POLITICS  Jobs, transport system, clean air, etc

 Could also come from within the political system

ARENA VS PROCESS o Supports
 Form of favourable political environment
- Narrow interpretation – where (venue)  Enabling laws and rules, openness of the political system,
- Broad interpretation – how (activity/process) public support, etc
- Arena o Both internal and external
o Formalistic conception  Fed into the political system and how the system processes
 Limits politics to the state and all its instrumentalities & related them into decisions and policies
institutions  Political System
 Hierarchy of offices and personnel, laws, and policies  Has the right and discretion to screen demands and to
 Activities and actions (ex: elections) process only the most urgent and salient
 Within formal institutions of the state  Can’t avoid being influenced by developments within and
 Political behaviour effects or outcomes of processes engaged outside its own territory
by the state, gov’t, and related institutions  Exception: Authoritarian
 Elections → In control of all powers
 Citizens are involved → Must heed to public opinion, otherwise it will invite
 Right of suffrage and perform their civic duty as citizens opposition and resistance
 Substantive exercise of a right o Internal environment
 Vote-buying  Geopolitical, physical, and territorial boundaries
→ Voting misses its true purpose o External environment
→ Token form of citizen participation  Confluence of foreign influences, forces, and dynamics that lie
- Process beyond the boundaries of the state
o Comprehensive view o Feedback loop
o Not limited to formal political institutions  Means to communicate
o Institutions within the society o If the public is satisfied, then there is or there could be no further
 Family, church, etc action, if not then a new input (demand and support) will enter
o Adrian Leftwich o Not all demands get fed into the political system
 Compromises all the activities of cooperation and conflict,  Only when:
within and between societies  Demands have supports
 Human species  Demands become issues that merit government’s
 Organising the use, production, and distribution of resources and response
human, natural and other resources o System breakdown
o How decisions are made and executed for a society  Too much demands and supports
o Role and interactions of both formal and informal institutions  Can elicit negative reactions from the larger society
o Processes in decision-making  Public dissatisfaction of the state’s performance
o Corridors of power  Further opposition and even rebellion or revolution
 Formal political arena and the informal processes  How to avoid
o Two broad types of actions or activities that are encompassed  Must be decisive on the kinds of demands
 Authorized by the state  Maintain a level of equilibrium
 Challenge the state  Balance what gets in and gets out
o Organized protest, rebellion, and other activities that are outside o Politics as “Who Gets What, When, and How”
the constitutional and legal framework  Those who get the most are elite; the rest are mass (Lasswell)
 Sanctioned by the state  Politics functions as a battlefield
 Aims to contest the powers of the state  Political actors try to subdue each other
o Decision-making and outcomes → For public good or private gain
 Lead to actual laws and policies that are binding to all
 Some end winners and reign supreme while others lose
o Power over or power to or both
and join the opposition or the mass
 The elite can only exercise its influence only up to a point
POLITICS AS GOVERNANCE
where it can defend itself from any attempts
 Political dynasties
- Politics
o Authoritative allocation of values for a society (Easton)  Elite in society can perpetuate its influence in the society
- Study of politics for as long as it wants
o Understanding how authoritative decisions are made and executed  Lack of a national law
for a society (Lasswell)  Advantage a few and discriminate against the many
- Politics as about governing  Lead to a personalized system of political and corporate
o Government relationships that easily lead to corruption
 Describe the formal institutions  Preserving family wealth and status
 People ruled or governed
 Persons and organizations that make, enforce, and apply POWERS
political decisions for a society
o Governing - Decision-making
 Includes institutions other than those of government that are o A has a power over B to the extent that A can get B to do
involved in governing something that B would not otherwise do
 Labor, trade unions, corporations, church organizations, o The most powerful actors in society are those whose opinion holds
etc sway in the decision-making arena
→ Setting rules or conventions o Involves a focus on behaviour in the making of decisions
o Governance o Observable conflict (subjective)
 Refers to the web of formal or informal institutions, rules, o Actions or decisions of A produce an effect on B by altering B’s
norms, and expectations choices, decisions, or behaviour to comply with A’s actions and
 Govern behaviour in societies with B knowing that his compliance is contrary to his own
 Customs, norms of behaviour, unwritten rules, or agreed ways preferences
- Politics as “The Authoritative Allocation of Values for a Society” - Agenda-setting
o Politics o Conditions from which decision outcomes arise are affected
 Complex set of interactions between inputs and outputs o Limiting the scope of the decision-making
 Internal and external environments - Preference-shaping
 Feedback and the political system o Arbitrary, unrealistic, and myopic
o Inputs o Shaping their perceptions, cognitions, and preferences
 Demands and supports
 Fed into the political system POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
o Output
 Decisions and policies - Tends to be used in a neutral sense, to refer to a developed social
 Result out of the political system philosophy or world-view, it has in the past had heavily negative or
 Could also mean no decision or no action pejorative connotations.
o Demands - ‘Science of ideas’ (French philosopher Destutt de Tracy)
 Want or ask their government to provide or respond to - Uncover the origins of conscious thought and ideas
 - For Marx, ideology amounted to the ideas of the ‘ruling class’, ideas that
therefore uphold the class system and perpetuate exploitation.
LIBERALISM
 Belief in the value of social and political change in order to achieve
progress
 Political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of
the individual to be the central problem of politics
 The idea of liberalism was built back during the 18th century
“enlightenment” but was developed during the 19th century in Europe
and the United States.
 Notable individuals who contributed to the idea of liberalism include John
Locke, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo.
ELEMENTS
- Individualism
o Central idea or theme of liberalism
o Interests/welfare should be given primacy over all other values
o Presumptions: individuals are reasonable and do not harm others
o Individuals are capable of doing their job
o It reflects a belief in the supreme importance of the human individual
as opposed to any social group or collective body.
o The liberal goal is therefore to construct a society within which
individuals can flourish and develop, each pursuing ‘the good’ as
he or she defines it, to the best of his or her abilities.
o Lays down a set of rules that allow individuals to make their own
moral decisions.
- Freedom
o Without it, an individual will simply be a unit without dignity
o Liberals do not advocate for unrestricted freedom because
unrestricted liberty will do more harm
o In fan of chained or restricted freedom
o Restriction is for the welfare of the community (John Stuart Mill)
o This arises naturally from a belief in the individual and the desire to
ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or
chooses.
- Reason
o Liberalism and reason are inseparable
o As product of enlightenment, man is guided by reason and
rationality
o Real progress could only be achieved through individual initiative
and outside interference
o This inclines them to place their faith in the ability of individuals
o To make wise judgements on their own behalf, being, in most cases,
the best judges of their own interests.
o It also encourages liberals to believe in progress and the capacity
of human beings to resolve their differences through debate and
argument, rather than bloodshed and war.
- Toleration
o Different opinions, beliefs, religion, community must side together
peacefully.
o Various ideologies and opinions make a society diverse and
diversities should be side by side.
o One community has no right to impose decision or belief of another.
Only in authoritarian community.
o A guarantee of individual liberty and a means of social enrichment
o Ensuring that all beliefs are tested in a free market of ideas
o A balance or natural harmony between rival views and interests, and
thus usually discount the idea of irreconcilable conflict
- Consent
o Liberal thinkers declare that every law/policy must be based on the
consent of those for whom it is made
o Consent of all/majority constitute the basic structure of society
o Authority and social relationships should always be based on
consent or willing agreement
- Constitutionalism
o Two meanings: narrow and broad
 Narrow: certain limitations upon the government specified by
constitution
 Broad: implies values, principles which guides to the
government
o Basic principle of liberalism
o Must follow certain basic rules and procedures
o Believe in limited government
o This goal can be attained through:
 The fragmentation of government power, by the creation of
checks and balances amongst the various institutions of
government.
 The establishment of a codified or ‘written’ constitution
embodying a bill of rights that defines the relationship between
the state and the individual.
- Equality
o Religious and moral principle
o According to religious minded people: everyone is born equal
o Liberalism has built up a nexus with religion
o An ideology of a practical world
o Equality of opportunity (a ‘level playing field’) that gives all
individuals an equal chance to realize their unequal potential.
o Formal equality
 Legal equality “equality before the law”: law should treat each
person equally showing no regard to race, gender, age etc.
o Foundational equality
 Ideas arose out of ‘natural rights’ theories. ALL people are
equal by virtue of a shared human essence.
o Equality of opportunity
 Provides a meritocratic society in which BOTH success and
failure are personal achievements
- Justice (Wala ‘to sa binigay na source ni miss pero in case)
o Declared policy: individual will have his due share and none can
deprive other of the share
o Most important form of equality are legal equality and social equality.
COUNTRIES
- Switzerland
- Denmark
- Norway
- Australia
- Canada
- Costa Rica
- Sweden
o Free education from preschool until university
o Lowest unemployment rate (8%) which proves that they value the
freedom and equality of the people in terms of education
MORE STUFF
Individualism: The individual takes priority over society.
Freedom: Individuals have the right to make choices for themselves. This freedom
is not absolute, and some behaviors, such as murder, are prohibited. Freedom of
religion is a particularly important freedom to come out of liberalism because so
many governments at the time were very closely tied to a particular religious creed.
Equality: No person is morally or politically superior to others. Hierarchies are
rejected.
Rationalism: Humans are capable of thinking logically and rationally. Logic and
reason help us solve problems.
Progress: Traditions should not be kept unless they have value. New ideas are
helpful because they can lead to progress in the sciences, the economy, and
society.
The free market: Liberalism and capitalism go hand in hand. Liberals like the free
market because it more easily creates wealth, as opposed to traditional economies,
which often have extensive regulations and limits on which occupations people can
hold. These basic characteristics of liberalism have led liberals to argue in favor of
a limited government, which draws its power from the people. In practice, this has
meant favoring a democratic government.
People living in more liberal countries are happier on average than those in less
liberal countries, but individually, conservatives are happier than liberals no matter
where they live, according to a study of people in 16 Western European countries.
Liberal governments tend to do more to shield citizens against certain hardships,
such as unemployment and poverty, which can make people feel happier overall,”
said the study’s lead author, Adam Okulicz-Kozaryn
CLASSICAL OR EARLY LIBERALISM
- Negative liberalism
o No control from the government
- Modern liberalism – Positive liberalism
o Some intervention from the government
o Everyone has their right to freedom and equality
PROPONENTS
1. JOHN LOCKE
- Father of classical liberalism
- He made foundational contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal
government
- He advanced a theory of the self as a blank page, with knowledge and
identity arising only from accumulated experience
- His political theory of government by the consent of the governed as a
means to protect “life, liberty and estate” deeply influenced the United
States’ founding documents.
2. JOHN STUART MILL
- Influenced the shape of nineteenth century British thought and political
discourse.
- A British philosopher, economist, and moral and political theorist.
 - Disagreed: High taxation, Regulations, and tariffs Free markets and free
trade (laissez-faire) Against Monopolies, government intervention in
economics, and mercantilism Capitalism made the west the most
prosperous civilization
3. ADAM SMITH
- Touted as the world's first free-market capitalist
- The father of modern economics and a major proponent of laissez-faire
economic policies
- “On Liberty”
- Tyranny of the majority &despotism of custom
- Social opinion should be a law for individuals – “The only legitimate
restriction to individual freedom was harm to others”
- Central thesis remains the classic statement of the case for individual
liberty
CONSERVATISM
 Derived from the Latin "conservare" (meaning to "protect" or "preserve")
and from the French derivative “conservateur”
 Favors traditions
 Preserves status quo
 Critical of proposal for radical social change
 Emerged in the late 18th century and early 19th century
 Arose as a reaction against events surrounding the French Revolution
(growing pace of economic and political change)
 Autocratic and reactionary, rejecting out of hand any idea of reform
 More successful form of conservatism developed in the UK and the
USA, characterized by Edmund Burke’s belief in ‘change in order to
conserve’
 19th century to embrace the cause of social reform under the
paternalistic banner of ‘One Nation’
 1950s — the Conservative Party came to accept the postwar settlement
 1970s onwards — result of the emergence of the New Right
TYPES
1. Cultural Conservatism
- Supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture, usually by
the adaptation of norms handed down from the past.
2. Social Conservatism
- Subset of cultural conservatism where the norms may also be moral (e.g
opposition to homosexuality, covering of women’s faces, etc.)
3. Religious Conservatism
- Preserve the teachings of particular religious ideologies, either by
example or by law
4. Fiscal Conservatism
- Arguing that a government does not have the right to run up large debts
and then throw the burden on the taxpayer
5. Paleo-Conservatism
- Specifically opposes illegal immigration, communism, authoritarianism,
social democracy, and entitlement programs
6. Neo-Conservatism
- Emphasizes an interventionist foreign policy, free trade and free market
economics and a general disapproval of counterculture
PROPONENTS
7. Bio-Conservatism
- Stance of hesitancy about technological development, and a scepticism
about medical and other biotechnological transformations of the living
world (e.g cloning, genetic engineering), especially if it is perceived to
threaten a given social order
OPPOSED THE IDEAS OF
- Liberalism
o Consider individual liberty to be the most important political goal,
and emphasize individual rights and equality of opportunity
o Most Liberals would claim that a government is necessary to protect
rights, different forms of Liberalism may propose very different
policies.
- Socialism
o Socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of
wealth are subject to control by the workers, either directly through
popular collectives such as workers' councils, or indirectly exercised
on behalf of the people by the state, and in which Egalitarianism or
equality is an important goal.
o The means of production are owned by the state, community or the
workers.
ELEMENTS
- Tradition
o Desire to conserve
o Central theme
o Perceived virtues of tradition, respect for established customs, and
COUNTRIES
institutions that have endured through time
o Accumulated wisdoms of the past
o Institutions and practices have been tested by time
o Preserved for the living and for generations yet to come
o Promoting a sense of social and historical belonging
- Pragmatism
o Abstract principles and systems of thought are therefore distrusted,
and instead faith is placed in experience, history and, above all,
pragmatism
o Action should be shaped by practical circumstances and practical
goals
o Conservatives have thus preferred to describe their own beliefs as
an ‘attitude of mind’ or an ‘approach to life’, rather than as an
ideology
- Human Imperfection
o Human beings are limited, dependent, and security-seeking
creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested, and
needing to live in stable and orderly communities
o Individuals are morally corrupt: they are tainted by selfishness,
greed and the thirst for power
o The roots of crime and disorder therefore reside within the
human individual rather than in society
o The maintenance of order therefore requires a strong state, the
enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties.
- Organicism
o Viewed society as an organic whole, or living entity
o Fabric of society (families, local communities, the nation, etc)
o Individuals contributing to the health and stability of the society
o Shared (often ‘traditional’) values and a common culture are also
seen as being vital to the maintenance of the community and social
cohesion
- Hierarchy
o Gradations of social position and status are natural and inevitable in
an organic society
o Hierarchy and inequality do not give rise to conflict, because society
is bound together by mutual obligations and reciprocal duties
o A person’s ‘station in life’ is determined largely by luck and the
accident of birth
o The prosperous and privileged acquire a particular responsibility of
care for the less fortunate.
- Authority
o Authority is always exercised ‘from above’, providing leadership,
guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge,
experience or education to act wisely in their own interests
o The virtue of authority is that it is a source of social cohesion, giving
people a clear sense of who they are and what is expected of them.
o Freedom must therefore coexist with responsibility; it therefore
consists largely of a willing acceptance of obligations and duties.
- Property
o Vital
o Gives people security and a measure of independence from
government, and it encourages them to respect the law and the
property of others
o Property is also an exteriorization of people’s personalities, in that
they ‘see’ themselves in what they own
o Property ownership involves duties as well as rights.
o Inherited or may be a value to future ones (heirloom)
1. EDMUND BURKE
- Father of the Anglo-American conservative tradition
- Argued that wisdom resided largely in experience, tradition, and history
- He held that the French monarchy was, in part, responsible for its own
fate since it had obstinately refused to ‘change in order to conserve’
- Evolutions, along with their revolutionaries, destroy time-tested
institutions like: tradition and inherited values without any assurance to
replace them with something better; he theorized that a changing society
would only lead to terror and dictatorship
- Believes in the idea of inheritance or to the handing down of traditions,
cultures, etc. from generations to generations
- Burke viewed colonialism as bad, radicalism as dangerous, and
democracy as a threat to social stability
- Rejected evolution for the sake of traditional liberties
2. JOSEPH DE MAISTRE
- Rejected change for traditional authority which pertains to the authority
of the monarch and the church
- Convinced of the need of Christianity and understands the role of both
sovereign and the pope.
- Rejected the whole idea of Enlightenment
- Human beings as essentially emotional and naturally evil unless they are
controlled within a tight and strict political structure run by rulers and
priests, with the threat of public executioners
- Removing a public executioner in the system would pave way to chaos,
toppling of thrones, and disappearing of societal order
- Emphasizes the importance of hierarchy in the system
- Britain
 - France - Engels was a great supporter and collaborator of Karl Marx. He
- Germany helped write and publish the Communist Manifesto. His own work
‘Conditions of the working classes’ was a landmark study into the
SOCIALISM industrial proletariat.

• Major industries are controlled by the Government rather than the PROS OF SOCIALISM
individual people and companies
1. Fair System
• Believes in “Social Equality”
 Everyone gets equality, regardless of color, origin, religion or economic
• a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that status.
the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or
regulated by the community as a whole 2. Lower Disparity

• Socialist believes in utopian visions of a better society.  Close the gap between rich and poor.

ELEMENTS 3. Higher Mortality

- Community  Socialism improves morality within the nation.

o It highlights the degree to which individual identity is fashioned by
social interaction and membership of social groups and collective
bodies.
o Socialists are inclined to emphasize nurture over nature, and to
explain individual behavior mainly in terms of social factors rather
than innate qualities.
- Fraternity
o This encourages socialists to prefer cooperation to competition,
and to favor collectivism over individualism
o In this view, cooperation enables people to harness their collective
energies and strengthens the bonds of community, while
competition pits individuals against each other, breeding resentment,
conflict and hostility.
- Social Equality
o Socialists emphasize the importance of social equality, an equality of
outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity.
o They believe that a measure of social equality is the essential
guarantee of social stability and cohesion, encouraging individuals
to identify with their fellow human beings.
o It also provides the basis for the exercise of legal and political
rights.
- Need
o The classic formulation of this principle is found in Marx's communist
principle of distribution: 'from each according to his ability, to each
according to his need'.
o This reflects the belief that the satisfaction of basic needs is a
prerequisite for a worthwhile human existence and participation in
social life.
o Clearly, however, distribution according to need requires people to
be motivated by moral incentives, rather than just material ones.
- Social Class
o Socialism has traditionally been associated with the interests of an
oppressed and exploited working class (however defined), and it
has traditionally regarded the working class as an agent of social
change, even social revolution.
o Nevertheless, class divisions are remediable: the socialist goal is
either the eradication of economic and social inequalities or their
substantial reduction.
- Common Ownership
o The socialist case for common ownership is that it is a means of
harnessing material resources to the common good, with private
property being seen to promote selfishness, acquisitiveness and
social division.
o Modern socialism, however, has moved away from this narrow
concern with the politics of ownership.
COUNTRIES
- China
- Republic of Cuba
- Lao People’s Democratic Republic
- Socialist Republic of Japan
4. Cares for Everyone
 Providing them with equal opportunities and proper health and wealth
distribution
5. Improves Living Standards
 Everyone gets good amounts of money, allowing financial freedom to be
easier to
CONS OF SOCIALISM
1. Stops economic growth
 Since socialism taxes wealthy entrepreneurs, they aren’t able to
generate large amounts of wealth and as such
2. Poverty is maintained
 Economic growth is damaged and as such, there is actually less wealth
to distribute meaning that either society prospers and everyone has a lot
of money
3. Living Standards Might Not Increase
 Since there isn’t a lot of wealth, everyone will be sinking together instead
off prospering.
4. Boost Laziness
 Socialism provides the poor with higher amounts of income even though
they don’t work any harder for it.
MARXISM
 Marxism has also been seen as the major enemy of western capitalism,
at least in the period 1917–91.
 This highlights the importance of economic life and the conditions under
which people produce and reproduce their means of subsistence.
 Marx held that the economic ‘base’, consisting essentially of the ‘mode
of production, or economic system, conditions or determines the
ideological and political ‘superstructure’
 A communist society will be both classlessness and statelessness
 As a system of ‘commodity production’ gives rise to one based on
‘production for use’ and geared to the satisfaction of genuine human
needs, ‘the free development of each would become the precondition for
the free development of all’
PROPONENTS
1. KARL MARX

PROPONENTS - Feudal lords, land owners and capitalists were pitted against the
ruled working class
1. KARL MARX - Demise of capitalism through a workers' revolution that would
lead to a utopian “classless society"
- Was the foremost Socialist intellectual. His work Das Capital forming - “People work according to their ability and get according to their
the basis of Marxism. With Frederich Engels, he published ‘The needs” and "in which the free development of each is the
Communist Manifesto’ – a radical agenda for Communist revolution. condition for the free development of all."
2. ROBERT OWEN
2. FRIEDRICH ENGELS
- Early socialist pioneer. His New Lanark factories were a model for giving
workers better conditions. He also advocated a form of utopian - “To be human is to be a creative worker. This is the humanity we
Socialism and co-operative communities. have been alienated from.”

3. FREDERICH ENGLES THEORIES

 - Alienation Theory 2. ADOLF HITLER
o Proletariat are alienated from
 Productive acitivity - German Politician
 Product - Leader of the Nazi
 Other human beings - Initiated World War II
 Potential creativity
- Deeply influenced by Mussolini
 Bourgeoisie are alienated from their fellow human beings
- Labor Theory of Value - Turned Germany into a Fascist state
o The value of a commodity can be objectively measured by the
average number of labor hours required to produce that commodity 3. GIOVANNI GENTILE
- Scientific Socialism
o “To demonstrate that throughout the course of human history, a - “The Philosopher of Fascism”
profound struggle has developed between the “haves” and the - Ghostwrote A Doctorine of Fascism (1930) for his counrty’s prime
“have-nots.” minister, Benito Mussolini
- The individual had no freedom to protest in Hitler's Germany
BASIC PRINCIPLES
CHARACTERISTICS
- Social Life: Conflict of Interest
o Bourgeoisie control the means while the Proletariat sell labor power 1. Powerful and continuing nationalism
- Social Class
o How and why societies change 2. Disdain for the recognition of human rights
- Political Theory
o Expose of political economic contradictions natural in capitalism 3. Identification of enemies/scapegoats as a unifying cause
o Towards communist society
- Human History: 4. Militarism
o Ownership of Means
o Primitive Communism 5. Rampant sexism
 Holds everything in common
o Ancient Epoch 6. Controlled mass media
 Slavery and the means were owned by aristocratic elite
o Feudal Society 7. Obsession with national security
 Land is the most important means of production
o Capitalist 8. Rampant cronyism and corruption
 Technology used by the Bourgeoisie for private gain
o Hegemony 9. Religion and state are intertwined
 “leadership with the consent of the led”
 Force > army 10. Power of corporation is protected
 Ideology > media
o Spheres of Influence 11. Power of labor is eliminated
 Economic base/ Infrastructure
12. Disdain for the intellectual and the arts
 Political and Ideological superstructure
o Total Critique of Capitalist Society
13. Obsession with crimes and punishment
 Social life is produced through a combination of economic,
political and ideological conflicts.
14. Fraudulent elections
o Social Structure
 Individuals are only as significant when they are together as a
COUNTRIES
class
o False Consciousness - Austria
 A working class is falsely conscious of his true class position
when he fail to see themselves as a member of an exploited, - Belgium
oppressed, class
o Alienation - Denmark
 Capitalist society degrades bourgeoisie and proletariat
- Finland
COUNTRIES
- France
- Ethiopia
- Kenya - Germany
- Angola
- Senegal - Great Britain
FASCISM - Hungary
 Militaristic dictatorship - Italy
 Attitude of giving full interest in economic, social, and military power to a
dominant race - Norway
 Statist, authoritarian and totalitarian
- Poland
 Right-wing
- Romania
PROPONENTS
- Spain
1. BENITO AMILCARE ANDREA MUSSOLINI
ANARCHISM
- Italian politician, journalist, leader of the national fascist party
- Prime Minister of Italy  Having power without government
- .Opposed Egalitarianism  Comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία (anarchia), which combines ἀ
- Dictator (a), "not, without" and ἀρχή (arkhi), "ruler, leader, authority." Thus,
- “II Duce” (The Leader) the term refers to a person or society "without rulers" or "without
- Joined Italian army in 1915 leaders.“
- “Black Shirts” march in Rome  Believes that the government is evil therefore they create their own laws
- “Pact of Steel”  “Chaotic” kind of ideology
- Avanti (forward)  People are believed to be more powerful than the laws given
- Killed 1945
PROPONENTS
 1. WILLIAM GODWIN - Anarchist movement that emphasizes the individual and their will over
external determinants
- founder of modern anarchist theory
- the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of • Mutualism
anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas
developed in his work - Advocates a society where each person might possess a means of
- peaceful evolution
production
- Focus: Enquiry concerning political justice
• Agorism
2. PIERRE-JOSEPH PROUDHON
- All relations between people are voluntary exchanges by means of
- first self-proclaimed anarchist in 1859 counter-economics
- Father of Anarchism
- “Property is theft" and “God is evil.”
- Distrust of the State and his teaching of the need for world federation
take on a new importance in a world that is threatened by explosive
rivalries of great nationalistic States.

3. MIKHAIL BAKUNIN

- chief propagator of 19th-century anarchism

- Debated with Karl Marx
- Believes that human beings are:
o naturally social
o are more or less equal
o want to be free
- Focus: Corruption of power

CHARACTERISTICS

- Liberty
o Anarchism - most extreme form of belief in freedom or liberty
o Essential for the full flowering of human intelligence, creativity,
and dignity.
o Domination stifles innovation and personal responsibility, leading
to conformity and mediocrity.
o Maximizes the growth of individuality
o Will necessarily be based on voluntary association, not coercion
and authority
- Equality
o Without equality, liberty becomes a mockery
o Not in favour of so-called "equality of outcome.“
o It is equal opportunity to satisfy them that constitutes true
equality (The ABC of Anarchism)
o Social equality: "that which touches all, is decided by all.“
(Proudhon)
- Solidarity
o Key idea of Anarchism
o Associating together as equals in order to satisfy common
interests and needs
o "Unions" with other people is a natural need
o Voluntary, decentralized, and non-hierarchal
o “Solidarity is the means by which we ensure that our liberty is
strengthened and defended from those in power who want to rule
us” (Max Stirner)
- Organization
o Based on horizontal relationships between themselves rather
than vertical ones between themselves and an elite, the
"authority" is non-hierarchical
- Direct Democracy
o Every single law bill or issue of justice is voted on by all people
o Live with others in fraternal agreement in the interests of the
greatest good of all
o (be an associate)
o Individuals express themselves, practice critical thought and self-
government
o Rules can always be modified or repealed

COUNTRIES

- Spain
- France
- Russia
- Mexico

TYPES

• Individualist anarchism