EM.ES.

4 Electromechanical Devices ‫مختبر االجهزة الكهروميكانيكية‬ 4

Lab.

Experiment No. (1)

Characteristics of a Signal Conditioning Circuits

1. Theory:
The operational amplifier or simply op amp is the most versatile electronic
amplifier. It derives it name from the fact that it is capable of performing
many mathematical operations such as addition, multiplication,
differentiation, integration, analog-to-digital conversion or vice versa. It can
also be used as a comparator and electronic filter. It is also the basic block
in analog computer design. Its symbol is shown in Figure (1).

Figure (1) Symbol for operational amplifier

As shown above the op amp has two inputs but only one output. For this
reason it is referred to as differential input, single ended output amplifier.
Figure (1) shows the internal construction of a typical op amp. This figure
also shows terminals VCC and VEE. These are the voltage sources required
to power up the op amp. Typically Vcc is +15 volts and VEE is −15 volts.
These terminals are not shown in op amp circuits since they just provide
power, and do not reveal any other useful information for the op amp’s
circuit analysis.

2. An Overview of the Op Amp:

The op amp has the following important characteristics:
1. Very high input impedance (resistance).
2. Very low output impedance (resistance).
3. Capable of producing a very large gain that can be set to any value by
connection of external resistors of appropriate values.
4. Frequency response from DC to frequencies in the MHz range.
5. Very good stability.
6. Operation to be performed, i.e., addition, integration etc. is done
externally with proper selection of passive devices such as resistors,
capacitors, diodes, and so on.

3. The characteristic of a Differential Amplifier:

The symbol of a differential amplifier is shown in the figure (2). The output
voltage of the device depends on the difference between the voltages
applied to the two inputs. For the device given with The Trainer DL
2312HG, the output voltages are given for (VA - VB). Two circuits of
differential amplifiers are given; the second is designated ―Instrumentation
amplifier." This makes the same basic operations that the differential
amplifier but has an improved common mode gain and presents the same
impedance in each input.

Figure (2)

The main characteristics of the devices are the following:

Input voltage 12V max.

Differential gain 1.0
Differential amplifier Gain in a common way 0.02 max
Input impedance (Input A) 200K
Input impedance (Input B) 100K
Input voltage 12V max
Differential gain 1.0
Instrumentation
Gain in a common way 0.006 max
Amplifiers
Input impedance (Input A) 100K
Input impedance (Input B) 100K

4. Characteristics of a Summing Amplifier:

The figure (3) shows the symbol of a summing amplifier, with three inputs.
The output voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages applied the different
inputs whenever the output voltage is under a certain maximum value. The
maximum value is limited by the circuit power voltage and is approximately
10V for The Trainer DL 2312HG.
 Figure (3)

The main characteristics of this device are:

Input voltage 12V Max

Voltage Gain 1.0
Output voltage VA+VB+VC 10V Max.

Procedure (1):
Connect the circuit as is shown in the figure (4) and turn the power on.
1- Adjust the input A voltage to +3V and that of the input B at +2V and
observe the output
Voltage resultant Insert the value in the table (1).
2- Repeat the procedure with the input B put at +4V and insert the output
voltage in the Table (1).
3- Repeat the procedure for other input voltages.

Table (1)

Input voltage (1/PA)

Input Voltage (1/PB)
Output voltage
 Figure (4)

Procedure (2):
1- Connect the circuit as in the figure (5).
2- Adjust the 1K conductive plastic potentiometers in their central position,
and the othe two to the minimum so that their output voltages are
approximately zero.
3- Turn the power on and adjust the potentiometers so that the output voltage
increases observe that the variation of any of the inputs affects the output
voltage.
4- Determine this maximum output voltage. It will be slightly bigger than 10 V
so measure the value using the digital voltmeter.
5- Repeat the procedure for the other positions indicated in the table (2) and for
positions of your choice to verify that the value of the output voltage is the
algebraic sum of the values in the input voltages.
 Figure (5)

Experiment No. (2)

Characteristics of a Signal Converter Circuits

1. Theory:

1.1 Voltage to Current Converter :

In the figure (1) we can see the symbol of the converter "voltage-to-current
".The function of the converter is to transform a voltage in the input to a
current in The output the main characteristics of the device adapted to The
Trainer DL 2312HG are:
 Fig (1)

1.2 Current to Voltage Converter:

In the figure (2) we can see the symbol of a "Current-to-Voltage" converter.
The of Current -to-Voltage converter transforms an input current to an
output Voltage The device given with The Trainer DL 2312HG is designated
so that is Complementary of the V/I converter described previously, for what
its main Characteristics will be the following:

Table (2)

Input voltage rate 20mA (100mA max)

Output current rate 2V (6V max)
Transfer relationship 0.1 V/mA

Fig (2)
1.3 Voltage to Frequency (V/F) Converter:

In the figure (3) we see the symbol of a "voltage-to-frequency" converter.

This device transforms an input voltage into an output frequency, being the
Frequency proportional to the input voltage the output wave form is
rectangular. The main characteristics of the device given with The
Transducer's Trainer are:

Fig (3)

1.4 Frequency to Voltage (F/V) Converter:

In the figure (4) we can see the symbol of a "frequency-to-voltage"

converter. This device transforms a signal input into an output voltage
proportional to the frequency of the input signal. The unit F/V mounted in
The Transducer’s Trainer, is supplement of the unit V/F studied in the
previous paragraph. Their main characteristics are the following:
 Fig (4)

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuit in the figure (5) and adjust the 100K potentiometer to
zero voltage.
2- Observe the output voltage of the converter and insert the value in the
table (2).
3- The load resistance is 150 and, therefore, the output of current, in
amperes, can be calculated dividing the output voltage by 150 Insert the
value of current in mA (1000 x A), in the column of current of the table (2).
4- Repeat the procedure for input voltages of + 1.0V, +1.0V, +2V and insert
the results in the table (2)
 Fig (5)

Experiment No. (3)

Temperature Characteristics of the LM 35 Integrated Circuit

1. Theory:

1.1 The Integrated Circuit Temperature Transducer.

It is a LM35 device that provides an output of 10mV/ºC. Therefore, a

measure of
The output voltage indicates the temperature directly in OC. For example,
with a temperature of 15OC the output voltage will be 150 mV the physical
form and the electrical diagram of this circuit is shown in the following
figure below.
 Figure (1)

The trainer DL 2312HG has two LM35: one is mounted inside the box to
sense the temperature when the heater is hot. A second LM35 unit is
mounted outside the box, indicating practically the ambient temperature that
we obtain in terminal REF. The output in the terminal "O/P" in the figure 5.8
indicates the temperature inside

1.2 Semiconductor Temperature Sensors:

The semiconductor (or IC for integrated circuit) temperature sensor is an
electronic device fabricated in a similar way to other modern electronic
semiconductor components such as microprocessors. Typically hundreds or
thousands of devices are formed on thin silicon wafers. Before the wafer is
scribed and cut into individual chips, they are usually laser trimmed.
Semiconductor temperature sensors are available from a number of
manufacturers. There are no generic types as with thermocouple and RTDs,
although a number of devices are made by more than one manufacturer.
The AD590 and the LM35 have traditionally been the most popular
devices, but over the last few years better alternatives have become
available. These sensors share a number of characteristics - linear outputs,
relatively small size, limited temperature range (-40 to +120°C typical), low
cost, good accuracy if calibrated but also poor interchangeability. Often the
semiconductor temperature sensors are not well designed thermally, with the
semiconductor chip not always in good thermal contact with an outside
surface. Some devices are inclined to oscillate unless precautions are taken.
In general, the semiconductor temperature sensor is best suited for
embedded
Applications - that is, for use within equipment. This is because they tend to
be electrically and mechanically more delicate than most other temperature
sensor types However they do have legitimate application n many areas,
hence their inclusion.

Procedure:
1- Connect the voltmeter to the circuit as is shown in the figure (2).
2- Switch the power (ON) and observe the output voltage, representing this
The temperature in OC
(V * 100 = OC)
3- Now connect the +12V voltage in the input terminal of the filament and
write the reading of the voltage in every minute until the value is stabilized.
Insert the values in the table (1).

Figure (2)
 Experiment No. (4)

Pneumatic system control

1. Theory:
1.1 Pneumatics Systems:
The term "pneuma" is derived from the ancient Greek; it means breath or
wind and also the soul in philosophy. The true and worldwide introduction
of pneumatics industry, however, commenced only when the need for
automation and rationalization of operational sequences continued to
increase. Today, it is not possible to imagine modern factories being without
compressed air. For this reason, compressed air devices are installed in the
most diverse branches of Industry.

1.2 Pneumatic Transmission of Energy:

The reason for using pneumatics, or any other type of energy transmission
on a machine, is to perform work. The accomplishment of work requires the
application of kinetic energy to a resisting object resulting in the object
moving through a distance. In a pneumatic system, energy is stored in a
potential state under the form of compressed air. Working energy (kinetic
energy and pressure) results in a pneumatic system when the compressed air
is allowed to expand. For example, a tank is charged to 100 PSIA with
compressed air. When the valve at the tank outlet is opened, the air inside
the tank expands until the pressure inside the tank equals the atmospheric
pressure. Air expansion takes the form of airflow. To perform any applicable
amount of work then, a device is needed which can supply an air tank with a
sufficient amount of air at a desired pressure. This device is positive
displacement compressor.

1.3 Controlling:
The controlling part in pneumatic system can divided into two types:
1- Mechanical controlling.
2- Electrical controlling.

We can see mechanical controlling part in distributor control valve (D.C.V)

which is convert the pressured air from direction to another to caused
alternative motion in cylinder, figure below explain the types of (D.C.V).
The electrical controlling used is relays and sensors, and we will explain in

next expression.
Fig (1)
2. Parts of pneumatic system machines:
2.1 Mechanical Part:
a. Splitters:

Fig (2)

Distribution block with 6 connection outlets, suitable for centralizing the air
drawings
b. Doubie acting cylinder:
Simple stem double acting cylinder with magnetic piston for end of stroke
driving of externally mounted reed relays..

Fig (3)
c. Filter:
Element of sinterized bronze for air filtering, with manual relief of the
condensate

Fig (4)
d. Regulator:
Automatic valve used for adjusting the air admission in the user plant,
keeping the pressure constant to the preset value.

Fig (5)

e. Single - Shot Electro valve:

2. Way, 2.position valve for controlling the direction of an air flow.
Normally closed valve, with electric control and spring operated reset,
suitable for controlling simple or double acting actuators and driving
pneumatic control valves. Complete of manual control.

Fig (6)
 The pressure connection is closed due to the effect of the reset spring
when the control connection 12 isn't under signals.
 The utilization connection 2 is connected to the supply connection 1
when the control connection 12 is under signal.
 The electric control signal is connected to the solenoid that, by
exploiting the coercitive magnetic force, moves the shutter so that the
way is opened.
 The control signal is held as long as the solenoid is kept under voltage.
f. Single - Shot Distributor:
5. Way, 2.position valve for controlling the direction of an air flow. With
pneumatic control and spring operated reset, suitable for controlling double
acting actuators and other pneumatic elements.

Fig (7)
 The utilization connection 4 is connected to the supply connection 1,
due to the effect of the reset spring, when the control connection 12 isn't
under signal.
 The utilization connection 2 is connected to the supply connection 1
when the control connection 12 is under signal.
 The driving operates on the small piston which moves the distributor
slide valve.
 This is held in this position as long as the signal is present.
g. Distribution Biestable:
5-way, 2-position valve for controlling the direction of an air flow.With
pneumatic control and reset, suitable for controlling double acting actuators
and other pneumatic elements ,this type of distributor keep the flow path of
air constant and fixed even the action is disappear ,and it will change the
flow path to another one when the electric action on the other side of
solenoid is working, and so for this state the path flow will stay at its
position even the action removed .

Fig (8)
2.2 Electrical Parts:
a. Mushroom - Head Pushbutton
Emergency pushbutton with 1 NO and 1 NC contacts

Fig (9)

b. Digital Pushbutton:
Control pushbutton with 1 NO and 1 NC contacts

Fig (10)
c. Lamp:
Signaling lamp
d. Electro valve:
Terminals of the driving coil for the electro valve mounted on DL 8171
board.

 When a voltage is connected to the coil the single-shot distributor 2/2 is

driven.
 The distributor returns to the rest position, because of returning switch,
only at de-excitation.
 The driving action is displayed by a LED.
c. Magnetic Sensor:
Reed kind switch, mounted on the external jacket of the cylinder, with foil
contacts in insulated bulb. When the piston approaches, the contacts close
the circuit: the switching is signaled by a LED turning on.

Fig (11)
3. Experimental study:
As shown in figure bellow, it is presents the pneumatic system
connections, the figure in the lift hand presents the mechanical connections
and the other hand presents the electrical connections.

Fig (12)

A-First connects all tubing and secure before switching on the compressed
air.
B- Switch off the air and voltage supply before connecting the circuit.

When complete the connections in figure above between mechanical and

electrical connections, push the power to supply the gas from the compressor
tank and may be showed after push on push-bottom part the motion of piston
from close to open.
Exercise:
As shown in figure bellow, complete the connection between pneumatic
circuit and electric control to show the motion of piston .

Fig (13)

In the figure above before operate the electric circuit, open the two sours of
pressure you will say that the piston will push forward to the right hand ,now
connect the electric power on the current will excite the coil valve as shown
above and it will caused the piston will be back to the left hand ,now try to
change the two sours pressure and see what will happen.
.
Discussion:
1. As shown in figure bellow and for the same position of piston at first ,
complete the connection between pneumatic circuit and electric control to
show the motion of piston and description the piston motion according to
electrical control conect .

2. Write three types for distributor.

3. Write three types for piston cylinder.
4. How can you change the flow path for distributor from one to another
part?
5. How can you controlling in the position of piston or the distance that it
move?
 Experiment No. (5)
SELF - HOLDING CIRCUIT

1. Theory:
The relay is the element used in electromagnetic circuits for "processing" the
information's from pushbuttons, limit switches, etc. It is made up of an
electromagnet with a moving element and a set of electric contacts.
When the coil of the electromagnet is being excited, the moving element
causes the contact switching The relay coil in the circuit is the result of a
control line (or equation), while the contacts are the elements conditioning a
control line, as shown in fig. (1).

Fig (1)

The contacts are normally switched, i.e. a single contact is used either for the
NO or the NC (*) function. The functions are inverted when the relay is
being excited. The terminals identifying the switching contact are three,
because there is a common Therefore, both the functions can be used only
when they concern the same input
Signal that will be connected to the common of the contacts in the diagrams,
the two functions are normally represented as separated. The contacts can.
Be identified through the same reference letter of the relay (X - Y - Z, etc.),
but written in small letters (x - y - z, etc.). Under the coil symbol, the
functions of the contacts used and
The relevant positions in the diagram must be written.
(*): NO: Normally open
NC: Normally close

NOTES:
1) Normally, the relays used are unstable.
2) The stable kind relays are rarely used because: costly, bulky, little
functional.
3) The memorization of a signal can be also realized with an unstable relay
through a "self-holding circuit".
Self-holding circuit:
The self-holding circuit is a memory circuit whose function is to give
continuity to the effect of A signal after its disappearance, as shown in fig
(2).

Fig (2) Self- holding circuit

It is made up of:
- An unstable NO switch on pushbutton S1.
- An unstable NC switch off pushbutton S2.
- A NO contact of the relay.
NOT:
The switch off pushbutton (always with NC contact) can be connected
indifferent ways; the important thing is that its opening causes the de-
excitation of the relay controlling it. The operation of a self-holding circuit is
the following:
When the pushbutton S1 is operated for a short time, the coil of the relay X
is excited.
The contact x closes and holds the relay excited even after the pushbutton is
released.
For the effect to be interrupted it is necessary to operate the pushbutton S2.

2. Experimental Procedure:
Exercise (1): Which shown how connect parts of the electropneumatic
apparatus by using self holding circuit.

Fig (3)

As shown in figure bellow, it is show the acting of the relay on the sequence
work of the coil valves B1 and B2. As shown in fig (4).
 Fig (4)
When the pushbutton S1 is operated, the contacts of the relay X perform an equal and an
opposite action.

Exercise (3): Which showed the effect of sensors control on the sequence work of the
coil valves.

End of piston

Fig (5)

When end of piston as shown in fig (5) (which it magnetic) in the position of
the sensor a0 the magnetic field will close the sensor circuit, and the current
will operate the coil valve B1 caused the end of piston moving to position of
sensor a1, and then the coil valve B2 will operate by the current of the close
loop of the sensor a1 causing the piston return to its first position.

Discussions:
1-Build the electrical control cycle that gives a continues motion of the
Dobel.Acting.Cylinder from side to another by one press on the push button
and stop the continues cycle by another one press on another push button.

2-Explain the relays and sensors action on the pneumatic system?

3-What is the application of this system in life and in theoretical study?
4-Can you build another electrical control cycle for equation (1) above
which will give the same work?
 Experiment No. (6)

CLOSED LOOP ON-OFF CONTROL OF THE LEVEL

WITH PRESSURE SENSOR

1. Theory:
1.1 System under control
This subsystem comprises the following main elements as shown in fig. (1) A, b

Fig (1) a- presents the block diagram of the system b- Process tank

a-The pump
Under a given supply voltage the pump creates flow of water which also
depends on pressure in the system. The real component has a maximum
pressure switch that interrupt the power supply in case of output pressure
rise over 2 bar. The switch has a hysteresis that allows the restart of the
pump when the pressure decrease below 1.6 bar.
b-The process tank
In the process tank some amount of water may be stored which exerts
hydrostatic pressure on the bottom. The process tank is also equipped with
an air valve which can be used to control air pressure inside. The output
pressure of the tank is the sum of hydrostatic pressure and air pressure. The
temperature of water inside the process tank may be controlled by the use of
a heater. To influence pressure in the system also the valves may be used.
c-The container
The container is used to store water for the system and there is atmospheric
pressure at its output. The water temperature, at startup, is assumed to be at
27°C; at runtime, it is calculated with the energy balance equations,
according to the inlet water (coming from process thank) and the output
quantity, forced by the pump.
1.2 Controller
The controller part is equipped with a PID and On/Off controllers which can
be used to control temperature, pressure and level of water in the tank, and
the flow through the pump. The parameters may be also controlled manually
as shown fig (2).

Fig (2) the controlled system

Fig (3): the controller.

1.3 Terminology
Set point is the target value that an automatic control system, For example, a
boiler control system might have a temperature setpoint, that is a
temperature the control system aims to attain.

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a

generic control loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in
industrial control systems – a PID is the most commonly used feedback
controller. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference
between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller
attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs.

On- off control in most applications of on–off feedback control, some

consideration needs to be given to other costs, such as wear and tear of
control valves and maybe other start-up costs when power is reapplied each
time the PV drops. Therefore, practical on–off control systems are designed
to include hysteresis, usually in the form of a dead band, a region around the
setpoint value in which no control action occurs. The width of deadband
may be adjustable or programmable.

Hysteresis is the dependence of a system not just on its current environment

but also on its past. This dependence arises because the system can be in
more than one internal state. To predict its future evolution, either its
internal state or its history must be known. If a given input alternately
increases and decreases, the output tends to form a loop However, loops may
also occur because of a dynamic lag between input and output. Often, this
effect is also referred to as hysteresis, or rate-dependent hysteresis. This
effect disappears as the input changes more slowly; so many experts do not
regard it as true hysteresis.

1.4 procedures:
1-connecte through leads bushes nr. 9, 10, 11&12 of pressure sensor
pressure to bushes nr. 9, 10, 11, &12 of the relevant interface as shown in fig
(4)
 Fig (4) Connecting pressure sensor.

2-connect bush nr 19 of the linear driver to bush nr.19 & bush nr.20 to bush
nr.20 as shown in fig (5).

Fig (5) connecting linear driver

 Connect the bush of setpoint 1 to the bush nr.14 in (on-off)

controller &bush nr.18 to bush nr.18 in linear driver as shown fig (6)

Fig (6)

 Connect bush nr. 13 in PID to bush nr. 18 in (on-off)

 Important notes must be observed:
 Delivery valve fully open
  Motor valve fully open
 sol valve open (on) using the interface on-off driver
 man valve fully open
 drain valve fully closed
 needle valve fully closed
 air valve fully closed
 level of water in process tank 1 cm
 Press the main switches (ON) of controller

* Resent documentation:

a- set 1:

50 37.5 25 12.5 0 Hysteresis

%
2.5 Setpoint
3 Lower limit
pressure
psi
3 Upper limit
pressure
psi
6.4 Lower limit
level cm
6.4 Upper limit
level cm

b- Set 2:

50 37.5 25 12.5 0 Hysteresis

%
5 Setpoint
Lower
limit
pressure
psi
9.5 Upper
limit
pressure
psi
Lower
limit level
 cm

9.3 Upper
limit level
cm

c- Set 3:

50 37. 25 12.5 0 Hysteresis

5 %
7.5 Setpoint
16 Lower limit pressure
psi
16 Upper limit pressure
psi
12. Lower limit level cm
1
Upper limit level cm

d- Set 4:

5 37. 2 12.5 0 Hysteresis %

0 5 5
10 Setpoint
21.6 Lower limit pressure
psi
Upper limit pressure
psi
13.1 Lower limit level cm
Upper limit level cm

1.5 Discussion:

1- Express ( hysteresis)? What is its purpose? How it could be expressed in

the block diagram?

2- What is the pressure that exists in the process tank?

3- What is LVDT express its position in the hydraulic system.

 Experiment No. (7)
Open loop and Closed loop control for D.C motor

Theory:

1- A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a
local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate
directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first
electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as
toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper
machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction
with power electronic devices.

1-1Counter-electromotive force:
In the d.c. motor the rotor winding, called armature winding, can move
within a fixed magnetic field called excitation field. When to the rotor
winding an external voltage is connected, within the rotor mechanical forces
are generated as a result of the well-known electromagnetic induction law.
These forces put the motor in rotation. During the rotation, the conductors of
the armature winding cut the force lines of the excitation field. In them a
counter-electromotive force (in the following abbreviated with FCEM) is
therefore generated, which oppose itself to the input armature voltage.
When no mechanical torque is being applied and the friction can be assumed
to be neglect able, the motor speed increases until the FCEM becomes equal
to the input voltage V. At this point the system is in balance condition, the
speed is kept constant and no current absorption occurs, being V = E.
Therefore, in the absence of electric and mechanical losses the motor would
continue to rotate at constant speed without absorbing electric power. In fact,
the absorbed electric power is given by Pe = V*I and it follows therefore that
I=0. The FCEM is due to the variations of the internal magnetic field caused
by the rotation.
At a parity of speed, the induced electromotive forces assume the same value
E even when the motor is being used as a voltage generator in the operation
as dynamo (which is always possible with d.c motors). The proportionality
relationship existing between E and the speed, expressed as rounds per
minute N, is the following:

E = KФ N
Where E = f.c.e.m.
N = rounds per minute
Ф= magnetic flux
K = constant on the motor

The coefficient K depends on the manufacturing features of the motor.

The flux is sometimes used as regulation variable, as it will be explained
below. The value of the N/E ratio at the rated Ф is an interesting parameter
for the user and is expressed in rounds per minute/Volt.

1-2 Mechanical torque and absorbed current:

When with C the mechanical torque applied to the motor shaft is indicated,
the output power, i.e. the work performed in one minute, is given by:
Pm = C*M
Pm = mechanical power
C = mechanical torque
N = rounds per minute
This power must be supplied to the motor in the form of electric power;
therefore, when E is the f.c.e.m of the motor, an I current must be absorbed
so that the electric power Pe = E*I is equal to the mechanical

power Pm = C*N. It follows therefore that:

E*I = C*N

Reminding that E = K * Ф * N we can write that:

KФ N*I = C*N

It follows therefore that the absorbed current is proportional to the

mechanical torque:
I = C / K*Ф

It is interesting to note that the proportionality constant 1/K is just the above
mentioned N/E ratio (rounds per minute/Volt).

1-3 internal resistance

This is the electric resistance of the motor winding, indicated with Ri.
This resistance gives rise to a voltage drop inside the motor when, following
the application of a load, a current flows through the armature. This drop
reduces the "useful" value of the input voltage. Therefore, having to be in
steady-state conditions E = useful input V, also E decreases, i.e. the motor
rotates more slowly as the load torque increases.

1-4 Static equivalent circuit

The above explained concepts allow the motor to be schematized with the
following equivalent circuit as shown in figure (1).
This circuit fully describes the d.c. motor operation when the initial transient
is over and the motor is settled in the balanced steady-state condition:
V = Ri * I + E

I = 1/KФ * C

E=KФN

Fig (1).Equivalent Circuit

2- Open – loop regulation or control:

From the E = KФ N equation it can be clearly seen that there are two ways
for varying the speed (N) of the d.c. motor.
The first way is to vary the magnetic flux of the inductor field ( ) by varying
its excitation.
The second way is to vary E, or better the armature voltage to which E is
related by the relation:
V = Ri * I + E
The motor used in our regulation system model is a permanent magnet
motor, of the kind commonly used in small automation systems. The
parameter is therefore constant and the speed variation is performed by
operating on the
armature voltage.
Let's assume that the motor is supplied with a voltage V and that the motor
can be seen to rotate in no-load condition at a speed corresponding to N.
In these conditions, when the torque due to frictions is neglect able, we'll
have a very small current absorption, i.e. I ≈ 0, therefore the FCEM will be
EO≈ 0. If at this point we break the shaft by exerting a mechanical force C,
the current I will be seen to increase and the FCEM will be given by:
E = V – Ri * I
If we wish to compensate the decrease of speed, we must operate to correct
the input voltage V, so to keep E = EO.
Therefore, we must add to the supply voltage V a term V = Ri * I which is
on its turn proportional to I. When the internal resistance of the motor is
known, it is sufficient to use a circuit able to measure the current I and to
correct the driving voltage by automatically adding the term ΔV to it.
The result will be a negative resistance driving system, whose output voltage
increases when current is absorbed figure (2).

Fig (2) Open – loop regulation

For stability reasons, the correction must always be percentage smaller than
100%.In fact, the ΔV = Ri * I condition is a limit condition, over which the
system becomes unstable. This means that the output voltage automatically
tends to increase to the maximum allowed by the circuit, whichever is the
starting value of V. Though the system has a current - therefore a torque -
feedback, it can't be considered a real closed loop control system, because it
doesn't measure the quantity to be controlled, which is the motor speed.
This is simply a system that regulates the driving voltage on the basis of the
set speed and the measured torque. Anyway, this system is practically
efficient in many cases where no specially emphasized performances are
required and is widely used, for instance, in integrated circuits designed for
tape speed control in common audio recorders.

3- Closed – loop control:

In cases when the open-loop regulation doesn't allow the achievement of the
accuracy required by the specific application, it is necessary to use some
kind of servo control. in practice, it is necessary to measure the quantity to
be controlled through a speed transducer and to correct it with a feedback
system which compares it with the set reference value.
Among the methods used to solve the problem we specially mention the
analog systems and the Phase Locked Loop (PLL) systems. in the analog
system the correction signal is obtained by detecting the speed through a d.c.
tachometer (tachometric dynamo) and comparing it with a fixed reference
voltage figure(3).

Fig (3)
In the PLL-based digital system, the speed is detected through a transducer
(often electro-optical) which generates a pulse train whose frequency is
proportional to the speed. These pulses are then synchronized with a
reference frequency, using as error signal either the frequency or phase
difference between the two signals figure(4).

Fig (4)
The frequency difference is measured to allow the motor to keep up the pace
with the reference frequency. Afterwards the fine regulation is triggered,
which acts on the phase.
For this purpose special phase-frequency detecting digital circuits have been
industrially manufactured (for instance: MC4044).
With both methods high accuracies can be reached. It is also possible to
realize an analog control system by using a digital speed transducer. In fact,
it is sufficient to realize a frequency-voltage conversion of the transducer
signal figure (5).
 Fig (5)
3-1 Design of closed – loop controllers:
The performances of a feedback control system can be expressed in terms of
static precision and dynamic response. With static precision the percent
displacement is meant of the value reached by the controlled quantity from
the set value, when the transient to steady-state condition of the system is
over. The dynamic response is the transient followed by the system to reach
the steady-state condition and can be expressed in terms of either step
response or frequency response. The static precision only depends on the
loop gain A as shown in figure (6):

Fig (6)

Solving against V we obtain: V = A (VRIF – V)

The static error is by definition

Therefore:
Therefore, the static error E is as smaller as greater is the loop gain A.
To limit the value of the gain, the problem of dynamic stability intervenes.
In fact, due to the existing delays, when the gain is arbitrarily increased, the
system could become self-oscillating, or it could reach the steady-state
condition too slowly in time with a damped oscillatory response.
The characterization of the system from the dynamic point of view is based
on the knowledge of the transfer functions, which can be expressed through
the formalism of the Laplace transform as G(s) and H(s) as shown in
figure(7):

In our specific case, G(s) is the product of the amplification A, the transfer
function of the loop filter and the transfer function of the motor; instead, the
H(s) is the transfer function of the speed measurement system.

Fig (7)

( )
( )
( )

We obtain:

( )
( )
( ) ( )

Knowing the poles and the zeros of G(s) and H(s) it is possible to calculate
how the poles of the closed-loop transfer function F(s) vary when the gain A
increases. The position of these poles in the complex plane determines the
stability and the characteristics of the system dynamic response. We remind
that the system is stable when all the poles of the F(s) have a negative real
part. Moreover, we recall that the dynamic response is specially affected by
the dominating poles, i.e. by the poles whose real part is the closest to the
zero. Considering the case of only 2 dominating poles, either exponential
figure (8) or damped oscillatory figure (9) responses can be obtained to a
step input, when the poles are real or complex conjugate with negative real
part, respectively.
In the case of complex conjugate poles, the damping:

Is related to the overshoot of the step response

Fig
(8)

Fi
g
(9)
The more ζ is close to 1, i.e. is close to the zero, the less is the overshoot.
ωn is called natural pulsation and is related to the band and the speed of
response of the system. The greater is ωn, the quicker is the system.
In general, the optimum control should be featured by:
ωn very high (high speed of response)
ζ close to 1 (very damped overshoot)
A very high (high static precision)

In all the practical cases a compromise is necessary.

For instance, for ζ a minimum value of is normally accepted, which
√
corresponds to have ζ ≤ 45 °C.
To push the performances to the limit means to realize complex loop filters,
with multiple poles and multiple zeros.
In our case we have limited ourselves to the use of a loop filter with 1 pole
and 1 zero, which is always enough in a large number of practical cases.

4- Dynamic behavior of the control loop

Our control system can be represented with the block diagram shown in
figure (10). The transfer functions of the single blocks composing the system
can be expressed as follows:
A = pure number, variable with P1

Transfer function of the filter=

Transfer function of the motor=

Transfer function of the speed meter=

 Fig (10)

The expressions written above require some remarks: the electronic

amplifier can be considered having such a wide pass-band that its zeros and
poles don't significantly intervene in the frequency range we are concerned
with. Therefore, A can be considered as a pure number. The transfer
function of the filter shown in the figure (11) has a single pole and a single
zero, which can be calculated respectively as:

T1 = (R8 + R9) • C1

T2 = R9 • C1

Fig (11)

The transfer function of the motor has actually a rather complex formulation,
which keeps into account the electric, mechanical and load-related features.
The proposed simplification is to consider the transfer function as having a
single pole, which will be that due to the mechanical inertia of both the rotor
and the load. The transfer function of the speed meter has a single pole that
physically corresponds to the delay Introduced by the filter R12, C3 in the
case of the encoder and by R22, C8 in the case of tachometer dynamo in the
figure ( ).
With the above assumptions, it follows that:
( )
 ( )

The closed-loop transfer function is therefore:

( )
( )
( ) ( )

The poles of F(s) are related to the poles and the zeros of G(s) H(s) and the
qualitative behavior, with increasing A, is given by the following graph on
the complex plane, where also the pole and the zero of the loop filter have
been shown in the figure (12):

Fig (12)

The poles of the system remain in the left half-plane (negative Re), therefore
the system is stable for any gain value, at least until the effect of the poles at
higher frequencies intervenes, that we don't have considered here. To
prevent too large overshoots in the step response, it is anyway necessary to
limit the gain value (complex conjugate poles with high imaginary part).

5- Access to the procedure:

Before the procedures are started, it is useful that the student notes the
following:
 The board requires a stabilized and symmetrical power supply of ± 12 V.
The maximum absorption doesn't exceed 300 mA from the +12 V supply
and 100 mA from - 12 V.
 For the motor supply a +12 to +15 V d.c. voltage and a 2 A (3 A peak)
current are required.
 In alternative, a 12 V r.m.s ac voltage can be used, because inside the
board a rectifier circuit and a voltage regulator are provided.
 When the alternating power supply is being used, it is necessary that thi
comes from the secondary side of a transformer separated from the
transformer which provides the i 12 V supply, to prevent accidental
closings through the rectifiers.
 The distribution of power supplies is made inside the board. For the
operation, therefore, it is sufficient to connect the external supplies to the
terminals assembled on the left side of the board, which are labeled with -
12 V, 0, + 12 V and with 12 V ac or + 12 V, 0, respectively.
 Always pay attention to the connections performed, both for the power
supplies and for the motors. The generator can be connected through
jumpers to load resistances within the board.
 The values of these resistances are: R19 = 15 Ω, R20 = 27 Ω, R21 = 56 Ω
 Through proper connections, it is therefore to have 23=8 values of load
resistances available. The load must be always graduated as a function of
the running condition of the generator, to prevent excessive overloads
and overheating. When the generator is used as tachometer dynamo, it is
not suitable to connect the load resistances. In fact, this gives rise to a
voltage drop across the terminals of the dynamo and to an unwanted
variation of the feedback signal.

Procedure:
Part A:
The purpose of this part is to make the student familiar with the DL
2155RGM educational system, especially with the speed regulation circuit.
Take note of the remarks contained in the "Introduction to tests" paragraph.
Connect the power supplies to the board, as shown (3 cables for + 12 V, 0, -
12 V, two cables for the 12V a.c or d.c supply, + 12 V, 0) .
Connect the motor to the terminals labeled B and C of the regulator circuit
(see figure 7) .
A just to the minimum both the potentiometer of the speed reference and that
of the loop gain.
Switch the power supply unit on. Gradually increase the reference observing
the corresponding variations of the motor's running condition.
Holding the reference fixed in intermediate position, gradually increase the
loop gain to the point where the system self-oscillates. Repeat the test with
different reference values.
Switch the power supply off. Connect an oscilloscope or a frequency meter
between the terminal P of the controller (see figure 9) and ground. (Warning,
the frequency meter may require a capacitor in series to the input for locking
the d.c. signal).
Switch the power supply unit on again. Measure the speed of the motor for
different reference values. Remind that the frequency meter reading (or the
frequency displayed by the oscilloscope) must be divided by 5 to obtain the
value of the motor's speed in rounds per second. In fact, the disk of the
encoder which generates the measured pulses has 5 holes.

Experiment No. (8)

Speed and Position Control by using Thyristor

1. Theory:
1 .1 Position Regulator

The problem of measuring the angular rotation of a body rotating around an

axis is easily solved through the rotating potentiometers, which provide
satisfactory performances even they show low linearity and a reduction of
reliability as a function of the if operating time.

1.1.2 Block Diagram

Fig (1)
The reference signal Vset for the required angular displacement
(adjustable in the approximate range 0V to 10V for angles between 0° and
360°) is obtained from a voltage divider, while the position transducer P1 is
driven by the motion of the geared dc motor M in order to convert the
position variation into a variation of voltage Vf. The summing node is
composed of an op-amp in inverting algebraic adder configuration and
supplies the error signal Ve, which is used to control the rotating direction of
the geared motor by suitably driving the power device: the latter must be of
bidirectional kind (positive and negative half-wave controlled converter. For
greater details see the manual DL 2316A, at the sections concerning the
phase control half-wave rectifiers).When the preset signal Vset is equal to the
feedback signal Vf, the error signal Ve is zero and the geared motor doesn’t
output any torque. When the preset signal V set is not equal to the feedback
signal Vf, the error signal

Ve =  (Vset – Vf )
Drives the power device so that:
a clockwise rotation cw occurs when Ve > 0 (control on the positive half-
wave)
a counter clockwise rotation ccw occurs when V e < 0 (control on the
negative half-wave).
The realized control system is of over damped kind, because as the error
signal decreases, the energy supplied to the geared motor is reduced, to
prevent the overshoot of the balance position that could give rise to an error
voltage with a sign opposite to the previous one, resulting in oscillations
around the steady state condition.

Fig (2)
1.1.3 Position Transducer
The potentiometer is a position transducer, being able to detect angular
rotation of the slide through a resistance variation and, therefore, a voltage
 variation. When R is the total resistance of the potentiometer and Rx is
the resistance relative to rotation angle, it follows that resulting in
oscillations around the steady state condition
Vo = (Rx /R) VREF = k 

1.1.4 Measuring Circuits

For the measurements to be correctly performed:
a. Supply the DL 2316A panel at 24 Vac.
b. Supply the DL 2316C panel at 15Vdc.
c. Connect between them the grounds of both panels.
d. Use an oscilloscope and a digital MultiMate.

1.1.5 Thyristor Bidirectional Converter

The motor is supplied on the positive or negative half-wave, according to the
value of error voltage Ve.




Fig (3)

1.1.6 Procedures:

1. Connect the circuit as show the fig (3).
2. Set the value of the required angular position through the ―POSITION
SET‖ potentiometer P2, whose equivalent voltage values can be adjusted in
the approximate range 0.1 V to 9.9 V.?
3. Check that the motor shaft reaches the value of the set angle, in the
required rotating direction. The test point at the output of the inverter
(terminal VR2) allows the rotating angle variations to be followed, which
are equivalent to a 0 V voltage for 0° and to about 10 V for 360°. The 0°-
360° zone is naturally critical owing to the sudden change of the polarity of
the error signal.
4. Change (p-s) values according values show below after P1 value become
stable value.
 Table (1): Clockwise

P-S Vset Vf Ve
angle
45o
90o
135o
180o
225o
270o
315o

Table (2): counter clockwise

P-S Vset Vf Ve
angle
270o
225o
180o
135o
90o
45o

1. 2 Speed Control
The separate excitation dc motor is the best suited kind of motor for driving
operations in automatic controls where, as a rule, a constant rotating speed is
required when the load is varied .The first automatic control of the separate
excitation dc motor was realized by the Ward-Leonard set: the supply
voltage of the dc motor was provided by a dc generator driven by an
asynchronous motor. Therefore, any speed variation could be controlled by
varying the excitation of the dc generator, resulting in a variation of the
supply voltage of the dc motor. The current driving system, on the contrary,
is purely electronic, therefore less bulky and expensive: the dc generator and
the asynchronous motor have been replaced with static switches.
 1.2.1 Separate Excitation DC Motor
The dc motor is composed of an armature winding arranged on the rotor and
by an excitation field on the stator (in this case a permanent magnet has been
used, therefore no field adjustment is possible).

Fig (3)

When supplied at voltage Va, the armature circuit generates a back-

electromotive force E proportional to the rotating speed n and to the flux
of the excitation field:

E = kn n

Therefore, if Ra is the resistance of the armature winding, it follows that

Va = E + Ra Ia

When the voltage drop RaIa is initially neglected against the back-e.m.f. E,
it follows that

Va = E

And therefore the rotating speed

 n = E/ (kn ) = Va/(kn )

Is proportional to the armature voltage

If the flux is held constant and equal to the rated value, when the armature
voltage is increased the motor can be started and driven to the rated speed
(basic speed nb), corresponding to the rated armature voltage and current.

Fig (4)

This kind of regulation is said to be at constant torque because, being the

driving torque equal to

Tm = k Ia

This is essentially constant when the armature voltage varies. We remind

that for the speed to be increased over the basic value, it is necessary to
operate on the excitation flux.
 1.2.2 Block Diagram

fig(5)

The reference signal Vset for the required speed (adjustable in the range 0 to

voltage divider, while the speed transducer provides a variable frequency

pulse train, which is suitably converted to obtain a variation of 1 mV/min -1.
The summing node is composed of an op-amp in inverting algebraic adder
configuration, which provides the error signal Ve that controls the
generation of driving pulses for the devices regulating the armature voltage.
In this way the speed is held constant when the load composed of the
generator G coaxial to the motor M is varied.

1. 2.3 Open-Loop Operation Half-Controlled Bridge

The motor is supplied, for example, through a half-controlled bridge,
manually driven through the control voltage Vc of DL 2316A panel, which
must be initially set to 100% value. (For greater details, see the manual of
DL 2316A panel, at the sections concerning the half controlled single-phase
rectifier bridges)
 fig (6)

1.2.4 Procedures:

1. Connect the circuit as show the fig (3).
2. By reducing the value of the control voltage Vc the motor M is started,
which drives the generator G operating at no-load condition. The values of
the voltage are measured both at the output of the frequency/voltage
converter (terminal VR2), which is proportional to the rotating speed with
constant Kn = -1 mV/min-1, and across the terminals of generator G, for
different values of the control voltage Vc (Remind that the max rotating
speed is set at 10,000 min-1, corresponding to a voltage VR2 = -10V).
3. When a speed value is set with the generator at no-load condition, if the
LOAD resistor is connected to the generator it can be seen that as the load is
increased (P2 = 100% means minimum load resistance), the motor slows
down.
Open loop
Kn=-1mv/min-1

No load at load
F/V F/V
Vset speed Vset speed
converter converter
25%
40%
45%
50%

1.2.5 Closed-Loop Operation Half-Controlled Bridge

The motor is driven through the half-controlled bridge controlled by the

error voltage Ve.

fig(7)

1.2.6 Procedures:
1. Motor at no-load (generator G not connected to the LOAD resistor). By
operating The ―SPEED SET‖ potentiometer P1, check that the motor speed
varies accordingly to the set value.
2. Motor on load (generator G connected to the LOAD resistor).
Set a value of the rotating speed through the ―SPEED SET‖ potentiometer
P1 and check the effect of variations of the LOAD (potentiometer P2, where
100% corresponds to the minimum load resistance).
Close loop
Kn=-1mv/min-1
No load at load
F/V F/V
Vset speed Vset Speed
converter converter
25%
40%
45%
50%

Experiment No. (9)

Stepper Motor Operation and Control Mode

1. Theory:
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical
pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper
motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses
are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several
direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the
applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of
the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of
input pulses applied, figure (1)show the relation between pulses and steps.
 one pulse equal one step pulse count equal pulse steps

Fig (1) the relation between pulses and steps

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, electric motor that can
divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can
be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism, as long as the
motor is carefully sized to the application.

1.1 Fundamentals of operation

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate
when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand,
effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central
gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external
control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first,
one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are
aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next
electromagnet so when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is
turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there
the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step", with
an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can
be turned by a precise angle.
 Fig (2) Comparing a DC motor (left) to a Stepper Motor (right)

1.2 Stepper motor characteristics

 Stepper motors are constant power devices.
 As motor speed increases, torque decreases. Most motors exhibit
maximum torque when stationary, however the torque of a motor when
stationary (holding torque) defines the ability of the motor to maintain a
desired position while under external load.
 The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers
and increasing the driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper'
circuit; there are several off the shelf driver chips capable of doing this in
a simple manner).
 Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete
step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another (called a detent).
The vibration makes stepper motors noisier than DC motors.
 This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the
motor to lose torque or lose direction. This is because the rotor is being
held in a magnetic field which behaves like a spring. On each step the
rotor overshoots and bounces back and forth, "ringing" at its resonant
frequency. If the stepping frequency matches the resonant frequency then
the ringing increases and the motor comes out of synchronism, resulting
in positional error or a change in direction. At worst there is a total loss
of control and holding torque so the motor is easily overcome by the load
and spins almost freely.
 The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem
speeds range, physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a
micro-stepping driver.
 Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation
than those with fewer phases (this can also be achieved through the use of a
micro-stepping driver).

1.3 Open-loop versus closed-loop commutation

Steppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has
no feedback on where the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus
generally be over engineered, especially if the load inertia is high, or there is
widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose
steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade-offs
between a closely sized but expensive servomechanism system and an
oversized but relatively cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position
feedback (e.g. an encoder or resolve), so that the commutation can be made
optimal for torque generation according to actual rotor position. This turns
the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with
exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this
technique is to normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter
closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large — this will
allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.
1.4 Types of stepper motors:
There are three basic stepper motor types. They are:
1- Variable-reluctance
2- Permanent-magnet
3- Hybrid

1-Variable-reluctance (VR): This type of stepper motor has been around

for a long time. It is probably the easiest to understand from a structural
point of view. Figure (3) shows a cross section of a typical V.R. stepper
motor. This type of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a
wound stator. When the stator windings are energized with DC current the
poles become magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted
to the energized stator poles.

2-Permanent Magnet (PM): Often referred to as a ―tin can‖ or ―can stock‖

motor the permanent magnet step motor is a low cost and low resolution
type motor with typical step angles of 7.5° to 15°. (48 – 24 steps/revolution)
PM motors as the name implies have permanent magnets added to the motor
structure. The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead the
rotor is magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a
straight line parallel to the rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles provide
an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of this the PM motor
exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with the VR type
figure(4) show the PM type of stepper motor.

3-Hybrid (HB): The hybrid stepper motor shown in figure(5) is more

expensive than the PM stepper motor but provides better performance with
respect to step resolution, torque and speed Typical step angles for the HB
stepper motor range from 3.6° to 0.9° (100 – 400 steps per revolution). The
hybrid stepper motor combines the best features of both the PM and VR type
stepper motors. The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an
axially magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor
provide an even better path which helps guide the magnetic flux to preferred
locations in the air gap. This further increases the detent, holding and
dynamic torque characteristics of the motor when compared with both the
VR and PM types.

The two most commonly used types of stepper motors are the permanent
magnet and the hybrid types. If a designer is not sure which type will best fit
his applications requirements he should first evaluate the PM type as it is
normally several times less expensive. If not then the hybrid motor may be
the right choice.
 Fig (3) Cross-section of a variable Fig (4) Principle of a PM or tin-can
Reluctance (VR) motor stepper motor

Fig (5) Cross-section of a hybrid stepper motor

1.5 Phases, Poles and Stepping Angles:

Usually stepper motors have two phases, but three- and five-phase motors
also exist. A bipolar motor with two phases has one winding/phase and a
unipolar motor has one winding, with a center tap per phase. Sometimes the
unipolar stepper motor is referred to as a ―four phase motor‖, even though it
only has two phases. Motors that have two separate windings per phase also
exist-these can be driven in either bipolar or unipolar mode.

A pole can be defined as one of the regions in a magnetized body where the
magnetic flux density is concentrated. Both the rotor and the stator of a step
motor have poles. Figure (4) contains a simplified picture of a two-phase
stepper motor having 2 poles (or 1 pole pairs) for each phase on the stator,
and 2 poles (one pole Pair)
on the rotor In reality several more poles are added to both the rotor and
stator structure in order to increase the number of steps per revolution of the
motor, or in other words to provide a smaller basic (full step) stepping angle.
The permanent magnet stepper motor contains an equal number of rotor and
stator pole
Pairs Typically the PM motor have 12 pole pairs. The stator has 12 pole
pairs per phase. The hybrid type stepper motor has a rotor with teeth. The
rotor is split into two parts, separated by a permanent magnet-making half of
the teeth south poles and half north poles. The number of pole pairs is equal
to the number of teeth on one of the rotor halves. The stator of a hybrid
motor also has teeth to build up a higher number of equivalent poles (smaller
pole pitch, number of equivalent poles = 360/teeth pitch) compared to the
main poles, on which the winding coils are wound. Usually 4 main poles are
used for 3.6 hybrids and 8 for 1.8- and 0.9-degree types. It is the relationship
between the number of rotor poles and the equivalent stator poles, and the
number the number of phases that determines the full-step angle of a stepper
motor.

Step angle=360 ÷ (NPh × Ph) =360/N

NPh = Number of equivalent poles per phase = number of rotor poles

Ph = Number of phases
N = Total number of poles for all phases together
If the rotor and stator tooth pitch is unequal, a more-complicated relationship
exists.

1.6 Stepping Modes:

The following are the most common drive modes.
• Wave Drive (1 phase on)
• Full Step Drive (2 phases on)
• Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)
• Micro stepping (Continuously varying motor currents)

For the following discussions please refer to the figure (6). In Wave Drive
only one winding is energized at any given time. The stator is energized
according to the sequence A → B → ̅ → ̅ and the rotor steps from
position 8 → 2 → 4 → 6. For unipolar and bipolar wound motors with the
same winding parameters this excitation mode would result in the same
mechanical position. The disadvantage of this drive mode is that in the
unipolar wound motor you are only using 25% and in the bipolar motor only
50% of the total motor winding at any given time. This means that you are
not getting the maximum torque output from the motor In Full Step Drive
you are energizing two phases at any given time.
The stator is energized according to the sequence AB → ̅B → ̅ ̅ → A ̅
and the rotor steps from position 1 → 3 → 5 → 7. Full step mode results in
the same angular movement as 1 phase on drive but the mechanical position
is offset by one half of a full step. The torque output of the unipolar wound
motor is lower than the bipolar motor (for motors with the same winding
parameters) since the unipolar motor uses only 50% of the available winding
while the bipolar motor uses the entire winding. Half Step Drive combines
both wave and full step (1&2 phases on) rive modes. Every second step only
one phase is energized and during the other steps one phase on each stator.
The stator is energized according to the sequence AB → B → ̅B → ̅ →
̅ ̅ → ̅ → A ̅ → A and the rotor steps from position 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5
→ 6 → 7 → 8.
These results in angular movements that are half of those in 1- or 2-phases-
on drive modes. Half stepping can reduce a phenomena referred to as
resonance which can be experienced in 1- or 2-phases-on drive modes.

In Micro stepping Drive the currents in the windings are continuously

varying to be able to break up one full step into many smaller discrete steps.
The excitation sequences for the above drive modes are summarized in
Table 1.
 Fig (6) Unipolar and bipolar wound stepper motors

Table (1) Excitation sequences for different drive modes

1.7 Procurers:
Part 1: a) Functional checking of the ROTATION CONTROL section
and the STEP PULSES section:
1- Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch. In the ROTATION CONTROL section, shown
in figure(7), it is possible to select by means of a button the rotation
direction of the step motor.
 Fig(7) Rotation Control

1- Check with a multimeter set as a voltmeter in dc that at the terminal ROT

there is a voltage corresponding to a high logic level (about 5V) when the
display visualizes CW and a low logic level (0V) in the other case.
2- In the STEP PULSES section, shown in figure (8), it is possible to select
the generation of the control pulses for the step motor according to the
following modalities:
• Single pulse (SINGLE STEP)
• Variable frequency square waves with duty cycle 50% (OSCILLATOR)
 Fig(8) Step Pulses

3- Initially check with a voltmeter, set in direct voltage, or with an

oscilloscope in DC that from the terminal SINGLE STEP it is always
possible to get directly a pulse (from high to low) every time you press the
button.
Check, with an oscilloscope in DC, that from the terminal OSCILLATOR it
is always possible to get directly a square wave, whose frequency can be
selected through the potentiometer (fmin ≈ 40Hz, fmax ≈ 5000Hz).

b) Functional checking of the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section

for the half-step control:
1. Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch.
2. In the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section press the button in order
to select the CW direction (check through the voltmeter in DC that UROT =
5V).
3. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the CW/CCW button and
check that on the display the CW rotation direction sign appears
4. In the STEP PULSES section connect by means of a connecting lead the
terminal SINGLE STEP to the terminal PULS.
5. Generate a sequence of eight pulses (through the button SINGLE STEP)
and, either by means of a voltmeter or of an oscilloscope, measure the logic
value of the outputs A, B, C and D that are shown in figure (9):

Fig(9) Pulses Translator Logic(Half Mode)

6. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (2):

Table (2): The logic value of the outputs A, B, C, D (Half Mode)

CW CCW
A B C D A B C D
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
The LED that in the silk screen diagram correspond to the windings of the
motor will light on as a function of the controls of this section.
7. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the relevant button to
modify the rotation direction from CW to CCW (check through the
voltmeter in DC that UROT = 0V).
8. Generate a new sequence of eight pulses and check now that the logic
values of the outputs A, B, C and D have an opposite sequence.
Part 2: a) Functional checking of the PULSES TRANSLATOR
LOGIC section for the single-phase, full-step control
1. Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch.
2. In the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section press the button and
check that on the display the HALF mode appears.
3. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the CW/CCW button as in
the previous exercise.
4. In the STEP PULSES section connect by means of a connecting lead the
terminal SINGLE STEP to the terminal PULS.
5. Generate an initial state (by repeatedly pressing the button SINGLE
STEP) for the four outputs (A, B, C and D); for instance: 1, 0, 0, and 0.
6. In the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section press again the relevant
button and check that on the display the FULL mode now appears.
7. Generate a sequence of four pulses (through the SINGLE STEP button)
and, either by means of a voltmeter or of an oscilloscope, measure the logic
value of the outputs A, B, C and D that are shown in figure(10):
 Fig(10).Pulses Translator Logic (Full Mode)

8. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (3):
Table (3): The logic value of the outputs A, B, C, D (Full Mode)

A B C D
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

9. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the relevant button to

modify the rotation direction.
10. Generate a new sequence of 4 pulses and check now that the logic values
of the outputs A, B, C and D have an opposite sequence.
b) Functional checking of the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section
for the double-phase, full step control
1. Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch.
2. In the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section press the button and
check that on the display the HALF mode appears.
3. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the CW/CCW button.
4. In the STEP PULSES section connect by means of a connecting lead the
terminal SINGLE STEP to the terminal PULS.
5. Generate an initial state (by repeatedly pressing the SINGLE STEP
button) for the four outputs (A, B, C and D); for instance: 0, 1, 0, 1.
6. In the PULSES TRANSLATOR LOGIC section press again the relevant
button and check that on the display the WAVE mode now appears.
7. Generate a sequence of four pulses (through the SINGLE STEP button)
and, either by means of a voltmeter or of an oscilloscope, measure the logic
value of the outputs A, B, C and D outputs that are shown in figure(11):
 Fig(11)Pulses Translator Logic (Wave Mode)

8. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (4):

Table (4): The logic value of the outputs A, B, C, D (Wave Mode)

CW CCW
A B C D A B C D
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

9. In the ROTATION CONTROL section press the relevant button to

modify the rotation direction.
10. Generate a new sequence of four pulses and check that the logic values
of the outputs A, B, C and D have now an opposite sequence.
Part 3: Encoder & Display
1. Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch and press RESET below the display.
2. Set the board according to the following modalities:
• The SINGLE STEP terminal connected to the PULS terminal
• The UNIPOLAR/BIPOLAR switch of the STEP MOTOR DRIVER
section to BIPOLAR 3. Cable the circuit for the driving of the bipolar step
motor as shown in figure(12) by setting the button of the PULSES
TRANSLATOR LOGIC section for example to Half Step.
 Fig (12) the driving of the bipolar step motor

The encoder circuit receives at its input two pulses: one pulse every time the
step motor makes an angular displacement (STEP SENSOR) and another
pulse out of phase by half period (ROT SENSOR) that is used to identify the
direction of rotation of the disc.

4. Check, with reference to figure (13) and through a voltmeter in direct

voltage that:

Fig (13) the Encoder & Display

• The signal between the STEP terminal and the ground switches between
logic level 0 (0V) and logic level 1 (4 ÷ 5V) and vice versa every time you
press the SINGLE STEP button.
• The signal between the ROT terminal and the ground switches between
logic level 0 (0V) and logic level 1 (4 ÷ 5V) and vice versa every time the
motor makes a full revolution and the display counts 1 for each 96 steps.
• The signal between the DIR terminal and the ground is at logic level 0
(0V) when the motor rotation direction is counter clockwise (CCW) and
switches to logic level 1 (4 ÷ 5V) when the motor rotation direction is
clockwise (CW), as a function of the physical rotation of the motor.
5. Move the connecting lead from the SINGLE STEP terminal to the
OSCILLATOR terminal, in the STEP PULSES section, and repeat point 4
with continuous operation by acting on the potentiometer to modify the
frequency of the PULS square wave and, therefore, the rotation of the motor
6. Reset the display and, by operating the step motor according to some of
the techniques that we have studied in the previous parts, vary the operation
logic (CW/CCW, HALF/FULL STEP, and SINGLE STEP/OSCILLATOR)
and check that, on the display, all the parameters vary according to the new
operating logic.

Fig (14)