Introduction and Homeostasis

J. Agugliaro
Human Physiology
BIOL 2213-001
 Some Definitions
• Physiology = how living organisms work
– physis + logia = “study of nature”
– relationship between the regulated internal
environment and the external env’t
• Pathophysiology
– physiology “gone wrong”
– study of how homeostasis is perturbed by a
disease state
 Organization of the Human Body
• cells → tissues → organs → organ systems

• cells = the simplest structural units into which a

complex multicellular organism can be divided
and still retain the functions characteristic of life

• cell differentiation = transformation of

unspecialized cells into specialized cell types
during development
 4 major functional categories of
specialized cell types
1) Epithelial cells
– skin, lining of GI tract and body cavities, respiratory
tract, kidney tubules, classic endocrine glands
– endothelial cells → line the inside of blood vessels
2) Connective tissue cells
– tendons, ligaments, fat, bone cells, RBCs, WBCs
3) Nerve cells
– neurons → initiate and propagate electrical signals
4) Muscle cells
– skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Fig. 1−1

A tissue is an
aggregate of a single
specialized cell type

An organ is an
aggregate of different
tissue types

Organ systems are

groups of organs that
work together
 Compartmentalization of TBW
1) Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
= plasma + interstitial fluid
= “internal environment”
− plasma and interstitial fluid have very similar
concentrations of dissolved substances
*exception: [protein] is higher in the plasma
− interspersed w/in the extracellular matrix
2) Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

Total body water (TBW) is 55-60% of body

weight in adult males
Fig. 1−2

TBW amounts to 42 L in an
average (70 kg, 154 lb) person

ECF
Concentration differences
between the ECF and ICF
are the result of differential
regulation of the two
compartments
Normal ranges of some variables in
the ECF

From Guyton and Hall’s Textbook of Medical Physiology (see also back inside cover of your textbook
for an extensive list of blood variables)
 Homeostasis
• Definition:
– the dynamic mechanisms that detect and
respond to deviations in physiological
variables from their “set point” values by
initiating effector responses that restore the
variables to the optimal physiological range

– dynamic constancy
 Homeostasis
• History:
– Claude Bernard’s (1878) milieu intérieur: “The
constancy of the internal environment implies a level
of organization of the organism such that external
variations are continually being buffered and
equilibrated. Even though it may appear as if the
animal is quite independent from and insensitive to
the external environment, this is far from the case as
its state of equilibrium results from constant and
delicate adjustments, as with the most sensitive of
balances.”
– Walter Cannon (1929)
 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1) Negative feedback

2) Positive feedback

3) Feedforward regulation
 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1) Negative feedback
= regulation of some variable around a set point
− ex: blood pH, pO2, pCO2, BP
− ex: blood [glucose]
− ex: Tb
− ex: enzyme pathways
Fig. 1−3

Negative Feedback: Blood Glucose

Fig. 16−7

Negative Feedback: Blood Glucose

Fig. 1−4

Negative Feedback: Thermoregulation

Fig. 1−6
Negative Feedback Control System:
The Reflex Arc
A reflex is an
involuntary
response to a
stimulus
A reflex arc
links an
involuntary
response to a
particular
stimulus
Basic Components of the Reflex Arc
1) Receptor = monitors response variable
2) Afferent pathway = carries sensory info to IC
3) Integrating center = compares measured
value to regulated set point
→ usually some aspect of the CNS
4) Efferent pathway = carries info to effector
5) Effector = restores variable to w/in set-point
range
→ endocrine glands and muscles (skeletal, smooth,
cardiac) are the body’s major effectors
Fig. 1−7

Reflex Arc: Thermoregulation

Fig. 16−18

Reflex Arc: Thermoregulation

(stimulus) (IC) (stimulus)

(afferent) (afferent)
(receptor) (receptor)

(IC)

(efferent)
(efferent)

Effectors:

Evaporative cooling Vasoconstriction Shivering

thermogenesis

Non-shivering thermogenesis
Fig. 1−5

Negative Feedback: Enzyme Pathways

Glucose

Glycolysis
enzymes and
intermediates

ATP
 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
2) Positive feedback
→ accelerates some physiological process
− ex: opening of Na+ channels during an
action potential
− ex: effect of oxytocin secretion on uterine
contractions during labor
− ex: blood clotting
 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3) Feedforward regulation
= anticipatory regulation of a variable
→ improves speed and reduces deviation
from set point
 Feedforward Regulation
• Examples:
– peripheral thermoreception
– glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
(GIP) in response to feeding
– melatonin and control of circadian rhythms
Fig. 1−9

Circadian Rhythms
Anticipatory
rise in Tb as
morning
approaches

Anticipated
higher K+
ingestion
during day
Entrainment of melatonin secretion to a particular night length
causes jet lag following transfer to a novel photic environment

Note
anticipatory
decrease in
[melatonin]

From Nelson et al.’s Seasonal Patterns of Stress, Immune Function, & Disease
 Rheostasis
• Mrosovsky (1990):
– “Rheostasis refers to a condition or state in
which, at any one instant, homeostatic
defenses are still present but over a span of
time there is a change in the regulated level.”
– “The body does not always seek constancy of
its internal environment. It does not always
react in ways that prevent change. On the
contrary, sometimes physiological
mechanisms actively promote change.”
 Rheostasis
• Examples:
– fever
– decreased Tb during sleep
 Fig. 16−19

The regulated elevation

of set-point Tb during
fever in response to an
infection is an example
of rheostasis
Categories of Chemical Messengers
1) Hormones – released into bloodstream,
produce specific action by binding to target
tissue receptors
2) Neurotransmitters – released by neurons
into interstitial fluid to act on target post-
synaptic cells (other neurons, muscle cells)
3) Paracrine agents – act locally on
neighboring cells
4) Autocrine agents – act on the cell itself that
released the agent
All of the above (esp. hormones and NTs) may serve as important
components of reflex arcs, particularly in eliciting effector responses
Fig. 1−8

Categories of Chemical Messengers

Intercellular messengers Intracellular
 Concept of steady state

Negative feedback is
most common

Variance is a necessary
component of regulation

Rheostasis = resetting
of set points

Clashing demands

6) Importance of redundancy (e.g., Tb and BP regulation)

 Acclimatization
• Definition: environmentally-induced change in a
physiological function
• Usually reversible
• Involves a change in the number, size, or
sensitivity of one or more of the cell types that
participate in a homeostatic control system

• Ex: effect of altitude or exercise training on

hematocrit → due to effect of erythropoietin on
RBC count