Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

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Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Friction stir welding of titanium alloys: A review

Kapil Gangwar, M. Ramulu ⁎
University of Washington, 98195 Seattle, USA

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Friction stir welding of titanium alloys

critical review from year 2007 onward
is presented.
• Different titanium sheet and plate alloys,
similar and dissimilar titanium's FSW
process conditions were highlighted.
• Microstructural (including texture evo-
lution), and mechanical properties are
discussed.
• Current challenges and suggestion for
future research.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The candidacy of ninth earth abundant material, titanium is supreme when it comes to the higher strength to
Received 28 July 2017 weight ratio, and higher corrosive resistance. Next generation of jet engines for aerospace industry clearly de-
Received in revised form 1 December 2017 pends on the manufacturability and improved ability of titanium alloys that can withstand the high tempera-
Accepted 16 December 2017
tures. However, the primary sheets, plates, billets, ingots, or rods are of limited sizes that need to be either
Available online 21 December 2017
machined or welded in order to produce a desired structure with optimal the buy-to-fly ratio. This article primar-
Keywords:
ily summarizes the research in the field of joining of titanium sheets with a direct focus on friction stir welding
Friction stir welding (FSW). The industrial requirements, whether to weld similar or dissimilar titanium alloys, or of different thick-
Titanium alloys nesses, or even with composites, are often challenged by the selection of the tool, position of the alloying sheets,
Microstructural and mechanical properties cooling of the weld nugget, material composition, complex material flow in the wake of the rotating, and travers-
Texture ing tool etc. This article provides a review of FSW of similar and dissimilar titanium alloys focusing on surface, and
subsurface properties, such as microstructural, and mechanical properties, texture evolution, current challenges
summarizing a possible remedy, encompassing the recent development and research in the field.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction continuous focus on reducing the buy-to-fly ratio, and on inventing

Amidst the presence of a constant conflict between the cost and the
application of the titanium and its alloys, there exists an equally assidu-
ous pursuit to use the material efficiently. Titanium alloys, over the de-
cades have drawn attraction due to their high strength, excellent
corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility. Aerospace industry's
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ramulum@u.washington.edu (M. Ramulu).
the new lighter weight material is an example of such diligence. Con-
ventional titanium alloys are continuously challenged by the operation
at temperatures higher than 550 °C due to poor oxidation resistance,
followed by poor creep properties, undesirable grain growth in single
phase titanium alloys, and consequent degradation of mechanical prop-
erties. On the contrary, biomedical industries are also in relentless quest
of developing alloys that exhibit high strength, and low elastic modulus
matching the mechanical properties of human bone. A metastable β
type titanium alloys Ti-33Nb-4Sn (wt%) developed by Shun et al. [1]

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.12.033
0264-1275/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255 231

Neo. Compatibility of titanium with composites has given rise to the

Fig. 1. Increasing use of titanium in commercial aircrafts. Bubble size denotes the
passenger capacity [4]. Images not to scale but to show an increasing passages capacity
as the time progresses.
has shown elastic modulus as low as 36GPa, and tensile strength over
853 MPa by retaining low content of β stabilizers at room temperature
by high density of dislocations and grain boundaries introduced by cold
rolling (CR) and annealing treatment (CRA). In a study of multi-pass
friction stir processed CP-Ti, Arash et al. [2] have concluded no effect
of FSP on semiconducting behavior. However, the presence of passive
film due to multi-pass FSP followed by emergence of diverse structural
defects and grain refinement resulted in an improved passive behavior
and higher corrosion resistance in strongly acidic solution of 0.5 M
H2SO4. Mott–Schottky analysis, in this study shows that multi-pass
FSP has great potential for increasing the corrosion resistance of pure
Ti, mainly due to the formation of more resistive, thicker, and yet less
defective passive films (with lowered donor densities on all passes).
Titanium alloys are primarily classified as α, α + β, and β. Temper-
ature above which only β phase exists is known as β transus tempera-
ture. Upon cooling from above β transus temperature, the titanium
alloys can be manipulated to obtain a variety of microstructure with tai-
lored mechanical properties. α, and near α alloys have iron (Fe), and ox-
ygen (O) as an alloying elements. Mo, and V are β stabilizers, hence aid
in lowering the β transus temperature. An intentional addition of α (Al,
or Sn), or β stabilizer (Mo, or V) can have a significant effect on the mi-
crostructure. A detailed information about the prevalent titanium alloys
can be found here in reference [3]. The present and future of the current,
and next generation air frames and engines is closely related with the
precocious research and development in order to meet the stringent
fuel efficiency standards, and cost pressures associated with the increas-
ing orders of highly advanced aircrafts such as Boeing 787, 777X, A320
use of titanium in aerospace industry, as shown in the Fig. 1 [4].
In addition to existing titanium alloys, third generation forgeable γ-
TiAl for low pressure turbine blades in the Pratt &Whitney PW1000G
engines have made their impact in the aerospace industry. Simulta-
neously, engine frames, and nacelle components are a result of new al-
loys, owing to their forgeability, superplastic formability. A recent
development of new α + β high temperature titanium alloys have
been marked by Kobe Steel Ltd., Japan, Allegheny Technology Inc.
(ATI), Pittsburghg, and Timet Metal Corp., Exton, PA with improved me-
chanical properties [4]. Table 1 shows the recent developments in the
field of titanium alloys.
An increasing use, cost associated with the titanium alloys, and how-
ever, difficult machinability of titanium has overshadowed conventional
manufacturing processes. Long before friction stir welding came into
existence, fusion welding had, and still does, an innate ability to join
the structures with complicated geometries. What seemed impossible,
thanks to fusion welding, appeared achievable with a gamut of advan-
tages that fusion based additive manufacturing processes render. How-
ever, similar to any happenstance, the pros of the fusion welding
techniques set up an overdue tryst with inevitable cons as the research
in the realms of thermodynamics, and phase transformation progresses.
Dendritic microstructures, and the associated phase transformation due
to melting of titanium followed by subsequent cooling, threatened the
structural integrity of the welded joints that presented themselves as
a site susceptible to crack initiation during either cyclic, or monotonic
loading in fusion welding techniques. The formation of intermettalic
phases in the weld, and the contaminations imparted by the filler mate-
rials are the primary downsides of fusion welding. Going through in-
tense research and pushing through the boundaries of unimaginable,
fusion based additive manufacturing technologies have emerged as
having the ability to join the metal sheets to form near net shapes. Ap-
plications of high intensity processes such as Electron Beam Welding
(EBW), Laser Beam Welding (LBW), Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) range
from low cost automotive in-line part unit, to high cost, and extremely
reliable units in aircraft industry [5]. EBW, however, a superior example
of fusion welding technique, the higher heat intensity associated with
the EBW, creates a much smaller fusion zone (FZ), and a heat affected
zone (HAZ), and can be adapted for thick components in aerospace,
and automotive industry. In addition to narrower FZ, and HAZ, high
depth-to-width ratio, and excellent dimensional tolerance makes
EBW, a prevalent manufacturing process for joining of thick titanium
sheets. Deep penetration, and absence of material contamination, due
to high vacuum, makes EBW, a suitable candidate for joining titanium
alloys [6]. Nonetheless, the macrostructural changes, concomitant of
high energy density, and rapid cooling rate are primarily marked by
the introduction of porosity in the weld nugget, and the formation of
brittle phase, martensite. For Ti-6Al-4V, the mechanical properties
such as yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and micro-
hardness increase significantly after one pass EBW, owing to finer la-
mella spacing observed in the Widmanstatten microstructures due to
extensive crisscrossing (or nucleation of multiple variants of α phase

Table 1
Advancements in titanium alloys [4].

Titanium alloys Quality Company

Ti-0.4Ni-0.015Pd-0.025Ru-0.14Cr (AKOT) Corrosion resistant Kobe Steel

Ti-0.5Al-0.35Si (Ti-0.9SA) High temperature oxidation resistance to 765 °C. Silicide inhibits grain growth
Ti-0.5Al-0.45Si-0.2Nb(Ti-1.2ASN)
Ti-2Al-1Sn-1Fe-1Cu-0.5Cr-0.3Si (Ti-2111S) Lower Levels of anisotropy, and improved superplasticity
Ti-5Al-4V-0.75Mo-0.5Fe (Ti-54M) Superplastic forming (SPF) capability at temperatures as low as 775 °C; TIMET
Ti-5.5Al-5V-5Mo-2.4Cr-0.75Fe-0.15O (TIMETAL® 18) Good combination of strength and ductility
Ti-4Al-2.5V-1.5Fe-0.25O (ATI 425) Excellent cold and hot workability ATI
Ti-5.5Al-4.3Zr-5.7V-1.3Mo-0.10O-0.06Pd (RTI-XPT™) Highly stress tubular application RTI
232 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
on the prior β grain boundary), leading to considerable amount of diffi-
culty for intergranular slip [7].
For structures as big as engine nacelle, and as intricate as bio im-
plants, even a slightest window of leeway is blasphemous. With the lim-
ited, and pre-defined shapes and sizes titanium sheets comes in, it is
inevitable to either machine, or join the sheets, and if necessary
superplastically form it as well sans compromising the integrity of the
structure as far as the microstructure and other inherent properties
are concerned. To the point where fruition of the fusion welding tech-
niques can longer be realized, revolutionary paradigm shift in friction
based manufacturing processes emerged as a state of the art solid
state joining technique where phase transformation, and evolution of
microstructure in the weld nugget is induced by high temperature se-
vere plastic deformation. Hence a parallel research, in the field of an al-
ternate additive manufacturing has been aced by friction based additive
manufacturing (FBAM) processes, such as rotary friction welding
(RFW), friction deposition, friction surfacing, linear friction welding,
friction stir welding etc.
So far, a vast literature on friction stir welding and its adaptability in
a variety of materials, including titanium, is available. A detailed review
on friction stir welding of metal matric composites (MMC), aluminum
alloys can be found here [8–10]. General consents about friction stir
welding and friction stir processing have been well documented in liter-
ature so far [11,12]. Numerical and analytical models associated with
temperatures and material flow during friction stir welding have been
discussed in details [13–15]. Furthermore, a thorough analysis for tool
geometry and tool materials have been carried out by Zhang et al. [16]
and Rai et al. [17]. A brief review about mechanical and metallurgical
properties of friction stir welded titanium alloys have been provided
by Lienert et al. [18] for articled published until year 2007. As seen in
Fig. 1, with an increasing use of titanium in aerospace industry it is of ut-
most importance to use the material efficiently. Over the last ten years
due to rapid adaptation of this welding technique in aerospace industry,
a variety of titanium alloy sheets of different thicknesses have been
welded by FSW. We believe that such database along with significant
information about characterization schemes of FSWed near α, α + β,
and β alloys should be readily available to process engineers utilizing
FSW and to the metallurgist of titanium alloys. In the last decade there
have been several advancements and improvements; not only in the
field of automation of FSW [19] but also in the process design, tool de-
velopment and microstructure controls to improve the mechanical
properties of the joints. With an advent of new titanium alloys, it is
even more important to extend our prevalent knowledge of FSW for
an efficient applicability of titanium alloys. However, to the best of our
knowledge, a detailed review on the friction stir welding of titanium,
and it's alloys that comprises the information on tool selection, welding
parameters, material flow, microstructural evolution, temperature dis-
tribution, mechanical properties (fracture, fatigue, residual stress), and
texture evolution does not exist after year 2007. Therefore, the scope
of this review is limited to the friction stir welding of titanium alloys
for articles published over the last decade in order to encourage engi-
neers to use this technique more effectively along with suggested future
work to contribute more to scholastic community.
The key questions that are being raised in the scientific and technical
activities in the field of friction stir welding (in general) can be summa-
rized based on the Fig. 2 as shown below. Fig. 2 shows the viewpoint of
friction stir welding for multiple parameters that are of importance in
the process [19–21]. While considering an impact of these parameters
it has been assumed that the automation of the FSW machine, tool tilt
angle, tool insert hole and location of alloying sheets (in consideration
with the need of pre-heating and presence of backing anvil) are opti-
mized. In addition, it has also been assumed that the associated vibra-
tion dynamics of entire system are capable of producing defect free
FSWed joints of titanium alloys. Although, these assumptions are quite
hypothetical yet, after decades of research in FSW of titanium alloys,
we can safely assume that these parameters are thoroughly studied
and evaluated in greater details for a better understanding of the
process.
List of abbreviations used in Fig. 2 is shown in Table 2. Complexity
and correlation among multiple parameters involved in FSW is shown
in Fig. 2, developed using Circos [22]. Connecting ribbons indicate inter-
dependence on each parameter. In this representation, it has been as-
sumed that the thickness of alloying sheets (similar titanium alloys
with similar β transus temperature) is known and kept constant for a
set of experiments.
Instructions for figure b):
1. The outer arcs and corresponding color bars show primary character-
istics of the FSW process.
2. Inner arcs represent multiple parameters that are involved in the
process.
3. Interconnecting ribbons depicts inter-dependence on each parame-
ter. Width of ribbons shows the dominance of interdependence.
4. For example, FSWed titanium alloys (T1-ADV, and T2-RET) show a
variety of metallurgical (Metall.) and mechanical (Mech.) properties
under varying parameters.
The surface roughness of the joining sheets is important in
governing the coefficient of the friction in FSW. The tool geometry,
governing friction, material flow, and corresponding cooling rate deter-
mines the temperature profile as the tool progresses along the welding
line. The resulting flow of the material, disparities associated with the
initial microstructure, the dependence of the multiphase materials on
the temperature (texture), thermal conductivity of the materials, local-
ized heating or cooling (promoting one phase over another) govern the
final microstructure and mechanical properties of FSWed titanium
alloys.
2. Titanium alloys
Over the years, since invention of FSW in 1991, a variety of FSWed
titanium alloys have been studied for their mechanical and metallurgi-
cal properties. Commercially pure titanium (CP-Ti; α), Ti-6242 (near
α), Ti-6Al-4V (α + β), Ti-54 M (α + β), and Ti-5111 (near α) are to
name a few covered in this study. Near α, and α + β alloys behave qual-
itatively similarly but the transformation temperature from one constit-
uent to another, and the growth kinetics differ from one to another due
to the difference in the composition.
Depending on the alloying elements present in the binary titanium
alloy, the titanium alloys can be classified as fully α, near α, binary
phase α + β, and fully- β (metastable β) [23]. The β transus tempera-
ture is an indication of the alloying element, i.e. alloying elements that
raise the β transus temperature, are known as α stabilizers while others
will suppress the β transus temperature and are referred as β stabilizers.
Al, O, N, and C are common α stabilizers. Aluminum, however, is the
most sought alloying element in titanium alloys due to its good solid
solubility in both α, and β, is a potent solid solution strengthener, and
increases the β transus, in addition to lowering the density of titanium
alloys.
β stabilizers can be further categorized as β isomorphs (V, Nb, Mo),
and β eutectoid forming (Cr, Fe) elements depending on the type of the
binary phase diagram the elements forms with titanium [24]. Sn, and Zr
have no effect on the phase stability of the titanium alloys [23,25]. Small
addition (1–2%) of β phase stabilizer in fully α titanium alloys results in
the formation of near α microstructure, consisting of primary α and
retained β (b5%) [26]. Further addition of β phase stabilizers (4–6%)
in the α + β alloys results in the β volume fraction of (5–40%). An in-
creased amount of β stabilizers (10–15%) results in metastable/near β
alloys, and single phase β alloys (N 20%β stabilizers) [27]. The low diffu-
sivity of the β stabilizers facilitate full retention of the β phase to the
room temperature at moderate cooling rate.
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255 233

Fig. 2. A viewpoint set for friction stir welding.

Ti-5Al-2Sn (Ti-5-2.5), Ti-3Al-2.5V (Ti-325), Ti-2.25Al-11Sn- 5Zr- increasing the Fe concentration. Otherwise these alloys cannot be
1Mo-0.2Si, and Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V and CP-Ti are the typical example of α strengthened by heat treatment.
alloy where α phase is predominant in the microstructure. These alloys Near α, and α + β phase alloys behave qualitatively similarly but the
have good strength and high workability which can further be improved transformation temperature from one constituent to another, and the
by increasing the O content. Due to absence of ductile-to-brittle transi- grown kinetics differ from one another due to the difference in the com-
tion in α alloys makes them a suitable candidate for high temperature as position. Ti-6Al-4V, and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si (Ti-6242) are the
well as cryogenic application. These alloys have a small fraction of β typical examples of α + β and near α alloy respectively. The β transus
phase present at the room temperature which can be increased by temperature of these alloys depend on the O and Al content. These al-
loys exhibits a good combination of strength and ductility, however,
the operating temperatures for these alloys are limited by the creep re-
sistance, and the oxidation [24].
Table 2
List of abbreviations for terms used in Fig. 2.
Furthermore, the microstructure, and associated mechanical proper-
ties of these alloys can be manipulated by the optimized heat treatment.
Anvil Backing anvil Many of the affected properties due to heat treatment are inversely re-
Ar-Flow Argon flow
Cyl. Cylindrical
lated. For an instance, for Ti-6Al-4V the fatigue crack initiation resis-
Design Tool design tance increases as the fatigue crack growth resistance decreases. Ti-
Displac. Displacement control 6Al-4V, is by far the most widely used titanium alloy with a wide
FSW-A FSW-automation range of application that runs from dental crowns to aircraft engines,
FSWed Friction stir welded
from orthopedic implants to critically loaded structures in aircraft oper-
Load Load controlled
Mate. Tool material ating under different thermal conditions.
Mech. Mechanical properties Titanium alloys with high percentage of β stabilizers, commonly
Metall. Metallurgical properties known as β alloys- Ti-15Mo-3Nb-3Al-0.2Si (Timetal 21S, or β21S), Ti-
Power FSW-A power 5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr (Ti-5553), and Ti-11Mo-6Zr-4.5Sn. The formation of
rpm Rotation per minute
Stiffness Stiffness of FSW-A
β′, and omega phases has been described earlier. Furthermore, low elas-
Strain-R. Strain rate tic modulus, and the biocompatibility of the β alloys makes them an
T1-ADV Titanium alloy 1 kept on advancing side ideal candidate for the medical implants because these alloys are in
T2-RET Titanium alloy 2 kept on retreating side the range of the elastic modulus of human bones, hence, lowering the
Taper Tapered
interfacial stresses on the implants. In addition, the β alloys find their
Temp. Temperature
Thread Threaded application in spring, fasteners, and landing gear due to the low elastic
Tilt Tilt angle modulus.
Tool Tool Fig. 3 summarizes the properties and characteristics of different tita-
Traverse Feed rate (mm-min−1) nium alloys. α alloys exhibits higher β transus, higher flow stress, great-
Wear Wear
er ability for welding, and high strength at increasing temperature. β
234 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 3. Characteristics of titanium alloys.
alloys exhibit higher forming capacity, high strain rate sensitivity,
higher ability for heat treatment, and higher strength at the room tem-
perature. However, service temperatures for β alloys have limitations
due to lack of creep resistance. Further information about the effect of
alloying elements on titanium alloys can be found here [24,27–29].
3. FSW process
Friction stir welding (FSW), developed in 1991 at The Welding Insti-
tute (TWI), is performed by a non-consumable rotating and traversing,
and slightly tilted (2°–3°) tool in the softer material's side in case of dis-
similar materials) inserted into the interface at the contiguous line of
the metal plates. By means of automated FSW (either displacement con-
trolled or load controlled), the tilted tool is then inserted to create a start
hole in order to reduce the forces for tool propagation. Accordingly, a
backing anvil (either preheated or at room temperature) also needs to
be clamped under the welding sheets. As the tool rotates and traverses,
severely plasticized material migrates from retreating, to advancing
side, and deposits in the wake of the tool. The metal plates are thus
joined by the friction between the tool shoulder, tool probes, and
alloying sheets. The combination of frictional and adiabatic localized
heating in the weld nugget softens the material promoting the material
flow around the rotating tool. The traverse speed determines the expo-
sure time, i.e. the softened material is continuously transferred around
the tool and then deposited on the trailing side forming a solid-phase
bond between the two sheets. In friction stir welding the tool geometry
typically consists of round shoulder, and a cylindrical pin. Based on the
requirements, and the material to be joined, the pin of the tool can ei-
ther be threaded, or tapered, or threaded with flutes or no feature at
all. The shape and size of the tool are the significant factors in heat gen-
eration during friction stir welding. Threads and scrolls are generally in
the opposite direction of the tool rotation such that the material is being
pulled into the center of the weld instead of casting it outside the weld
nugget. Threads on the other hand are designed to push the material
into the weld zone, but can also be engineered to pull the material up-
wards. Tapered tools simply facilitates the flow of the material and are
generally used for high strength aluminum alloys, high strength steels,
and titanium alloys. High strength materials, with high work hardening
coefficients are likely to undergo an incomplete penetration, or plasti-
cizing hence the presence of either threads or flutes in the tool can result
in the formation of cavities, or other undesirable properties in the weld.
Furthermore, the poor conductivity of titanium and its alloys poses an-
other challenge for process and properties optimization due to continu-
ous thermal and microstructural gradient in and around weld nugget.
High strain rates involved in the deformation by FSW can have a signif-
icant effect on the resulting properties of high strength alloys such as
steel and titanium if threaded tools are used. Thus, heat and deforma-
tion induced by the tool are an important part of the complexities that
are followed by the consequent properties once the tool passes from
one location to another.
A schematic diagram of the friction stir welding, tool shape and size,
and the material flow in the wake of tool is shown in the Fig. 4. The most
trivial welding configuration is the square groove butt joint, however, a
variety of configurations such as corner joint, T-butt joint, lap joint have
been produced [11]. Once the tool design, and the material is agreed
upon, tool rotation speed and the traverse speed come into play to tailor
the microstructural and mechanical properties followed by underlying
material flow. The rotation of the tool facilitate the mixing of the two ad-
jacent material and translation of the tool deposit the softened material
in the wake of the tool from retreating side to advancing side. Higher ro-
tation speed causes, higher temperature and subsequently higher stir-
ring which as a result cases an excessive amount of flash generation
giving rise to defects, such as porosity, and inadequate material flow
in the weld nugget. Hence, identification of the optimized parameters
corresponding to the appropriate tool design is necessary to produce a
sound weld with desired mechanical properties [30]. Fig. 4a is the typi-
cal schematic of the friction stir welding depicting the fundamental
terms use in this study. Fig. 4b shows the variety of tools (images not
to scale) that have been used by Edwards et al. [31] to join (3-, 6-, 9-,
and 12-mm thick) Ti-6Al-4V sheets. Fig. 4c and Fig. 4d are the top
view of Fig. 4a and optimized processing parameters (for 3-, 6-, 9-,
and 12-mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets) respectively.
During friction stir welding tool plunge depth, and the axial forces
applied on the tool, can be categorized as two processes: (a) position
control; where the plunging depth is constant, and controlled regardless
of the welding force, (b) load control; a fixed load is applied and the tool
is able to adjust its position into the butting line communicating with
the controlled load. Furthermore, the applied load is dependent on the
flow stress of the workpiece, which is related with the temperature
that is controlled by the tool rotation speed. Variation in the plunging
depth can also affect the temperature and loads. An increased plunging
depth will increase the process temperature, decrease the flow stress,
and may cause the thinning of the weld zone due to a significant
amount of the material being displaced at the joining line. Conversely,
an adverse situation may appear due to less frictional heat, higher work-
piece flow stress, and increased forge loads if the plunging depth is not
adequate.
3.1. Tool selection, and thickness variation of alloying titanium sheets
Unarguably, the FSW of low melting temperature alloys of Al and Mg
do not suffer much from the challenges of tool wear. Although matured,
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of friction stir welding; isometric view, (b) Front view of (a), (c) schematic of transverse cross section of FSWed dissimilar titanium alloys and (d) Identification of the
processing window for FSW of (3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-mm thick) Ti-6Al-4V sheets [32].
FSW of titanium due to lower thermal conductivity (7 W/mK) of titani-
um and high melting temperature, results in an uneven thermal gradi-
ent from base material on the advancing side to base material on the
retreating side. Tool selection and parallel consideration of the sheet
thickness are of equal importance to produce a defect free joints. Com-
mercially pure tungsten tools upon cooling from 1473 K cause recrystal-
lization and embrittlement. However, an addition of rhenium (Re)
reduces the ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) by influenc-
ing the Peierls stress for the motion of the dislocations. Similarly, tung-
sten carbide (WC) based tool due to their excellent toughness and
hardness, and insensitivity to sudden changes in temperature and
loads, have also been used for the FSW of titanium alloys. The contami-
nation of workpiece by Si and N from the tool was prevented by TiC/TiN
coating. Sintered TiC welding tool, with a water cooling arrangement to
extract excessive heat from the tool, has been used for successful FSW of
titanium. A detailed review about tool dimensions and processing con-
ditions for FSW of titanium alloys can be found in a study conducted by
Rai et al. [17].
3.2. Parameters selection
Microstructural evolution, mechanical properties, residual stress,
hardness, fracture toughness, fatigue crack propagation rate, accumula-
tion of high angle grain boundary, grain refinement, strain rate, material
flow, and super plastic forming ability of the welded joint are primarily
affected by the adopted processing parameters. An optimization of tool
rotation speed, and tool traverse speed is much sought for in order to
avoid any welding defect congruent of high temperature (due to high
rotation speed), and less exposure time (due to high traverse speed).
Energy input due to friction is a function of tool geometry, hence, the en-
ergy input of thicker sheets is ought to be higher due to longer length of
the welding tool. The energy input per unit thickness of the sheet can be
obtained by following relationship.
Q ¼ τκ ðωC 1 þ νC 2 Þ
235
where τ is the shear yield strength as a function of the temperature and
strain rate, κ is the contract condition coefficient between tool and the
workpiece, ω is the rotation speed, and ν is the traversing speed of the
tool. C1, and C2 are the constants derived from the tool geometry. A va-
riety of titanium alloys have been welded by friction stir welding by
adopting a variety of processing parameters. Edwards et al. [30], for
identification of the suitable processing conditions for 3-,6-,9-, and 12-
mm thick Ti-6Al-4V (as shown in Fig. 4d), have provided a detailed in-
formation about the processing parameters and thickness of alloying
sheets along with tool dimensions. Hereafter, as the tool material, tool
design, and processing conditions are identified; primary microstruc-
ture, and β transus temperature of the titanium alloys become of impor-
tance in understanding the evolution of the microstructure in the WN,
TMAZ/HAZ. To produce a defect free weld and to achieve a full penetra-
tion depth in thicker material, a rather longer tool geometry is sug-
gested. A study conducted by Shude et al. [21] for friction stir lap
welded Ti-6Al-4V has suggested that a slight penetration into lower
sheet can significantly reduce the hook effect. Their study, conducted
in the light of temperature gradient as it forms in the weld nugget, illus-
trates that higher temperature (assisted with higher rotation speed) re-
sults in formation of void-like defect.
Higher energy inputs, and the optimized cooling rate (a flow of inert
gas (Ar) on the top of the welded surface, and back anvil) can influence
the evolution of the microstructure through thickness of the weld nug-
get. Furthermore, tool degradation due to hot adhesion can also take
place under the influence of high temperature and vertical pressure at
the end of the tool which was in the rotating and advancing process
[33]. Jinwen et al. [34] proposed a model for optimizing the rotation
and transverse speed for FSW of AA6061 can be extended for titanium
alloys by employing suitable thermodynamic, and mechanical proper-
ties of titanium alloys [24,27–29].
3.3. Material flow
Once the tool design, and processing parameters are optimized, un-
derlying material flow in the wake of the tool throughout the weld
236 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
nugget rises to wily power in defining the course of macrostructure and
microstructure as the plasticized materials cools, and deposits from
retreating side to advancing side. In FSW, due to complexity of the de-
formation, the shear directions, and hence the resulting texture are con-
stantly evolving as the material flows around the tool. Studies by Seidel
et al. [35], Colligan et al. [36] and Schmidt et al. [37] and Morisada et al.
[38] demonstrated a detailed overview about the material flow in Al al-
loys. It has been suggested that a material in the form of embedded
marker, or steel shot beads, or strips of metal, or wire markers, or tracers
should not be reacting with the base material, and must possess the
ability to sustain temperatures as high as being produced during friction
stir welding.
X-ray, tomography, CT-scan, and radiography can be further used to
understand the material flow. Seidel et al. [35], Colligan et al. [36],
Guerra et al. [39] have used the embedded markers, steel shot beads,
and strips of copper respectively to visualize the material flow by
adapting the X-ray technique. Not only similar, but also dissimilar mate-
rial flow has also been observed for underlying material flow. Schmidt
et al. [40] have performed CT-scan to visualize the material flow. A nu-
merical models have also been proposed in consideration of welding pa-
rameters [37]. Fig. 5 is a three dimensional illustration of the material
flow by radiography. The material flow and associated velocities have
also be exercised by Morisada et al. [38] to understand the effect of
strain and strain rate in determining the recrystallization of the grains
in aluminum alloys during friction stir welding. Material flow, especially
in case of FSW of dissimilar alloys, is extremely complicated. Not only
welding parameters play an important role, material composition
poses another challenge in determining the migration of the alloying
elements.
Fig. 5. Locus of the tracer observed by the X-ray transmission real-time imaging systems. (a) three-dimensional image, (b) two-dimensional image on TD-WD plane (c) schematic drawing
of calculation method for strain, (d) schematic drawing of calculation method for strain rate [38].
In α + β titanium alloys, due to large differences in the flow stress of
the existing phases, and the thermal conductivity, it is formidable to
compare the flow patterns as they emerged in the aluminum alloys.
However, as challenging as it appeared, in a study performed by Ed-
wards et al. [41] a tracer technique has been used to visualize the mate-
rial flow in FSWed Ti-6Al-4V by X-ray and CT-scan. The tracer material
used was a tungsten (W), 25% rhenium (Re) blend powder 20 μm in
size. W and Re have densities roughly 5 times that of Ti-6Al-4V, which
is one of the main reasons they were selected as the powders to be
embed in the titanium workpiece. Fig. 6 shows X-ray, CT-scan, and ra-
diographic visualization of the material flow during friction stir welding
of Ti-6Al-4V [41].
3.4. Temperature distribution
The friction stir welding of titanium alloys, especially of α and near α
alloys is often met with challenges posed by tool limitation, and thick-
ness of the alloying sheets. A simple, either tapered or cylindrical, design
of the tool is responsible for the preempted vertical flow of the material
unlike aluminum. The high temperatures originating in the root of the
tool are responsible for the material softening and the consequent ma-
terial flow. However, in case of α or near α titanium alloys the higher
flow stress of α phase, and lower thermal conductivity, and higher
heat capacity of the titanium makes it difficult for the selection of the
tool materials for titanium alloys with high β transus temperatures. β al-
loys, or α + β alloys are prone to undergo par β transus temperature
during friction welding depending on the welding parameters and the
thermal distribution during FSW.
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 6. Material flow patterns as a function of welding parameters shown by (a) X-ray and (b) CT scan [41].
Spatial and temporal dependence of evolving microstructure is a re-
sult of temperature profiles, and associated phase transformation in the
titanium alloys. However, temperature measurement during friction
stir welding is a herculean task due to intense plastic deformation in-
volved in the process. Edwards et al. [32] have attempted to measure
the temperature distribution by embedding the thermocouples either
outside or in the weld nugget. Their experimental measurements
were made to determine the peak temperatures during friction stir
welding of Ti–6Al–4V alloy as a function of the processing conditions
such as tool rotation speed and traverse speed. It was found that the
spindle speed has a dominant effect on peak temperatures, while tra-
verse speed controls exposure time. Low spindle speed conditions
lead to peak temperatures near, or below, the β transus temperature
of the material, 1000 °C (1800 °F), while high spindle speed welds result
in peak temperatures above 1200 °C (2100 °F). Fig. 7 demonstrate the
temperature profile as measured by Edwards et al. [32].
A fully-coupled thermal–mechanical finite element model by using
commercially available softwares, such as Ansys, Abaqus, Deform can
be used to numerically simulate the joining process with corresponding
heat generation, in order to reduce the number of experiments. While
there is no suitable study demonstrating the temperature profile around
the weld nugget, an analogy can be made from the studies of Cho et al.
[42] based on the modelling results of friction stir welding of 304 stain-
less steel using finite elements method. Advancing side, with rotation
and traversing speed in the same direction, is likely to experience higher
temperatures in comparison with the retreating side as shown in Fig. 8
[18]. The top surface on the either side of the weld cools by two mech-
anism. 1) Due to flow of the argon gas, 2) thermal diffusivity of the tita-
nium. Due to which a thermal gradient develops. Owing to its high heat
capacity and poor thermal conductivity, a large portion of plastic work is
Fig. 7. a) Temperature versus time profiles for a varying traverse speed at constant spindle speed of 300 rpm; and b) varying spindle speeds for constant traverse speed of 100 mm/min
[32].
237
converted into heat giving rise to adiabatic shear bands with localized
heating and the irregular microstructure.
4. Microstructural evolution during FSW of titanium alloys
Ever since FSW of high temperature alloys came into realms of
achievable paradigm; titanium, and steel have been of prime focus
among researchers [43–48]. A ubiquitous fact about FSW of aluminum
alloys, that it produces three distinct zones; weld nugget (WN), thermo
mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) heat affected zone (HAZ), holds its
nerves when it comes to the unanimity of the FSW zones in titanium al-
loys. Some researchers claim no existence of the TMAZ [49,50], while
some bolster their findings about narrow TMAZ by showing a distinct
microstructural observation between HAZ, and TMAZ [51,52]. Accord-
ing to Pilchak et al. [51] and Knipling et al. [52] the weld nugget, appar-
ently acting as a heat source, transfers a small amount of heat in its
surrounding, therefore, plastic deformation in these regions was limited
and a negligible thermos mechanically affected zone has been formed.
The microstructure evolving in the TMAZ, HAZ, is primarily affected by
the microstructure of the base material (BM). However, the microstruc-
ture of the weld nugget is a result of processing conditions, and material
composition [51,52].
4.1. Microstructure in WN, and TMAZ
Due to severe plastic thermo mechanical deformation the grains are
refined in the WN. In the TMAZ/HAZ, deformation, and continuous dy-
namic recrystallization (CDRX) associated with higher temperature
are in competition to define the microstructure in this region. Due to
complex deformation, and the irregularity observed in the temperature
238 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

Fig. 8. a) Schematic of typical thermal profile generating during friction stir welding of TIMET 54 M and Ti-6242 (a combination of dissimilar titanium alloys; notice the emergence of
streaking pattern on the ADV side). Note: Image and colors not to scale; b) Typical heat affected zone thermal cycles for friction stir weld of Ti-6Al-4V. A, advancing side; R, retreating
side [18].

profiles of the FSW of titanium alloys, the evolving microstructure, and
the textures are persisted as the material flows around the tool and de-
posits in its wake. The presence of simple shear crystallographic texture
as it evolves in the direction of tool rotation can be observed due to
bending, and breaking of the lamellar microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V [53].
The transformation, nucleation, and growth of the respective phases,
also depends on the amount of α and β phases present in the base ma-
terial. The grain refinement of near α, and α + β alloys have been inves-
tigated by several researchers. Ti-6Al-4V, by far, is the most studied
titanium alloy (commonly known as the workhorse of the industry)
for friction stir welding [54]. Edwards et al. [32] have studied FSWed
12 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets with a water cooled W\\La alloy with
25 mm shoulder diameter and a tapered pin, 6 mm in length, adopting
different rotation, and traverse speed to study the peak temperatures,
and the resulting microstructure in the weld nugget. Fig. 9a, shows
that a minor influence of rotation speed, and traverse speed has been
observed in the microstructure of the WN for 12 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V.
Nonetheless, higher rotation speed and lower traverse speed resulted
in a coarser grained microstructure due to increased temperatures and
extended exposure times. Zhang et al. [55] have demonstrated the effect
of varying rotation speeds on FSWed 3 mm thick Ti-6Al-3V. The base
material with an α/β lamellar microstructure evolved into a fully lamel-
lar microstructure with refined prior β grains in the WN. The coarser
size of the α colonies, and prior β grains indicated the increase in the
temperature as the rotation speed increased, Fig. 9b.
One of the most agreed mechanisms for the grain refinement in the
TMAZ is considered to be CDRX related to shear-induced lattice rotation.
According to the literatures, the root of the CDRX in FSW can be found in
the very early studies on FSW of aluminum alloy [56]. However, some
recent works mentioned the discontinuous DRX [57]. In the first place,
although enough high strain rate can be predicted, it is difficult to
prove DRX in the FSW process where the plastic deformation stage
and post heat affected stage (cooling stage) cannot be separated
completely. Therefore, further research in a controlled environment
that accounts for stage by stage observation of microstructure, needs
to be carried out in order to understand the true mechanism behind.
In case of FSW of titanium alloys where material in the WN (and
around) is constantly compressed (from tool shoulder and backing
anvil), and sheared (due to tool rotation and traverse), imparted plastic
deformation and resultant temperatures play a dramatic role in devel-
opment of microstructure. On one hand, assumption of simple mecha-
nism either CDRX or DRX seems reasonable if heating and cooling
were the only two factors governing the evolution of microstructure.
In addition to these two factors, relaxation of material under compres-
sive and shear forces as the tool departs from one location to another,
followed by the impact of heating and cooling rate on β transus

Fig. 9. a) Macrographs and micrographs of welds as function of rotation speed and traverse speed [32], b) SEM images of the WN produced at different rotational speeds. Lamellar α/β,
prior β and α colonies are shown by arrows in the 400 rpm weld [55].
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 10. SEM images of the fracture locations (HAZ) in the 300, 500 and 600 rpm welds [55].
temperature of titanium alloys, are few other dominating parameters in
thorough understanding of microstructural evolution in FSW of titani-
um alloys. As shown in Fig. 2, introduction of other parameters (i.e. β
transus temperature and the extent of phase transformation mecha-
nism β → β + α) will add more to the complexity of FSW.
Furthermore, as the two phases α (HCP), and β (BCC) evolve, it is
most likely that the deformation of these two phases, whether by
grain boundary sliding (GBS), or by twinning is affected by the presence
of each other. Processing par β transus temperature results in the com-
plete transformation of the α phase into β phase giving rise to the fur-
ther nucleation of the twelve different variants of α phase. The
resulting microstructure, and concomitant mechanical properties are a
results of that transformation. The effect of rotation speed, as observed
by Zhang et al. [55] on the microstructural evolution in the HAZ is
shown in the Fig. 10. The HAZ contained a bimodal microstructure
consisting of primary α and α/β lamellar microstructure within prior
β grains. The prior grain size increases with rotational speed. As seen
in Fig. 10, it can be observed that as the rotational speed increased,
higher temperatures associated with the processing resulted in the
CDRX, with evolution of rather bigger prior β grains in the HAZ.
4.2. TMAZ and HAZ (deformation mechanism)
Thermo-mechanically affected zone due to lowest hardness (as de-
scribed later), if measured on the transverse cross section of the FSW
joint, is most prone to failure under transverse tensile tests. The evi-
dence of weaker nature of the thermo-mechanically affected zone can
also be seen in case of the electron beam welding where the digital
image correlation based strain measurement showed the accumulation
of maximum strain in the TMAZ [58]. Therefore, a close inspection of
TMAZ is necessary to understand the deformation mechanism. Wu et
al. [59] have studied the microstructural evolution in the thermo-me-
chanically affected zone in a 2.4 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheet friction stir
welded (800 rpm, and 200 mm/min) with a polycrystalline BN tool
with a concave shoulder 15 mm in diameter and 2.2 mm in length in
an argon shielded environment. The typical macrostructure of the
FSWed Ti-6Al-4V sheets is shown in Fig. 11 [59]. Corresponding texture
and microstructural evolution in TMAZ has been discussed in the fol-
lowing section.
According to Wu et al. [59] the deformation mechanism in the
thermomechanically affected zone (if divided into TMAZ 1, beside BM,
and TMAZ II beside WN) is governed by dynamic recovery (DRV) in
TMAZ I and by continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) in TMAZ
II as shown in the Fig. 12.
Fig. 11. Friction stir welded 2.4 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets. Instead of HAZ, TMAZ has been
formed with deformation characteristics similar to TMAZ [59].
239
Fig. 12a, of BM shows elongated α with subgrains, equiaxed α and a
lower volume fraction of residual β (black region marked with white
arrow), which were distributed intermittently between α grains. In
Fig. 12b, the border of TMAZ II and WN is defined according to whether
or not the material exceeded β transus. The presence of primary α in the
TMAZ, and the fully lamellar microstructure in the WN suggests that the
temperature in the TMAZ, and WN was below and above β transus re-
spectively. In TMAZ I (Fig. 12c) due to low angle grain boundaries
(LAGBs) introduced initially, the recrystallized grains subdivided into
smaller subgrains. As the strain increased from TMAZ I to TMAZ II, the
subdivided α grains were refined, and slightly elongated along the bor-
der of the TMAZ II and WN. A similar patterns has also been observed by
Pilchak et al. [53] in an investment casted, FSWed Ti-6Al-4V sheet.
As a result of adopted welding parameters the temperature in the
TMAZ and WN was below and above β transus temperature respective-
ly. In TMAZ I, α to β phase transformation during heating, and β to α +
β transformation during cooling, occurred between two original elon-
gated α grains. Groove, a result of diffusional flux from β phase into
α/α boundaries, were formed at the α/α boundaries. Dislocations intro-
duced as a result of thermomechanical process arrange themselves in
the form of subgrain boundaries by DRV. In TMAZ II due to higher tem-
perature than TMAZ I, a larger degree of β phase penetration occurred
along the α/α boundaries and it broke up large α grains into refined
subgrains facilitated by the grain boundary sliding (GBS) in the direc-
tion of shear stress. Furthermore, for a two phase Ti-6Al-4V titanium al-
loys, α/β interphase boundary also plays an important role during high
temperature deformation. According to this study it has been postulated
that the α/β phase boundary sliding (PBS) occurs more rapidly than α/
α; grain boundary sliding (GBS) [60]. Therefore, for the deformation
mechanism in TMAZ resulting in α/β phase transformation, and groov-
ing along the α/α boundary favors PBS. The presence of high angle grain
boundaries, and sheared refined shear grains in the direction of applied
stress by rotating tool suggest that GBS, PBS, and grooving are interrelat-
ed and facilitate each other. The EBSD, and TEM images of the TMAZ and
WN are shown in the Fig. 13. For a detailed information, the reader is
highly recommended to refer to [59,60].
4.3. Microstructural evolution in the WN, TMAZ, and HAZ
Although the resulting microstructure in the WN, and TMAZ/HAZ is
a culmination of initial microstructure of the BM, tool geometry, pro-
cessing condition, cooling rates, chemical composition, yet assuming
that the temperature goes par β transus in the WN, the mechanism
for the microstructure evolution in the WN can be described in the fol-
lowing section. On the contrary (assuming that) in TMAZ, the tempera-
tures are below β transus, the microstructure evolution is a function of
initial BM microstructure, and is described below in Fig. 14.
As the tool approaches the point of interest along the joining line, (or
a particular element in the workpiece), the temperature begins to rise,
and as a results the β phase located at the grain boundaries of α begin
to grow in expanse of α. As the temperature rises above the β transus
temperature there exists only one phase in prior β grains. The size of
the prior β grains is primarily dependent on the initial microstructure,
and temperature. Due to severe plastic deformation induced by the
tool, the β phase deforms with shear, and compressive components.
240 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

Fig. 12. EBSD maps of (a) BM, (b) TMAZ, with selected areas shown at higher magnification in (c) and (d). SZ = Stir zone (equivalent to weld nugget (WN)) [59].

After the deformation, as the tool departs from the particular position,
the material begins to cool down from the peak temperature in the
weld nugget ensued by the frictional heat, and deformation. As a results
of dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery the growth of β
phase (as shown in the Fig. 14. However, not necessarily of the same
size as beginning) grows until the nucleation of α phase begins at the
prior β grain boundary. On the contrary the temperature in the TMAZ/
HAZ the temperatures are well below the β transus temperature so
not all the primary α is converted into β. Upon cooling the β phase starts
transforming into acicular α surrounding the primary α. A schematic di-
agram of microstructure evolution in the titanium friction stir weld is
shown in Fig. 14.
The microstructural evolutions have been demonstrated with aid of
above and below β transus temperature. Main focus of evolution of mi-
crostructure is on the top and bottom of the weld nugget. Correspond-
ing cooling scheme has also been highlighted during evolution. In
summary, it can be deduced that initial microstructure, during heating
starts consuming primary α. As temperature reaches above β transus,
all β phase exists and goes through shear and compressive deformation
followed by dynamic recovery of β grains. Growth of β grains is
inhibited by the nucleating α. Nucleation of α at the prior β grain
boundaries, and at the triple junctions of β grains results in final micro-
structure that consists of plates of α in a retained β (acicular or basket-
weave) morphology. Microstructural evolution in the TMAZ/HAZ of ti-
tanium friction stir weld during heating β consumes α but tempera-
tures are below β transus, so primary α remains untransformed.
Furthermore, the prior β grains β after heating, promotes nucleation
of α at the grain boundaries of prior β. The acicular morphology sur-
rounds the primary α [18].
Evolution of microstructure below β transus temperature follows
quite a similar trend except the pre-existing phases, and corresponding-
ly transformed phases are significantly different. As shown in Fig. 14, we
can see that, below β transus temperature, the pre-existing phase is
combination of α and β phases. Upon cooling, corresponding transfor-
mations in the β phase begins. Amount of transformed β is likely to be
higher in the top of weld in comparison with HAZ. Width of α lath is
higher (in comparison with what is observed for the case where tem-
peratures are par β transus) marked by slower cooling rate in this
case. In the center and bottom of the weld, only refinement of α grain
has been observed due to plastic deformation imparted by tool pin. Ad-
ditionally, heat dissipation is relatively higher in the bottom of the weld
in comparison with the center of the weld. As a result, dynamic recovery
of refined grains in the bottom of the weld is more rapid than in the cen-
ter of the weld.
A research study conducted by Shude et al. [21] suggests that using a
back heated assisted friction stir welding is a feasible solution to reduce
the tearing effect in 2 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets. Their study suggests
that for processing parameters 350 rpm and 50 mm/min, back heating
at temperature 480 °C results into defect free weld with minimum
tool wear in addition to a significant drop in temperature gradient
through the thickness. Furthermore, the microstructure in the weld
nugget is characterized as α/β lamella microstructure correlating with
the higher values of hardness [61]. In a study of similar kind, thermal
stir weld (TSW) have been analyzed by Fonda et al. [62] for evolving mi-
crostructures and textures. Authors have shown that sheets of α and
near-α titanium alloy of thickness 12.3 mm can be welded by TSW, a
variant of FSW, due to presence of an external heat source to preheat
the alloying sheets. As a result, the weld microstructures at the root re-
flects the influence of lower temperatures from the reduced induction
heating, smaller tool cross section, and the heat sink effect from the un-
derlying anvil. These factors cause a substantial refinement in the grain
size at the base of the weld and limit the width of the weld nugget. How-
ever, based on this study it has been concluded that tensile welding
stresses associated with the severe deformation, and stirring of the

Fig. 13. TEM micrographs showing grain structures of (a and b) BM, (c and d) TMAZ I and (e and f) TMAZ II: (a) elongated α grains, (b) coarse recrystallized α grains, (c) grooving across α/
α boundaries, (d) dislocations in initial recrystallized α grains, (e) fragmented α grains and (f) refined equiaxed α grains [59].
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 14. Microstructural evolution in the friction stir welded titanium alloys. Are encircled by red and blue depicts evolution of microstructures above and below β transus temperatures
respectively.
material are not dependent on the peak temperatures, but also on the
temperature gradient along the thickness of the sheets [61].
5. Mechanical properties of FSW joints of titanium alloys
Mechanical properties of the friction stir welded titanium alloys are
evidently dependent on the evolved microstructure. The macrostruc-
ture as observed in the titanium alloys, is of parabolic [63] shape in com-
parison with banded (or onion rings) elliptical structure as observed in
aluminum alloys [11] where band spacing and tool traverse per rotation
are in accordance. In aluminum alloys, as observed by Fonda et al. [64],
the banding can be attributed to the grain size effect and fluctuations in
the density of the second phase particles or changes in the crystallo-
graphic texture. In titanium alloys, on the other hand, lack of any hard
second phase or inclusion so the only formation of banding in the
weld nugget can be a result of difference in the texture. Furthermore,
Lienert et al. [65] have suggested that upon cooling, once the tool has
passed, β to α + β transformation can potentially mask the formation
of bands in the weld nugget. In a study conducted by Reynolds et al.
[66] for the FSWed β-21S it has been found that if the cooling rates
are sufficiently high, β phase (with lower flow stress) can be retained
at room temperature. Because of a wide range of microstructural gradi-
ent developing in the weld nugget a variety of mechanical properties
can germinate. Based on the temperature profiles as shown in Fig. 7
the microstructures are slightly different on both sides of the weld nug-
get. As a result, the fracture properties, and morphology of the mechan-
ically tested surface during fatigue, and fracture can be different
depending on the nature of loading. The fundamental fracture mecha-
nisms for titanium alloys can be interpreted as following.
241
1) Absence of second phase to initiate the fracture.
2) The plastic anisotropy of α phase limits the availability of the slip
(and or twin) systems that can operate during loading.
3) Presence of two ductile phases in near α, and α + β alloys can result
in a complicated fractured morphologies.
5.1. Tensile properties
The peculiarity in the global stress strain curves of the FSWed titani-
um alloys is the lack of work hardening. In fact, the FSWed titanium al-
loys exhibit a small amount of work softening. In addition, the percent
elongation, as observed in the global stress strain curves of FSWed tita-
nium alloys is relatively lower in comparison with the base material
owing to the non-uniform elongation throughout the guage length of
the transverse tensile specimen stemming from the microstructural
gradients created by the welding process. For FSWed specimens, the
strains are usually carried by the narrow regions of TMAZ. A full field
strain mapping of the electron beam welded Ti-6Al-4V has shown the
dissimilarity in the strain fields. Based on the study conducted by
Saranath et al. [58] for EBWed Ti-6Al-4V it has come to our illustration
that region around the weld pool is most susceptible to fracture. The
heterogeneity in the elastic, and plastic properties as calculated by the
uniform stress method (USM), and virtual field method (VFM), is an in-
dication of the complexity of the microstructural gradient that are asso-
ciated in the joining of the titanium alloys.
Lee et al. [67], based on the FSW of CP-Ti has drawn some insightful
conclusions about the deformation mechanism involved during the
welding. Materials with HCP structure, such as α-Ti (case of CP-Ti) are
easily crystallized under severe plastic deformation, and heat, thus,
the overall grain structure in the WN of the CP-Ti is marked by the
242 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Fig. 15. Hardness variation as recorded on the center of the cross section of the FSWed Ti-
6Al-4V [55], effect of rotation [70] and traverse speed [71].
recrystallized grains. Juhas et al. [68] has proposed that the sizeable
strains associated with the deformation imparted in the WN, as a result
of β to α + β transformation, were accommodated and distributed
through the surrounding materials, resulting in a narrow TMAZ. Zhang
et al. [69] have also shown that that all the welds of Ti-6Al-4V (trans-
verse tensile tests) have lower strength, and lower elongation in com-
parison with BM. In the same study, all the tensile coupons were
fractured in the HAZ so the mechanical properties, such as yield
strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and percentage elonga-
tion are the evaluation of the properties of the HAZ. The increased rota-
tional speed has resulted in larger prior β grains, and hence lower
ductility in titanium alloys with a bimodal microstructure consisting of
equiaxed primary α grains and α β lamellae [69]. Effect of processing
parameters and rotational speed has further been studied by Zhou et
al. [49,70]. It would not be entirely futile to assume that FSWed tensile
specimens in transverse tests are likely to fail in a region where the
hardness is lower; especially TMAZ (in general) in titanium alloys. How-
ever, in a study by Zhou et al. [70] all the transverse tensile specimen
fractured in the WN which also had showed an interesting hardness pro-
file with lower hardness recorded in the WN for the adopted processing
conditions as shown in the following section.
5.2. Hardness
The hardness profiles in the center of the cross section of the trans-
verse weld are been shown in the Fig. 15. In general the WN of the
FSWed has shown higher values of the hardness due to grain refine-
ment and high angle grain boundaries, as shown in the Fig. 15. During
FSW processing if the temperatures are rendered above β transus
Fig. 16. SEM micrographs of the WN produced at: (a) 400 rpm, (b) 500 rpm and (c) 600 rpm [70].
temperature, dynamic recrystallization of β grains followed by nucle-
ation, and growth of α variants inside the prior β grains that are delin-
eated by the grain boundary α. High rotational speed, resulting in a
higher temperature accounts of larger proper β grains, hence lower
values of hardness have been recorded. On the contrary some re-
searchers have shown that hardness values in the weld nugget have de-
creased in comparison with the base material, shown in Fig. 15 [70].
From Fig. 16a, it can be concluded that for 400 rpm the temperatures
in the WN have not exceeded β transus resulting in a rather refined
equiaxed α and transformed β. As the rpm increased upto 500 and
600, the prior β grains with grain boundary α and lamellar α + β colo-
nies formed in the prior β grains are marked by temperature reaching
par β transus in the WN. The subsequent decrease in the hardness
values is shown in the Fig. 15. Based on the temperature profile as
shown in Fig. 8, the advancing side of the weld shows higher hardness
due to slightly higher temperature in comparison to retreating side
followed by DRX.
The decreased hardness values in the WN of the FSWed Ti-6Al-4V
are explained by the annealing effect caused by the frictional heat gen-
erated between tool (tungsten–rhenium alloy pin tool) and the work-
piece (2 mm thick mill annealed Ti–6Al–4V plates) [70,71]. The
reduction in the dislocation density for the welds processed at
500 rpm, and 600 rpm, followed by DRX is responsible for the hardness
decrease in the weld nugget. Similarly, the effect of traverse speed, if
higher, appears to be detrimental for the hardness values as shown in
Fig. 15. At higher traverse speed, due to lesser exposure time, the DRX
in the WN is not fully developed resulting in lower values of hardness.
As the traverse speed increases, the dislocation density also increases
resulting in higher values of hardness in comparison to lower traverse
speed [71].
The hardness values in the HAZ are not affected by either rotational
speed, or traverse speed. The microstructures on the AS, and RS are
quite similar as observed in [70,71]. This could be attributed to the
fact that sheets of Ti-6Al-4V used in their study were of 2 mm thickness,
hence the cooling rates by the continuous flow of argon, and back anvil
steel sheet were more dominant in comparison with the generating fric-
tional heat. Based on their study it can be inferred that if a sheet of
higher thickness processed with similar welding conditions will result
in a different hardness values on the AS, and RS of the WN. Edwards
et al. and Sanders et al. [72,73] have successfully joined the sheets of
thickness 3 mm, 6 mm, 9 mm, and 12 mm with varying processing con-
ditions, and with varying tool dimensions and higher values of hardness
in the WN have been observed.
5.3. Fatigue, and fracture toughness
In a study conducted by Edwards et al. [74] for the fracture and fa-
tigue crack propagation of friction stir welded 6 mm sheets of Ti-6Al-
4V, after post weld heat treatment, it has been concluded that the ap-
parent fracture toughness was lower than the wrought base material,
7–25% depending on the crack orientation relative to the weld, but the
crack growth performance (ΔK vs. da/dN) of the weld in the absence
of weld-induced residual stresses was identical to the base material. In
Table 3
Fracture and fatigue data for friction stir welded titanium alloys.

Material and thickness Processing conditions (rpm/mm-min−1) Heat treatment Fracture/fatigue specimen characteristics, and Conclusions
properties evaluated

Ti-6Al-4V, Mill annealed,
6.35 mm thick [63]
240/100 NO Effect of residual stress on near-threshold crack growth
in the welded region using edge crack compact tension
C(T), eccentrically loaded single edge ESE(T) and
center crack configuration M(T).
Effect of R (0.05–0.8) on crack growth in the center of
the weld using M(T).
Geometry effect on ΔK-Kmax.
Comparison of predicted (AFGROW) and measured
Evidence of dominant influence of residual stress M(T)
geometry is less susceptible to residual stress
Parametric analysis, using uniform residual stress
distribution along the crack plane, suggests that the
change in Kres is much higher for C(T) than M(T).

K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

Ti-6Al-4V, grade 5 mill
annealed plate 6 mm thick
[75]
Ti-6Al-4V, 6 mm thick [76]
Ti-6Al-4V, 3 mm, and 6 mm
thick [32]
Ti-5111, 12.7 mm and 6.3
mm thick [77]
Ti-6Al-4V, 2.5 mm, 3 mm
thick [79]
Ti-6Al-4V, 2.54 mm thick
[72]
1) 250–320/45–100 Post weld heat treatment. Held at 760 °C for 30 min in a 1) Butt, 2) corner, and 3) T joints
vacuum furnace, and air-cooled
2) 330–450/65–100
3) 250–450/65–100
280/100 Post weld heat treatment. Held at 760 °C, 816 °C, 871
°C, 927 °C for 45 min in a vacuum furnace then
air-cooled
For 3 mm, 300/75 Stress relieved at 730 °C for 30 min
For 6 mm, 280/100
225 rpm constant Half of the as-welded and base material C (T)
specimens were stress relieved in vacuum at 1100 °C
For 12.7 mm welding speed was for 2 h. Followed by rapid cooling in flowing argon at
51 mm/min (W1) ambient temperature
And for 6.3 mm two welding speeds were
compared; 25.4 (W2), and 102 mm/min (W3)
300/75 Most of the test panels were stress relieved using a
vacuum furnace with a temperature of 730 °C and a
soak time of 30 min, which was followed by furnace
cooling
300/75 One set was stress relieved at 774 °C for 45 min
fatigue crack growth.
S-N curves were produced
In addition machined bar and extruded machined bar
were tested for uni-axial fatigue testing
R = 0.1 or −1 and Kt = 1.0 or 1.3
Low Kt = 1.2, and Dog-bone shape geometry
Constant applied cyclic stress 800 MPa at 20 Hz,
and R = −0.2 until failure
S-N curves were calculated
Maximum applied stress 830 MPa at 20 Hz,
and R = 0.1, and 0.6 until failure
Kt = 1 to 3, dog-bone shape geometry
S-N curves were calculated
Effect of welding speed on fatigue crack growth rate
kinetics in a C(T) at a frequency of 10 Hz, and R = 0.1.
Notch direction parallel to the welding direction,
fatigue crack growth were conducted
Dog-bone transverse to weld and longitudinal fatigue
coupons, S\
\N curves were measured at a frequency of
15 Hz, and R = 0.1
Fracture toughness measured using R-curve method
C(T) specimen.
Fatigue performance of FSW corner joint is better than
identical structural elements fabricated from wrought
Ti-6Al-4V.
Using appropriate Kt for geometry and loading type can
give good estimate (within 10%).
As welded fatigue life was 50% lower than base
material
Two lowest heat treatment temperature further
reduced the performance by 70% in comparison with
base material
Higher heat treatment brought the fatigue
performance within 20% of the base material
For low Kt (1.0) the weld showed similar endurance
limit as base material (Compared with MIL handbook).
For base materials, W1, W2, and W3 Kth is 6, 8, 10.2,
and 6 MPa√m.
For stress relieved base material, W1, W2, and W3 is
3.5, 2, 2, 2 MPa√m respectively.
Base materials fatigue endurance limit that was about
620 MPa.
Transverse FSW coupons (tool marks removed by
machining and also had LPB to induce fatigue-resistant
compressive stress) is 565 MPa.
The transverse FSW coupons (tool marks removed by
machining) showed endurance limit of 496 MPa
In the weld center for the SR condition, an increase in
fracture toughness due to the stress relieving and
machining has been observed.

(continued on next page)

243

Table 3 (continued)
Material and thickness
Ti-6Al-4V, 6 mm thick [74]
Ti-6Al-4V, 24 mm thick [78]
Ti-6Al-4V, 2 mm thick [80]
Ti-6Al-4V, 7 mm thick [81]
Processing conditions (rpm/mm-min−1) Heat treatment
280/100 Thermal stress relief cycle of 760 °C for 45 min in a
vacuum and then furnace-cooled
150/75 Thermal stress relief cycle of 730 °C for 60 min in a
vacuum furnace and then furnace cooled
150/100 NO
120/15 Effect of residual stress and post weld heat treatment
(PWHT) at 650 °C for 2 h in argon gas environment
followed by furnace cooling
244
Fracture/fatigue specimen characteristics, and Conclusions
properties evaluated
As welded (AW), stress relieved (SR), SR-machined Higher fracture toughness in the weld zone interface
(M). than the WN center for all processing conditions.
Crack at weld center, crack perpendicular to the weld, Weld interface results on the advancing side give a
crack parallel to the weld slight increase in fracture toughness as compared with
the weld center in the SR condition
Fracture toughness measured using R-curve method Fracture toughness of base metal, longitudinal weld,
C(T) specimen (longitudinal to weld) with crack and transverse weld is 90.9, 84.9, 69.9 MPa√m
perpendicular to the weld, and in a C(T) (transverse to
the weld) with crack in the center of the weld parallel
to the welding direction.
K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
Same geometry for fatigue crack growth. 10 Hz, and R ΔKth for base metal, longitudinal weld, and transverse
= 0.1 weld is 8.2,8.6,8.2 MPa√m
Fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth for C(T) Fracture toughness for base metal, FSW longitudinal,
specimen in both longitudinal and transverse and transverse are 58.4, 78.1, and 81.8 MPa√m.
orientation.
R = 0.1, and 10 Hz, S\\N curves are measured. For BM-longitudinal, and transverse, and FSW-L, and
FSW-T the ΔKth is nearly same for all cases; 9 MPa√m.
C(T) specimens for decreasing and constant dKI-app (30 Residual stress measured by cut and compliance
MPa√m) were measured at R = 0.1, and 10 Hz. method was analyzed and considered as a factor
affecting the FCG.
Constant load tests for comparison with AFGROW and Compressive residual stress outside the weld and
measured FCG curves tensile stresses inside the weld were found.
Crack growth rate at constant dKI-app was measured FCG rate perpendicular to the FSW joint, showed a
across the weld line longer life sustainability in comparison with residual
stress free base material.
A correspondence between AFGROW and measured
data validates the adoptability of AFGROW while
residual stresses are in consideration.
AFGROW does not incorporate the microstructural
effect hence, numerical analysis does not provide a
thorough analysis.
C(T) specimens at R = 0.6, and 20 Hz with initial FCG at low ΔK levels, in the stirred zone and the
notches in the BM and the weld affected regions: stir interfacial zones are relatively higher in comparison
zone, inaterfacial zone, heat affected zone. with base metal and heat affected zone.
Fatigure crack growth rate vs ΔK with in-situ digital In case of as welded specimens, microstructure and
microscopy residual collectively account for the FCP, however, in
case of PWHT specimens, microstructure if the
determining factor for fatigue crack growth rate
calculation.
FCP, for microstructurally influenced profiles is a result
of consideration of ΔKeq. The results show that
nominally linear cracks in the weld nugget and in the
interfacial regions facilitate higher growth rate in
comparison with base metal and heat affected zone.
Since temperature in the WN are higher than β transus
resulting in an increment in the β phase fraction
causing undesirable FCG rates.
Table 4
Summary of friction stir welded titanium alloys, processing conditions and metallurgical characteristics.

Thickness (in mm) RPM mm/min Tool design BM ADV CEN CEN RET Texture Ref.
top bot

1.8 180 and 150 30 W-Re concave shoulder right-hand thread YES YES YES YES YES NO [21]

K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

2 350 50 W-Re alloy tool with a concave shoulder and a YES YES YES YES YES NO [20]
threaded pin
3.17 500 40 and 120 and 200 W-La truncated YES YES YES YES YES NO [145]
2 500 and 600 and 700 and 1000 and 1250 and 1500 100 W-C, conical shape pin with a flat shoulder YES YES YES YES YES NO [146]
2 500 150 W-5Re, concave shoulder tapered pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [147]
2 150 30 W-Re, Shoulder diameter 15 mm YES YES YES YES YES NO [148]
12.7 200 88.8 W based tapered pin tool YES YES YES YES YES YES [149]
Ti-5111
7 120 15 Co-based tool (no geometry provided) YES YES YES YES YES NO [81]
5 50 and 150 10 Co-based tapered tool YES YES YES YES YES YES [98]
5 150 10 Co-based tapered tool YES YES YES YES YES YES [150]
3 and 6 and 9 and 12 300, and 280, and 270, and 170 75, and 100, and 65, and 65 W-La tapered (different for different thickness) YES YES YES YES YES NO [31]
2.5 300 76.2 W-La tapered (different for different thickness) YES YES YES YES YES NO [72]
2 225 and 250 and 300 50 WC tool with a shoulder and probe YES YES YES YES YES YES [151]
2 1100 and 1000 and 1200 and 1200 and 1000 40 and 50 and 50 and 60 and 50 WC tool with a tapered geometry YES YES YES YES YES NO [33]
2 1200 60 A H13 steel holder with fix screws, Ti-Al interfaces were NO [152]
a nickel-base super- characteristics after
alloy (Inconel 718) shoulder and a multi-pass FSP
WC–13 wt% Co pin
2 100 and 1000 and 1000 and 900 and 900 25.4 and 50.8 and 100.6 and 25.4 W–1% La2O3 tool with shoulder and pin YES YES YES YES YES YES [54]
and 900 and 800 and 800 and 50.8 and 100.6 and 25.4 and 50.8
6 Range of 150 to 450 RPM Ranged from 0.85 to 5.1 mm/s A truncated W-1%La2O3 tool YES YES YES YES YES NO [153]
4 450 and 650 and 750 and 850 65 W–25%Re tapered circular YES YES YES YES YES NO [154]
1.25 300 and 500 and 700 25 and 50 and 75 W25Re conical pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [155]
2.5 900 and 1000 and 1100 25 and 50 W–1.1%La2O3 and WC–Co based materials YES YES YES YES YES NO [156]
of two grades
2 Variation between 300 and 1000 Variation between 25 and 400 WC based tool with shoulder and pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [157]
2.5 1000 (for both tools) 25.8 (W-La) and 51 (WC-Co) W-La (shoulder and cylindrical probe) YES YES YES YES YES NO [158]

(continued on next page)

245
 246
Table 4 (continued)

Thickness (in mm) RPM mm/min Tool design BM ADV CEN CEN RET Texture Ref.
top bot

WC-Co (shoulder and stepped spiral)

2.4 800 200 Polycrystalline cubic BN tool with a concave YES YES YES YES YES YES [59]
shoulder and a triangular prism pin
2 400 51 W-Re pin tool YES YES YES YES YES YES [96]
6 Combinations of 200 and 300 and 400 Combinations of 50, and 100 and 150 W-La tapered tool Tracer technique has been NO [41]

K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

adapted to characterize the
material flow.
6 280 100 W-La tapered tool YES YES YES YES YES NO [74]
7 280 100 W-La tapered tool YES YES YES YES YES NO [76]
2 300 100 WC-based tool (shoulder and cylindrical pin) Microstructures and textures were [141] CP-Ti
observed for three cases. 1) high
pressure air cooling, 2) ice–water
mixture cooling and 3) liquid nitrogen
cooling
3 630 4–22 mm/min WC-Co based frustum tool YES YES YES YES YES NO [159]
12.3 300 76.2 NA YES YES YES YES YES YES [62]
CP-Ti
24 150 75 W-La tapered YES YES YES YES YES NO [78]
4 300 100 W-La tapered YES YES YES YES YES NO [137] Dissimilar,
Ti-54 M and ATI-425
7 120 15 Co-based tool YES YES YES YES YES NO [81]
3 275 and 300 50.8 Densimet-176 (stepped pin profile) YES YES YES YES YES NO [160]
3 500 600 Mo based tool YES YES YES YES YES YES [161] VT6
7 800 150 Shoulder; Si3N4 and probe (W-25% Re) YES YES YES YES YES YES [162]
2 50 to 400 50 to 150 WC-Co tool with a shoulder and probe YES YES YES YES YES YES [99] CP-Ti
6 250–450 45–100 W–La based pin tool YES NO NO YES YES NO [75]
3 350–650 40–120 W-1%La2O3 shoulder and conical pin NO NO NO NO NO NO [163]
2.5 100 and 120 and 150 and 200 30 W–Re based tool with right hand threaded pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [61]
3 300 and 500 and 700 35 and 50 W-25Re based tool with a shoulder and conical pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [164]
12.7 200 88.8 W based tapered pin tool NO NO NO NO NO NO [165] Ti-5111
1.2 for CP-Ti, and 1.25 for Ti-6Al-4V CP-Ti (500) and Ti-6Al-4V (700) CP-Ti (55) and Ti-6Al-4V (80) W-La based tool with a shoulder and conical pin YES YES YES YES YES YES [166] similar, CP-Ti and
Ti-6Al-4V
1.8 550 127 W based tool with conical pin NO NO YES NO NO NO [167]
1.6 640; steady after 4 s 620 thereafter 102 W-25%Re based truncated conical pin YES YES NO NO NO NO [168]
3 300–500 50 WC tool with a shoulder and a conical pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [169]
2 250 50 and 75 and 100 W-Re tool with a shoulder and pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [170]
2 1400 40 WC and HSS tool with shoulder and hexagonal pin YES YES YES YES YES NO [2] CP-Ti
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255 247

Table 5
Summary of mechanical properties in friction stir welded titanium alloys.

YS UTS %Elong Hardness Heat treatment Fractography Fracture Fatigue Wear Residual Remarks Ref.
toughness stress
i
NO NO NO YES NO Yes NO NO YES NO [21]
ii
NO NO NO YES YES NO NO NO YES NO [20]
iii
NO YES YES YES NO NO YES YES NO YES [145]
iv
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO Yes NO [146]
v
Superplasticity NO Tensile tests NO NO NO NO NO [147]
achieved by performed at different temperature
lamellar
microstructure.
Data provided
with
temperature
and strain rates
vi
Superplasticity NO Tensile tests NO NO NO NO NO [148]
achieved by performed at different temperature
lamellar
microstructure.
Data provided
with
temperature
and strain rates
vii
Tensile data is YES NO YES NO NO NO NO [149]
provided for Ti-5111
transverse
specimens from
various part of
the weld
(multiple
specimens)
viii
Local tensile YES YES YES YES YES YES YES [81]
properties of
specimens
extracted from
different
locations in the
weld nugget are
provided
ix
NO NO NO YES NO NO NO NO NO NO [98]
x
No data provided YES YES NO NO NO YES [31]
except base
material
xi
Data is provided YES Stress relieving has been done YES YES NO NO NO [72]
for as welded,
stress relieved
and machined,
and stress
relieved
xii
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO [151]
xiii
NO NO NO YES NO NO NO NO YES NO [33]
xiv
NO NO NO NO Heat-inputs during FSLW-processing the upper NO NO NO Interfacial layer NO [152]
pure Al plate analysis by EDS
and XRD
xv
YS, UTS, %Elong NO NO NO NO NO Microstructure NO [54]
data is provided is affected
in the article for by tool wear
all 8 conditions (no data
provided)
xvi
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO [153]
xvii
NO YES NO NO NO NO NO NO [154]
xviii
NO YES NO Fracture NO NO NO NO [155]
locations
considered
xix
NO NO NO NO NO NO YES, BSE NO [156]
images
with W debris
xx
YES YES NO NO YES NO NO NO [157]
xxi
YES (high NO NO YES NO NO Debris of tools NO [158]
temperature were
deformation observed in the
behavior is microstructures
discussed)
xxii
NO Yes NO NO NO NO NO NO [59]
xxiii
NO NO NO NO [96]
xxiv
NO NO NO NO [41]

(continued on next page)

248 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255

Table 5 (continued)

YS UTS %Elong Hardness Heat treatment Fractography Fracture Fatigue Wear Residual Remarks Ref.
toughness stress
xxv
YES (for as welded YES YES YES YES YES NO YES [74]
and stress
relieved
conditions)
xxvi
YES (for as welded Yes YES Yes NO Yes (SN NO NO [76]
and for four heat curves
treated with a site
conditions) for
crack
initiation
and
propagation)
xxvii
YES YES Three cases. High pressure cooling, ice-water Fractured NO NO NO NO [141]
cooling, and liquid nitrogen cooling, were locations
considered are shown
xxviii
YES YES NO YES No NO YES (SEM, EDS, NO [159]
and XRD data
have been
presented)
xxix
NO NO An external heat source is used to preheat the NO NO NO NO NO [62]
workpiece in order to reconstruct
high temperature microstructure and texture
xxx
YES YES Stress relieving has been done YES YES YES NO Stress [78]
relived
xxxi
Yes YES NO NO NO NO NO NO [137]
xxxii
Local tensile YES YES YES YES YES No YES [81]
strengths and
elongations of
the miniature
specimens is
provided
xxxiii
NO NO NO Yes NO NO NO YES YES NO [160]
xxxiv
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO [161]
xxxv
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO [162]
xxxvi
YES YES YES YES NO Fractured No No NO No [99]
locations
are shown
xxxvii
NO NO NO NO YES YES NO YES NO NO [75]
xxxviii
YES YES YES NO NO Crack NO YES NO NO [145]
initiation
sites
are
characterized
xxxix
YES YES YES YES YES YES NO NO YES NO [61]
xl
NO YES NO YES NO NO NO NO NO NO [164]
xli
Tensile data is NO NO YES NO NO NO NO [165]
provided for
transverse
specimens from
various part of
the weld
(multiple
specimens)
xlii
YES YES YES YES NO NO NO NO NO NO [166]
xliii
Global and local NO NO NO NO NO NO NO [167]
stress strain
curves are
embellished. YS,
UTS, and %
elongation is
provided for
corresponding
specimens and
locations
xliv
Load displacement YES YES NO NO S-N curves NO NO [168]
curves for three were
specimens presented
tested under the for as
same conditions welded and
finished
surface
xlv
NO YES YES NO NO NO NO NO [169]
xlvi
Mechanical NO NO YES NO NO NO NO [170]
properties for
three different
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255 249

Table 5 (continued)

YS UTS %Elong Hardness Heat treatment Fractography Fracture Fatigue Wear Residual Remarks Ref.
toughness stress

conditions are
provided
NO This study presented the effects of FSP on the microstructure and electrochemical behaviors of pure Ti in the phosphate buffer solution. [2]
FSP reduced the grain size significantly down to submicron range as a result of dynamic recrystallization phenomena.
1
[171]
2
[142]
1
Microstructure evolution of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was simulated by cellular automaton method based on metal plastic flow analysis. The predicted flow stress curves are
similar to experimental measurements. Influences of strain rate and temperature on the evolution of the average dislocation density (equivalent to flow stress) as well as the final grain
size are analyzed.
2
This paper focuses on the advances of FSW in relation to common titanium alloys and explores their potential within the space sector. The study concentrates on research that has been
performed in the past 20 years. The outputs identify achieved successes, encountered limitations and unexplored opportunities. The competitiveness of the more standard welding pro-
cesses mentioned has also been considered to better understand the limited use of FSW for titanium alloys. The requirements of the European Space Agency (ESA) remain primary focus in
consideration along with other government agencies (NASA).
i
Ti-6Al-4V alloy has been friction stir lap welded by slightly penetrating into the lower sheet for the purpose of reducing the hook defect.
ii
To eliminate the tearing defect and to widen the welding parameters for welding Ti–6Al–4V alloy, the current research puts forward a new back heating assisted FSW into use.
iii
Extremely high cooling rates resulted in high Vickers hardness and fine acicular α (needle-like α) in prior β grain boundaries in the weld nugget compared to low Vickers hardness
and Basket weave α/β lamellar colonies for FSW in the weld nugget. High tensile residual stresses were measured in the weld nugget for LBW in comparison to FSW which had high tensile
residual stresses in the HAZ.
iv
Tool wear is strongly affected by the tool rotational speed. The highest tool wear was obtained under low rotational speeds.
v
Fine lamellar microstructure in the nugget of FSW Ti-6Al-4V alloy joint exhibited a low temperature superior plasticity (LTSP) of 442% at 650 °C.
vi
The maximum elongation of FSW Ti-6Al-4V alloy was obtained at 890°C and 2.6 × 10–3 s−1 was 617%.
vii
In terms of transverse direction properties, the advancing interface was found to result in strength values comparable to the BM. It also displayed ductile fracture but exhibited a low
strain to failure. The retreating interface showed highly brittle fracture and values below that of the BM.
viii
Microstructural and local mechanical properties of a FSWed Ti–6Al–4V alloy were evaluated with main focus on the fatigue crack propagation behavior in the different micro-
structural zones.
ix
The temperature at the top surface was lower than the β-transus temperature. The microstructure and the texture distribution in the thickness and the horizontal of the SZ were
investigated.
x
In general, tensile residual stresses are present in longitudinal to the welding direction and compressive stresses are present transverse to the welding direction in as-welded condition
(or prior to a post-weld thermal stress relief cycle).
xi
1) Weld center has higher fracture toughness in comparison to weld interface, 2) impact energy data has been provided.
xii
Analysis of fraction of α and β phase has been.
xiii
Severe wear (hot adhesion) caused inclusions of fragments inside the samples and the loss of surface quality.
xiv
Surface aluminizing on Ti–6Al–4V alloy was successfully performed via a novel solid-state method of multi-pass friction-stir lap welding (FSLW).
xv
Compared with the base material, the SZs of FSP samples exhibit higher tensile strength and comparable ductility. The tensile strength was influenced by a microstructure related to
the prior β grain size and α colony size, which are controlled by processing parameters.
xvi
Dimensionless heat input, suggests that stir zone microstructure is more dependent on RPM than travel speed and that the heat input parameter is not a good indicator of the
processing temperature.
xvii
Comparison between GTAW and FSW is presented by phases detected by SEM and EDS.
xviii
Numerical simulation of temperature, and effective strain distribution.
xix
Tool degradation mechanisms examined in terms of nature of interaction between tool and workpiece.
xx
The effect of the thermal cycle during friction stir welding (FSW) on the microstructure.
xxi
Comparison of room temperature and high temperature deformations was made.
xxii
Grain refinement and deformation process of TMAZ during FSW is discussed.
xxiii
Texture in stir zone is discussed in details.
xxiv
Tracer material used was a tungsten (W), 25% rhenium (Re) blend powder 20 μm in size.
xxv
As welded and stress relieved conditions were characterized.
xxvi
Residual stresses were removed by post weld heat treatments. Additionally, processing conditions were characterized.
xxvii
Finest grain size of 2.0 μm with abundant twin boundaries of 26.8% was obtained by FSW with liquid nitrogen cooling.
xxviii
The presence of WC-Co particles in the microstructure of weld bead results in lowering strength and ductility.
xxix
Thermal stir welding uses an external heat source to preheat the workpiece ahead of the rotating tool.
xxx
Comparison of mechanical and metallurgical properties have been made for FSW and EBW 24 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets.
xxxi
First study to report FSW of dissimilar titanium alloys.
xxxii
Fatigue crack propagation rates obtained through miniature CT specimens with initial notches in the base metal (BM), stirred zone (SZ), interfacial zone (IZ) and heat affected zone
(HAZ) were higher in the SZ and the IZ.
xxxiii
Microstructure characterization of parts produced using a hybrid manufacturing process consisting of laser metal deposition (LMD) and friction stir processing (FSP).
xxxiv
The β → α phase transformation that takes place after FSW is found to obey the Burgers orientation relationship.
xxxv
A unique method was developed in this work to differentiate the HAZ and TMAZ. Crystallographic texture evolution in FSW of Ti–6Al–4V has been shown to follow simple shear of
bcc materials, and textures are presented by the pole figures.
xxxvi
A distinctive plastic deformation extensively occurred within the weld region during the initial tensile deformation stage because the Schmid factor for prismatic slip in the weld
region is much higher than that in the BM.
xxxvii
Friction stir welding testing of titanium corner & T-joints for stress relieved specimens.
xxxviii
Comparison between as welded and polished specimens for their fatigue life (S\ \N curve) has been carried out.
xxxix
Effect of back heating has been characterized.
xl
FEM model was produced from tool plunge to the final in air cool down of the joint, by means of a model that is implicit, Lagrangian, thermo-mechanically coupled with visco-plastic
material characterization.
xli
This work is focused on micro sample characterization of the mechanical properties of a Ti-5111 FSW in the longitudinal direction.
xlii
Maximum hardness values have been achieved in the shoulder contact area. With strain controlled tensile tests of the base material and the FSW welding zone it could be proved that
for the weld the tensile strength decreases 3.1%, but the yield point increases by 11.5% respectively.
xliii
Full field strain maps on the longitudinal cross section of FSWed Ti-6Al-4V are provided by digital image correlation (DIC).
xliv
Fatigue tests performed on titanium alloy FSW joints showed that the fatigue strength of finished joint was greater than the as welded joints. The increase of the fatigue life is up to
1300%.
xlv
Due to both dissolution of smashed β phase, refined microstructure and strain hardening induced by the process, the average values of microhardness is higher in weld nugget (in
comparison with base material) and decrease with increasing rotation speed.
xlvi
Grain size of shoulder-affected zone is bigger than that of weld nugget. At the rotational velocity of 250 rpm, the grain size of weld nugget is decreased by increasing the welding
speed. By decreasing the welding speed, the tensile strength and the ductility of weld are increased.
250 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
a follow up study by Edwards et al. [75] to evaluate the fatigue perfor-
mance of structural joints (T-Joints, and corner), they have performed
friction stir welding of 6 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V. The fatigue performance
of the structural joints was either equivalent or better than the identical
structural element manufactured from the wrought Ti-6Al-4V. It has
been observed that a suitable heat treatment of the FSWed Ti-6Al-4V
can significantly be improved due to residual stresses being released
[76]. However, with the post weld heat treatment one might encounter
the deterioration in the hardness, and strength. Hence, it is recommend-
ed to optimize the heat treatment temperature high enough without
compromising the strength, ductility, and hardness of the welded joints.
Pao et al. [77] have been found that fatigue crack growth rates, and fa-
tigue crack growth threshold are significantly lower, and significantly
higher for friction stir welded Ti-5111 plates. From their study, it can
be concluded that with increasing traverse speed, FCP rates are progres-
sively higher and FCP threshold values are lower through the weld. Al-
though, stress relieving omits these differences in the FCP kinetics, yet,
the FCP rates are still higher in comparison with the base materials. Fur-
thermore, the fatigue and fracture toughness of 24 mm Ti-6Al-4V has
been compared with the electron beam welded sheets of same thick-
ness [78]. It has been found that due to slower cooling rates as observed
in FSW, a relatively coarser lamellar α transforming from β, has better
ductility, fatigue life, fracture toughness, and crack growth resistance
in comparison with base metal and electron beam welded joints
where rapid cooling results in the evolution of fine acicular α from
prior β grains [78]. The advances carried out in the field of fracture
and fatigue of FSWed titanium alloys are summarized in Table 3
shown below.
5.4. Residual stress
Residual stresses, depending on the nature; either compressive or
tensile, can be detrimental to the fatigue crack growth. A limited study
has been done on the residual stress measurements, and their effect
on the fatigue crack growth in friction stir welded titanium alloys [31,
63,80,82–84]. In a study conducted by John et al. [63] for FSWed 6 mm
thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets, compressive residual stresses (500 MPa), and
tensile residual stresses (approximately 100 MPa) were observed in
the root, and in the center of the weld nugget. Prime et al. [82] have pre-
sented the contours of residual stresses on the transverse cross section
of the FSWed Ti-6Al-4V sheets. The stresses profiles were similar to
the stress profile as observed in case of the fusion welding than to the
typical two-peak stress distribution as it has been reported for the
FSW in aluminum alloys [83]. The stir zone or nugget exhibited residual
tensile stress. A single peak of tensile stresses exceeding 400 MPa was
observed slightly below the surface corresponding to the shoulder of
the tool. The stresses were asymmetric with higher stresses on the ad-
vancing side of the weld. The high compressive stresses seen at the
edge of the plate on the advancing side were likely anomalous and prob-
ably arose from machining of the original plates [82]. In a research
study, conducted by Pasta et al. [80] where they have measured the re-
sidual stresses in 2 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V sheets by cut compliance meth-
od, it has been observed that the high tensile stresses (200 MPa) were
present in the WN that were balanced by compressive stress in the ad-
jacent BM. A numerical validation of the residual stress, and consequent
FCP study has also been performed with the help of AFGROW software.
Fatigue tests results showed that for cracks growing perpendicular to
the FSW joint, life was longer than for a stress free base metal specimen
[80]. Recently, Steuwer et al. [84] evaluated the residual stresses in 3-
mm Ti-6Al-4V FSWs as a function of tool travel speed. Increasing weld
traverse speed resulted in narrower and higher residual stress profile.
Edwards et al. [31] have studied the surface residual stresses by Hole-
Drilling Strain-Gage Method in 6, 9, and 12 mm thick FSWed Ti-6Al-
4V sheets. They have found that tensile residual stresses were present
in longitudinal direction, and compressive in transverse. Residual stress
profiles were similar for 3 mm, 6 mm, and 9 mm welds, exhibiting that
surface residual stresses developed during welding are independent of
thickness. However, 12 mm weld did not agree with the concurrent re-
sults, with a possibility to either validate or intrigue the scientific com-
munity for future research.
5.5. Superplastic deformation
The agglomeration of friction stir welding, and super plastic forming
is capable of producing large, single, and near net shape structure. By
additional manufacturing processes such as joining, either by fasteners,
or rivets, or by welding, followed by superplastic forming could be
employed to pre-obtained welded and super plastically formed sheets
in order to produce a bigger, and rather monolithic part [85,86] in
order to meet the buy-to-fly ratio requirements in aerospace industry.
In [87] it has been shown that FSW has produced a lamellar microstruc-
ture with small thickness and aspect ratio in Ti-6Al-4V. The lamellar mi-
crostructure evolved in the weld nugget of Ti-6Al-4V is of 172 nm and
an aspect ratio of 8:1 exhibiting a superior super plasticity at 925 °C
and strain rate 3 × 10−3 s−1. The deformation in the weld nugget is a
result of grain boundary sliding, and phase boundary sliding between
α and β. Further research on work hardening type super plastic defor-
mation behavior of FSW of Ti-6Al-4V has shown that the super plastic
tensile elongation of weld nugget is unaffected by the temperature.
However, deformation rate has contrary effects on super plasticity of
weld nugget. It has been demonstrated that for lower strain rates the su-
perplastic elongation was unaffected by the temperature conditions.
However, higher superplastic elongation (617%) were obtained at 890
°C with a higher strain rate of 2.6 × 10−3 s−1.
6. Texture evolution in FSWed titanium alloys
The mechanism of superplastic deformation in friction stir welded
titanium alloys can be extremely intricate. The microstructural gradient,
as it develops, from advancing side to retreating side, has a significant
impact on the superplastic forming ability of the titanium alloys. The de-
formation modes vary as a function of material composition, deforma-
tion, resulting texture, and in application loading direction. Presence
of the α, or β stabilizer in a titanium alloys can significantly affect the
mode of deformation; either prismatic, or basal. For instance, the
lower aluminum containing materials, prismatic slip dominated the
tensile deformation. However, the basal slip activity increased with in-
creased aluminum content in the alloys. For the Ti-5Al-2.5Sn and Ti-
6Al-4V alloys, basal slip was almost as equally active as prismatic slip.
In fact, for some testing conditions of these alloys, such as the 728 K ten-
sion tests of Ti- 6Al-4V, basal slip was more active than prismatic slip.
Basal slip activity was also enhanced by increasing temperature [88].
Friction stir welding produces a predominant shear texture with the
close-packed directions aligned with the shear direction (SD) and the
close-packed plane normal perpendicular to both the SD and the shear
plane normal [89]. Traces of sheared plastic flow associated with severe
plastic deformation caused by rotating tool in FSW, create crystallo-
graphic arrangements for preferential slip plane (basal (0002) plane)
in such a way that these basal planes surround the tool pin surface in
the WN [90–92]. In the center of the weld, while passing from one loca-
tion to another, the pin column surface of the tool is perpendicular to
welding direction. Shear plastic flow along the pin column surface
breaks the texture of the base material region and produces a texture
with the (0001) plane accumulated on the surface perpendicular to
the welding direction in this region [90]. In regions near top and bottom
of the surfaces, however, material is pushed by the compressive forces
provided by tool shoulder and backing anvil, so that the shear planes
in this region are likely to incline from the plane along the surface of
the pin column to that parallel to the backing plate. Introduction of
such shear stress states may produce a texture component with the ac-
cumulation in the 〈0002〉 directions near the normal direction in a re-
gion that in inclined − 65° from the welding direction to the normal
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
direction [92]. Another trace of shear can be observed in evolving micro-
structures. In a study conducted by Prangnell et al. [93] the material in
the WN was found to have a strong ideal {112} b 110N texture or strong
B=B simple shear component, with the shear plane normal and shear di-
rection aligned approximately perpendicular to and tangential with the
flow lines in the nugget. In addition to shearing and corresponding crys-
tallographic orientation, imparting strains (due to severe plastic defor-
mation) and strain rates are far more complicated. The material flow in
FSW is continuously accelerated (from RET side), steadied (in the WN),
and decelerated (on the ADV side) resulting in a non-uniform velocity
field and resultant strain histories. Consequently, the illustration of
shear, either by texture development or by microstructural observation,
is a challenging task. Therefore, in wake of such complex mechanics re-
searchers and engineers are continuously encouraged to contribute
more to the field of FSW of materials with higher strain hardening, and
with rather complex slip systems as observed in case of hcp materials.
In α, or near α titanium alloys, slip occurs most readily on prismatic
planes and to a lesser extent on pyramidal or basal planes. In a study con-
ducted by Mironov et al. [94] (CP-Ti, α titanium alloy), and Knipling et al.
[95] (near α, Ti-5111) on the transverse cross section of the weld, electron
back scattered diffraction (EBSD) revealed the existence of P1(1100)[112
0] hcp ideal shear texture. However, Fonda and Knipling) have observed
D1 (112) [111] bcc simple shear texture as well. The presence of bcc tex-
ture indicates the material has reached above β transus temperature dur-
ing welding and that the observed texture was inherited directly from
that high temperature bcc shear texture as the material cooled through
the allotropic transformation. The strength of either of these two textures
depends on the processing conditions. High temperature D1 (bcc shear
texture) is dominant at fast feed rates (lower temperature), however
lower temperature P1 (hcp shear texture) is strongest at slower feed
rated (high temperature). They interpreted this apparent contradiction
to reflect a variation in the stirring efficiency in the wake of the tool, pro-
posing that fast welding speeds can allow the high temperature deforma-
tion structure to be retained in the wake of the tool while slower welding
speeds can enable a more efficient transfer of the stirring deformation and
thereby continue to deform the deposited weld as it cools through the β
transus temperature [95]. It should be noted that while the presence of
P1, hcp shear texture components in a titanium alloy could indicate that
the shear deformation was introduced into the material at temperatures
below the β transus, it could also result from an a variant selection as
the material cools through the β transus in the presence of a shear defor-
mation field, since the hcp P1 shear texture is identical to one of the Bur-
gers variants of the bcc D1 shear texture [89]. A systematic study of the
texture for β-21 s is performed by Reynolds et al. [66], for Ti-6Al-4V by
Pilchak et al., Zhou et al., and Semiatin et al. [53,96,97]. In a recent study
conducted by Yoon et al. [98], for the texture development on friction
stir welded 5 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V, fully equiaxed structure was observed
even near the top surface in the 50 rpm joint, while a mixture of the la-
mellar structure with equiaxed grains was found near the top surface in
the 150 rpm joint. The existence of the lamellar structure resulted in a
strong [0001] α concentration in this area due to the variant selection
during the phase transformation [98]. The developing texture has signifi-
cant effect on the mechanical properties as well. As observed in the typical
stress strain curve, the friction stir welded specimens of CP-Ti fractured in
the BM [99]. In their studies, it has been found that for tensile strain b0.1%,
an extensive distinctive plastic deformation occurred in the WN because
Schmid factor for prismatic slip in WN is higher than the BM. However,
for strain values N0.1% this difference in the Schmid factor was overcome
by the grain size effect, therefore, the local deformation in the WN that
had a finer grain structure restrained, and the fracture occurred in the BM.
6.1. FSW of dissimilar alloys
Over the years, varieties of dissimilar alloys have been joined by fric-
tion stir welding under optimized processing conditions. Not only softer
251
materials such as aluminum and magnesium [100–105], aluminum and
copper [106–110] have been studies for their mechanical and metallur-
gical properties, but also combinations of harder and softer material are
also well documented in literature for aluminum and steel [111–116],
magnesium and steel [117], aluminum and titanium [118–120], and
magnesium and titanium [121–123]. Numerous combinations of differ-
ent alloys have been studies for weld soundness and material flow in
butt and lap joints [110]. Depending on the materials present on ad-
vancing and retreating side, a variety of flow patterns have been ob-
served. Vortex-like material flow, sharp interfaces at the weld
boundary, hook like flow are to name a few. Presence of micro-cracks,
and the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) at the interfaces
are expected during cooling stages due to variation in the work harden-
ing exponents of dissimilar alloys [124,125]. A variety of processing con-
ditions with respect to the formation of IMCs and material flow have
been studied and correlated in literature. Mechanical properties of
these joints have been characterized in terms of yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength, location of fracture, and percentage elongation. Fur-
thermore, effects of IMCs on joint properties have also been discussed
in details.
In light of interdependence of multiple parameters involved in fric-
tion stir welding, several modifications have been suggested to produce
FSWed joints with improved mechanical and metallurgical properties
for dissimilar combinations of alloys [113,126–128]. For instance, mod-
ifying heat input by pre-heating the harder plate could improve the duc-
tility of welded joint. However, thickening of IMCs layer is an impending
drawback of pre-heating the harder plate. Therefore, an optimization,
among pre-heat temperature, tool rotation speed and corresponding
cooling scheme, is required. Furthermore, it has also been suggested
that modifying the distribution of IMCs could also avoid the possibility
of localized fracture in the vicinity of thick IMC layer.
Modifications in work piece geometry (grooving the harder plate)
could potentially enhance the flow of softer material in the weld nugget
and improve interlocking abilities of the welded joint [129]. In another
effort to modify IMC layer, a new technology called friction melt bond-
ing (FMB) has been introduced by researchers. FMB involves melting of
softer welds where a pinless tool generates enough heat to melt the
softer plate and generate an IMC sealing at the lap joint with harder
plate on the top [130–133]. The mechanical properties of these welds
are similar to what can be reached by classical dissimilar FSW. In all
these modified processes, the welding tool is reduced to a simple cylin-
der facilitating tool manufacturing. Now these processes cannot be
strictly classified as solid-state processes as here melting of one of the
two materials to be joined is reached. A study conducted by Aude
Simar et al. [134] presents a detailed overview of challenges and solu-
tions for friction stir welding of dissimilar alloys.
Despite advancements in FSW of similar and dissimilar alloys, there
is a limited literature available for the FSW of dissimilar titanium alloys.
One of the many challenges that are being encountered in FSW of dis-
similar titanium alloys, is the minimal difference in melting tempera-
ture of titanium alloys. Furthermore, the presence of various alloying
elements and their nature of either being either α, or β stabilizer has a
major impact on the emerging phases and IMCs in and around the
weld nugget. Next section, primarily discusses the challenges associated
with friction stir welding of similar titanium alloys with a suggest strat-
egy to tackle emerging problems associated with the friction stir
welding of dissimilar titanium alloys.
7. Challenges and suggested remedies
By far the scholastic community has been convinced with the notice-
able achievements that friction stir welding can render. With the en-
hanced technology, automation, suitable tool design, and material
selection, FSW of higher work hardening materials has also been possi-
ble. Advantages, such as defect free weld, and almost no porosity (due to
solid state joining nature of the FSW) are often challenged by the
252 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
flexibility of materials, especially materials with different melting point.
In aerospace application, several parts operate at different temperature,
and under different loading condition. Similarly, in the light of recent
development at several automobile industries joining of two different
materials (especially steel and aluminum) can retract a huge payload
of aluminum. Another challenge that friction stir welding faces, is the
development of highly sensitive microstructure due to complicate ma-
terial flow, if dissimilar materials are considered. The compatibility of ti-
tanium with composite materials is not only alluring but at the same
time joining of composite with titanium by welding appear to be a her-
culean task. Recently Curtis et al. [135] have developed friction scribe
technology to join material with different melting temperature.
There has not been any published literature describing the FSW in a
nonlinear manner. Therefore, the only window that remains operable is
the joining in a straight line. In addition to directional limitability, mate-
rial composition, presence of α and β stabilizer, β transus temperature,
and the preprocessing conditions, and the position of the alloying sheets
(either AS, or RS) are few of the many variables that need to be consid-
ered before joining of dissimilar materials. In a study performed by Jata
et al. [136] where they have joined Ti-17, and Ti-6Al-4V, a necklace like
structure has emerged in the weld nugget due to different material
composition. A post annealing of FSWed specimens resulted in a signif-
icant improvement in the FCG rates. Another study of FSWed dissimilar
titanium alloys (Timet-54M, and ATI-425) summarizes the evolution of
microstructural and mechanical properties in details [137]. Gangwar et
al. [137] have shown that the presence of alloying sheet (whether on
advancing, or retreating side) has significant effect on metallurgical
mixing. A systematic study conducted by Gonser et al. [138] has docu-
mented the mixing pattern, microstructural and mechanical properties
evolution in FSWed Ti-6Al-4V, and Timetal-21S sheets.
These cost sensitive tempests can be subdued by the adoption of nu-
merical or analytical approach. Temperature measurement at the root of
the weld is extremely difficult, hence these numerical models can prove
themselves to be insightful in determining the true nature of position
controlled, and load controlled welding processes. Nonetheless, the
evaluation of intrinsic mixing patterns in the weld nugget is still
thwarted by the material composition, and initial microstructure of
the BM. One approach that could tackle this issue, would be to couple
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), crystal plasticity finite element
method (CP-FEM) along with appropriate temporal conditions that
are responsible for either CDRX, or DRV in the WN, and in the TMAZ
respectively.
Furthermore, an introduction of the vector valued phase field model
in which phase field model is combined with an orientation field for
representing different crystals or grain orientations, can simulate the
microstructures at a mesoscale by considering the different thermody-
namic driving forces such as bulk and interfacial energy, elastic energy,
and electric or magnetic energy, and the effect of different transport
processes [139].
8. Summary
Since 1991, friction stir welding has changed the course of additive
manufacturing. Prior to its invention, fusion based additive manufactur-
ing processes, championed by EBW, and laser welding (LW), had the
ability to produce almost any structural joint required. Unlike fusion
welding techniques, FSW has flourished as a most viable solid state join-
ing process that has given a miraculous hope to join materials that con-
tain second phase particles and are highly susceptible to intermetallic
formation. Strategies like heat treatment, solution hardening, and
aging have been proposed to improve the work hardening behavior of
titanium alloys. With advancements in additive manufacturing, it is nec-
essary to adopt strategies that can tailor the microstructure from β (at
par β transus temperature) to either β + α (furnace cooling), or α +
α′ (rapid cooling; water quenching) [140]. Another proposed strategy
for modification of mechanical properties, is to induce twin boundaries.
For three cases (case 1-high pressure air cooling; case 2-ice-water mix-
ture cooling; case 3-liquid nitrogen cooling) studied by Nan et al. [141]
for friction stir welded 2 mm CP-Ti sheets, have shown that case 3 result-
ed in finest grains with abundant twin boundaries (26.8%). An interest-
ing fact to notice in their study is that temperatures generated by
adapted processing conditions were below β transus temperature. For
case 3, where the primary mechanism of grain refinement during
welding is geometric dynamic recrystallization (GDRX), f1012gb1011N
twin also partially contributes to the grain refinement. Mechanical prop-
erties and texture evolution are also discussed in that regard. While alu-
minum climbs on the top of the list to be joined by FSW, high strength
materials such as steel, titanium, and nickel based alloys have made an
impact in the transportation, and space industry as well [142].
In this article, we have presented a brief review of friction stir
welded titanium alloy with a focus on its escalating use in aerospace
over the last decade (2007–2017). While tool design, tool material,
and sheet thickness are subjected to change from one application to an-
other, processing parameters also need to be optimized in order to
achieve a full penetration depth with either load controlled, or position
controlled FSW process. Material flow, depending on the position of the
alloying materials (either AS, or RS) can be significantly different for the
FSW of dissimilar materials. Concurrently, the β transus temperature of
the individual titanium alloy ought never be overlooked for tempera-
ture profiles on AS, or RS are quite different. Later on, we have presented
the microstructural development in the WN along with the deformation
mechanisms in the TMAZ. Based on the processing conditions adopted,
the deformation mechanism can either be sliding (either GBS, or PBS),
or twinning. As a result, grains of different textures are formed with a fa-
vorable slip planes in the loading (and or shearing) direction.
Mechanical properties of the welded joints have been summarized
in terms of tensile strength, hardness, fatigue, fracture, and residual
stress. In general weld nugget showed relatively higher strength. The
global stress strain curves as obtained in the referred studies are a result
of deformation of the heterogeneous gauge length containing BM, HAZ,
TMAZ, WN, TMAZ, HAZ, and BM from AS to RS. Zone wise deformational
histories recorded by digital image correlation for EBW Ti-6Al-4V have
exhibited an unsymmetrical strain profile with least deformation re-
corded in the weld nugget [58]. Fracture and fatigue crack growth
rates are dependent on the microstructure as developed in the WN. It
has been shown that widmanstattan morphology developed in the
weld nugget provides good resistance to FCW rate in comparison to
equiaxed grains. Residual stresses are tensile in the WN and are com-
pressive in the BM. However, post heat treatment can significantly re-
duce the level of stresses. Unlike FSWed aluminum alloys, only single
peak of tensile stress has been observed.
Evolving texture in the weld nugget governs the nature of super
plastic forming ability of the welded sheets. In presence of two phase
(α or β) texture can either be bcc or hcp shear dominant or both. Mate-
rial composition has a significant role in determining the nature of slip
and emerging strain rates during friction stir welding. Depending on
the values of Schmid factor for corresponding slip planes, assisted by ei-
ther GBS, or PBS the plastic deformation can take place differently. How-
ever, Hall-Petch relationship determining the dependence of loading on
the grain size, can be competitive with the emerging texture.
At the end of the article we have suggested that a conglomeration of
several techniques such as CFD (for material flow), CP-FEM (for under-
standing the effect of grain boundaries and particle reinforced metallic
alloys), and numerical analysis can be useful in extracting valuable in-
formation from the FSW process. The concept of material composition
can be utilized by carefully adjusting the phase field model with aid of
vector-valued of phase field model, and CALPHAD to predict the grain
orientation with corresponding elements' migration underlying in the
process of FSW. Lastly, as researchers are pushing through various fron-
tiers it becomes of paramount to develop new alloys with long term
goals. For instance, development of nanostructured β titanium alloys
with high strength [143], metastable β-type titanium alloys with
 K. Gangwar, M. Ramulu / Materials and Design 141 (2018) 230–255
ultralow elastic modulus and high strength [1], provide ideas and infor-
mation about how microstructural control can render optimized me-
chanical properties. A noble example of such pursuit is development
of metastable nanolaminate steels with bone-like crack resistance [144].
Table 4, represents summary of frictions stir welded titanium alloys.
References highlighted with text in the column correspond with re-
search articles that discuss titanium alloys other than Ti-6Al-4V. Due
to complexity of microstructures that are subjected to initial base mate-
rial (BM) microstructure, sheet thickness, welding parameters, tool ge-
ometry; a wide range of microstructures have been obtained at multiple
locations. Therefore, to summarize metallurgical properties we have il-
lustrated whether (YES) or not (NO) metallurgical characterization has
been performed at prescribed locations. ADV, CEN, and RET represent
advancing side, center of the weld, and retreating side respectively. Con-
clusive remarks have been highlighted for few cases.
Table 5 represents mechanical properties of FSWed titanium alloys.
Articles discussing mechanical properties of FSWed titanium alloys,
other than Ti-6Al-4V, are highlighted along with corresponding refer-
ences. Conclusive remarks corresponding to each reference are present-
ed at the end of the article.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the support of many of the former doctor-
al, master's degree students at UW and research collaborators in devel-
oping the friction stir welding and superplastic forming of titanium
alloys. Professor Ramulu would like extend special thanks to Dr. Dan
Sanders and Dr. R. Boyer from Boeing Company; Dr. Paul Edwards from
Tesla; Dr. N. Kulkarni from Honeywell; Dr. T. Morton from Blue Origin;
Mr. Kevin Colligan; Mr. A. Cantrell. We would like to thank Professor
A.P. Reynolds of USC; G. Grant of PNNL and Prof Brian Flinn from depart-
ment of materials science and engineering at University of Washington
(UW) for their contribution to Solheim Manufacturing Science and
Technology Laboratory at UW. We, also, sincerely acknowledge the
Boeing-Pennell Professorship fund and The Boeing Company for
supporting titanium structures manufacturing research.
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