Fiber Optics

3-50 FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATIONS
Section Fiber Optics Read it

till it
11 Communications Hertz!
DEFINITION. Optics: Branch of physical science dealing with the propagation and
behavior of light.
DEFINITION. Fiber Optics: The technology of transferring information, for

example, in communications or computer technology, through a number of thin
flexible glass or plastic tubes (optical fibers) using modulated light waves.
DEFINITION. Optical Fibers: In the simplest form, they are cylindrical dielectric
waveguides made up of central cylinder of glass (core) with one index of refraction,
surrounded by an annulus (clad) with a slightly different index of refraction.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
1850 John Tyndall, a British physicist, demonstrated that light can be

guided along a curved stream of water using Total Internal Reflection.
1880 Alexander Graham Bell experimented with an apparatus he called

photophone.
1930 John L. Baird and C. W. Hansell were granted patent for scanning and
transmitting television images through uncoated fiber cables.
1951 A.C.S. van Heel, H.H. Hopkins and N.S. Kapany experimented with light
transmission through bundles of fiber that led to the development of
the flexible fiberscope.
1956 N.S. Kapany coined the term fiber optics .
1958 Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow wrote a technical paper about
LASER and MASER.
1960 Theodore Maiman, built the first optical maser.
1967 K.C. Kao and G.A. Bockham proposed a cladded fiber cables.
1988 ANSI published the SONET standards.

Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 3-51
A. .BENEFITS OF FIBER-BASED SYSTEM.
1. Tremendous Bandwidth - An optical fiber can easily support 100 Mbps

while advanced systems are carrying beyond 1 Gbps.
2. No Interference - The light pulses travel entirely within the fiber

causing no harmful interference, known as electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI) in nearby
wire cables or adjacent optical fiber.
3. Noise Immunity - The optical fiber system is also immune to nearby

signals and EMI/RFI, regardless of interference magnitude
4. No Electrical Hazard - There is complete electrical isolation between

ends of the link. This eliminates ground loops which affects
performance, as well as the danger of shock at one end if there is a
misconnection or failure at the other end.
5. Secure Communication - Since the light energy stays entirely within

the fiber, the only way to intercept the signal is to tap physically into
the line since there is no radiated energy field to intercept. Taps are
difficult to accomplish physically, and a tap in the line causes a loss in
signal power that can easily be detected.
6. Safe to use in Dangerous Environment - Since there is no electrical

energy present; fiber optics can be used wherever, even there is a
danger of explosion from sparks.
7. Lightweight - The weight and bulk of fiber optical cable is much less
than the equivalent wire cables for the same effective bandwidth and
number of users.
Disadvantages:
1. Cost - The cost of the fiber is a little greater than that of basic
copper wire in some configurations.
2. Complex deployment & repairs - It is difficult to splice optical

fibers to make them longer or to repair breaks.
3. Complex connectors - Connectors for fibers are more complex to

attach to the cable and require precise physical alignment.
4. Complex network - Switching, routing and distribution of fiber

optic signals are difficult.
5. Complicated test equipments - Fiber-based system needs special

test equipment.
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B. .NATURE OF LIGHT.
1. Wave Nature of Light

Light is an electromagnetic wave having a very high oscillation
frequency and a very short wavelength.
In fiber optics and any other field of expertise concerning light signals, it is
more pronounced to express it in wavelength rather than frequency.
Relation between micron, nanometer and Angstrom
Multiply
Unit Value To Obtain
by
103 m nanometer
micron 10-6 m 4
10 m Angstrom
-3
10 m micron
nanometer 10-9 m
10 m Angstrom
-4
10 m micron
Angstrom 10-10 m -1
10 m nanometer
ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

a. 20 Angstrom is equal to how many microns?
b. 100 Angstrom is equal to how many microns?
Solution:
10 4 micron
a. 20 Angstrom x 0.002 micron
1 Angstrom
10 4 micron
b. 100 Angstrom x 0.01 micron
1 Angstrom
i. General Subdivision
a. Infrared
Band of light wavelengths that are too long to be seen by the
human eye. (770 nm to 100,000 nm)
b. Visible Light
Band of light wavelengths to which the human eye respond.
(390 nm to 770 nm)
c. Ultraviolet
Band of light wavelengths that are too short to be seen by the
human eye. (10 nm to 390 nm)
ii. Wavelength, Frequency, & Amplitude
a. Wavelength
The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance
between two consecutive wave peaks.
b. Frequency
Corresponds to the number of wavelengths that pass by a
certain point in space in a given amount of time.
c. Amplitude
The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave corresponds to the
maximum strength of the electric and magnetic fields and to
the number of photons in the light.
iii. Wave Properties of Light
a. Reflection
Phenomenon of wave motion, in which a wave is returned
after impinging on a surface. When energy, such as light,
traveling from one medium encounters a different medium,
part of the energy usually passes on while part is reflected.
Rayleigh Criterion - States that if the cosine of the angle of incidence is

greater than the ratio of the signal wavelength with respect to eight times of
the irregularities height will result to specular reflection.

b. Refraction
The change in direction that occurs when a wave of energy
such as light passes from one medium to another of a
different density, for example, from air to water.
Less Less Less

dense dense dense
More More More

dense dense dense
If n1=n2, then 1= 2 and Vp1=Vp2

-------------------------------------
If n1<n2, then 1> 2 and Vp1>Vp2
-------------------------------------
If n1>n2, then 1< 2 and Vp1<Vp2
Read it till it Hertz jma
Lightning speed information
Olaf Roemer, a Danish astronomer, made the first rough estimate of

the speed of light in 1676 by measuring the length of time an eclipse
occurred on one of Jupiter s moon
In 1849, the French physicist A.H. Fizeau developed the first non-
astronomical method of measuring the speed of light with the use of
an apparatus.
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault, French physicist, improved Fizeau s

method of measuring the speed of light by substituting a rotating
mirror for the toothed wheel
The precise measurement of the speed of light was done by A.A.

Michelson, an American physicist using the same method as
Foucault s. His calculated value of c is 2.997025 x 108 m/s.
The designation c for the speed of light originates from the Latin word
celeritas , which means velocity.
The Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell formulated equations

combining the theories of electricity and magnetism and later proved
that electromagnetic waves such as light travel at a speed of 3x108
m/s.
c. Diffraction
The bending or spreading out of waves as they pass around
the edge of an obstacle or through a narrow aperture.
d. Absorption
The reduction in the intensity of radiated energy within a
medium caused by converting some or all of the energy into
another form.
e. Dispersion
The separation of visible light or other electromagnetic waves
into different wavelengths.

2. Particle Nature of Light

Light behaves as though it were made up of very small particles called
photons.
Energy of a Single Photon in Joules (J) & electron-Volt (eV)
1.241
E(J) hf E(eV)
where:
h Planck's constant
6.625 x 10-34 Js
f Frequency in Hz
wavelength in m
Sample Problem:
Find the number of photons incident on a detector in 1 s if the optic power is
1 W and the wavelength is 0.8 m.
Solution:
Energy of a single photon
hc
EP hf
34
(6.625 x 10 Js)(3 x 10 8 m/s )
0.8 m
19
2.48 x 10 J
Compu ting for Total Energy
E Power x time
1 W x 1s
10 6 J
The number of photon required is
6
E 10 J
EP 19
2.48 x 10 J
12
4.03 x 10 photons
Answer : 4.03 x 1012 photons

3. Ray Theory of Light

A number of phenomena are adequately explained by considering light
as narrow rays and this area of optical science concerns the
application of laws of reflection and refraction of light in the design of
lenses.
In a vacuum, ray travel at a velocity of 3x108 m/s.

Rays travel in a straight path unless deflected by some change in
the medium.
When ray is reflected, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of refraction (Specular Reflections)
If any power crosses the boundary (refraction occurs), the
transmitted ray directions is given by Snell s Law or Fresnel Law.
C. .LENSES.
Lens, in optical systems, glass or other transparent substance so shaped

that it will refract the light from any object and form a real or virtual image
of the object.
1. Ray Paths through a Thin Lens.
Rays traveling through the center of the lens are undeviated. Ray1
Incident rays traveling parallel to the lens axis pass trough the
focal point after emerging from the lens. Ray2
An incident ray traveling parallel to a central ray in the focal plane
after transmission through the lens. Ray3
An incident ray passing trough the focal point travels parallel to
the lens axis after it merges from the lens. Ray4
2. Object Position
The position of the objects and focused image are related by the thin
lens equation.

o im
1 1 1 di
M
do di f do
where:
do Object distance
di Image distance
M Magnification factor
Sample Problem:
Find the object and image distance for a lens with a magnification factor
equal to 4 and the focal length is 20 mm.
Solution:
If M is equal to 4 Comp uting for di
di 1 1 1
M 4
do di 4di 20
di 4do 5 1
4di 20
Answer : di 25 mm , do 6.25 mm
3. Beam Focusing
i. Spot Size (wo)
The distance at which the beam intensity has dropped to 1/e2 of
its peak value.
where :
f
w0 wo spot size in mm
w
w collimated spot size
ii. Beam Diffraction ( )

For longer distances, diffraction theory shows that the beam
diverges at a constant full angle.
2 where :
w divergence angle in rad
Sample Problem:
Consider a Gaussian beam whose spot size is 1 mm when collimated. The
wavelength is 0.82 m. Compute the divergence angle. Also compute for
the spot size at 10 km.
Solution:
The divergence angle is At 10 km, the spot size is

6 6
2 2(0.82 x 10 ) fL (0.82 x 10 )(10 km)
wo
w (10 3 ) w (10 3 )
3 2.6 meters
0.522 x 10 rad 0.03

D. .OPTICAL CONFIMENT IN A FIBER.
1. Critical Angle ( c)
Defined as the minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray may
strike the interface of two media and results in an angle of refraction
of 90 or greater.
1 n2
C sin
n1
2. Snell s Law
This important law, named after Dutch mathematician Willebrord
Snell, states that the product of the refractive index and the sine of
the angle of incidence of a ray in one medium is equal to the product
of the refractive index and the sine of the angle of refraction in a
successive medium.
where:
n1 index of the 1st medium
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2 n2 index of the 2nd medium
1 angle of incidence in degrees
2 angle of refraction in degrees
Other Relation General Solution
In terms of v2 sin 2
propagation velocity v1 sin 1
In terms of F2 sin 2
velocity factor F1 sin 1
2
In terms of dielectric k1 sin 2
constant k2 sin2 1
3. Index of Refraction (n)

The refractive index of a substance measures how the substance
affects light traveling through it. It is equal to the speed of light in a
vacuum divided by the speed of light in that substance.
Substance Refractive Index

Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0003
Ice 1.309
Water 1.33
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Magnesium Fluoride 1.38
Glass (fused quarts) 1.46
Glass (crown) 1.52
Sodium Chloride (salt) 1.54
Diamond 2.42
Sample Problem:
What striking angle in the fiber surface is needed to produce a minimum
angle of incidence (critical angle) between the core-clad boundary that will
effectively confine the light signals within the fiber if n1=1.55 and n2=1.45?
Solution:
Computing for the Critical angle Computing for the striking angle
n2 n1
sin 1 sin 0 sin 1 1 90 c
C n0
n2
1 1.45 1 1.55
sin 0 sin sin(90 69.3 )
1.55 1
69.3 33.21

Sample Problem:
Calculate the resulting deviation from the normal line for a light signal that
travels from air-to-glass-to-diamond if the striking angle is 38 .
Solution:
From air - to - glass : n1 air, n2 glass
1 n1 1 1
2 sin sin 1 sin (sin 38 ) 24.94
n2 1.46
From glass - to - diamond : n1 glass, n2 diamond
1 n1 1 1.46
'2 sin sin 1 sin sin(24.94 ) 14.74
n2 2.42
4. Index Profile
A graphical representation of the value of the refractive index across
the fiber.
5. Numerical Aperture (NA)

The figure of merit used to describe the light gathering or light-
collecting ability of an optical fiber.
NA n12 n22
where :
n1 index of the 1st medium
n2 index of the 2nd medium
6. Acceptance Angle or Acceptance Cone Half Angle ( max)

The maximum angle in which the external light rays may strike the
air/fiber interface and still propagate down the fiber.
1 1
MAX sin NA sin n12 n22
7. Fractional Index Change ( )

The normalized difference between the index of the core and cladding.
General Approximate
Solution Solution
n12 n22 n1 n2
2n12 n1
E. .OPTICAL FIBER WAVEGUIDES.
FIBER TYPES
SINGLE MODE MULTI MODE
STEP INDEX GRADED INDEX

1. Single-Mode Step-Index Fiber
i. Maximum Radius for Single Mode propagation (V=2.405)
General Alternate
Solution Solution
0.383 0.383
rmax rmax
NA n1 2
Sample Problem:
Calculate the maximum core radius to support single mode operation for a
fiber with a NA of 0.15 and =0.82 m.
Solution:
0 .383 0 .383 (0 .82 m)
rmax 2 .1 m
NA 0 .15
2. Multi-Mode Step-Index Fiber
i. Typical Step-Index Fiber Characteristics
Construction n1 n2 NA
All-Plastic 1.49 1.41 0.48 29 .0 0.0540
PCS 1.46 1.40 0.41 24.2 0.0410
SCS 1.48 1.46 0.24 13.9 0.0135
ii. Normalized Frequency (V-parameter)
General Alternate
Solution Solution
d d
V NA V n1 2
iii. Number of Modes (M)
1 2
#M V
2
Sample Problem:
Compute the number of modes for a fiber whose core diameter is 50 m.
Assume that n1=1.48, n2=1.46, and =0.82 m.
Solution:
d (50 )
V NA x 1 .48 2 1 .46 2 46 .45
0 .82
Number of modes
1 2 1
#M V (46 .45)2 1,079 modes
2 2
3. Multi-Mode Graded-Index Fiber (GRIN)

The graded-index core fiber has a core material whose refractive index
varies with distance from the fiber.
F. .FIBER LOSSES.
1. Absorption
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:
a. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
b. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.

c. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber

material.
Material Absorption
Are those due to the molecules of the basic fiber material either
glass or plastic that can be overcome only by changing the fiber
material.
Ultraviolet absorption
Caused by valence electrons in the silica material from which
fibers are manufactured.
Infrared absorption
Result of photons of light that are absorbed by the atoms of the
glass core molecule.
Ion resonance absorption

Caused by OH- ions in the material that has been trapped in the
glass during manufacturing process which can be minimized by
drying the glass in chlorine gas to leach out the water vapor
Hydrogen Effects
The hydrogen either can interact with the glass to produce
hydroxyl ions and their losses or it can infiltrate the fiber and
produce its own loss. The solution is to eliminate the hydrogen-
producing source or to add coating to the fiber that is
impermeable to hydrogen.
2. Scattering Losses
Occurs when a wave interacts with a particle in a way that removes
energy in the directional propagating wave and transfer it to other
directions.
i. Linear Scattering
Primarily characterized by having no change in frequency in the
scattered wave
Rayleigh Scattering
Results from light interacting with the inhomogeneities
(submicroscopic irregularities) in the medium that are much
smaller than the wavelength of the light.
0.887
L 4
where :
signal wavelength in m
Sample Problem:
Calculate the Rayleigh scattering loss in dB for a 50/125 step-index fiber
operating at 1200 nm. Also compute for the attenuation in neper.
Solution:
The Rayle igh Loss is The attenuation is
0 .887 1 Neper
L dB 10 log L dB x
4 8.686 dB
0 .887 1 Neper
3.68 dB x
10 log 8.686 dB
1 .2 4
0.423 Neper
3 .68 dB
Mie Scattering
Occurs at inhomogeneities that are comparable in size to a
wavelength and can be reduce by carefully controlling the
quality and cleanliness of the manufacturing process.
ii. Non-Linear Scattering

High values of electric field within the fiber lead to the presence of
non-linear scattering interactions that causes significant power to
be scattered in the forward, backward, or sideways directions.
Brillouin Scattering
Modeled as a modulation of the light by the thermal energy in
the material mainly in the backward directions.
PB (17.6 x 10 3 )(a2 )( 2
)( )( )
where :
signal wavelength in m
a core radius in m
signal attenuation
line frequency in THz

Sample Problem:
Consider an 8/125 single-mode fiber operating at 1300 nm with a loss of 0.8
dB/km. The line width of the source is 0.013 nm. Calculate the Brillouin
scattering threshold.
Solution:
c 3 x 10 8 9
2 9 2
(0 .013 x 10 )
(1300 x 10 )
2 .31 x 10 9 Hz
Brillouin Scattering
3
PB (17 .6 x 10 )( a2 )( 2
)( )( )
3
(17 .6 x 10 )( 42 )(1 .32 )( 0 .8)(2 .31)
0 . 879 Watts
Raman Scattering
The non-linear interaction produces a high-frequency phonon
and a scattered photon predominately in the forward
directions.
PR (23.6 x10 2 )(a2 )( 2

)( )
Sample Problem:
Consider an 8/125 single-mode fiber operating at 1300 nm with a loss of 0.8
dB/km. The line width of the source is 0.013 nm. Calculate the ratio of the
Brillouin scattering threshold to the Raman scattering threshold.
Solution:
2
PR (23 .6 x 10 )(a2 )( 2
)( ) Ratio of threshold power
2 2 2 PB 0.879
(23 .6 x 10 )( 4 )(1 .3 )(0 .8)
5 .105 Watts PR 5.105
0.172
17.2%
3. Macrobending
Refers to a large-scale bending, such as that which occurs intentionally
when wrapping the fiber on a spool or pulling it around a corner.
4. Microbending
Occurs when a fiber is sheathed within a protective cable. The
stresses set up in the cabling process cause small axial distortions to
appear randomly along the fiber.
Developed during deployment of the fiber, or can be due to local

mechanical stresses placed on the fiber often referred to as cabling or
packaging losses.
Critical Radius of Curvature
3n2 0.24n2
rCRITICAL 3
4 NA NA 3
Sample Problem:
Calculate the critical radius of curvature for a multimode 50/125 fiber with
an NA of 0.2, n2 of 1.48 and operating at 850 nm.
Solution:
0.24n2
rCRITICAL
NA 3
9
0.24 1.48 850 x 10
0.23
37.74 m

5. Connector Losses
Lateral misalignment
Lateral misalignment loss is simply due to the non-overlap of the
transmitting and receiving fiber cores
Angular misalignment
Coupling Loss (LdB)
no
L 10 log 1
NA
where:
misalignment angle in radians
n0 refractive index of the material
filling the groove
Sample Problem:
Calculate the coupling loss for a fiber facility with a misalignment angle of
2.4 and 0.24 NA.
Solution:
no
L 10 log 1
NA
1 2.4 x
180
10 log 1
x 0.24
0.248 dB
Gap between ends
Non flat ends (Imperfect finish)
G. .PULSE SPREADING IN FIBER.
Dispersion
The spreading (in time-domain) of light pulses as it propagates down the
fiber end.
1. Material Dispersion (DM)

Pulse at different wavelengths has different velocities.
t MAT
DM x
km
DM Dispersive coefficient in ps /nm km

3dB wavelength (line or spectral width) in nm

Sample Problem:
For the step-index fiber 12.5 km long is to be used with a 0.8 m light source
with a spectral width of 1.5 nm. What value of material dispersion might be
expected assuming DM = 0.15ns/nm-km.
Solution:
tMAT For 12.5 km length
DM x
0.225 ns
0.15 ns tMAT x 12.5 km
x 1.5nm km
nm km
2.81 ns
0.225 ns
km
2. Waveguide Dispersion (Chromatic dispersion)

Pulses at different wavelengths (but propagating in the same mode)
must travel at slightly different angles.
t WAVE
DW x
km
DW Peak Waveguide Dispersive coefficient in ps /nm km

6.6ps
nm km
3dB wavelength (line or spectral width) in nm
Sample Problem:
A 12.5-km single-mode fiber is used with a 1.3 m light source which has a
spectrum width of 6 nm. Find the total expected waveguide dispersion.
Solution:
tWAVE For 12.5 km length
DM x
39.6 ps
6.6 ps t WAVE x 12.5 km
x 6nm km
nm km
495 ps
39.6 ps
km
3. Modal Dispersion (Modal Delay Spreading)

A pulse at a single wavelength splits power into modes that travel
at different axial velocities because of the path differences.
Ln1 Ln1
tMODAL
c 1 c
Sample Problem:
Consider a 50/125 step-index fiber with n1=1.47 and =1.5%. Calculate
the group delay (modal dispersion) for this fiber at an operating wavelength
of 850 nm.
Solution:
Ln1 12.5 km 1.47 0.015
tMODAL 918.75 ns
c 3 x 105 km / s

4. Total Dispersion
At any wavelength the total dispersion is the root mean square
combination of material, modal and waveguide dispersion.
t TOTAL tMAT 2 tMODAL2 t WAVE2
:FACTS TO REMEMBER:.
Modal dispersion is only present for multi-mode fiber.
Sample Problem:
A single-mode fiber operating at 1.3 m is found to have a total material
dispersion of 2.81 ns and a total waveguide dispersion of 0.495 ns.
Determine the receive pulse width approximate bit rate for the fiber if the
transmitted pulse has a width of 1.5 ns.
Solution:
Computing t TOTAL
t TOTAL tMAT 2 tMODAL2 t WAVE2
2.812 02 0.4952
2.85 ns
Max Bit Rate

1 1
fB 175.44 Mbps
2 t TOTAL 2 2.85 ns
H. .RECEIVER RISE TIME & BANDWIDTH.
1. Rise Time (t)

The rise time is the time for the detector output (e.g. current) to
change from 10 to 90% of its final value when the optic input power
variation is a step.
For Your Information

2 2 2 The fiber rise time is equal to
ts t tx tf t rx
the total dispersion within the
fiber.
where:
ts system rise time in ns
t tx source rise time in ns
trx receiver rise time in ns
tf fiber rise time in ns
rise time owing to material, modal, and waveguide
dispersion
2. Maximum Data Rate (fb)
1 1
UPRZ fb fb
2t s 2 t
1 1
UPNRZ fb fb
ts t
3. Bandwidth (BW)
0.35
Electrical BWe
t
BWo 2 x BWe
Optical
1
BWo
2 t
4. Bandwidth-Distance product
1
BW x x km
2 t

Sample Problem:
A fiber optic system uses a detector with a rise time of 1.5 ns and a source
with a rise time of 4ns. If an RZ code is used with a data rate of 100 Mbps
over a distance of 20 km, calculate the maximum acceptable dispersion for
the fiber and the equivalent BW-Distance product.
Solution:
1 1 1 1
fb ts 5 ns
2 t 2t s 2fb 2(100 x 106 bps)
Fiber rise time;
ts t tx tf trx tf ts (t tx trx ) 52 (1.52 42 ) 2.6 ns

Dispersion per unit length;
t ts 2.6 ns ns
0.13
20 km km
BW - Distance product
1 1
BW x x x 20 km 3.846 GHz km
2 t 2(2.6 ns)
I. .REFLECTION AT A PLANE BOUNDARY.
1. Reflection Coefficient ( )
The ratio of the reflected electric field to the incident electric field.
n1 n2 n1 core index
n1 n2 n2 cladding index
2. Reflectance (R)
The ratio of the reflected beam intensity to the incident beam
intensity.
Uncoated fiber
2
n1 n2
R
n1 n2
Sample Problem:
Calculate the reflectance for an air to glass interface assuming the refractive
index of glass is 1.5
Solution:
2 2
n1 n2 1.5 1
R 0.04
n1 n2 1.5 1
Coated fiber
2
n1n3 n22 n1 1st medium index
R 2 n2 coating material index
n1n3 n22
n3 2nd medium index
Sample Problem:
Determine the refractive index of a coating layer place between fibers whose
index is 1.5 and 1.57 respectively, to produce a zero reflectance.
Solution:
2
n1n3 n22
R 2
0 n2 n1n3 1.5 x 1.57 1.534
n1n3 n22
3. Brewster Angle ( B)
Named after British physicist David Brewster, the reflectance of the
component vibrating parallel to the plane of incidence is zero. At this
angle of incidence, the reflected ray would be perpendicular to the
refracted ray, and the tangent of this angle of incidence is equal to the
refractive index of the second medium if the first medium is air.
1 n2
B tan
n1

Sample Problem:
Find the Brewster angle for the air-to-glass and glass-to-air interface.
Solution:
air - to - glass(n1 air, n2 glass)
1 n2 1 1.5
B tan tan 56.3
n1 1
glass - to - air (n1 glass, n2 air)
1 n2 1 1
B tan tan 33.7
n1 1.5
J. .DIODE LIGHT SOURCES.
1. Light-emitting semiconductors
Wavelength Bandgap
Material
Range ( m) Energy (eV)
GaAs 0.9 1.4
AlGaAs 0.8-0.9 1.4-1.55
InGaAs 1.0-1.3 0.95-1.24
InGaAsP 0.9-1.7 0.73-1.35
2. Typical characteristics of diode light sources
Laser Single-Mode
Property LED
Diode Laser Diode
Spectral Width (nm) 20-100 1-5 0.2
Rise time (ns) 2-250 0.1-1 0.05-1
BW 300 2000 6000
Coupling Efficiency Very low Moderate High
5 4 5
Lifetime (hours) 10 10 -10 104-105
K. .DIODE LIGHT DETECTORS.
1. Typical Characteristics of diode light Detectors
Rise Time Wavelength Responsitivity

Material Structure
(ns) (nm) (A/W)
Silicon PIN 0.5 300-1100 0.5
Germanium PIN 0.1 500-1800 0.7
InGaAS PIN 0.3 900-1700 0.6
Silicon APD 0.5 400-1000 75
Germanium APD 1 1000-1600 35
InGaAs APD 0.25 1000-1700 12
2. Quantum Efficiency ( )
where :
e
e # of emitted electrons
p
p # of incident photons
3. Responsivity (R)
The ratio of the output current of the detector to its optic input
current.
I q
R R
P E
where:
q charge of an electron
1.6 x 10 -19 C
E energy of incident photon
hx f
Sample Problem:
Compute the responsivity of a detector having a quantum efficiency of 1% at
0.8 m.
Solution:
q c
R E hx f hx
E f
19 6
q (1.6 x 10 )(0.8 x 10 )
0.01 34 8
0.0064 A W
hc (6.625 x 10 )(3 x 10 )

4. Radiance (R)
where:
P r radiance in mW /st cm2
r
A solid angle in steradians
A aperture area of light source in cm2
5. Irradiance (ir)
where:
P
ir ir irradiance in W /cm2
A
A aperture area of light source in cm2
L. .CONSTRUCTIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS.
1. Double Crucible
Molten core-glass is placed in the inner vessel and molten cladding-
glass occupies the outer vessel and later forms a glass-cladded core.
2. Rod in Tube
In the rod-in-tube procedure a rod of core-glass is placed inside of a
tube of cladding-glass where the end of this combination is heated,
softening the glass so that a thin fiber can be pulled from it.
3. Doped Deposited Silica (DDS)

The most extensively used fiber fabrication process involve building up
a fiber perform by vapor deposition of the glass constituents.
4. External Deposition
External deposition by hydrolysis is referred to as external chemical
vapor deposition (external VCD).
5. Axial Deposition
The deposition occurs on the end of the rotating bait, which is
withdrawn as the perform builds up.
6. Internal Deposition
In this process the chemical vapors are deposited on the inside of a
glass tube that is rotating in a glass lathe where a traveling oxy-
hydrogen torch moves along the tube, fusing the deposited material to
form a transparent glassy film.
M. .LASER FUNDAMENTALS.
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation and was first predicted by Albert Einstein near the beginning of
the 20th century, the first working laser was not demonstrated until 1960
when Theodore Maiman did so using a ruby.
1. Laser Characteristics
Coherent
The property of laser light wherein corresponding points on the
wavefront are in phase.
Collimated
Property of laser light wherein light rays travel parallel with each
other.
Monochromatic
Laser emits light signal with single color, frequency or wavelength.
2. Laser Types
Gas
Gas lasers use a mixture of helium and neon enclosed in a glass
tube.
Solid-state optically pumped

Liquid lasers use organic dyes enclosed in a glass tube for an
active medium. A powerful pulse of light excites the organic dye.
Liquid dye
Solid lasers use a solid cylindrical crystal, such as ruby, for the
active medium. The ruby is excited by a tungsten lamp tied to an
ac power supply.
Semiconductor
Semiconductor lasers are made from semiconductor p-n junctions
and are commonly called injection laser diodes or ILDs. The
excitation mechanism is a dc power supply that controls the
amount of current to the active medium.

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LASER SAFETY
CLASS DESCRIPTION
Class 1 Low power / non-hazardous

Low power / minor controls necessary
Emit less than 1 mW visible CW radiation.
Class 2 Not considered hazardous for momentary (<0.25 sec)
Class 2a unintentional exposure.
Class 2a lasers are those class 2 lasers not intended to be
viewed, i.e. supermarket scanners.
Medium power / direct viewing hazard / little diffuse
reflection hazard.
Class 3a is visible lasers with 1-5 mW power output,
Class 3a
invisible lasers, and those having 1-5 times the Accessible
Class 3b
Emission Limit (AEL) of class 1 lasers.
Class 3b is all other class 3 lasers at all wavelengths which
have a power output less than 500 mW.
High power / eye and skin hazard / potential diffuse reflection
Class 4
hazard or fire hazard
N. .FIBER-BASED TECHNOLOGY.
1. SONET/SDH Transmission Hierarchy

SONET/SDH is a set of international standards for broadband
communications over single-mode fiber optic transmission systems,
allowing manufacturers to build equipment to support full
interconnectivity and interoperability.
Comparison between SONET & SDH
Optical Equivalent
SONET SDH Signal Level
Carrier DS-0
STS-n STM-n (Mbps)
(OC-n) (64 kbps)
OC-1 STS-1 51.84 672
OC-2 STS-2 103.68 1,344
OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 155.52 2,016
OC-4 STS-4 STM-3 207.36 2,688
OC-9 STS-9 STM-3 466.56 6,048
OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 622.08 8,064
OC-18 STS-18 STM-6 933.12 12,096
OC-24 STS-24 STM-8 1,244.16 16,128
OC-36 STS-36 STM-12 1,866.24 24,192
OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2,488.32 32,256
OC-96 STS-96 STM-32 4,976 64,512
OC-256 STS-256 STM-64 13,219.20 171,360
2. SONET Terms
Optical Carrier (OC) is the definition of the SONET optical signal.

The defined OC levels begin at OC-1 (51.84 Mbps) and culminate
in OC-255 (13.2192 Gbps).
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) is the electrical equivalent of

the SONET optical signal; it is known as Synchronous Transport
Module (STM) in SDH. The signal begins as electrical and is
converted to optical for transmission over the SONET fiber
facilities.
Each STS-1 frame is transmitted each 125 s, yielding raw bandwidth

of 51.84 Mbps. The STS frame includes five elements, Synchronous
Payload Envelope, Section Overhead, Line Overhead Path Overhead, and
Payload.

Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE) is the envelope that carries

the user payload data. It is analogous to the payload envelope of
a X.25 packet. The SPE consists of 783 octets (87 columns and 9
rows of data octets).
Payload is the actual data content of the SONET frame and rides
within the SPE. Total usable payload at the OC-1 level consists of
up to 49.54 Mbps, into which a T3 frame fits quite nicely. The
balance of the 51.84 Mbps is consumed by Transport Overhead
and Path Overhead.
Multiplexing is on the basis of direct time division multiplexing.

Either full SONET speeds or lesser asynchronous and synchronous
data streams can be multiplexed into the STS-N payload, which is
then converted into an OC-N payload.
3. SONET Network Elements and Overheads
i. Network Elements
Terminal Multiplexer
The PTE, an entry level path terminating terminal multiplexer,
acts as a concentrator of DS1 signals and tributaries.
Regenerator
These are optical amplifier that boosts the signal level in the
fiber due to significant distance between multiplexers.
Add/Drop Multiplexer
Provides interfaces between the different network signals and
SONET signals.
ii. Overheads
Path Overhead (POH) contained within the SPE, comprises 9

octets for the relay of OAM&P information in support of end-
to-end network management.
Transport Overhead (TOH) consists of Section Overhead and

Line Overhead.
Section Overhead (SOH) of 9 octets is dedicated to the

transport of status, messages, and alarm indications for
the maintenance of SONET links.
Line Overhead (LOH) of eighteen (18) bytes controls the

reliable transport of payload data between network
elements.
4. Virtual Containers and Tributaries
Virtual Containers (Virtual Paths)

Virtual Containers are simply end-to-end communications paths,
routes or circuits, which carry traffic from one end point to
another. The path is not fixed or dedicated, neither is it dedicated
to a particular conversation or user. A virtual path consists of
many virtual tributaries.
Virtual Tributaries
Virtual Tributaries carry one form of signal, such as a DS-1, DS-2
or DS-3 signal within a byte-interleaved frame. Virtual tributaries
can be mapped into a single virtual path. A virtual tributary may
be channelized (e.g., a 48-channel T-1 for voice) or unchannelized
(e.g, a clear channel DS-1 for full motion video).
Summary for various VTs
VT Type Bit Rate VT Size

VT 1.5 1.728 Mbps 9 rows, 3 columns
VT 2 2.304 Mbps 9 rows, 4 columns

Virtual Channels (Tributary Units)

Virtual Channels exist within virtual tributaries. For example, a
virtual tributary might carry a T1 frame. Within that tributary,
there might exist 24 channels with each channel carrying a single
voice or data communication in multiple time slots.
O. .MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT.
SI Photometry Units
Quantity Symbol SI unit Abbr. Notes

also called
lumen
Luminous flux F lm luminous
(cd·sr)
power
units are
Luminous
Qv lumen-second lm·s sometimes
energy
called Talbots
Luminous candela
Iv cd ---
intensity (lm/sr)
candela/square also called

Luminance Lv cd/m2
metre luminosity
Used for light
lux
Illuminance Ev lx incident on a
(lm/m2)
surface
Used for light
Luminous lux
Mv lx emitted from a
emittance (lm/m2)
surface
ratio of
Luminous
lumens / watt lm/W luminous flux
efficacy
to radiant flux
SI Radiometry Units
Quantity Symbol SI unit Abbr. Notes
Radiant
Q joule J energy
energy
Radiant watt per 1 power per unit

I W·sr
intensity steradian solid angle
watt per 2 power incident

Irradiance E W·m
square metre on a surface
radiant energy
per unit time,
Radiant flux e watt W
also called
radiant power
power per unit
watt per
solid angle per
Radiance L steradian per W·sr 1·m 2
unit projected
square metre
source area.
Radiant
emittance / watt per 2 power emitted
M W·m
Radiant square metre from a surface
exitance
watt per
steradian per
L metre3 W·sr 1·m 3
commonly
Spectral
or watt per measured in
radiance
L steradian per W·sr 1·m 2·Hz 1
W·sr 1·m 2·nm 1
square metre
per Hertz
watt per
E metre3 W·m 3
commonly
Spectral
or watt per measured in
irradiance 2 1
E square metre W·m 2·Hz 1
W·m ·nm
per hertz

Fiber Optics

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3-50 FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATIONS

Section Fiber Optics Read it

DEFINITION. Fiber Optics: The technology of transferring information, for

1850 John Tyndall, a British physicist, demonstrated that light can be

1880 Alexander Graham Bell experimented with an apparatus he called

1956 N.S. Kapany coined the term fiber optics .

1960 Theodore Maiman, built the first optical maser.

1988 ANSI published the SONET standards.

A. .BENEFITS OF FIBER-BASED SYSTEM.

1. Tremendous Bandwidth - An optical fiber can easily support 100 Mbps

2. No Interference - The light pulses travel entirely within the fiber

3. Noise Immunity - The optical fiber system is also immune to nearby

4. No Electrical Hazard - There is complete electrical isolation between

5. Secure Communication - Since the light energy stays entirely within

6. Safe to use in Dangerous Environment - Since there is no electrical

2. Complex deployment & repairs - It is difficult to splice optical

3. Complex connectors - Connectors for fibers are more complex to

4. Complex network - Switching, routing and distribution of fiber

5. Complicated test equipments - Fiber-based system needs special

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1. Wave Nature of Light

Relation between micron, nanometer and Angstrom

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

ii. Wavelength, Frequency, & Amplitude

iii. Wave Properties of Light

Rayleigh Criterion - States that if the cosine of the angle of incidence is

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Less Less Less

More More More

If n1=n2, then 1= 2 and Vp1=Vp2

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Lightning speed information

Olaf Roemer, a Danish astronomer, made the first rough estimate of

Jean Bernard Leon Foucault, French physicist, improved Fizeau s

The precise measurement of the speed of light was done by A.A.

The Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell formulated equations

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2. Particle Nature of Light

Energy of a Single Photon in Joules (J) & electron-Volt (eV)

Answer : 4.03 x 1012 photons

3. Ray Theory of Light

In a vacuum, ray travel at a velocity of 3x108 m/s.

Lens, in optical systems, glass or other transparent substance so shaped

1. Ray Paths through a Thin Lens.

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ii. Beam Diffraction ( )

The divergence angle is At 10 km, the spot size is

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D. .OPTICAL CONFIMENT IN A FIBER.

Other Relation General Solution

3. Index of Refraction (n)

Substance Refractive Index

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5. Numerical Aperture (NA)

6. Acceptance Angle or Acceptance Cone Half Angle ( max)

7. Fractional Index Change ( )

E. .OPTICAL FIBER WAVEGUIDES.

SINGLE MODE MULTI MODE

STEP INDEX GRADED INDEX

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1. Single-Mode Step-Index Fiber

i. Maximum Radius for Single Mode propagation (V=2.405)

2. Multi-Mode Step-Index Fiber