Solutions Manual to Accompany

Differential Equations for Engineers and Scientists

By
Y. Cengel and W. Palm III

Solutions to Problems in Chapter Four

Problems 4-1 Through 4-74

Solutions prepared by:

Tahsin Engin, University of Sakarya

And
William Palm III, University of Rhode Island

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 CHAPTER 4
Section Review Problems
4-1C The general solution of an th order linear differential equation involves different
arbitrary constants, since the solution requires successive integration, each of which giving an
arbitrary constant.

4-2C Theorem 4-1 guarantees that an th order linear differential equation has a unique
solution in an interval, provided that the coefficients are continuous functions in that interval,
and the initial conditions are specified at a point in the same interval. Thus, we need to specify
initial condition to guarantee the solution to be unique.

4-3 (a) ; Nonlinear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

(b) ; Linear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients
(c) ; Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients
(d) ; Linear, nonhomogeneous, variable coefficients

4-4
(a) Given: , and
Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that
, , and . The functions , , and
are continuous in . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at ,
which is in that interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique
solution in the interval .

(b) Given: , and

Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The function is continuous. But the functions and are discontinuous at

Considering that the initial conditions are specified at , Theorem 4-1 guarantees
nothing.

4-5C Theorem 4-2 tells us that the sum of the solutions of a linear homogeneous is also a
solution. This is referred to as the superposition principle.

4-6C No. Theorem 4-3 indicates that Wronskian of a third order linear homogeneous equation
with continuous coefficients cannot be zero for some and nonzero for other values in an
interval, in which the coefficients of the linear homogeneous differential equation are
continuous.

4-7
(a) Given: ; , and

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Solution: The solutions and are linearly independent since no one is a constant
multiple of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is
never zero for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| | | |

which is never zero for .

(b) Given: ; , and

Solution: The solutions , and are linearly dependent since is a constant
multiple (2) of

4-8
(a) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions and are linearly independent since no one is a constant multiple
of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is never zero
for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| |
| |
| |

which is never zero for .

b) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions and 5 are linearly independent since no one is a constant multiple
of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is never zero
for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| |
| |
| |

which is never zero for .

4-9
(a) Given: , and

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Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. The Wronskian of , and can be written as

| |
| |
| |

which indicates that and are linearly independent. Therefore these solutions form a
fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Thus the general solution of the
differential equation can be expressed as,

(b) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. Realizing that , the Wronskian of ,
and can be written as

| |
| |
| |

which indicates that and are linearly dependent. Therefore these solutions do not form
a fundamental set of the given differential equation for .

4-10 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

Substituting and into the given differential equation gives

or simplifying

Taking , this third order differential equation becomes a second order differential
equation

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whose characteristic equation is . The roots of this equation are and
. Thus the general solution of the reduced differential equation is

where and are arbitrary constants. Choosing, say, and ,

we find two linearly independent solutions,

Since , Integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus the three linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

The method of reduction of order works Maple as well. The reduced differential equation can be
directly found as follows:

> restart;
> with(DEtools);
> y1 := exp(x);

> ode := diff(y(x), x, x, x)-(diff(y(x), x)) = 0;

> reduceOrder(ode, y(x), y1) = 0;

4-11C No. If these three functions are linearly independent, then no one can be expressed as a
linear combination of the other two.

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4-12C No. A third order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients has at most
three linearly independent solutions, and no third order linear equation is satisfied by the given
four linearly independent functions.

4-13
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the given
differential equation is

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the given
differential equation is

4-14 Given: ; and

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the general solution is

Differentiating, we obtain

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Hence, the initial conditions imply that

or simplifying,

Solving yields , , and . Substituting these constants into the

general solution, we obtain

( )

or

[ ( ) ]

which is the desired solution.

4-15C No. A third order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients has at most
three linearly independent solutions, and no third order linear equation is satisfied by the given
four linearly independent functions.

4-16
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

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which can be factored as

√
The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the
homogeneous part of this equation is

√ √
( )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is .

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we obtain

Equating coefficient, we see that . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous

differential equation is given by

√ √
( )

Maple solution:

> restart;
> a := 1; b := 0; c := 0; d := -1;
> R := 4*exp(3*x):
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> F := R = lhs(ode);

> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

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>
> yp := A*exp(3*x);

> diff(yp, x);

> diff(yp, x, x);

> diff(yp, x, x, x);

> F1 := eval(simplify(subs(y(x) = yp, F)));

> simplify(collect(F1, x)/R);

> Sol := A = solve(%);

> y[p] := subs(Sol, yp);

> y = y[h]+y[p];

(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

√
The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the
homogeneous part of this equation is

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 √ √
( )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficient, we see that , and . Thus a general

solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

√ √
( ) ( )

4-17C The method of variation of parameters is also applicable to third or higher order
equations with constant or variable coefficients and to nonhomogeneous terms which can be of
any form. Hence, there is no need to modify this method when applying it for third of higher
order differential equations.

4-18
(a) Given:

Solution: The related homogeneous equation and its characteristic equation are

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 √
The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution of the

homogeneous equation is

√ √

Before we apply the method of variation of parameters, we determine the Wronskian

√
and the functions and . Taking , and
√
, we compute

| |

√ √
| |
√ √ √ √ √ √ √

| |
√ √ √ √ √ √

| |

√ √
√
|| ||
√ √ √ √ √ √

| |

√
√ √
|| || ( √ )
√ √ √

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 √
| | || ||
√ √ √

√ √
( √ )

The functions and are determined by substituting these expressions into Eq. 4-39,

√
( )
∫ ∫ ∫
√

√ √
( ( √ ))
∫ ∫
√

√ √ √ √ √
∫ ( √ ) ( √ )

√ √
( ( √ ))
∫ ∫
√

√ √ √ √ √
∫ ( √ ) ( √ )

Thus the particular solution of the given nonhomogeneous equation is given by

√ √ √
( ) ( ( √ )) ( )

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 √ √ √
( ( √ )) ( )

or simplifying

Finally, the general solution of the differential equation is obtained by combining the
homogeneous solution with this particular solution:

√ √

Finding particular solution using the method of undetermined coefficients:

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is .

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we obtain

Equating coefficient, we see that . Thus the particular solution is given by

Notice that the solution is quite straightforward and easy. This exercise clearly showed that the
method of variation of parameters is much more complicated due to required lengthy
integrations and determinant operations.

(b) Given:

Solution: Solution: The related homogeneous equation and its characteristic equation are

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 √
The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution of the

homogeneous equation is

√ √

Before we apply the method of variation of parameters, we determine the Wronskian

√
and the functions and . Taking , and
√
, we compute

| |

√ √
| |
√ √ √ √ √ √ √

| |
√ √ √ √ √ √

| |

√ √
√
|| ||
√ √ √ √ √ √

| |

√
√ √
|| || ( √ )
√ √ √

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 √
| | || ||
√ √ √

√ √
( √ )

The functions and are determined by substituting these expressions into Eq. 4-39,

√
( )( )
∫ ∫ ∫
√

√ √
( )( ( √ ))
∫ ∫
√

√ √ √
∫ ( √ )

√ √
( )( ( √ ))
∫ ∫
√

√ √ √
∫ ( √ )

Thus the particular solution of the given nonhomogeneous equation is given by

√ √ √ √
( ∫ ) ( ∫ ( √ ) )( )

√ √ √ √
( ∫ ( √ ) )( )

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Finally, the general solution of the differential equation is obtained by combining the
homogeneous solution with this particular solution:

√ √
( ∫ )

√ √ √ √
( ∫ ( √ ) )( )

√ √ √ √
( ∫ ( √ ) )( )

4-19C The Euler equation can be expressed in the most general form as

where .. are real constants. It is clear from the general form of the equation that each
term on the left hand side is of the form , where is a constant and is a nonnegative
integer. This is the main indication of Euler equation.

4-20C Yes. Theorem 4-9 guarantees that the transformation will always convert the
order Euler equations to linear equations with constant coefficients regardless of their order.

4-21 Given:

Solution: Taking and substituting it and its derivatives ,

and into the given differential equation yields

or,

[ ]

or,

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 √
since and thus cannot be zero. The roots of this equation are and .
Therefore the general solution of this Euler equation is given by

√ √
[ ( ) ( )]

End-of-Chapter Problems
4.1 Introduction to Higher Order Linear Equation

4-22C Theorem 4-1 guarantees that an th order linear differential equation has a unique
solution in an interval, provided that the coefficients are continuous functions in that interval,
and the initial conditions are specified at a point in the same interval.

4-23C A direct consequence of Theorem 4-1 is that the trivial solution is the only solution
of an th order linear, homogeneous differential equation with continuous coefficients whose
initial conditions are all equal to zero. Therefore the following initial value problem of rd order
has only the trivial solution :

A direct solution from Maple verifies the trivial solution below:

> restart;
> with(DEtools);
> ode := diff(y(x), x, x, x)+2*x*(diff(y(x), x, x))+(3-x)*(diff(y(x), x))+y(x) = 0;

> ics := y(2) = 0, (D(y))(2) = 0, ((D@@2)(y))(2) = 0;

> dsolve({ics, ode}, y(x));

In Problems 4-24 to 4-27, we are to determine if the following differential equations are (1) linear
or nonlinear, (2) homogeneous or nonhomogeneous, and (3) whether they have constant or
variable coefficients.

4-24 (a) Nonlinear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

(b) Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients
(c) Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients

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 (d) Linear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

4-25 (a) ; Nonlinear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

(b) ; Linear, homogeneous, constant coefficients
(c) ; Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients
(d) ; Linear, nonhomogeneous, variable coefficients

4-26 (a) ; Nonlinear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

(b) Linear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients
(c) ; Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients
(d) ; Linear, homogeneous, constant coefficients

4-27 (a) ; Nonlinear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

(b) Nonlinear, homogeneous, constant coefficients
(c) ; Linear, homogeneous, variable coefficients
(d) ; Linear, nonhomogeneous, constant coefficients

In Problems 4-28 to 4-31, we are to determine the interval in which the initial-value problem is
guaranteed to have a unique solution.

4-28
(a) Given: , , and
Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that
, , and . The functions , , and are
continuous in . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at ,
which is in that interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique
solution in the interval .

(b) Given: , , and

Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The function is continuous. But the functions , and are discontinuous at

. Therefore the functions , and are continuous in two intervals:
and 1 . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at ,
which is in the first interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a
unique solution in the interval .

4-29
(a) Given: , , and
Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that
, , and The functions , , and
are continuous in . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at ,
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which is in that interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique
solution in the interval .

(b) Given: , and

Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The functions and are continuous. But the functions and are
discontinuous at . Therefore the functions and are continuous in two intervals:
and . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at , which
is in the first interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique
solution in the interval .

4-30
(a) Given: , and
Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The functions and are continuous. But the function is discontinuous at ,

and the function is discontinuous at and . Therefore the function is
continuous in two intervals: and , and the function is continuous in
three intervals: , and Considering that the initial conditions
are specified at , which is in the , Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value
problem has a unique solution in the interval . It should be noted that , ,
and are all continuous in that interval.

(b) Given: and

Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The functions , and are continuous. But the function is continuous only in
the interval . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at , which is
in that interval, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique solution in
the interval .

4-31
(a) Given: , and
Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The functions , , and are continuous. Thus the Theorem 4-1 guarantees
that this initial-value problem has a unique solution in the interval .

(b) Given: , and

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 Solution: Comparing the standard form of the differential equation with Eq. 4-1 we see that

The functions , and are continuous. But the function is discontinuous at

and . Specifically is continuous in the intervals , ,
and . Considering that the initial conditions are specified at , which is in the
, Theorem 4-1 guarantees that this initial-value problem has a unique solution in the
interval .

4.2 Theory of Homogeneous Equations

4-32C An th order linear homogeneous equation with continuous coefficients can have infinity
number of solutions. However, Theorem 4-4 ensures that only solutions can be linearly
independent. The rest of the solutions would be linearly dependent.

4-33C The general solution of a third order linear homogeneous equation with continuous
coefficients can be expressed as

which contains all possible solutions of the differential equation in the specified interval. Thus,
this differential equation cannot have a solution which cannot be expressed as
, where , , are constants.

In Problems 4-34 to 4-36, we are to identify the solutions whose Wronskian is never zero for
by inspection. We are also to verify the findings by actually calculating their Wronskian for each
case.

4-34
(a) Given: ; and
Solution: The solutions and are linearly independent since no one is a constant
multiple of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is
never zero for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| | | |

which is never zero for .

(b) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions and are linearly dependent since is a constant multiple
( ) of

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4-35
(a) Given: ; and
Solution: The solutions and are linearly independent since no one is a constant
multiple of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is
never zero for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| | | |

which is never zero for .

(b) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions , and are linearly dependent since is a constant
multiple ( ) of

4-36
(a) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions and are linearly independent since no one is a constant
multiple of any other for . Therefore the Wronskian of these three solution functions is
never zero for . We can verify this finding by calculating Wronskian

| |
| |
| |

which is never zero for .

(b) Given: ; and

Solution: The solutions , and are linearly dependent since is a constant

multiple ( ) of

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In Problems 4-37 to 4-40, we are to determine if the given solutions form a fundamental set of
solutions.

4-37
(a) Given: , and

Solution: This is a fourth order linear homogeneous and possesses four (not three) linear
independent solutions. Furthermore, it can be easily shown by direct substitution that is
not a solution of the given differential equation. Therefore the functions , and
do not form a set of fundamental solutions to the differential equation.

(b) Given ; , and

Solution: This is a fourth order linear homogeneous and possesses four (not three) linear
independent solutions. Furthermore, it can be easily shown by direct substitution that none of
these three solutions satisfy the given differential equation. Therefore the functions ,
and do not form a set of fundamental solutions to the differential
equation.

4-38
(a) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. The Wronskian of , and can be
written as

| | | |

which indicates that and are linearly independent. Therefore these solutions form a
fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Thus the general solution of the
differential equation can be expressed as,

(b) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. Realizing that , the Wronskian of ,
and can be written as

| | | |

which indicates that and are linearly dependent. Therefore these solutions do not form
a fundamental set of the given differential equation for .
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4-39
(a) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. The Wronskian of , and can be written
as

| | | |

which indicates that and are linearly independent. Therefore these solutions form a
fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Thus the general solution of the
differential equation can be expressed as,

(b) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. Realizing that , the Wronskian of ,
and can be written as

| | | |

which indicates that and are linearly independent. Therefore these solutions form a
fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Thus the general solution of the
differential equation can be expressed as,

where .

4-40
(a) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. The Wronskian of , and can be written
as

| | | |

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 which indicates that and are linearly independent. Therefore these solutions form a
fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Thus the general solution of the
differential equation can be expressed as,

(b) Given: , and

Solution: it can be easily shown by direct substitution that these three functions satisfy the
given differential equation. The Wronskian of , and can be
written as

| | | |

which indicates that and are linearly dependent. Therefore these solutions do not form
a fundamental set of the given differential equation for . Note that is a linear
combination of and , and the linear dependence is already evident.

4.3 Reduction of Order

4-41C The method of reduction of order is applicable, in principle, to linear differential

equations of any order. However it is rarely practical to reduce an th order linear differential
equation to a first order by the repeated application of the method of reduction of order. This is
due to the fact that for equations of third or higher order, the reduced equation is at least second
order, which is usually no easier to solve than the original equation.

In Problems 4-42 to 4-46, using the given solution, we are to determine the other linearly
independent solutions of the linear homogeneous equation by the method of reduction of order.

4-42 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

Substituting and into the given differential equation gives

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or simplifying

Taking , this fourth order differential equation becomes a third order differential equation

whose characteristic equation is

By inspection, we see that is a root of this equation, and so we can factor it as

Thus the roots to the characteristic equation are , . Therefore the

general solution to the reduced differential equation is given by

where and are arbitrary constants. Therefore,

{ } { }

is a fundamental set of solutions. Since , Integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus, the four linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

( )

( )

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 ( )

4-43 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

Substituting and into the given differential equation gives

Taking , this third order differential equation becomes a second order differential
equation

whose characteristic equation is . The roots of this equation are . Thus

the general solution of the reduced differential equation is

where and are arbitrary constants. Therefore,

{ } { }

is a fundamental set of solutions. Since , Integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus, the three linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

( )

( )

4-44 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

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Substituting and into the given differential equation, and simplifying

Taking , this fourth order differential equation becomes a third order differential equation

whose characteristic equation is

The roots of this equation are , . Therefore the general solution to the reduced
differential equation is given by

where and are arbitrary constants. Therefore,

{ } { }

is a fundamental set of solutions. Since , Integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus, the four linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

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 ( )

( )

The use of Maple to find the reduced differential equation:

> restart;
> with(DEtools);
>
> Y1 := exp(-x);

> y := Y1*v(x);

>
> y1 := diff(y, x);

> y2 := diff(y, x, x);

> y3 := diff(y, x, x, x);

> y4 := diff(y, x, x, x, x);

> ODE := y4+8*y3+18*y2+16*y1+5*y = 0;

> ode := simplify(%/Y1);

4-45 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

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Substituting and into the given differential equation gives

or simplifying

Taking , this third order differential equation becomes a second order Euler equation:

Taking and substituting it and its derivatives and into

the given differential equation yields

or

since and cannot be zero. The roots of this equation are and . Therefore
the general solution of the differential equation is, from Eq. 3-77,

Thus

{ } { }

is a fundamental set of solutions. Since , integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus, the three linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

( )

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4-46 Given: ,

Solution: Letting and repeatedly using the product rule, we have

Substituting and into the given differential equation gives

or simplifying

Taking , this third order differential equation becomes a second order Euler equation:

Taking and substituting it and its derivatives and into

the given differential equation yields

or

since and cannot be zero. The roots of this equation are . Therefore the
general solution of the differential equation is, from Eq. 3-78,

Thus

{ } { }

is a fundamental set of solutions. Since , integrating yields

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

where we have chosen zero integration constants. Thus, the three linearly independent solutions
to the given differential equation are

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 ( )

4.4 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients

4-47C Yes. The functions , are linearly independent and can be solutions to a fourth
order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients. The third function, on the other
hand, is a linear combination of the first two, and it satisfies the corresponding fourth order
differential equation too. By constructing the related characteristic equation, we can build up a
fourth order linear homogeneous differential equation satisfied by the functions , and
, such that,

4-48C The Wronskian of these four functions can be evaluated as

[ ] [ ]

indicating that the functions , , and are linearly dependent, that is any of them
can be expressed as a linear combination of other three. However, using the given four functions,
we can construct three linearly independent solutions such that

Therefore we conclude that there exists a third order linear homogeneous equation with
constant coefficients, which is satisfied the functions , , and .

4-49C No. The functions , , and are linearly independent and no third order
linear homogeneous equation with continuous coefficients can have four linearly independent
solutions.

4-50C If is a -fold repeated root of the corresponding characteristic equation, then

are the linearly independent solutions due to this root (see Fig. 4-8). Hence, we would form the
general solution to a fourth order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients,
whose the roots of its characteristic equation are equal as follows

since in this case.

4-51C Recalling from algebra that if a polynomial equation has real coefficients, then any
complex roots that it may have must occur in conjugates. Therefore, it can be concluded that if
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all the roots of the characteristic equation to a sixth order linear homogeneous equation with
constant coefficients are complex then they are necessarily in the form of three conjugate pairs.

In Problems 4-52 to 4-55, we are to determine the general solution of the given linear
homogeneous equation with constant coefficients.

4-52
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the given
differential equation is

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and √ . Then the general solution to the
given differential equation is

(√ ) (√ )

4-53
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

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The roots of this equation are . Then the general solution to the given differential
equation is

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the given
differential equation is

4-54
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the given
differential equation is

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

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which can be factored as

√
The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the

given differential equation is

√ √
( )

4-55
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

√
The roots of this equation are and . Then the general solution to the

given differential equation is

√ √
( )

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

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The roots of this equation are √ and √ . We notice that the
complex conjugate pair √ is a two-fold root of the characteristic equation. Therefore the
general solution to the given differential equation is

( √ √ ) ( √ √ )

In Problems 4-56 to 4-59, we are to determine the specific solution of the given initial-value
problem.

4-56 Given: ; and

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the general solution is

Differentiating, we obtain

Hence, the initial conditions imply that

Solving yields , and . Substituting these constants into the general

solution, we obtain

4-57 Given: ; and

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Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

√
The roots of this equation are and . Thus the general solution is

√ √

Differentiating, we obtain

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

Hence, the initial conditions imply that

Solving yields , and . Substituting these constants into the general solution,

we obtain
√

Maple solution:
> restart;
> with(DEtools);
> ode := diff(y, x, x, x)-y = 0;

> y := rhs(dsolve(ode));

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> y1 := simplify(diff(y, x));

> y2 := diff(y, x, x);

> y3 := diff(y, x, x, x);

>
> Eq1 := eval(subs(x = 0, y)) = 1;

> Eq2 := eval(subs(x = 0, y1)) = 0;

> Eq3 := eval(subs(x = 0, y2)) = 0;

> solC := solve({Eq1, Eq2, Eq3}, {_C1, _C2, _C3});

> Y := subs(solC, y);

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> y[specific] := simplify(Y);

4-58 Given: ;
Solution: A direct consequence of the Theorem 4-1 is that the trivial solution is the
only solution to this third order linear homogeneous differential equation with constant
coefficients whose initial conditions are all equal to zero.

4-59 Given: ; and

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are . Thus the general solution is

Differentiating, we obtain

Hence, the initial conditions imply that

Solving yields , and . Substituting these constants into the general

solution, we obtain
( )

4-60 The basic equations from Example 4-6 are

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Solve (1) for x’:

Differentiate both sides of (1) twice:

Differentiate (2) and solve for x’’’:

Substitute into (4):

( )

Substitute for x’ from (3):

( )

Collect terms to obtain

( )

As we will see in Chapter 8, the use of the Laplace transform makes it much easier to derive a
single, higher order equation from a set of lower order equations.

4-61 From Example 4-6, we have the following characteristic equation.

( ) 0

Substituting the given values,

This has the roots

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With one real root and a pair of complex conjugate roots, the homogeneous solution has the
form

4-62 The basic equations from Example 4-7 are

where α= k/m. Differentiate (2) twice:

Solve (1) for :

Solve (2) for :

Substitute (4) into (3):

Substitute (5) into (6):

( )

Collect terms to obtain

Its characteristic equation is

This is quadratic in and the solution is

√ √ √ √

Thus the oscillation frequencies are

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 √ √ √ √
√ √

4-63 The equations of motion from Example 4-7 are

For , , , and , these become

Solve (2) for and differentiate twice.

Substitute into (1).

( ) ( )

Collect terms to obtain

Divide by and let √ ⁄ .

The characteristic equation is

This is quadratic in and the solution is

Thus,
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 √ √ √ √

4.5 Theory of Nonhomogeneous Equations

4-64C No. Superposition principle is applicable to linear homogeneous and nonhomogeneous

differential equations of any order. Thus we do not need to modify the superposition principle
for particular solutions when dealing with third or higher order linear equations.

4.6 Nonhomogeneous Equations: The method of Undetermined Coefficients

4-65C The order of the differential equation does not play a role on the selection of the general
form of the particular solution. Therefore the general forms of the particular solutions
corresponding to the same nonhomogeneous term in a second and a third order linear
homogeneous equation are the same.

In Problems 4-66 through 4-67, we are to determine the general solution of the given
nonhomogeneous equation by using the method of undetermined coefficients.

4-66
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

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Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficient, we see that and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

Maple solution:
> restart;
> a := 1; b := 0; c := 1; d := 0;
> R := 2*sin(x);
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> F := R = lhs(ode);

> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

>
> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

>
> yp := A*x*cos(x)+B*x*sin(x);

> F1 := eval(simplify(subs(y(x) = yp, F)));

> simplify(collect(F1, x));

> eq1 := coeff(rhs(%), sin(x)) = 2;

> eq2 := coeff(rhs(`%%`), cos(x)) = 0;

> Coefficients := solve({eq1, eq2}, {A, B});

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>
> y[p] := subs(Coefficients, yp);

> y = y[h]+y[p];

(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of four algebraic equations

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yielding , , and . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous
differential equation is given by

(c) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of two algebraic equations

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yielding and . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential
equation is given by

(d) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

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Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, and after lengthy algebra, we
get

Equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of four algebraic equations

yielding and . Therefore the particular solution due

to term is given by

( )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

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which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of two algebraic equations

yielding and . Therefore the particular solution due to term

is given by

Thus the general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is obtained to be

( )

4-67
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is .

Differentiating yields

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Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we obtain

Equating coefficients, we see that . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous

differential equation is given by

(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is since

is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we obtain

Equating coefficients, we see that . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous

differential equation is given by

(c) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is
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which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we obtain

[ ]

Which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we see that . Realizing that . Thus a

general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( )

Maple solution:

> restart;
> a := 1; b := 0; c := -3; d := 2;
> R := 5*x*exp(-2*x);
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> F := R = lhs(ode);
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> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

>
> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

>
> yp := (A*x^2+B*x)*exp(-2*x);

> F1 := eval(simplify(subs(y(x) = yp, F)));

> collect(collect(simplify(collect(F1, x)/exp(-2*x)), x^2), x);

> eqns := [coeffs(rhs(%), x)];

> systemofequations := {eqns[1] = 0, eqns[2] = 5};

> Coefficients := solve(systemofequations, {A, B, C});

>
>
> y[p] := subs(Coefficients, yp);

> y = y[h]+y[p];

(d) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

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The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

[ ]

[ ]

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients of like terms, we see that and . Thus a general

solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( )

4-68
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

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which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since any constant or a linear function of is a solution of the homogeneous equation.

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients of like terms, we obtain

Yielding and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients of like terms, we obtain

yielding and Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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Maple solution:

> restart;
> a := 1; b := -2; c := 0; d := 0;
> R := sin(x)+cos(2*x);
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> dsolve(ode);

> F := R = lhs(ode);

> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

> yp := K*cos(x)+L*sin(x)+M*cos(2*x)+N*sin(2*x);

> F1 := eval(subs(y(x) = yp, F));

> EQUATION := collect(collect(collect(collect(F1, cos(x)), sin(x)), cos(2*x)), sin(2*x));

> eq1 := coeff(rhs(EQUATION), sin(x)) = 1;

> eq2 := coeff(rhs(EQUATION), cos(x)) = 0;

> eq3 := coeff(rhs(EQUATION), sin(2*x)) = 0;

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> eq4 := coeff(rhs(EQUATION), cos(2*x)) = 1;

>
>
> Coefficients := solve({eq1, eq2, eq3, eq4}, {K, L, M, N});

>
> y[p] := subs(Coefficients, yp);

> y = y[h]+y[p];

(c) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

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 [ ]

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficient, we see that and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(d) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part
of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

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 [ ]

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients of like terms, we obtain

yielding and Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous

differential equation is given by

Maple solution
> restart;
> a := 1; b := -2; c := 0; d := 0;
> R := x^3*exp(x);
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> F := R = lhs(ode);

> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

> yp := (K*x^3+L*x^2+M*x+N)*exp(x);

> F1 := eval(simplify(subs(y(x) = yp, F)));

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> collect(collect(simplify(collect(F1, x)/exp(x)), x^2), x);

> eqns := [coeffs(rhs(%), x)];

> systemofequations := {eqns[1] = 0, eqns[2] = 0, eqns[3] = 1, eqns[4] = 0};

> Coefficients := solve(systemofequations, {K, L, M, N});

> y[p] := subs(Coefficients, yp);

> y = y[h]+y[p];

4-69
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is .

Differentiating yields

, and

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Equating coefficients of like terms, we obtain and Thus a general solution to the
nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we see that and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(c) Given:

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Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is .

Differentiating yields

, and

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Equating coefficients of like terms, we obtain and Thus a general solution

to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(d) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

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Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, and after lengthy algebra, we
get

Equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of four algebraic equations

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.
yielding and . Therefore the particular
solution to the nonhomogeneous term becomes

( ) ( )

Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( ) ( )

4-70
(a) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is . Differentiating

yields

, and

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(b) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

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which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

since is a solution to the related homogeneous equation. Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

[ ]
[ ]

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficient, we see that , and . Thus a general solution to

the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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Maple solution:

> restart;
> a := 4; b := 0; c := -3; d := -1;
> R := x^2*exp(x);
> ode := a*(diff(diff(diff(y(x), x), x), x))+b*(diff(diff(y(x), x), x))+c*(diff(y(x), x))+d*y(x) = R;

> F := R = lhs(ode);

> CE := a*m^3+b*m^2+c*m+d = 0;

> CE := factor(%);

> Root := solve(CE);

> HomogeneousPart := lhs(subs(R = 0, ode));

> y[h] := rhs(dsolve(HomogeneousPart));

>
> yp := (A*x^3+B*x^2+C*x)*exp(x);

> F1 := eval(simplify(subs(y(x) = yp, F)));

> collect(collect(simplify(collect(F1, x)/exp(x)), x^2), x);

> eqns := [coeffs(rhs(%), x)];

> systemofequations := {eqns[1] = 0, eqns[2] = 0, eqns[3] = 1};

> Coefficients := solve(systemofequations, {A, B, C});

> y[p] := subs(Coefficients, yp);

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> y = y[h]+y[p];

(c) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

[ ]
[ ]

which can be simplified to

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.
Equating coefficients of like terms, we see that and . Thus a
general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(d) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation are and . Thus the solution to the homogeneous
part of this equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, and after lengthy algebra, we
get

[ ]

[ ]
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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.
Equating the coefficients of like terms leads to the following system of six algebraic equations

yielding

Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( )

( )

Solution linear system of 6 equations in Maple:

> restart;
> e1 := 38*A-K = 1;

> e2 := 38*B-102*K-L = 0;

> e3 := -M+38*C-48*A-51*L = 0;

> e4 := -38*K-A = 0;

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> e5 := -102*A-38*L-B = 0;

> e6 := -51*B-C-38*M+48*K = 0;

> solve({e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6}, {A, B, C, K, L, M});

4-71
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation is and √ . Thus the solution to the

homogeneous part of this equation is

( √ √ )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficient, we see that and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
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 ( √ √ )

(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation is and √ . Thus the solution to the

homogeneous part of this equation is

( √ √ )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Equating coefficients, we see that and . Thus a general solution

to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( √ √ )

(c) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.
The roots of this equation is and √ . Thus the solution to the
homogeneous part of this equation is

( √ √ )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we see that , and . Thus a general solution

to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( √ √ )

(d) Given:

Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

which can be factored as

The roots of this equation is and √ . Thus the solution to the

homogeneous part of this equation is

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 ( √ √ )

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we see that and . Thus a general solution to

the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

( √ √ )

4-72
(a) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

The roots of this equation is . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part of this
equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.
since any constant, and are the solution to the related homogeneous equation.
Differentiating yields Substituting these expressions into
the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(b) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

The roots of this equation is . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part of this
equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

which can be simplified to

Equating coefficients, we see that , and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
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(c) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

The roots of this equation is . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part of this
equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields

Substituting these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have

Equating coefficients, we see that , and . Thus a general solution to the

nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

(d) Given:
Solution: The corresponding characteristic equation is

The roots of this equation is . Thus the solution to the homogeneous part of this
equation is

The general form of a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous term is

Differentiating yields and . Substituting

these expressions into the nonhomogeneous equation, we have
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Equating coefficients, we see that . Thus a general solution to the nonhomogeneous
differential equation is given by

4-73 From Example 4-7 the equation is

since The homogeneous solution is

where √ ⁄ . Since the right hand side of the equation is , a particular solution is
. Another particular solution is the sum of the homogeneous solution and :

4-74 With √ ⁄ ,

From Example 4-7, the equation of motion is

The homogeneous solution is

Since the right hand side of the equation is , a particular solution has
the form:

Substituting this into the left hand side of the differential equation gives

Thus

as long as . This is true as long as

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 √

which are complex numbers ( must be real since √ ⁄ .)

Another particular solution is the sum of the homogeneous solution and the particular solution
just found. Thus

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courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other use without publisher's
consent is unlawful.