CARBON SEQUESTRATION

LD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CHANDKHEDA, AHEMDABAD

Under subject of
DESIGN ENGINEERING
B. E. II, Semester – III
In

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Academic Year : 2017-2018

TEAM ID. - 15289

Submitted by:
NAME ENROLLMENT NO.
KISHAN BARAVALIYA 160280113003
BRIJESH KAPADIYA 160280113019
SIDHDHARTH PATEL 160280113041
BHAVIK VASANI 160280113058
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “CARBON

SEQUESTRATION” is submitted by Mr. Kishan Baravaliya
(160280113003), Mr. Brijesh Kapadiya (160280113019), Mr.
Sidhdharth Patel(160280113041), Mr. Bhavik Vasani
(160280113058).group under the guidance of below mentioned
faculty and head of department in Design Engineering for III
semester of L.D college of engineering during the academic year
2017-2018

Date: __________ Place: __________

Prof. Yagni Rami Prof. Gaurang Ban

(Faculty Guide) (Head of the Department)

External Examiner
 Acknowledgement

 We take this opportunity to thank all those who have contributed

their support in preparing this project. Firstly, we would like to
express our deep sense of gratitude towards GTU (Gujarat technical
university) for initiating this innovative & productive project.
 We are also very thankful to principal G. P. Vadodaria , L.D.
College of Engineering for giving us this opportunity and initiative
to undertake this project.

 We would also thank our HOD Prof. Gaurang Ban & our project
guide Prof. Yagni Rami, Environmental Department , L. D. College
of Engineering, who has always provided continuous guidance &
support and always been a stepping stone in completing project.

 We are also grateful to our faculties, parents, colleagues and friends

whose continuous support has always boost our moral towards
working on this project.
 CONTENTS

Sr.No. Topic Page no.

1 Summery 5
2 Introduction 6
3 Sources of carbon 8
dioxide
4 Methods of carbon 11
sequestration
5 Advantages and 19
Disadvantages
6 Reference 20
 Executive Summary
It will be necessary to decide whether carbon sequestration should be part of
the of compliance activities. The potential costs of carbon sequestration
policies will presumably be a major criterion, so it is important to assess the
cost of supplying forest-based carbon sequestration. In this report we survey
major studies, examine the factors that have affected their carbon
sequestration cost estimates, and synthesize the results.

The Earth’s atmosphere contains carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ) and other greenhouse
gases (GHGs) that act as a protective layer, causing the planet to be warmer
than it would otherwise be. If the level of 𝐶𝑂2 rises, mean global
temperatures are also expected to rise as increasing amounts of solar radiation
are trapped inside the “greenhouse.” The level of 𝐶𝑂2 in the atmosphere is
determined by a continuous flow among the stores of carbon in the
atmosphere, the ocean, the earth’s biological systems, and its geological
materials. As long as the amount of carbon flowing into the atmosphere (as
𝐶𝑂2 ) and out are in balance, the level of carbon in the atmosphere remains
constant.

Human activities particularly the extraction and burning of fossil fuels and
the depletion of Forests are causing the level of GHGs (primarily 𝐶𝑂2 ) in the
atmosphere to rise. The primary sources of the slow but steady increase in
atmospheric carbon are fossil fuel combustion, which contributes
approximately 5.5 gigatons of carbon per year. atmosphere is annually
absorbing approximately 3.4 gigatons of carbon more than it is releasing.

In essence, forests and other highly productive ecosystems can become

biological scrubbers by removing (sequestering) 𝐶𝑂2 from the atmosphere.
Much of the current interest in carbon sequestration has been prompted by
sufficient lands are available to use sequestration for mitigating significant
shares of annual 𝐶𝑂2 emissions, and related claims that this approach
provides a relatively inexpensive means of addressing climate change.
 Introduction
Most analyses to date of options for mitigating the risk of global climate
change have focused on reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases (GHGs).

The biggest changes in the land carbon cycle are likely to come because of
climate change. Carbon dioxide increases temperatures, extending the
growing season and increasing humidity. Both factors have led to some
additional plant growth. However, warmer temperatures also stress plants.
With a longer, warmer growing season, plants need more water to survive.
Scientists are already seeing evidence that plants in the Northern Hemisphere
slow their growth in the summer because of warm temperatures and water
shortages.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, when people first started
burning fossil fuels, carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have
risen from about 280 parts per million to 387 parts per million, a 39 percent
increase. This means that for every million molecules in the atmosphere, 387
of them are now carbon dioxide—the highest concentration in two million
years. Methane concentrations have risen from 715 parts per billion in 1750
to 1,774 parts per billion in 2005, the highest concentration in at least 650,000
years.

Much less attention has been given to the potential for storing (or
“sequestering”) significant amounts of carbon in forests and other
ecosystems as an alternative means of offsetting the effect of future emissions
on GHG concentrations in the atmosphere.
The tendency to overlook sequestration opportunities can lead to incorrect
and overly pessimistic conclusions about both the cost and feasibility of
addressing global climate change the decades ahead.

costs of using land for sequestration, in contrast with other productive uses,
and examine the multiple factors that drive the economics of storing carbon
in forests over long periods of time. the costs of land and competing prices
for agricultural products; the ultimate disposition of forest materials,
including the potential for fire damage as well as harvesting for use in
different kinds of end products;

the specific carbon management policy employed; and the effect of key
analytical parameters, including in particular recent studies of forest
sequestration to reflect consistent assumptions in each of these areas and use
the normalized results to establish a likely range for the overall scope and
likely costs of large-scale carbon. the results of this study indicate that
sequestration can play an important role in future mitigation efforts.
 Sources of carbon dioxide

 Human sources of carbon dioxide

 Fossil fuel use
 Land use changes
 Industrial processes

Fossil fuel use : The largest human source of carbon dioxide emissions is
from the combustion of fossil fuels. This produces 87% of human carbon
dioxide emissions. Burning these fuels releases energy which is most
commonly turned into heat, electricity or power for transportation. Some
examples of where they are used are in power plants, cars, planes and
industrial facilities. In 2011, fossil fuel use created 33.2 billion tones of
carbon dioxide emissions worldwide.

Land use changes: Land use changes are a substantial source of carbon
dioxide emissions globally, accounting for 9% of human carbon dioxide
emissions and contributed 3.3 billion tones of carbon dioxide emissions in
2011. Land use changes are when the natural environment is converted into
areas for human use like agricultural land or settlements. From 1850 to 2000,
land use and land use change released an estimated 396-690 billion tones of
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, or about 28-40% of total anthropogenic
carbon dioxide emissions.

Industrial process: The industrial sector is the third largest source of

man-made carbon dioxide emissions. This sector produced 20% of fossil fuel
related carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. The industrial sector consists of
manufacturing, construction, mining, and agriculture. Manufacturing is the
largest of the 4 and can be broken down into 5 main categories: paper, food,
petroleum refineries, chemicals, and metal/mineral products. These
categories account for the vast majority of the fossil fuel use and CO2
emissions by this sector.

 Carbon dioxide emissions of Fossil fuels combustion

 Electricity and heat generation
 Transportation sector
 Residential area
 Industrial sector

Electricity and heat generation: Electricity and heat generation is the

economic sector that produces the largest amount of man- made carbon
dioxide emissions. This sector produced 41% of fossil fuel related carbon
dioxide emissions in 2010. Around the world, this sector relies heavily on
coal, the most carbon-intensive of fossil fuels, explaining this sector giant
carbon footprint.

Transportation sector: The transportation sector is the second largest

source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. Transporting goods and
people around the world produced 22% of fossil fuel related carbon dioxide
emissions in 2010. This sector is very energy intensive and it uses petroleum
based fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc.) almost exclusively to meet those
needs. Since the 1990s, transport related emissions have grown rapidly,
increasing by 45% in less than 2 decades.

 Natural sources of carbon dioxide

 Ocean atmosphere exchange
 Plant and animal respiration
 Soil respiration
 Volcanic eruption

Ocean atmosphere exchange: The largest natural source of carbon

dioxide emissions is from ocean-atmosphere exchange. This produces
42.84% of natural carbon dioxide emissions. The oceans contain dissolved
carbon dioxide, which is released into the air at the sea surface. Annually this
process creates about 330 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.

Plant and animal respiration: An important natural source of carbon

dioxide is plant and animal respiration, which accounts for 28.56% of natural
emissions. Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of the chemical reaction that plants
and animals use to produce the energy they need. Annually this process
creates about 220 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.

Soil respiration: Another important natural source of carbon dioxide is

soil respiration and decomposition, which accounts for 28.56% of natural
emissions. Many organisms that live in the Earth's soil use respiration to
produce energy. Amongst them are decomposers who break down dead
organic material. Both of these processes releases carbon dioxide as a
byproduct. Annually these soil organisms create about 220 billion tonnes of
carbon dioxide emissions.
 Methods of carbon sequestration
1. Oceanic sequestration
(dumping the 𝐶𝑂2 into the ocean depths)
2. Terrestrial sequestration
(Binding the 𝐶𝑂2 in plants)
3. Geological sequestration
(Bury the 𝐶𝑂2 deep within the earth)

1. Oceanic sequestration:
Pumping 𝐶𝑂2 into the deep ocean basins (350-3000 meters), where it is
anticipated to form lakes of liquid, supercritical, or solid hydrates. The
thinking on this disposal scenario is that it would stabilize in the ocean
depths, or slowly dissolve into the ocean waters.
There are two primary methods under serious consideration for injecting 𝐶𝑂2
into the ocean.
One involves dissolution of 𝐶𝑂2 at mid-depths (1500-3000 m) by injecting it
from a bottom mounted pipe from shore or from a pipe towed by a moving
𝐶𝑂2 tanker.
The other is to inject 𝐶𝑂2 below 3000 m, where it will form a "deep lake".
Benefits of the dissolution method are that it relies on commercially available
technology and the resulting plumes can be made to have high dilution to
minimize any local environmental impacts due to increased
𝐶𝑂2 concentration or reduced pH.
Concept of a 𝐶𝑂2 lake is based on a desire to minimize leakage to the
atmosphere.
2. Geologic Sequestration:
Geologic sequestration consists of capturing 𝐶𝑂2 from stationary sources,
like a power plant, and injecting it into the subsurface of earth.
Geological sinks for 𝐶𝑂2 include depleted oil and gas reservoirs, enhanced
oil recovery, unminable coal seams, and deep porous formations.
Together, these can hold hundreds to thousands of gigatons of carbon (GTC),
and the technology to inject 𝐶𝑂2 into the ground is well established. 𝐶𝑂2 is
stored in geologic formations by a number of different trapping mechanisms,
with the exact mechanism depending on the formation type.

3. Terrestrial sequestration:
Terrestrial sequestration (sometimes termed “biological sequestration”) is
typically accomplished through forest and soil conservation practices that
enhance the storage of carbon (such as restoring and establishing new forests,
wetlands, and grasslands) or reduce 𝐶𝑂2 emissions (such as reducing
agricultural tillage and suppressing wildfires).
Tree-plantings, no-till farming, wetlands restoration, land management on
grasslands and grazing lands, fire management efforts, and forest
preservation.
More advanced research includes the development of fast growing trees and
grasses and deciphering the genomes of carbon-storing soil microbes
accelerate the terrestrial storage of carbon.
Carbon storage of plants and trees example:
 1) How to calculate the amount of 𝐶𝑂2 sequestered in
a tree per year:
We at Trees for the Future estimate that our agroforestry trees, planted in
tropical climates, will sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide at an average of
50 pounds of carbon dioxide per tree per year.
  This is the process:

1. Determine the total (green) weight of the tree.

2. Determine the dry weight of the tree.
3. Determine the weight of carbon in the tree.
4. Determine the weight of 𝐶𝑂2 sequestered in tree.
5. Determine the weight of 𝐶𝑂2 sequestered in the tree per year.

 Determine the total (green) weight of the tree :

Based on tree species in the Southeast United States, the algorithm to

calculate the weight of a tree is:
 W = Above-ground weight of the tree in pounds
D = Diameter of the trunk in inches
H = Height of the tree in feet
 For trees with D < 11:
W = 0.25D2H
 For trees with D >= 11:
W = 0.15D2H

Depending on the species, the coefficient (e.g. 0.25) could change, and the
variables 𝐷2 and H could be raised to exponents just above or below 1.
However, these two equations could be seen as an “average” of all the
species’ equations.
The root system weighs about 20% as much as the above-ground weight of
the tree. Therefore, to determine the total green weight of the tree, multiply
the above-ground weight of the tree by 120%.

 Determine the dry weight of the tree:

This is based on an extension publication from the University of Nebraska.
This publication has a table with average weights for one cord of wood for
different temperate tree species. Taking all species in the table into account,
the average tree is 72.5% dry matter and 27.5% moisture.
Therefore, to determine the dry weight of the tree, multiply the weight of the
tree by 72.5%.
  Determine the weight of carbon in the tree:
The average carbon content is generally 50% of the tree’s total volume.
Therefore, to determine the weight of carbon in the tree, multiply the dry
weight of the tree by 50%.

Determine the weight of carbon dioxide

sequestered in the tree:
𝐶𝑂2 is composed of one molecule of Carbon and 2 molecules of Oxygen.
The atomic weight of Carbon is 12.001115.

The atomic weight of Oxygen is 15.9994.

The weight of 𝐶𝑂2 is C+2*O=43.999915.

The ratio of 𝐶𝑂2 to C is 43.999915/12.001115=3.6663.

Therefore, to determine the weight of carbon dioxide sequestered in the tree,

multiply the weight of carbon in the tree by 3.6663.6
Determine the weight of 𝐶𝑂2 sequestered in the tree per year
Divide the weight of carbon dioxide sequestered in the tree by the age of the
tree.
 2) Natural Terrestrial Sequestration:

Terrestrial sequestration involves the capture and storage of carbon dioxide by

plants and the storage of carbon in soil. During photosynthesis, carbon from
atmospheric carbon dioxide is transformed into components necessary for plants to
live and grow.

As part of this process, the carbon present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
becomes part of the plant: a leaf, stem, root, etc. Long-lived plants like trees might
keep the carbon sequestered for a long period of time.

Once the tree dies, or as limbs, leaves, seeds, or blossoms drop from the tree, the
plant material decomposes and the carbon is released. The figure to the right depicts
natural terrestrial sequestration.

As part of the natural process, some of the carbon is released into the atmosphere,
but some carbon is captured within the soil and increases the soil's organic matter
content. Soil organic matter consists of the living mass of microorganisms in soil
and the decomposed residues like humus.

This soil organic carbon component has been calculated to be about twice the amount
of carbon present in the atmosphere, and about 2.5 times the amount of carbon
present in the plants living on the soil. As part of the carbon cycle.

the carbon present in the decomposing plant material and present within the soil is
retained in the soil, or is consumed by soil organisms. Soil organisms respire carbon
dioxide into the soil, which then diffuses into the atmosphere.

Range of CO2 sequestration rate (metric

Biome
tons/acre/year)
Cropland 0.2 - 0.6
Forest 0.05 - 3.9
Grassland 0.12 – 1.0
Swamp/Floodplain/Wetland 2.23 – 3.71

Advantages
 Carbon Capture and Storage(CCS) is a vital tool in the global fight against
climate change.
 Reduce global warming.
  Temperature control of earth environment.
 Reduce greenhouse effect.

Disadvantages

 This is a long term process, so we can not get immediate results.

 Maintenance cost is high.
 More land area is required for terrestrial sequestration.

References

1 “Total-Tree Weight, Stem Weight, and Volume Tables for Hardwood Species in the
Southeast,” Alexander Clark III, Joseph R. Saucier, and W. Henry McNab, Research
Division, Georgia Forestry Commission, January 1986.
http://www.forestdisturbance.net/publications/GF%20RP60-Clark.pdf

2 “Heating With Wood: Producing, Harvesting and Processing Firewood,” Scott

DeWald, Scott Josiah, and Becky Erdkamp, University of Nebraska – Lincoln
Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, March 2005.

http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/live/g1554/build/g1554.pdf

3 Adams, R., D. Adams, J. Callaway, C. Chang, and B. McCarl. 1993. “Sequestering

Carbon on Agricultural Land: Social Cost and Impacts on Timber Markets.”
Contemporary Policy Issues XI(1): 76-87.