Assignment Topic

Ecosystem, its types and factors

damaging it.
Course Title Environmental Science

Course Code ES-101

Submitted to Sir Sadaf

Submitted by Ayesha Ejaz 16471502-058

Kainat Firdous 17561502-001

Fouzia Iqbal 17561502-005

Samavia Pervaiz 17561502-012

Safia Bi 17561502-053
 Table of Contents
What is Ecology?
Definition of Ecosystem
Function of Ecosystem
Concept of trophic levels interactions
Role of carbon cycle in the ecosystem
Types of Ecosystem: Natural and Artificial
Damages to Ecosystem
Conclusion
References
Ecology:
Etymology:

The meaning of the word “ecology” was given by German Biologist Hackle in1869. The word
ecology is derived from Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning house, habitat or place of living and
‘Logos’ meaning to study.

Definition;

Ecology is defined as “the study of interrelationship of different organisms with each other and
with their environment.” It is concerned with the general principles that apply to both animals
and plants.

Ecosystem:
The term Ecosystem was first proposed by A.G. Tansley in 1935. He defined it as “the system
resulting from the interaction of all the living and non-living factors of the Environment.” An
ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and
chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of
ecosystems a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland.

Function of an ecosystem
The function of an ecosystem is broad & vast. The function of an ecosystem can be best studied
by understanding the history of ecological studies. The function of an ecosystem can be studied
under the three heads:

1. Trophic Level Interaction

2. Ecological Succession
3. Biogeochemistry

 Trophic Level Interaction deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected
based on nutritional needs.
 Ecological Succession deals with the changes in features/members of an ecosystem over
a period of time.
 Biogeochemistry is focused upon the cycling of essential materials in an ecosystem.
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely:

1. Food Chain
2. Food Web
3. Ecological Pyramids
Food Chain: In scientific terms, a food chain is a chronological pathway or an order that shows
the flow of energy from one organism to the other. In a community which has producers,
consumers, and decomposers, the energy flows in a specific pathway. Energy is not created or
destroyed. But it flows from one level to the other, through different organisms.

A food chain shows a single pathway from the producers to the consumers and how the energy
flows in this pathway. In the animal kingdom, food travels around different levels.

As the energy goes one level up, the food chain also moves up. Each level in the food chain is
called a trophic level. The different trophic levels are Primary producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and quaternary consumers.

Detritus food chain: When dead organic matter becomes the starting of a food chain, then it is
called the detritus food chain (DFC). The decomposers, which are the fungi and bacteria, feed on
the organic matter to meet the energy requirements. The digestive enzymes secreted by the
decomposers help in the breakdown of the organic matter into inorganic materials.

Food Web: Many interconnected food chains make up a food web. A food chain is related to
another food chain. Meals are obtained from different nutrition levels. A food web shows a
realistic representation of the energy flow through different organisms in an ecosystem.

Sometimes, a single organism gets eaten by many predators or it eats many other organisms.
This is when a food chain doesn’t represent the energy flow in a proper manner because there are
many trophic levels that interconnect. This is where a food web comes into place. It shows the
interactions between different organisms in an ecosystem.
Ecological Pyramid: The flow of energy can also be represented within an energy pyramid. It
is a Graphic representation of trophic structure & functioning of ecosystem starting with
producers at the base & successive trophic levels forming the apex.

All organisms, directly or indirectly, get their energy from the Sun. Energy flows from the
bottom to the top layer of the pyramid. Approximately 10% of an organism’s energy is
transferred to another organism. Some call it the 10% Rule.
Role of Carbon Cycle in the Ecosystem
On the short time scale, the carbon cycle is most visible in life. Plants on land and in the ocean
convert carbon dioxide to biomass (like leaves and stems) through photosynthesis. The carbon
returns to the atmosphere when the plants decay, are eaten and digested by animals, or burn in
fires. CO2 is added directly to the atmosphere by animals and some other organisms as a by-
product of respiration. The carbon present in animal wastes and in the bodies of all organisms is
released as CO2 by decay, or decomposer, organisms (chiefly bacteria and fungi) in a series of
microbial transformations. Because plants and animals are an integral part of the carbon cycle,
the carbon cycle is closely connected to ecosystems.

Carbon Cycle:

Carbon is a fundamental part of the Earth system. It is one of the primary building blocks of all
organic matter on Earth and a key element in setting Earth’s temperature. Carbon moves from
the atmosphere to the land, ocean, and life through biological, chemical, geological and physical
processes in a cycle called the carbon cycle.

As ecosystems change under a changing climate, the carbon cycle will also change. For example,
plants may bloom earlier in the year and grow for more months (assuming sufficient water is
present) as the growing season gets longer, altering the food supply for animals in the ecosystem.
If more plants grow, they will take more carbon out of the atmosphere and cool temperatures. If,
on the other hand, warming slows plant growth, habitats will shift and more carbon will go into
the atmosphere where it can cause additional warming. Because some carbon gases are
greenhouse gases, changes in the carbon cycle that put more carbon in the atmosphere also warm
Earth’s climate.
Types of Ecosystem
Basically there are two types of ecosystem:

1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Ecosystem

 Natural Ecosystems:
These operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major interference by man.
Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are further divided as:

1. Terrestrial, e.g. forest, grassland, desert.

2. Aquatic which is further distinguished as:

 Freshwater which may be lotic (spring, stream or river) or lentic (lake, pond, pools, ditch,
swamp, etc.)
 Marine, e.g. sea or ocean (deep bodies) and estuary (shallow bodies).

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem:
Terrestrial ecosystems can be found anywhere apart from heavily saturated places. It includes
forest, grassland, deserts and mountain types of ecosystems.

o Forest Ecosystem:
The forests are natural plant communities with dominance of flowering plants. Trees, shrubs,
herbs and climbers are present in plenty. They are the ecosystems in which an abundance of
plants is seen so they have a big number of organisms which live in relatively small space

They are further divided into:

Tropical evergreen forest: Such forests are located in equatorial regions of earth such as in
Congo River basin of Africa, Central America etc. These are tropical forests that receive a mean
rainfall of 80mm for every 400 inches annually. These forests are characterized by dense
vegetation which comprises tall trees at different heights. Each level is shelter to different types
of animals. It is also characterized by Warm and humid climate, abundance of insects and
invertebrates.
Tropical deciduous forest: There, shrubs and dense bushes rule along with a broad selection of
trees. The type of forest is found in quite few parts of the world while a large variety of fauna
and flora are found there.
Temperate evergreen forest: Such forests are found in Eastern regions of Asia &USA, North-
Central Europe etc. The annual rain fall is about 75 cm to 150 cm and average temperature is not
more than 20C. These have quite few numbers of trees as mosses and ferns for them. Trees have
developed spiked leaves in order to minimize transpiration.
Temperate deciduous forest: The forest is located in the moist temperate places that have
sufficient rainfall. Summers and winters are clearly defined and the trees shed the leaves during
the winter months. These forests are characterized by abundance of insects and birds, Tall
deciduous trees, Dominance of hard trees for furniture & building purposes & Common species
found in this ecosystem like frogs, lizards, rabbits, snakes, deer’s, bears etc.
Temperate shrub forest: This is also called Mediterranean Forest. Such forests are found in
South Africa, South Australia along the Mediterranean, Chile and Coast of California etc. where
the rain falls in winter only. Rain is less and temperature is moderate. These forests are
characterized by dry climate with moist air, vegetation is broad leaves and of resinous plants
such as rubber. Common species found in this ecosystem are: reptiles, small mammals, large
mammals etc.
Taiga: Such forests are found across East West band of North Europe, North Asia and North
America. The annual rainfall varies from 10 cm to 35 cm and average temperature ranges
between 6 C in winter to 20 C in summer. These forests are characterized by cold climate due to
high altitudes and high latitudes, Dominated by conifers which are important source for making
paper pulp and lumber, Common species found in this ecosystem are the following:
Birds: owl, eagles, migratory birds
Animals: foxes, rabbits, deer’s, squirrels etc.
Vegetation: pines, cedars, larches etc.

o The Grassland Ecosystem:

Grasslands are located in both the tropical and temperate regions of the world though the
ecosystems vary slightly. The area mainly comprises grasses with a little number of trees and
shrubs. The main vegetation includes grasses, plants and legumes that belong to the composite
family. A lot of grazing animals, insectivores and herbivores inhabit the grasslands. The two
main kinds of grasslands ecosystems are:
Savanna: The tropical grasslands are dry seasonally and have few individual trees. They support
a large number of predators and grazers.
Prairies: It is temperate grassland, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees. Prairies could be
categorized as mixed grass, tall grass and short grass prairies.

o The Desert Ecosystem:

Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25cm. They
occupy about 17%of all the land on our planet. Due to the extremely high temperature, low water
availability and intense sunlight, the fauna and flora are scarce and underdeveloped. The
vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, few grasses and rare trees. The stems and leaves of the
plants are modified in order to conserve water as much as possible. The best known desert ones
are the succulents such as the spiny leaved cacti. The animal organisms include insects, birds,
camels, reptiles all of which are adapted to the desert (xeric) conditions.

o The Mountain Ecosystem:

Mountain land provides a scattered and diverse array of habitats where a large number of
animals and plants can be found. At the higher altitudes, the harsh environmental conditions
normally prevail, and only the treeless alpine vegetation can survive. The animals that live there
have thick fur coats for prevention from cold and hibernation in the winter months. Lower slopes
are commonly covered with coniferous forests.

2. Aquatic ecosystem
The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem found in a body of water. They are made up of plants
and animals that live in the water. These ecosystems differ in relation to the geographic region
where they exist (Antarctica, Sub-Antarctic, tropical and subtropical) and their proximity to the
land (coastal, oceanic and estuarine ecosystems). Aquatic (as well as terrestrial) ecosystems can
vary widely in size from an ocean to a pool of water. There are also aquatic ecosystems of salt
and fresh water. There are two main types of aquatic ecosystem.

 Marine
 Freshwater
 o The Marine Ecosystem:
Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems, which cover around 71% of Earth's surface and
contain 97% of our planet's water. Water in Marine ecosystem features in high amounts minerals
and salts dissolved in them. Marine ecosystems can be divided into the following zones:

Oceanic : the relatively shallow part of the ocean that lies over the continental shelf .

Benthic: These are located at the bottom of aquatic ecosystems. In those that are not very deep,
the main inhabitants are algae. In the deeper ones, the majority are consumers.

Planktonic: These living beings live floating in the terrestrial or marine water and are dragged by
the water currents.

Coral reef : it is one of the richest aquatic ecosystems of the planet, product of the great amount
of species that inhabit in them (fish, snails, corals and algae). The reef structure consists of large
colonies of corals, accumulations of sediments and calcareous sands. They are found mainly in
tropical.

Inter-tidal: The place between low and high tides. It also includes Estuaries, Coral reefs, Salt
marshes and Hydro thermal vents etc. where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the food base.
Many kinds of organisms live in marine ecosystems: the brown algae, corals, cephalopods,
echinoderms, dinoflagellates and sharks. Fish caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source
of commercial foods obtained from wild populations.

o The Freshwater Ecosystem:

The freshwater ecosystem covers only 0.8% of Earth's surface and contains 0.009% of the total
water. Three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems exist:

Lentic:
Lentic is slow-moving or still water like pools, lakes or ponds.
Ponds are typically small lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and water reservoirs. These are a
specific type of freshwater ecosystems that are largely based on the autotroph algae which
provide the base trophic level for all life in the area. The largest predator in a pond ecosystem
will normally be a fish and in-between range smaller insects and microorganisms. It may have a
scale of organisms from small bacteria to big creatures like water snakes, beetles, water bugs,
frogs, tadpoles, and turtles.
Lotic:
Lotic is fast-moving water such as streams and rivers. A lotic ecosystem is the ecosystem of a
river, stream or spring. The rivers/streams originating from melting glaciers have rapid currents
of cold water. In middle reaches, river becomes wider and water current slower. Temperatures of
river water currents increase as it get more of sunlight. In lower reaches, water currents diminish
further. Both phytoplankton & zooplankton are quite common in this region. The running water
is unique from that of other aquatic habitats:
i. Flow is unidirectional.
ii. There is a state of continuous physical change.
iii. There is a high degree of special and temporal heterogeneity at all scales (microhapitats).
iv. Variability between lotic systems is quite high.
The faster moving turbulent waters typically contain greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen,
supporting greater biodiversity than slow moving water of pools.

Wetland :

It is a zone of flat lands that has groundwater of shallow depth and that areas where the soil is
saturated for at least part of the time, forming lagoons and marshes, until where they come to
live hundreds of species.

 Artificial Ecosystem:
They are also called man-made or man-engineered ecosystems. They are maintained artificially
by man where, by addition of energy and planned manipulation, natural balance is disturbed
regularly, e.g. croplands such as sugarcane, maize, wheat, rice-fields; orchards, gardens, villages,
cities, dams, aquarium and manned spaceship.

Natural vs Artificial Ecosystem: Artificial ecosystems have some characteristics of natural

ecosystems but are created and maintained by human beings. Artificial ecosystems are much
simpler than natural ecosystems and are by far the most familiar surroundings in human
experience. “Cultural landscapes” are large-scale ecosystems that have been modified by human
beings. Agriculture is an artificial ecosystem essential to sustain the human population. Urban
ecosystems are usually hybrid ecosystems that combine artificial and natural elements on a
regional scale.

Damages to Ecosystem
Ecosystems throughout the world are endangered. Damaged ecosystems occur when species
within the system are lost, habitat is destroyed and/or the food web is affected. Because all
species live in complex interdependent systems with interdependent relationships, the loss or
change of any single species or abiotic factors has negative consequences on others within the
ecosystem.

Factors effecting Ecosystem:

Pollution, over-exploitation, climate change and invasive species pose particular threats to the
world's ecosystems, biodiversity and ecological integrity. Both biotic and abiotic factors can lead
to a damaged ecosystem.

o Pollution
Industrial and agricultural pollution is prevalent throughout the world with man-made chemicals
found in virtually all environmental niches.
Some ecosystem examples with pollution damage are right in the US. In the United States,
pollution from mining contaminates 40 percent of western rivers, poisoning aquatic life and bio-
accumulating in the food chain. Many chemical pollutants, including pesticides and plastics,
disrupt animal hormonal activity and reproduction, reducing biodiversity in water and on land.
Organic nutrients from agricultural runoff result in aquatic algae blooms that deplete dissolved
oxygen levels, creating dead zones in coastal areas near major rivers. In many areas of the world,
human pollution has destroyed entire ecosystems, leaving land and water unable to support life.
Pollution also affects air quality and temperature; it's one of the leading causes of global
warming and climate change. These adjustments to key abiotic factors affect virtually all
ecosystems across the world. Increased temperatures lead to changed ocean currents,
temperatures, plant growth and more, all of which affects food webs and relationships within
ecosystems.
o Over-Exploitation
Over-exploitation of the natural world takes many forms. Forests are destroyed for lumber,
agriculture and ranching, resulting in considerable loss of biodiversity. Nearly all of the oceans
of the world are fully exploited or over-exploited with most fisheries expected to collapse within
the next 40 years if fishing practices are not changed.
The world's soils are also being depleted at a rapid rate, leading to desertification and loss of
agricultural productivity. A key example of this is in grasslands where mono-cropping depletes
the soil of any and all usable nutrients, which makes it unusable for both agriculture and for the
natural plants and species that live there.
In any of its forms, over-exploitation leaves ecosystems impaired and less capable of supporting
life.
o Invasive Species
Invasive plant and animal species disrupt ecosystems by taking over ecological niches within
their adopted home, preying on or driving out native species and disrupting food chains and other
interdependent systems.
The common rat is a species that has invaded countless areas of the world since the age of
exploration. Invasive species tend to have no natural predator in the new ecosystem, allowing
them to reproduce prolifically.
Invasive plant species, such as kudzu in the southern United States, can take over vast amounts
of land, forcing out other plants and destroying the natural habitat and food sources of the local
animal populations.

o Climate Change
Global warming threatens ecosystems throughout the world. Human-caused greenhouse gas
emissions cause increasing amounts of heat to be absorbed by the atmosphere, leading to rising
global average temperatures. Climate models indicate possible average temperature increase of
between 4 and 10 degrees Fahrenheit during the next century.
As air and water warm, many species will be unable to tolerate the higher temperatures. Those
that cannot migrate to a suitable climate will become Climate Change.
Global warming threatens ecosystems throughout the world. Human-caused greenhouse gas
emissions cause increasing amounts of heat to be absorbed by the atmosphere, leading to rising
global average temperatures. Climate models indicate possible average temperature increase of
between 4 and 10 degrees Fahrenheit during the next century. As air and water warm, many
species will be unable to tolerate the higher temperatures. Those that cannot migrate to a suitable
climate will become extinct, degrading ecosystem integrity in all areas of the world.

o Deforestation
Deforestation and degradation of forests create ecological problems in every part of the world.
Deforestation is occurring at a rapid pace, especially in tropical regions where millions of acres
are clear cut every year. Remaining forests also suffer from pollution and selective logging
operations that degrade the integrity of local ecosystems. Destruction of forests also affects the
soil and water quality in the immediate area and can have an adverse effect on biodiversity over
a range of connected ecosystems.
 o Loss of Biodiversity
The most significant effect of forest degradation is loss of habitat leading to species loss. Forests
are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet. Over half of all terrestrial
species live in rainforests, which are subject to the greatest deforestation pressures. Biodiversity
loss can occur during selective logging as well, as individual species may be intolerant to loss of
a particular tree type or to the presence of logging operations. Species loss within forests can
spread to surrounding ecosystems, as food chains often cross ecosystem boundaries.

o Disruption of the Water Cycle and River Ecosystems

Evapotranspiration refers to the water that evaporates from the forest back to the atmosphere,
increasing rainfall across nearby ecosystems. Loss of forest disrupts this cycle, resulting in less
rainfall and causing drier conditions over broad surrounding areas, sometimes leading to drought.
Forests also retain moisture from rainfall, allowing it to recharge water tables and regulating the
flow of water into rivers and other waterways. Loss of forests often results in increased flooding
and erosion of sediment into rivers, disrupting river ecosystems.

o Soil Erosion
Forests contain particularly rich soil that has received organic material over extended periods of
time. When forest is destroyed, the soil is exposed to the sun, which causes it to lose nutrients.
During heavy rains, the dry soil is washed away due to lack of root structures in the ground.
Once topsoil is lost in an area, it can be very difficult to re-establish forest or use the land for
other productive purposes.

o Global Warming
Deforestation is a primary cause of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions leading to global
warming. All forests contain large amounts of carbon. When they are destroyed, the burning or
decomposition of forest matter releases this carbon into the atmosphere in the form of carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing solar heat within the atmosphere.
Therefore, higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide lead to a warmer climate. Global
warming threatens ecosystems and biodiversity globally.
  Conclusion:
 Ecology is a scientific approach to the study of the biosphere. Ecosystems are created by the
interrelationships between living organisms and the physical environments they inhabit (land,
water, air). To study ecosystems we have to start to identify the components involved and the
interrelationships between them. Food chains and food webs are a way of mapping one type of
interrelationship between the organisms in an ecosystem.
 There are two types of ecosystems, Natural Ecosystem and Artificial Ecosystem. Natural
ecosystems further divides into terrestrial which includes forest, grassland, desert, and aquatic
which is further distinguished as freshwater and marine water. Artificial Ecosystem is man-
made which includes croplands etc.
 Human beings are part of ecosystems, as well as manipulators of ecosystems. As such we are
dependent on, as well as responsible for, the ecological health of the ecosystems we inhabit.
 References
www.ecosystems.org

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/ecosystem/food-chain-and-food-web/

https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/food-chains-food-webs-and-energy-pyramids

https://www.britannica.com/science/carbon-cycle.

Terra Science on Carbon Cycle and Ecosystems in the News

http://Eco-Globe.com

https://sciencing.com/types-environmental-ecosystems-

https://sciencing.com/damages-ecosystem-