teach in particular discipline or key learning area.
The match between in individual teacher’s beliefs about best teaching practice and
whether they can personally meet these demands in the classroom is crucial. A teacher’s
own preferred ways of thinking, acting and seeing the world, learners and learning will
also be affected by the availability of resources both human and physical (Hasan, 2004).
The evaluation study conducted by Bibi (2005) reveals that one of the reasons for
weak competencies is the excess of periods being taught, ineffective teaching methods
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and habit of imposing their own views and ideas to students which are similar to this
study.
different strategies they have used in the different learning competencies included in the
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Active learning strategies help to initiate learners into effective ways to help them
engage in activities based on ideas about how people learn. One teacher shared, “In active
learning, I facilitate the classroom discussion by asking questions on what they have
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magkaroon ng peer teaching ang aking mga estudyante habang ako ay nag’oobserba”.
(In active learning, I gave them (students) a chance to have their peer teaching while I’m
observing).
Think-pair-share was used by one of the teachers, in which students will work in
pairs, collaborating their ideas and sharing what they have discovered or learned about
the topic that was given by the teacher. As quoted from one of the teachers “I made use of
who will give a sentence and the other one will determine whether the sentence given is
and if the teacher calls a number, the student whose number is called will be the one to
give the answer for the problem to be given by the teacher. According to one teacher,
“Bawat estudyante ay may kanya-kanyang numero kung saan sila ang kailangang
tumayo at sumagot kapag natawag at kung sakaling hindi sila makasagot, ipapasa nila
certain number is called, a student with the corresponding number called will be the one
to answer. If they cannot answer, they call another number until one gives the correct
answer.)
mathematical and real-life arguments. This process forces students to think individually
and then allows them to analyze and clarify their response collaboratively. “I will give a
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problem where they will work in a group to come up with the proper proving”, stated one
of the respondents.
Student board work allows other students to see and analyze answers of their
classmates. As what one teacher said, “Student board work was used by letting the
students write their answer on proving and through this, nalalaman din nating mga
teacher kung ano ang alam na nila at kung ano pa ang kailangang isupply (We will
know, as teachers, what the students already know and what else they need to know).
Games/Drills were used in order for the students to have fun and, at the same
time, to learn. “Math Bingo is what I usually use in my class like on symbolizing
will give a compound proposition then I will call a student who will come to the board
The use of case method allows students to apply the concepts learned in class to real-
life situations. As quoted from one of the respondents “Case method is used by posing a
single argument to the class, to generate a discussion about how the students would
prove or disprove the argument, during which students will discuss and analyze the
argument given by applying the different rules they have learned then the students will
Watch and learn has been used by one of the teachers where students will watch a
video clip illustrating what a proposition is and explain their learning based on the video.
In the use of the strategy Think and write the form, one of the respondents shared
that “Sa pag-illustrate ng conditional propositions, gumagamit ako ng think and write
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illustrating conditional propositions, I make use of the think and write form by giving a
sentence and what the students will do is to make different conditional propositions,
method, one of them uses watch and learn and another one uses think-pair-share. In
symbolizing propositions, eight of them use lecture, four use games/drills, one uses the
strategy show me. Another teacher makes use of flash cards, one employs active learning
and one uses number heads. In distinguishing between simple and compound
propositions, 13 of them utilize lecture, and the rest use pick, read, and tell, active
propositions, lecture method is used by 10 of them, the others use games/drills, active
learning, task card, and lecture with drills strategy. In determining the truth values of
propositions, 14 use lecture method and the others use active learning. In illustrating the
different forms of conditional propositions, 14 of them use lecture, the rest employ active
learning and think and write the form. In illustrating different types of tautologies and
fallacies, 14 use lecture, the rest use think-pair-share and active learning. In determining
the validity of categorical syllogisms, 13 use lecture, and other strategies include show
For establishing the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies, the lecture, problem solving, and case method are
used. In illustrating the different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof
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(indirect and counterexample) competency, majority (12) apply lecture, and the rest use
think-pair-share, games/drills, boardwork and lecture with drills. For the last learning
competency which is to justify mathematical and real-life statements using the different
Other strategies being used are active learning, think-pair-share, number heads,
with drills, show and tell, case method, watch and learn, the use of flash cards, pick, read
Below is a sample of Daily Lesson Log given by one of the teacher respondents.
GRADE 11 School Grade 11
DAILY LESSON LOG Teacher Learning Area GENERAL
MATHEMATICS
Teaching Week 17 Grading 1ST SEMESTER, 2ND
Date Period QUARTER
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The above lesson log reveals that to address the competencies on logic, the
collaborative learning.
The study of Mangawil (2007) about the pedagogical content knowledge and
praxis in subject matter, curriculum and teaching of pre-service biology teachers, lecture
Teaching strategies vary from one age group to another and on the learning style
of the learners. No one method or strategy is the best. Teacher must understand that the
amount of students’ learning in a class also depends on their native ability of cognition
Table 17 shows the correlations on number of years in teaching logic with content
knowledge on the concepts and with methods included in the relative standards in logic
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As shown in Table 17, the Pearson r for the respondents’ content knowledge in
logic and number of years in teaching is 0.467 (p-value = 0.059) for concepts and 0.219
(p-value = 0.399) for methods which both indicate positive correlation. These suggest
that if a teacher has a greater number of years in teaching logic, the higher content
knowledge he/she will have in logic concepts and methods. However, the p-values show
These findings are contrary to those of Lopez (1995), Mateo (2000), and Sadler
(2013) who found that teachers with a longer period of teaching a particular subject are
teacher’s confidence in teaching the concepts and methods included in the relative
standards in logic of general mathematics of the Senior High School Grade 11.
Table 18. Correlations between Number of Years in Teaching Logic and Teacher’s
Confidence in Teaching Logic
As shown in Table 18, the Pearson r for the respondents’ confidence in teaching
logic and number of years in teaching is 0.424 (p-value = 0.090) for concepts and .291
(p-value = 0.257) which both indicate positive correlation. These values indicate that if a
teacher has a greater number of years in teaching logic, the more confidence he/she will
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have in teaching logic concepts and methods. The more practice, the more mastery the
teacher will have. If a teacher already knows exactly what he is about to teach then he has
the confidence to teach the certain topic either it could be a concept or a method.
teaching a specific course or a topic makes one more confident in teaching that certain
topic. For exercising to teach a certain topic makes you develop teaching style which will
boost self-confidence.
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Three modules were prepared to address the following content difficulties of the
contingency, validity of categorical syllogisms; and the different methods of proof and
disproof.
Introduction
logical reasoning. Human reasoning has been observed over centuries from at least the
time of the Greeks, and patterns appearing in reasoning have been extracted, abstracted,
and streamlined.
In logic, we are interested in true or false statements, and how the truth/falsehood
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Module 1
Symbolizing Propositions
Logic in the Senior High School Curriculum exposes learners to symbolic forms
of propositions (or statements) and arguments. Through the use of symbolic logic,
learners should be able to recognize equivalent propositions, identify fallacies, and judge
the validity of arguments. The following lesson is an application of the rules of symbolic
logic, as learners are taught to write their own justifications to mathematical and real-life
Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to:
Lesson Outline:
Symbolizing proposition
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s: 10 + 4 = 14 (T)
p and q), where ˄ symbolizes “and”. Some of the words used to denote
conjunctions, aside from “and” are, “but”, “yet”, “while”, and “even though”.
and 10 + 4 = 14.
or q), where ˅ symbolize “or”. In ordinary language, the word “or” has several
default.
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then q.” Symbolically, p → q, where → means “if then”, p is called hypothesis (or
Let’s Warm Up
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Let’s Do This!
r: 11 is a prime number.
subject.
subject.
10. It is not the case that 11 is a prime number and Mathematics is a challenging
subject.
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B. Directions: Given the following propositions below, write each of the following
statements in words.
p: Aristotle is a Philosopher.
q: Square is a rhombus.
r: 0 is an even number.
1. p ∧ r
2. p ↔ (∼r ∨ 𝑞)
3. r → q
4. ∼q ∧ r
5. p ∨ r
6. ∼p ∨ (𝑞 →r)
7. ∼(p ∧ r)
8. (q ↔ r) ∨ p
9. p → q
10. p ↔ r
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Module 2
Logical Fallacies, Tautologies, Contradiction and Contingency
Logic is the study of reasoning in general, and in the first place, the concern is the
provides reasons to believe some claim. An argument is a list of statements, one of which
is the conclusion and the others are the premises or assumptions of the argument. To give
Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to:
• establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical propositions,
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Lesson Outline:
1. Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacies
advantageous to know logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument. There are
different types of fallacies that we might use to present our position. The following are
1. Ad hominem
A personal attack which is a Latin for “against the man.” Instead of advancing good
unrelated to the truth of the matter. An ad hominem is more than just an insult. It is an
attacking people proves nothing about the truth or falsity of their claims.
Example: You can’t believe that a presidential candidate is going to lower taxes. He’s
a liar.
2. Strawman Fallacy
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Example: A mandatory helmet law for motorcycle drivers could never be enforced.
Example: If you can’t say that there aren’t Martians living in Mars, so it’s safe for me
This fallacy has a few other names: “black-and-white fallacy,” “either-or fallacy,”
“false dichotomy,” and “bifurcation fallacy.” This line of reasoning fails by limiting
the options to two when there are in fact more options to choose from.
Example: If you don’t vote for this candidate you must be anti-Christ.
An argument which claims a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some extreme
and often ludicrous outcomes will happen, but there is really not enough evidence for
such assumption.
won’t be able to get a job, and may very well end up like a beggar.
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Circular arguments are also called Petitio principii, meaning “Assuming the initial
circular argument when the conclusion also appears as one of the premises in the
argument.
Example: God exists because the Holy Bible says so. The Holy Bible is true.
7. Hasty Generalization
Example: My friend says that Mathematics is hard, and the one I’m enrolled in is
8. Red Herring
diversionary tactic to avoid key issues, often a way of avoiding opposing argument
Example: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
9. Fallacy of division
Argument assuming that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of
its parts.
Example: The University of the Philippines is the best university in the country.
Therefore, every student from the UP is better than a student of any other university
in the country.
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An argument that occurs when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the
Example: The government should not impose death penalty. Many respected people
such as the former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.
11. Equivocation
This argument comes from the roots “equal” and “voice” and refers to two-voices; a
single word can say two different things. It happens when a word, phrase, or sentence
is used deliberately to confuse, deceive, or mislead by sounding like it’s saying one
Example: Some real numbers is less than any number. Therefore, some real number is
Example: The City Engineer is a vital part of this city. If he is sent to prison, the city
and his family will suffer. Therefore, you must find in your heart to forgive him.
It assumes something is true (or right, or good) because other people agree with it. A
couple different fallacies can be included under this label, since they are often
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accepted because the relevant authorities or people all agree on it. The status appeal
fallacy is when something is considered true, right, or good because it has the
Directions: Explain the following types of fallacies based on your own understanding,
1. Ad hominem
2. Strawman Fallacy
7. Hasty Generalization
8. Red Herring
9. Fallacy of division
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11. Equivocation
Let’s Do This!
1. We have no evidence that Greek gods do not exist. Therefore, they must exist.
2. If the president will allow death penalty, then eventually there would be no cases
of rape.
3. You’ve been told by an elder not to go outside while it’s raining because you will
get sick.
4. Lorna is worried about her sister who is about to get married. She investigated the
past of the groom-to-be and found out that he had five girlfriends in the past
where he cheated on three of them. Lorna told her sister that her groom-to-be will
do it again.
7. All movie actresses are rude. I asked a movie star at Star Magic studio for her
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10. People know that evolution is false because humans did not evolve from
monkeys.
11. Of course, God answers prayers! After all, sometimes the answer may be “no” or
“wait awhile” so you can’t prove he doesn’t answer them.
13. Every Siamese cat I’ve met has been temperamental and so they all are.
14. Allowing parents to use vouchers that enable their children to attend private
instead of public schools would improve the quality of education. After all,
excel.
15. If I were you, I’d rethink your criticisms of this class before I need to turn in final
1. Look for advertisements, blogs, post, tweets, news articles which you think
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Tautology
The famous saying 'I cannot tell a lie' may come to mind when studying
tautologies. A tautology is a formula which is "always true" --- that is, it is true for every
assignment of truth value to its simple components. You can think of a tautology as a rule
of logic.
In other words, a contradiction is false for every assignment of truth values to its simple
components.
p q p→q q→p (p → q) ˅ (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T
The last column contains only T's. Therefore, the formula is a tautology.
If you construct a truth table for a statement and all of the column values for the
statement are true (T), then the statement is a tautology because it is always true!
The statement 'I will either get paid or not get paid' is a tautology since it is
always true. Most of the time the logic statements or arguments that we are trying to
analyze are more complicated than this, or we are only given the symbolic representation
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If you are given a statement and want to determine if it is a tautology, then all you
need to do is construct a truth table for the statement and look at the truth values in the
final column. If all of the values are T (for true), then the statement is a tautology.
'I will either get paid or not get paid', use p to represent the statement 'I will get paid' and
Looking at the final column in the truth table, you can see that all the truth values
are T (for true). Whenever all of the truth values in the final column are true, the
statement is a tautology. So, our statement 'I will either get paid or not get paid' is always
List of Tautologies
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Is [(p q) p] p a tautology?
p q p q (p q) p [(p q) p] p
T T
T F
F T
F F
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Let’s Do This!
Directions: Complete the truth table for the given statement. Indicate whether the
statement is a tautology.
1.
p q pq (p q) → p
T T
T F
F T
F F
2.
p q pq (p q) → p
T T
T F
F T
F F
3.
p q p→q p (p → q)
T T
T F
F T
F F
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4. p q q→p p (q → p)
T T
T F
F T
F F
5.
p q ~q p→q ~ q → (p → q)
T T
T F
F T
F F
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Categorical Syllogisms
propositions that contain exactly three terms, each of which occurs in exactly two of the
constituent propositions. The major premise is the premise that contains the major term,
while the minor premise is the premise that contains the minor term. The conclusion is
the third proposition whose meaning and truth are implied in the premises.
The subject of the conclusion is the minor term while the predicate will be the
major term. Middle term is the remaining term which does not (and cannot) appear in the
conclusion.
Example:
Socrates is a man.
Middle term is “man” or “men” for it does not appear in the conclusion and the only
remaining term.
Rules of Syllogism
followed. It is important to remember that all of the eight rules of syllogism must be met
or satisfied for the argument or syllogism to be valid. If at least one of the eight rules of
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1. There should only be three terms in the syllogism, namely: the major term, the
minor term, and the middle term. The meaning of the middle term in the first
premise should not be changed in the second premise; otherwise, the syllogism
2. The major and the minor terms should only be universal in the conclusion if they
are universal in the premises. In other words, if the major and the minor terms are
universal in the conclusion, then they must also be universal in the premises for
the argument to be valid. Hence, if the major and minor terms are particular in the
3. The middle term must be universal at least once. Or, at least one of the middle
5. If one premise is affirmative and the other negative, then the conclusion must be
negative.
6. The argument is invalid whenever the premises are both negative. This is because
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Directions: Identify the major, minor and middle term of the given syllogism. Determine
its validity.
No Politician is honest.
Let’s Do This!
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4. No man is perfect.
Let’s Explore!
Directions: In a one-week time, observe people and things around you. List down
all the syllogisms you have heard and seen. Make a diary about your observation
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Module 3
Methods of Proof and Disproof
stating proofs, one must be knowledgeable of the different basic concepts of all branches
creating what mathematicians call a proof. In addition, we are also going to look at how
Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to:
• illustrate different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof (indirect
• justify mathematical and real-life statements using the different methods of proof
and disproof.
Lesson Outline:
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A. Direct Proof
assumes that a hypothesis is true, and then uses a series of logical inferences from
3. State that by direct proof, the conclusion of the statement must be true.
Example: Prove that “If n is an odd integer, then n² is also an odd integer”.
n² = (2k + 1)²
= 4k² + 4k + 1
= 2(2k² + 2k) + 1
Since n² is one more than twice 2k² + 2k, therefore it is an odd integer.
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B. Indirect Proof
hypothesis. It first assumes that the hypothesis is not true, and then using logical
There are two methods of indirect proof: proof of the contrapositive and proof by
contradiction where both methods start by assuming the denial of the conclusion.
ABCD, m∠A = 90°, m∠B = 90° and m∠C = 85°. Then, ABCD is not a rectangle.
Assume that ABCD is a rectangle. Then it has three right angles. But since ∠C is not a
right angle, then the three right angles must be ∠A, ∠B, and ∠D.
Solving for m∠C in the equation m∠A + m∠B + m∠C + m∠D = 360° (given m∠A = 90°,
m∠B = 90° and m∠D = 90°), we find that m∠C = 90°. This contradicts the fact that m∠C
Proof by Contradiction
This is done by assuming the opposite of the hypothesis (the one that is trying to
prove) and using logical inferences to show that this leads to a contradiction.
Proof: The opposite is “The sum of two even numbers is not always even”.
2(a + b) = c
a + b = c/2
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Even and odd numbers are always integers, and the sum of two integers is always
an integer. Both a and b are even and c is odd, which is not evenly divisible by 2.
Therefore, the original proposition is true, the sum of two even numbers is always
even.
Any statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent, but it is usually
assume that the conclusion is false and try to prove that the hypothesis is false.
Disproof
Disproof by Counterexample
Method: We find one example where the statement does not hold and we have done
Any pair of negative numbers with a > b will do, so our counterexample could
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Directions: For each of the statements below, determine the method of proof or disproof.
Fully explain your answer.
Statements Answer
1. 12 + 18 = 32
4. 4x + 2y = 5
Let’s Do This!
1. Prove by contradiction: “The difference of any rational number and any irrational
number is irrational.”
by 4.
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Directions: In the table below, write your answer. Find a partner and compare your
answers.
1. Show that “if x and y are sum of two integer squares, then xy is also a sum of two
integer squares.”
Your Answer:
6 divides n³ - n for n ≥ 2.
Your Answer:
Your Answer:
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Directions: Read the list of claims below. Write a journal by giving your ideas whether
these claims are valid? How would you disprove them by counterexample? Reflect.
Note: The counterexample is at least one and should be a “well-known” entity as well.
Reflect Upon!
After doing all the activities, how would you rate/grade yourself
Albay, E. M., Batisan, R., & Caraan, A. (2016). DIWA Senior High School Series:
General Mathematics . Makati City, Philippines: Diwa Learning Systems Inc.
Oronce, O. (2016). General Mathematics First Edition. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Book
Store, Inc.
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CHAPTER V
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine the teaching competency of teachers
in logic on the General Mathematics of Grade 11. Its main objectives were (1) to describe
the Senior High School Mathematics teachers in terms of their content knowledge,
confidence in teaching logic, difficulties encountered in teaching logic, factors that limit
their competence and strategies in teaching the different learning competencies; (2)
determine the relationship of number of years in teaching logic with teacher’s content
activities needed for teaching logic. The study involved 17 teachers in nine (9) national
and comprehensive high schools in the Division of Quirino. The study made use of a
descriptive-correlational design.
Findings
1. a. Content Knowledge
determining the validity of categorical syllogisms, establishing the validity and falsity of
real-life arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies, illustrating the
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different methods of proof (direct and indirect) and disproof (indirect and
different methods of proof and disproof. Overall, the performance of the respondents is
The overall level of confidence of the senior high school Mathematics teachers in
teaching the learning competencies included in the content standard of logic in the
establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical propositions,
syllogisms, and fallacies; lastly, they are not confident in teaching how to illustrate the
different methods of proof and disproof and on how to justify mathematical and real-life
More than half of the respondents listed that they did not have time to discuss the
topic logic at all, the others indicated that there is no plenty of time to further discuss the
different learning competencies, their difficulty arises from the lack of time due to many
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seminars they have attended and, one teacher expressed that she found it difficult to
teach the last competency which is to justify mathematical and real life statements using
d. Limit in Competence
There are some factors that affect the teacher respondents’ competence in
teaching logic. Too much paper works, poor ability in managing time, shortage of other
instructional materials for students’ use, inadequate library facilities, inadequate time to
perform lesson plans and teaching aids, high student/teacher ratio, heavy teaching load
class activities, assessing students’ needs, interest and difficulties, unreasonable demands
from school administrators/ coordinators, dealing with parents of students, students who
come from a wide range of backgrounds limit the respondents’ competence to a moderate
in teaching the different learning competencies in logic. Other strategies used are active
work, problem solving, games/drills, lecture with drills, show and tell, case method,
watch and learn, the use of flash cards, pick, read and tell, and think and write the form.
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2. a. The number of years in teaching logic and the teachers’ content knowledge on
Conclusions
of content knowledge. They know the basic concepts in logic but they find it hard
to prove some mathematical and real-life statements using proof and disproof.
The teachers have yet to develop full confidence in teaching logic. Lack of time
was the main reason why logic is not usually discussed in class. Lecture was the
primary strategy used in teaching logic. Varied factors affecting the teaching
competence of the teachers include as too much paper works, heavy teaching
load, inadequate time to perform lesson plans and teaching aids, poor ability in
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Recommendations
On the basis of the key findings and established conclusions of the study, the
1. For curriculum planners to consider logic in the middle part of the semester and
3. For mathematics teachers to attend seminars and lectures to enhance the content
4. For future researchers to conduct the study in other schools, consider specific
logic competencies.
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