Aerodynamics

Lecture 11
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

Aerodynamics
Airfoils: Nomenclature & Characteristics

AE221 Aerodynamics

Manoj T. Nair
IIST
11.1
 Aerodynamics
Agenda
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

1 Aerofoils: Nomenclature

2 Aerofoils: Characteristics

11.2
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils I
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

11.3
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils II
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

11.4
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils III
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

An aerofoil is any body which, when set at a suitable angle

to a given flow, produces much more lift than drag
The shape should ensure streamline flow as far as
possible
The leading edge (LE) is rounded to ensure smooth flow
The trailing edge (TE) is sharp to ensure smooth flow and
to keep the wake thin

11.5
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils IV
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature
Aerofoil Geometry
Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The chord line is defined as the straight line connecting

the LE and TE
The chord length is the length of this line

11.6
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils V
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The maximum thickness, t, is measured normal to the

chord line
It is usually expressed as a fraction of the chord, t/c, the
thickness/chord ratio
This ratio is generally about 12-14%
For supersonic aerofoils it may be as low as 3-4%

11.7
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils VI
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The maximum thickness and thickness distribution strongly

influence the aerodynamic characteristic of the aerofoil
The maximum local velocity on the body increases as the
maximum thickness increases
The corresponding pressure value is the smallest for the
thickest aerofoil
The adverse pressure gradient from location of minimum
pressure to the TE is the largest for thickest aerofoil
As the adverse pressure gradient becomes large, the
boundary later becomes thicker and may separate
Therefore, the beneficial effects of increasing the
maximum thickness are limited 11.8
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils VII
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
The maximum lift coefficient for different thickness-ratio is Characteristics

given in the table

Aerofoil section cl,max

NACA 2408 1.50
NACA 2410 1.65
NACA 2412 1.70
NACA 2415 1.63
NACA 2418 1.48
NACA 2424 1.30

The cl,max increases from t/c of 8% to 12%

Further increase in t/c results in decrease in cl,max

11.9
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils VIII
The thickness distribution of an aerofoil effects the
Aerofoils:
pressure distribution and the characteristic of the Nomenclature

boundary layer Aerofoils:

Characteristics

As the location of the maximum thickness moves aft, the

velocity and pressure gradient of the mid-chord region
decreases
There would be a favorable pressure gradient in the
mid-chord region

This favorable pressure

gradient promotes stability of
the boundary layer
Therefore, it increases the
possibility that the boundary
layer remains laminar

Laminar boundary layer produces less cf , but are more

likely to separate
11.10
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils IX
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The locus of points midway between the upper surface

and the lower surface, measured perpendicular to the
chord line, is called the mean camber line
The camber, which is the maximum distance d of the
camber line from the chord line, is expressed as a fraction
of the chord
If camber is +ve, camber line lies above the chord line
If camber is zero, the aerofoil is symmetric about the chord
line
Low speed aerofoils have a small positive camber - 2-3%
Supersonic aerofoils are usually symmetric
11.11
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils X
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The attitude of the aerofoil, is the angle between the chord

line and the free stream velocity vector
The shape of the mean camber line is important in
determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil
section
Aerofoils with non-zero camber generate lift even when the
section is at an angle of attack, α, of zero
11.12
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils XI
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The effect of camber is to change the zero-lift angle of

attack, αL=0
For symmetric aerofoil αL=0 is zero, for positive camber
αL=0 is negative
Camber has a beneficial effect on the maximum lift
coefficient
If the maximum lift coefficient is higher, the stall speed
would be lower

11.13
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils XII
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The LE of the subsonic aerofoils is rounded with a radius

of the order of 1% of the chord length
The radius of the circle is centered on a line tangent to the
LE camber
The center is located such that the cambered section
projects slightly forward of the LE point
The magnitude of the LE radius has a significant effect on
the stall characteristics of the aerofoil section
The TE angle affects the location of the aerodynamic
center
11.14
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils XIII
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature
NACA series aerofoils
Aerofoils:
NACA 4-digit airfoils: e.g. NACA 2415 Characteristics

2: maximum camber is 2% over the chord, i.e., d = 0.02c

4: location of the maximum camber from LE along the chord
is 0.4c
15: the maximum thickness, t = 0.15c
NACA 5-digit airfoils: e.g. NACA 23021
2: maximum camber is 2% over the chord, i.e., d = 0.02c
20: the location of the maximum camber along the chord line
/2, i.e. 0.15c in this case
21: the maximum thickness, t = 0.21c
NACA 5-digit airfoils: e.g. NACA 23021
2: This digit controls the camber. It indicates the designed
coefficient of lift (cl ) multiplied by 3/20. Here cl =0.3
3: The position of maximum camber divided by 20. Here
maximum camber is at 0.15 or 15%c
0 = normal camber line, 1 = reflex camber line
12: The maximum thickness as percentage. Here, 0.12 or
12%c

11.15
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils XIV
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

NACA 6-digit airfoils: e.g. NACA 632 215

6: series designator
3: maximum pressure location, 0.3c for this case
2 : minimum drag at design lift coefficient, ±0.2
2: design lift coefficient, in this case cldesign = 0.2
15: the maximum thickness, t = 0.15c

11.16
 Aerodynamics
Low-Speed Aerofoils XV

Equation for 4-digit Aerofoils:

Nomenclature
Thickness Aerofoils:
r    2 Characteristics
t x x x
yt = c {0.2969 + (−0.1260) + (−0.3516)
0.2 c c c
 3  4 )
x x
+0.2843 + (−0.1015)
c c

The leading edge radius is

r = 1.1019t2
The mean camber line is
d px2 2p − xc
(

0 ≤ x ≤ pc
yc = c−x x


d (1−p) 2 1+ c
− 2p pc ≤ x ≤ c

where m is the maximum camber, p is the location of

maximum camber
The lower and upper airfoil surface is given as
xU = x − yt sin θ, yU = yc + yt cos θ
xL = x + yt sin θ, yL = yc − yt cos θ

11.17
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics I
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils: Center of Pressure Aerofoils:

Characteristics

The normal and axial forces on a body are due to the

distributed loads imposed by pressure and shear stress
acting on the body
The distributed loads also generate a moment about the
LE
Question: If the aerodynamic force on a body acts as a
single resultant force R, or as its components N and A,
where on the body should this resultant be placed?
Answer: The resultant force should be located such that it
produces the same effect as the distributed loads
The distributed loads on an aerofoil produces moments
about the LE - therefore N 0 and A0 should produce the
same moment about the LE

11.18
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics II
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

If A0 is placed on the chord line, then N 0 must be located a

distance xcp downstream of the LE such that
0
MLE = − (xcp )N 0
0
MLE
xcp = −
N0

11.19
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics III
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The direction of the arrow is in the positive pitch sense -

pitch-up
A positive N 0 produces a pitch-down moment
This is consistent with the negative sign in the expression
0
xcp is defined as the center of pressure = −MLE /N 0
If the moments were taken about the center of pressure,
the integrated effect of the distributed loads would be zero
Therefore, center of pressure can be defined as the point
on the body at which the aerodynamic moment is zero
11.20
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics IV
In cases where the angle of attack is small sin α ≈ 0 and
cos α ≈ 1; hence L0 ≈ N 0 Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

The earlier expression for xcp becomes Aerofoils:

Characteristics

0
MLE
xcp ≈ −
L0
As N 0 and L0 decreases, xcp increases
As the forces approach zero, xcp moves to infinity
As xcp make large excursions over the aerofoil as α varies,
its importance as a basic and practical aerofoil property
has diminished
NACA chose a system of reporting lift, drag and moments
about either the quarter-chord point or the aerodynamic
center
On the other hand, for 3D bodies like slender projectiles
and missiles, xcp still remains an important property
Aerodynamic center is a point at which the pitching
moment coefficient for the aerofoil does not vary with cl
(i.e., with α); dc
dcl = 0 at AC
m
11.21
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics V
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

To define the force-and-moment system due to a

distributed load on a body, the resultant force can be
placed at any point on the body, as long as the value of the
moment at that point is also given
The figure shows three equivalent ways of specifying the
force-and-moment system on an aerofoil

11.22
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics VI
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

In the left figure the resultant is placed at the leading edge,

0
with a finite MLE .
In the middle figure the resultant is placed at quarter-chord
0
point, with a finite Mc/4 .
In the right figure the resultant is place at the center of
pressure, with a zero moment about the point.
By inspection

0 c
MLE = − L0 + Mc/4
0
= −xcp L0
4

11.23
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics VII
Aerofoils: Pressure distribution
Aerofoils:
It is useful to depict pressure distribution around an Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
aerofoil graphically Characteristics

There are two ways of doing this

The first consists of drawing lines perpendicular to the
surface at each point
The length of a line is proportional to the pressure
coefficient at the corresponding point on the surface
An arrow pointing inwards represents positive Cp
An arrow pointing outwards represents negative Cp

11.24
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics VIII
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature
A more useful representation is a simple graph Cp vs. x/c,
Aerofoils:
x is the distance from the leading edge Characteristics

By convention, -ve Cp are plotted above the horizontal axis

The total area enclosed by the curve gives directly the
value of the lift coefficient cl

11.25
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics IX
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

The distribution of pressure around the aerofoil varies with

α

11.26
 Aerodynamics
Aerofoils: Characteristics X
Aerofoils:
Nomenclature

Aerofoils:
Characteristics

11.27