Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Professor JE (Kobus) van Zyl holds Bachelor and Master’s degrees in Civil
Engineering, and a Diploma in Scientific Computing from the University of
Johannesburg, and obtained a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering at the University
of Exeter in 2001. He was Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering
Science and held the Rand Water Chair in Water Utilisation at the University
of Johannesburg before joining UCT in 2009. He is currently the Assistant
Dean for Academic Development in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Environment.
Prof van Zyl has twice been awarded the Best Paper prize in the Journal of the
South African Society for Civil Engineering. He is an Associate Editor of the
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, and a member of the
Editorial Board of the Urban Water Journal.
Prof van Zyl’s research focuses on water distribution systems, and his current
interests include hydraulic modelling, impact of pressure on leakage, reliability of
bulk supply systems and water demand management.
JE Van Zyl
JE van Zyl
TT 600/14 TT 600/14
Introduction to
Operation and Maintenance
of Water Distribution Systems
EDITION 1
JE VAN ZYL
TT 600/14
Obtainable from:
Water Research Commission
Private Bag X03
Gezina, 0031
orders@wrc.org.za
The publication of this report emanates from a project entitled Practical Guidelines for
Operation and Maintenance of Water Distribution Systems in South Africa (WRC Project No.
K5/2135)
Disclaimer
This report has been reviewed by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views
and policies of the WRC, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ISBN 978-1-4312-0556-1
Printed in the Republic of South Africa
July 2014
The book would not have had much practical value was it
not for the input by numerous individuals who took part
in workshops and site visits, or sent me their comments
after reading drafts of the book. Thank you for the time
and advice so generously given. I would like to particularly
acknowledge the contributions of Mr Pravesh Boodhoo
(Umgeni Water), Mr Graham Chapman (Ethekwini
Water and Sanitation), Mr Mustafa Clarke (Kai !Garib
Municipality), Mr Gregory Johnston (Ethekwini Water and
Sanitation), Ms Melissa de Sousa-Alves (City of Cape Town),
Mr Mpafane Deyi (University of Cape Town), Mr David
Drummond (Ethekwini Water and Sanitation), Mr Richard
Edson (Overberg Water), Mr Johannes Fielies (Eskom),
Mr Mervin Govender (Ethekwini Water and Sanitation),
iv
Introduction
Photograph credits
I would like to acknowledge the following individuals and
institutions who contributed photographs used in this book:
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments iv
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.5 Important notes 5
INTRODUCTION
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Consequences of loss of physical integrity 12
2.3 Causes of a loss of physical integrity 12
2.3.1 Design and construction factors 13
2.3.2 Physical Factors 13
2.3.3 Chemical Factors 14
2.3.3.1 Corrosion 14
2.3.3.2 Permeation 16
2.4 Measuring physical integrity 16
2.5 Maintaining physical integrity 17
2.5.1 Design and construction 17
2.5.1.1 Design 17
2.5.1.2 Materials selection 18
vi
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Consequences of a loss of hydraulic integrity 26
3.3 Causes of a loss of hydraulic integrity 26
3.3.1 Excessive demands 28
3.3.2 Reduction in system capacity 29
3.3.3 Negative pressures 29
3.3.4 Pumping directly from the network 29
3.3.5 Pressure transients 30
3.3.6 Excessive pressures 30
3.3.7 Low velocities 30
3.3.8 Wrong operational settings 31
3.3.9 Air in the system 31
3.4 Measuring and modelling hydraulic integrity 31
3.5 Maintaining hydraulic integrity 32
3.5.1 Design and Construction 32
3.5.2 Operation 33
3.5.3 Maintenance 34
4.1 Introduction 35
vii
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 5: Systems for Managing Operation and Maintenance 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Water balancer 47
5.2.1 Real losses 48
5.2.2 Benchmarking system leakage 50
5.3 Asset management 50
5.3.1 Introduction 50
5.3.2 Technical assessment 54
5.3.3 Financial assessment 54
5.3.4 Asset management practicesb 55
5.4 Water safety planx 56
Chapter 6: Pipes 59
6.1 Introduction 59
6.2 Joint types 59
6.3 Pipe materials 61
6.4 Deterioration and common failure patterns 64
viii
Table of Contents
7.1 Introduction 77
7.2 Valves 77
7.2.1 Isolation valves 78
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.2.2 Air valves 79
7.2.3 Scour valves 81
7.2.4 Non-return valves 81
7.2.5 Control valves 81
7.3 Fire hydrants 82
7.4 Water meters 84
7.5 Chambers 87
7.6 Markers 87
7.7 Thrust blocks 88
8.1 Introduction 91
8.2 Reservoirs and water towers 91
8.3 Deterioration and common failure patterns 92
8.4 Operation and maintenance of reservoirs and water towers 93
8.4.1 Design and construction 93
8.4.1.1 Reservoir sizing 93
8.4.1.2 Structure 93
ix
Table of Contents
Chapter 9: Pumps 99
9.1 Introduction 99
9.2 Pumps 99
9.2.1 Introduction 99
9.2.2 Characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump 99
9.2.2.1 Head-flow curve 100
9.2.2.2 Efficiency curve 100
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.2.2.3 NPSH curve 101
9.2.3 System curve 101
9.2.4 Duty point 102
9.2.5 Pump selection 102
9.2.6 Pump drivers d 104
9.2.7 Pump energy cost 104
9.3 Operation and maintenance of pumps 105
9.3.1 Design and construction 105
9.3.2 Operation 106
9.3.3 Maintenance 107
9.4 Common operation and maintenance tasks 108
9.4.1 Checking pump operation 108
9.4.2 Common pump problems 108
9.4.3 Common motor problems 114
x
Table of Contents
References 133
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Appendix B: Forms 136
xi
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Why this Book?
A reliable supply of clean and safe water is The aim of this book is to assist service
the first and most critical municipal service delivery by making information on proper
that people require. Developing countries operation and maintenance practices avail-
like South Africa have made great strides able in a practical and accessible way. The
in addressing the inequalities of the past in book focuses on water distribution systems
INTRODUCTION
the provision of water, but unfortunately including pipes, pumps, valves, storage
the focus on expanding service provision reservoirs, meters and other fittings. It
has often been at the expense of adequate does not deal with other equally important
operation and maintenance of existing elements of the water supply chain such as
infrastructure. This has resulted in increased the protection of water sources, raw water
levels of leakage and non-revenue water, systems, water treatment plants and plumb-
maintenance backlogs and problems with ing systems. In addition, the book focuses
service provision. on technical issues of operation and main-
tenance, and does not deal with associated
Proper operation and maintenance are factors such as human resources manage-
indispensable to ensure that capital in- ment, data systems, funding, and public
vestments on new infrastructure result in participation and accountability.
sustainable service provision. Without it,
a new water distribution system will soon The approach adopted in the book is to
decline to a point where service provision provide the reader with an understanding
is compromised, leading to greater water the processes leading to system decline,
losses, financial losses and health risks to measuring system performance and the best
consumers. If operation and maintenance practices in operation and maintenance
are neglected for long enough, it may of water distribution systems. It aims to
become necessary to replace the system, provide guidance to empower the reader to
requiring a new injection capital that could implement a proper operation and main-
otherwise be used for other needs or stimu- tenance system in practice, focussing on
lating economic development. the most common and important aspects.
1
Chapter 1
Selected documents with detailed operation • Technology changes affect the way that
and maintenance guidance on specific as- services are provided and managed,
pects of water distribution systems are listed particularly in information technol-
at the end of each chapter. ogy where hardware and software are
constantly developing.
It is worth noting some of the factors adding In addition, most municipalities are strug-
to the complexity of operating and main- gling with three critical deficiencies: old
taining water distribution systemsd: and deteriorating infrastructure, a lack of
resources and a lack of capacity d (including
• A wide range of services needs to be properly trained personnel and institutional
provided by municipalities, often to a knowledge). The lack of resources and ca-
growing and diverse population. pacity often forces municipalities to focus
2
Introduction
on the most critical problems and neglect activities necessary to deliver the service,
crucial operation and maintenance func- while maintenance involves activities
tions that have longer-term impacts. This, in that keep the system in good operating
turn, leads to further deterioration of infra- condition d.
structure and a downward spiral of escalat-
ing inefficiency. The difference between operation and main-
tenance is that operation involves activities
The Department of Water Affairs state this
necessary to deliver the service, while mainte-
clearly in the terms of reference for the Na-
nance involve activities that keep the system
tional Water Services Infrastructure Asset in good operating condition.
Management Strategy g:
Money “saved” on maintenance of assets is Operation includes monitoring the system
never a saving. This is a short-term outlook, state, running the system and enforcing
often said to be due to political short-term im- policies and procedures. Maintenance en-
peratives and lack of capacity and know-how tails condition assessment, servicing, repair
within the municipality. It can become a vi- and replacement of system components.
cious cycle once infrastructure is allowed to When maintenance is done before a system
deteriorate. Expensive refurbishment becomes element fails in order to prevent it from
necessary and there is even less money for on failing, this is called proactive maintenance.
INTRODUCTION
going maintenance. In addition, deteriorating Maintenance done after a component fail-
infrastructure leads to poor service delivery and ure is called reactive maintenance.
reduced payment by consumers, exacerbating
lack of cost recovery. Government is facing a Operation and maintenance of a water
looming crisis unless something is done. distribution system can be greatly affected
by the system design and construction
practices used. For instance, a design that
1.3 What is operation and specifies unsuitable pipe materials or pipes
maintenance? that are damaged during construction may
lead to major future operation and mainte-
The purpose of a water distribution system nance problems for the system.
is to provide an adequate and reliable sup-
ply of safe water to its users. Operation and Cost is a major factor in the provision of
maintenance are those activities needed to municipal services and thus it is important
continuously fulfil this purpose. that operation and maintenance is done in
such a way that the required level of service
The difference between operation and is provided at the minimum cost over the
maintenance is that operation involves long term. It is often possible to save major
The purpose of a water distribution costs in the future by using higher quality
system is to provide an adequate and components or performing preventative
reliable supply of safe water to its users. maintenance, even though it will be cheaper
Operation and maintenance are those not to do this in the short term. For
activities needed to continuously fulfil this instance, installing a cathodic protection
purpose.
3
Chapter 1
system on a steel pipe can ensure that the between the water in the system and
service life of the pipe is greatly extended, external threats.
saving the much greater cost of replacing
• Hydraulic integrity means that the
the pipeline.
system is able to provide the flows and
pressures required for the required level
1.4 System Integrity of service.
• W
ater quality integrity means that the
System integrity is defined as the state that system is able to deliver water of accept-
a water distribution system has to be in to able quality to all its users (assuming
ensure that it fulfils its purpose. Three types that it receives source water of accept-
of integrity can be identified f: able quality).
• Physical integrity means that the The different types of system integrity are
system components are able to func- not independent, but influence each other
tion as intended and provide a barrier as shown in Figure 2. For instance, a loss
INTRODUCTION
HOSPITAL
Hydraulic Integrity
Physical Integrity
Figure 2 Physical, hydraulic and water quality integrity are essential for providing adequate and safe
water to the public.
4
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
clean dishes and kitchen surfaces that come
into contact with food. The public trusts in a water distribution system.
water from the tap, and by extension the • Operation and maintenance functions
water distribution system, to comply with require competent and well-trained
the same levels of hygiene. It is possible to staff, and this should be ensured in
think of the distribution system as a large all cases.
and complex ‘kitchen bowl’ holding public
• Each distribution system is unique and
drinking and cooking water.
knowledge and experience of local
Developing countries are not able to spend conditions and problems are essential.
the same resources as developed countries It is always advisable to implement
on the operation and maintenance of water changes in system operations carefully
distribution systems. Conversely, consumers and to use pilot studies to test these
in developing countries are more depen- technologies whenever possible.
dent on a safe municipal water supply since
they cannot afford bottled water or home 1.6 About this book
treatment systems, and are more vulnerable
to the effects of water-borne disease due
1.6.1 Who should read this book?
to lower levels of nutrition, lack of ad-
equate health care systems and the burden
The book is primarily aimed at managers
of immuno-compromising diseases such
and staff who deal with the operation and
as HIV/AIDS.
maintenance of water distribution systems.
The book does not require the reader to
5
Chapter 1
have much technical background or prior Part 1: Introduction and basics. The
knowledge of water distribution systems, objectives and approach of the book are
although such knowledge will undoubt- explained in Chapter 1, followed by three
edly help with understanding the concepts chapters dealing with the basics of water
covered. The book should also be useful to distribution system integrity that motivate
bulk water suppliers, government agencies, operation and maintenance actions. The
consultants and NGOs dealing with final chapter of this part of the book deals
water supply. with basic systems important for manag-
ing operation and maintenance in water
1.6.2 How are the chapters distribution systems. Thus Part 1 consist of
five chapters:
organised?
• Chapter 1: Introduction
This book is organised into two parts as
illustrated in Figure 3: • Chapter 2: Physical integrity
Chapter 1: Introduction
INTRODUCTION
6
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
• Reference material. At the end of the
book a reference section provides a list
of additional sources of information
and resources.
7
Chapter 1
Additional Reading
Operation and maintenance of water distribution systems
• The Operation and Maintenance Project of • Another useful set of documents produced
the Northern Cape, a partnership between by the Operation and Maintenance Project
several national and international bodies, of the Northern Cape deals with wider
produced the Water Supply Services O&M management aspects and is called the
Handbook, a comprehensive and practi- Handbook on Management and O&M. It
cal set of documents that can be of great consists of the following booklets:
use to municipalities in South Africa and
i. Management of services and O&M
other countries. It consists of a number of
booklets: ii. Asset management and O&M
iii. Communication, information and
i. Water resources in the Northern Cape
participation
ii. Management services
iv. Planning O&M and performance man-
iii. Management of drinking water quality agement
iv. O&M of intakes from rivers, canals and v. Human resources management
dams
vi. Enhancing individual and team perfor-
v. O&M of groundwater supply mance
INTRODUCTION
vi. O&M of pumps, drives and pump sta- vii. Enhancing personal and organisational
tions performance
vii. An introduction to water and water viii. Project management
treatment
ix. Financial Management
viii. O&M of treatment infrastructure and
x. Management of the supply chain and
processes
service providers
ix. O&M of package and desalination
xi. Management of office, stores and
treatment plants
workshops
x. O&M of reservoirs
xii. Records management
xi. O&M of water supply networks and
fittings
These documents may be obtained from
xii. Remote monitoring and control sys-
Mr Kobus Streuders, Department of Water
tems.
Affairs (Northern Cape), Private Bag X6101,
xiii. Water demand management Kimberley, 8300, Ph. 053 830 8800, Email
streudersk@dwa.gov.za.
These documents may be obtained from
Mr Kobus Streuders, Department of Water
Affairs (Northern Cape), Private Bag X6101,
Kimberley, 8300, Ph. 053 830 8800, Email
streudersk@dwa.gov.za.
8
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
requires municipalities to prepare integrated
development plans (IDPs).
• Municipal Structures Act (Act 117 of 1998),
which defines municipal functions and pow-
ers and relating systems and structures.
• Municipal Finance Management Act
(MFMA) (Act 56 of 2003) which defines
financial management and accounting
processes. In the case of water boards,
which are “national government business
enterprises”, the equivalent legislation is
the Public Finance Management Act (PFMA)
(Act 1 of 1999).
• Division of Revenue Act facilitates financ-
ing of infrastructure grant funding and the
equitable share.
• Water Services Act (Act 108 of 1997),
which, among other things, requires WSAs
to prepare WSDPs
9
10
PHYSICAL
INTEGRITY
2
2.1 Introduction
A water distribution system acts as a con- A water distribution system consists of
duit to reliably transport adequate quanti- a complex combination of components,
ties of safe drinking water to consumers. including pipes, fittings, pumps, reservoirs,
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
To achieve this, the system needs to work valves, hydrants, meters and backflow
as intended and maintain a physical barrier preventers that are all critical in maintain-
between the water inside the network and ing physical integrity. At the same time, the
the external environment. distribution system is constantly changing
through aging, replacement of components
The physical integrity of the system refers and the addition of new extensions. Table
to its ability to have correctly functioning 1 provides a summary of the common
components and maintain a physical barrier components of a water distribution system,
between the water in the network and the what external threats they protect against,
external environment. Another definition of and the common materials used in these
physical integrity is the ability of a distribu- components.
tion system to handle internal and external
stresses in such a way that its components
do not fail l. Internal stresses include things
like operating pressure variations, water
hammer and internal corrosion, while ex-
ternal stresses include soil stresses, external
loadings and external corrosion.
11
Chapter 2
Table 1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against and common materials f
Loss of water from the system through Numerous factors and mechanisms can lead
leaks and overflows, resulting in this water to a loss of physical integrity. These factors
may be categorised as design and construc-
not reaching consumers.
tion, physical and chemical factors.
12
Physical Integrity
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
mer pressures experience in a pipe, or • Excessive loads. Loads or forces that
when materials susceptible to corro- exceed the strength of a material can
sion damage is used in an aggressive lead to failure through cracking or
environment. rupture. This may be caused by external
forces such as point loads (e.g. through
• Defective materials containing flaws a sharp rock in the pipe bedding), the
that were not identified in the manu- weight of the soil above the pipe, exter-
facturing process, such as microscopic nal loads such as buildings or traffic
cracks in steel or impurities trapped in and soil movements, or internal forces
plastic pipes. exerted by the water on the network
components. Internal loads are caused
• Missing or defective parts as a result
by three mechanisms:
of improper design or construction.
Examples include missing or defective º Water pressure creating stresses in
covers on reservoirs or insect barriers on the walls of pipes and fittings.
air vents. º Changes in the momentum (i.e.
• Improper construction or repair. direction or velocity) of flow in pipes
During construction or repairs the at bends, junctions, reducers, valves
system is open to the surrounding envi- and other fittings.
ronment and thus the physical integrity º Transient or water hammer
is compromised. Careful cleaning and pressure waves created by sudden
disinfection of the exposed section of changes in the flow rate, such as
the network is required to ensure it is a sudden valve closure or pump
safe before being put in use. stoppage.
13
Chapter 2
• Cavitation is a process whereby the plating it. (The same process is used to
pressure in the water is lowered below galvanise metals with zinc, or plating
its saturation vapour pressure, causing jewellery with gold). In water distribu-
small vapour bubbles to form. When tion systems, soils generally contain
these vapour bubbles are then suddenly enough water and the right conditions
moved to a high pressure zone, for for galvanic cell to form. Metal pipes
instance inside a pump, they become typically form an anode, causing corro-
unstable and implode, causing high sion damage to occur over time.
intensity pressure waves in the fluid.
These pressure waves can remove small • Electrolytic corrosion occurs when a
amounts from a solid surface near the direct electrical current takes a shortcut
implosion point and slowly erode the through a metal pipe or component.
material over time. Cavitation can Such a current is called a “stray cur-
cause serious and costly damage to rent”, and may be caused by a cathodic
pumps that are incorrectly installed protection system on an adjacent
or operated. pipeline or electric railway systems.
Electrolytic corrosion is similar to
2.3.3 Chemical Factors galvanic corrosion, except that outside
current sources drive the electrolytic
reaction, whereas chemical reactions
2.3.3.1 Corrosion
drive the galvanic cell. When a stray
Corrosion is the degradation of a material current moves through a metal pipe,
by chemical reaction with its environment. corrosion occurs at the point where cur-
Three types of corrosion are important for rent leaves the pipe.
14
Physical Integrity
a) e)
b) f)
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
c) g)
d) h)
Figure 4 Examples of processes leading to a loss of physical integrity: a) missing air vent on an air valve
chamber; b) damage to brickwork on a reservoir roof; c) external corrosion on a steel pipe; d) external
corrosion on a pipe flange; e) internal corrosion in a steel pipe; f) vandalism damage to a reservoir
fence; g) theft of air valves; h) vandalism damage to a scour valve.
15
Chapter 2
exacerbated by f:
Permeation occurs when plastic pipes come
• Low soil oxygen levels, creating the in contact with chemical solvents associated
potential for anaerobic microbiologi- with oil and petrol. Users downstream of a
cal activity. permeation failure often notice a chemical
• Soils with low pH values, i.e. taste or smell in the water. The presence
acidic soils. of these contaminants can be determined
through volatile organic chemical gas chro-
• Stray electrical currents in the soil that matography analysis. These contaminants
my take shortcuts through metal pipes. are common in soils surrounding leaking
• Galvanic reactions caused by differ- storage tanks, fuel spill sites, industrial sites,
ent types of metals in contact with and near bulk chemical storage, electro-
each other. platers and dry cleaners h. In some cases
the integrity of the pipe can be irrevers-
Internal corrosion causes problems in distri-
ibly compromised, requiring the complete
bution systems that are commonly grouped
replacement of the affected section.
as follows h:
16
Physical Integrity
Various internal inspection and sounding It is critical that operation and mainte-
techniques exist to find leaks on pipes in nance are considered at the design stage,
water distribution systems. It is also possible whether for a new system or when consid-
to get indirect measures of the deterioration ering amendments to an existing system.
of the system by looking at trends in pipe Small increases in capital costs, for instance
failures, estimating the leakage rate in the by selecting a different pipe diameter or
system and testing the water quality. more durable material, may result in major
operation and maintenance savings over the
Consumer complaints are a valuable source lifetime the system.
of information on system integrity and
should be monitored for indications of a A good example of the trade-off between
capital and operational costs is the design of
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
loss of physical integrity, including reports
of leaks and broken components. a new pumping line between a source and a
reservoir. Consider a case where the design-
er can choose between a smaller and larger
2.5 Maintaining diameter pipe for the system. The smaller
physical integrity diameter pipe will be cheaper to construct,
but since it will have greater friction losses,
Various measures should be taken to more energy (and thus higher operational
maintain the physical integrity of a distri- cost) will be required to pump the water.
bution system and counteract threats. It has Conversely, the larger pipe diameter will be
already been mentioned that design and more expensive to construct, but will have
construction practices play an important lower losses and thus require less energy
role in the operation and maintenance of a to operate.
water distribution system. For this reason,
an overview of design and construction The correct approach would be for the
measures that support good operation and designer to calculate the total capital plus
maintenance practices are included in the operational cost of the system in the current
book, in addition to specific operation and value of money (by taking the interest rate
maintenance measures. and inflation into account), and the select
the pipe diameter that will have the lowest
This section focuses on generic measure cost over the lifetime of the system. Various
for maintaining physical integrity of water similar trade-offs between capital and op-
distribution systems that apply to most erational costs are possible.
components. Measures that are specific to
particular system components are discussed A very important factor in design is durabil-
17
Chapter 2
ity. Cheaper components that will fail more contact with each other, especially on
often and have to be replaced earlier may the outside of pipes, as this can lead to
not really be cheaper if these costs are taken corrosion.
into consideration. Thus it is important to
maintain a long-term view when making Finally, it is advisable to limit the number
design decisions. of materials and types of components used
in the system as each new type of compo-
All user connections should have non- nent requires the maintenance workshop
return valves to ensure that water delivered to hold an inventory of spare parts to be
cannot return to the network, for instance used for maintenance. Maintaining a large
under reduced pressure conditions. inventory is both logistically difficult and
expensive.
Vandalism and theft in critical areas may
be controlled through the installation of
alarms or other deterrents. 2.5.1.3 Workmanship and
quality control
2.5.1.2 Materials selection Quality of work in construction, repair,
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
18
Physical Integrity
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
valve settings or amending pump opera- • Corrosion control should be imple-
tional schedules. Appendix B contains a mented to ensure that system compo-
number of useful forms that may nents are not damaged. It is necessary
be used. to analyse system to determine areas
where pipes and other components
2.5.3 Maintenance are vulnerable to corrosion, and then
take appropriate steps to prevent it.
Maintenance actions can be classified into For metal pipes, factors to use include
proactive and reactive maintenance. It soil resistivity, pH, redox potential, the
will never be possible to only do proactive presence of sulphides, and site drainage
maintenance as unexpected failures are conditions f. For concrete pipes, soil
bound to occur even in the best-maintained chloride content and resistivity should
system. However, it is important to do pro- be considered. Methods for external
active maintenance to such an extent that corrosion control include selecting
unplanned failures are kept to a minimum appropriate materials, applying pro-
and resources can be used in the most ef- tective coatings and linings, installing
fective way to ensure the integrity of the and maintaining cathodic protection
system. A number of general maintenance systems and mitigating stray currents.
principles are important in this process. Internal corrosion control methods
include adding corrosion inhibitors,
• Condition monitoring of components such as phosphates to water and adjust-
is important to know their condition ing pH and alkalinity to appropri-
and performance histories. ate levels.
19
Chapter 2
20
Physical Integrity
high enough to prevent corrosion of pipe Reservoir walls sometimes form a whitish,
linings and concrete reservoirs. Carbon crystallized substance called efflorescence,
dioxide gas is a major factor contributing caused by water seeping through cracks and
to the deterioration of concrete, although pores in the concrete (see Figure 5). When
this happens slowly due to the low levels of the water evaporates, it leaves behind min-
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. eral salts leached from the concrete. These
salts often seal the openings in the concrete,
High levels of magnesium, ammonium thus stopping further movement of water
and sulphates in water result in chemical through the structure. However, when
reactions that damage concrete surfaces. the salts recrystallize, they expand causing
Steel reinforcing in concrete is suscep- break-up of the concrete surface. This is
tible to attach by chlorine if network normally not a serious problem, but should
water is able to reach it through cracks in be monitored and action taken if serious
the concrete cover. When the steel cor- damage is likely to occur.
rodes, it expands causing further crack- Abrasion or erosion of concrete is caused
ing of the surrounding concrete and thus by other materials rubbing over the con-
accelerating the deterioration process. crete surface, for instance windborne sand.
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
This process is known as spalling. Minor erosion is normally not a problem,
but severe erosion may lead to serious
structural damage. Finally, since concrete
is a brittle material, pieces may break off
structures when subjected to impact loads.
21
Chapter 2
22
Physical Integrity
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
additives such as plasticizers are used to large diameter pipes.
improve certain characteristics of the
material. For pipe and construction ap- 2.6.10 Other materials
plications, plasticizers are not used leading
to the term uPVC (Unplasticised PVC). Epoxy is the cured end product of epoxy res-
Modified PVC or mPVC incorporates an ins, a class of reactive polymers. Epoxy resins
additive that makes the material less likely are applied and then cured through the use
to fracture on impact and allows for lower of catalysts or reactants to form a hard poly-
wall thicknesses. In oPVC (oriented PVC), mer with strong mechanical properties and
the molecules are oriented to give the mate- high temperature and chemical resistance.
rial greater strength in certain directions. Epoxy is often used to coat metal pipes or
PVC has a high harness and strength, and components as a barrier against corrosion.
is resistant to corrosion. It is not suitable
for high temperature applications though, Lead is an element that is known to have
and PVC pipes should not be exposed to adverse health effects, especially for children
direct sunlight. Chlorination of PVC makes and pregnant woman. It may be found in
it more resistant to high temperatures and brass, soldering used for plumbing pipes
thus chlorinated PVC (cPVC) pipes are and seals in old cast iron pipes.
sometimes used for hot water applications.
Polybutylene is a saturated polymer used in
pressure pipes, especially plumbing pipes.
23
Chapter 2
Additional Reading
• Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution, National Research Council. (2006). Drinking
Water Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. Washington, D.C.: National Academies
Press. The book can be downloaded for free or ordered from http://books.nap.edu/catalog.
php?record_id=11728.
PHYSICAL INTEGRITY
24
HYDRAULIC
INTEGRITY
3
3.1 Introduction distribution systems to be 24 and 90 m re-
spectively. The upper bound of 90 m is very
While it is important to provide a physical high, and some municipalities use a lower
barrier between the water in a distribu- maximum pressure specification.
tion system and the external environment
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
through functioning components, physical
integrity is not enough in itself to provide Hydraulic integrity is the ability of a distribu-
water to consumers. It is also necessary for tion system to meet all user demands (domes-
the system to have hydraulic integrity. For tic, industrial, commercial, fire fighting, etc.)
example, a pipeline may be in good physi- while ensuring desirable pressures, velocities
cal condition (thus have physical integrity), and water age in the system.
but too small to provide the user demand at
adequate pressures (and thus lack hydraulic
integrity).
25
Chapter 3
26
Hydraulic Integrity
The Bernoulli equation describes the energy head of a fluid as the sum of its elevation, pressure head
and velocity head as follows:
p
H=z+ +v
2
ρg 2g
Where H is the total mechanical energy head, z is elevation above the datum level, p is pressure (in
Pa), ρ the density of water (1000 kg/m3), g acceleration due to gravity (in m2/s) and v the flow velocity
(in m/s).
An important measure in water distribution systems is the hydraulic grade, which is the sum of the
elevation and pressure heads. Thus the hydraulic grade represents the fluid energy excluding the
velocity head. In water distribution systems the velocity head is normally very small compared to the
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
other two components, and thus the hydraulic grade is often used instead of the total energy.
The energy line (EL) and hydraulic grade line (HGL) are obtained by plotting the energy and hydraulic
grade above a longitudinal section of a pipe. The energy line always slopes downwards in the direc-
tion of flow, and the drop in the energy line represents the loss of energy in the system. The figure be-
low shows the HGL of a system during minimum flow conditions (early morning hours when demand
is almost nothing) and under peak flow conditions (when demand is at a maximum).
HGL (
peak
flow c
p ondit
ions)
ρg
Datum Level
The height difference between the pipe and HGL indicates the pressure head, and thus the figure
shows how the system pressure is at a maximum in the early morning hours and at a minimum under
peak demand conditions.
27
Chapter 3
system entering the pipe if a leak is pres- It is likely that the demand will exceed the
ent (loss of physical integrity), resulting in capacity of the water distribution system at
contamination of water in the system (loss some point in its life as shown in Figure 6.
of water quality integrity). In cases where Low pressures are most likely to be observed
more than one type of integrity is involved, during periods of high demand such as dur-
the cause is only discussed under the most ing particularly hot and dry weather condi-
appropriate integrity heading. tions, large fire fighting efforts or seasonal
events such as the influx of tourist to coastal
3.3.1 Excessive demands towns over holiday periods. A large pipe
burst may also contribute to an exceptional
The components of a water distribution system demand for a period.
system are sized according to the design
peak demand, which is the maximum The required minimum system pressure
demand that the system is expected to is typically around 24 m, but it is unlikely
experience over its design horizon (typically that consumers will notice much differ-
10 to 20 years). ence if the pressure only falls slightly below
this level. However, as the pressure reduces
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Water demand is not constant, but varies further, the system becomes unable to sup-
with time: the average annual daily demand ply the required demand of users in low-
(AADD) tends to increase over time due pressure parts of the network.
to economic growth, densification and
increased system leakage. There are also It is useful to consider the fact that users
cyclical variations in the demand, such as get water from the system by opening a
seasonal, day-of-the-week and diurnal pat- tap or valve, and it is the pressure in the
terns. Finally, there are random fluctuations system that forces water out through the
caused by user behaviour and unpredictable tap or valve. Thus lower pressures result in a
events such as fire fighting. reduced supply capacity of the system.
System cap
acity
Flow
emand Loss of
Consumer d hydraulic integrity
Time
28
Hydraulic Integrity
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
in treated water. In iron pipes, corrosion by- reading errors and may damage meter by
products in the form of tubercles and other exceeding their maximum flow rates.
types of scales can substantially reduce
If negative pressures are severe, pipe lin-
internal diameter and increase pipe rough-
ings may be cracked or damaged, and in
ness. In addition, older pipes are more
large diameter pipes may even cause pipe
likely to experience bursts that reduce the
collapse.
system capacity through increased leakage
flow rates. The reduction in system capacity
is shown graphically in Figure 6. 3.3.4 Pumping directly from the
network
The hydraulic capacity of a water distribu-
tion system is reduced when components Consumers experiencing low supply pres-
are shut down for maintenance or to isolate sures may be tempted to have a pump
sections that experience bursts or external installed to boost the pressure to their
damage. Since water distribution pipes are properties. However, connecting the suc-
normally looped, most users downstream tion side of a pump directly to the network
of the affected section should still be sup- exacerbates the problem in two ways:
plied with water through alternative routes.
However, isolating sections of the system • While the pump may boost the pres-
will inevitably lead to a reduced system ca- sure in the building it is installed in, the
pacity to these users, and may thus result in increased demand on the system lowers
reduced pressures. Low pressures may also the pressure further for other nearby
result from a valve left open, for instance consumers, and thus reduces their level
between two district metering zones. of service.
29
Chapter 3
• Pumps can induce negative pressures in waves and vice versa). The intensity of the
the system, leading to ingress of con- wave reduces as it oscillates through the
taminated water into the system and a pipe until it is exhausted.
health risk to consumers.
If pipes are not properly designed, increas-
Thus pumps that connect directly to the ing transient waves can exceed the strength
network should be prohibited through of the pipe, causing damage to linings or
municipal bylaws. Private pressure pumps inducing a pipe burst.
should always be supplied from a private
water tank that is open to the atmosphere On the other hand, decreasing transient
and filled from the network. This will make waves may reduce the pressure below
it impossible for the pump to induce nega- atmospheric, creating the potential for
tive pressures in the system. contamination of water as well as damage
to pipe linings and structure. In extreme
One possible exception to the above rule cases, column separation can occur during
is the use of pumps for emergency situa- low-pressure cycles, creating severe pressure
tions such as fire fighting. However, even spikes when these cavities collapse during
in these cases it is advisable to require a soft high-pressure cycle.
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
30
Hydraulic Integrity
pipes. This is done by using smaller pipe when the distribution system is operational
diameters and looped networks. If it isn’t is compressed due to the pressure in the
possible to avoid low velocities, municipali- system. When these air bubbles are released
ties should introduce a systematic flushing through a tap or leak in the pipe, they rap-
programme to remove accumulated sedi- idly expand when the pressure is released,
ments from affected pipes. causing a sudden ‘explosion’ that may unex-
pectedly accelerate water exiting the system,
Sediments serve as a food source for or even damage system components such as
bacteria and create a hospitable environ- shower heads.
ment for microbial growth. If not removed
these materials may cause water quality
deterioration, taste and door problems, or 3.4 Measuring and modelling
discoloration of the water. This is particu- hydraulic integrity
larly evident if the sediments are disturbed
by sudden changes in the flow of water, for Hydraulic integrity is primarily determined
instance as a result of a pipe break. from pressure measurements in the system.
Ideally, reservoir water levels and system
Finally, reservoirs and pipes that are too
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
pressure should be monitored continu-
large cause water to have increased resi-
ously. Unexpected changes to pressure may
dence times in the system, creating op-
indicate problems such as closed valves or
portunities for a reduction in water quality
through chlorine depletion and disinfection pipe bursts in real time. Typical measur-
by-product formation. ing points include critical points in the
network, such as the furthest and highest
points, as well as the suction and delivery
3.3.8 Wrong operational settings sides of pumps and control valves.
Operational settings, such as isolation valves Flow rate should also be measured at critical
that are wrongly open or closed or wrong points such as sources, bulk supplies, both
settings on control valves may cause a loss inlets and outlets of reservoirs, transfers to
of hydraulic integrity. It is thus important other municipalities and consumers.
that operations teams should be trained
on the proper way to operate the system Critical measurements should be communi-
and should record all operational actions, cated to the system control room through a
including simple actions such as opening or SCADA or alternative communication sys-
closing a network valve. tem, and in advanced cases, this data is used
in combination with a hydraulic network
3.3.9 Air in the system model of the system to continuously moni-
tor the hydraulic state of the system.
Air can enter the distribution system dis-
solved in the water, when the system is Consumer complaints are a valuable source
drained for maintenance purposes or dur- of information on system integrity and
ing negative pressure events. Air trapped should be monitored for indications of a
31
Chapter 3
loss of hydraulic integrity, including reports isolated for maintenance work. It also
of low pressures and water discoloration. improves the capacity of the network
at any given point, and thus facilitates
high demands, for instance for fire
3.5 Maintaining fighting.
hydraulic integrity System redundancy should also be
provided in other ways, such as provid-
To maintain the hydraulic integrity of
ing backup power supplies, pumps,
water distribution systems and ensure the storage and emergency connection
best possible water quality, residence times points to other parts on the network.
in the system should be kept as short as Redundancy can also be facilitated
possible and large fluctuations in flows and by ensuring an adequate number of
pressures, as well as low flows and pressures isolation valves and hydrants placed
should be avoided f. in such a way that they allow for the
isolation of sections of the system with
Hydraulic modelling is an important minimum impact on the rest of the
operational tool and can be used to inves- network l.
tigate alternative operational methods, for
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
instance when taking a pipe or reservoir out • Use district-metering areas (DMAs).
of operation, anticipate future problems District metering areas are sections of
and training of operators. the network (typically consisting of
about 2 000 stands) that are isolated
This section focuses on generic measures from the rest of the system except for
for maintaining hydraulic integrity of one metered supply point. DMAs form
water distribution systems that apply to the basis for the system water balance,
most components under the headings of and allows leakage and pipe bursts to
design and construction, operation and be monitored in manageable areas of
maintenance. the system.
32
Hydraulic Integrity
• Avoid too low and high velocities. stagnant for long periods) and changing
It is not always possible to avoid low valving patterns.
velocities in remote parts of the net-
work, especially when minimum pipe 3.5.2 Operation
diameters are specified, but this should
be done as much as possible. Dead-end Various operational measures are important
pipes should be avoided, as they tend to to maintain hydraulic integrity:
be particularly prone to low velocities
and resulting sedimentation. • Monitoring of the operational param-
eters in a water distribution system
High velocities mean that excessive
should be done as widely as possible,
energy losses occur in these pipes, and
starting with the flow rate at reservoirs,
that cavitation may even occur in some
entrance to DMAs and pressures at
cases, such as at partially opened isola-
critical points in the network.
tion or control valves.
• Hydraulic modelling is an important
• Provide water hammer protection. tool that can be used in combination
Water distribution systems don’t nor- with the monitoring data to identify
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
mally experience water hammer prob- problems and find operational solu-
lems as changes in flow rates are mostly tions. Calibrated distribution system
gradual and the interconnected nature models can calculate the variations of
of the network and many openings tend flow, pressure, velocity, reservoir level,
to dissipate transient pressures quickly. water age, and other hydraulic and
However, bulk supply pipes, especially
water quality parameters throughout
pump lines, should be analysed for
the distribution system. Such a model
water hammer pressures and measures
help identify areas of low or negative
taken to ensure that these will not dam-
pressure and high water age, estimate
age the system.
filling and draining cycles of storage
• Minimise water retention time. facilities, and determine the adequacy
A primary reason for water quality of the system to supply fire flows under
problems in distribution systems is long a variety of demand conditions f.
water retention times. The design of a
distribution system has to incorporate • Positive water pressure should be
redundancy and additional capacity to maintained and the causes of low pres-
accommodate long-term growth and sures investigated and rectified without
cyclic variations in demand. Water delay. Direct pumping from the system
retention times can be controlled should not be allowed, fire services
through various measures, such as should use soft couplings between the
adjusting pump schedules, reducing system and their pumps, and valves
the operational water level in reservoirs, and pumps should be operated in such
ensuring that reservoirs don’t have ‘dead a way that negative pressures are not
zones’ (where pockets of water become induced in the system.
33
Chapter 3
Additional Reading
Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution, National Research Council. (2006). Drinking Water
Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
The book can be downloaded for free or ordered from http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_
id=11728.
34
WATER
QUALITY INTEGRITY
4
4.1 Introduction Water quality integrity has become the
35
Chapter 4
of water.
4.2.1 Physical properties
Drinking water from any source and sub-
jected to any treatment process may reason- The most important physical properties
ably be expected to contain a large range of water are discussed in this section. The
of constituents. Some of these constituents South African guideline values from SANS
are considered essential for human health, 241 for these properties are listed in Table 2
while others are considered as dangerous and consists of the following:
contaminants.
• Disinfectant residuals are concentra-
However, considering elements in water as tions of the disinfectant used at the end
either good or bad is an over-simplification of the water purification process that
and not accurate. It is well understood remain in the water as it moves through
today that virtually all constituents in water the distribution system. This provides
are harmless at low enough concentrations a way to test that water is still safe for
and only become harmful when present consumption, as the disinfectant resid-
at higher levels. Thus guidelines on water ual will prevent the growth of harmful
quality mostly specify allowable ranges, micro-organisms in the treated water.
rather than the impossible target of com- However too much disinfectant gives
pletely removing constituents. water an unpleasant taste.
The South African Water Services Act • Colour. Purified drinking water gen-
prescribes compulsory national standards erally has a bluish tint when viewed in
for the quality of potable water. This act large volumes. However, organic matter
requires every water supplier to have a water and chemicals such as iron, manga-
safety plan and a water quality monitoring nese and copper can give the water a
36
Water Quality Integrity
37
Chapter 4
38
Water Quality Integrity
SANS 241 are listed in Table 4 and are 4.2.3 Microbiological properties
briefly explained below:
Micro-organisms, such as viruses, bacteria
• Dissolved organic substances originate and protozoa in water can cause diseases,
from biological activity and are mainly taste and odour problems and corrosion of
found in surface water. They are mostly concrete and metals in the distribution sys-
harmless, but can include harmful sub- tem. Since it’s impossible to routinely check
stances such as pesticides. Organic sub- for all possible micro-organisms, tests focus
stances can serve as a food source for on microbiological indicators that may not
micro-organisms leading to them grow- be harmful themselves, but indicate that the
ing in distribution systems and causing water is contaminated and thus may also
water quality deterioration. contain other harmful micro-organisms.
• Trihalomethanes are disinfectant by- The main microbiological determinants
products that form when chlorine re- from SANS 241 are listed in Table 5 and
acts with organic substances in the wa- are briefly explained below:
ter. Some trihalomethanes are potential
• Coliforms are used as an indicator of
Trihalomethanes
Phenols µg/L ≤ 10
39
Chapter 4
40
Water Quality Integrity
41
Chapter 4
have leaks, and thus negative pressures or bring in other external materials that
should always be avoided. may pollute the water in the reservoir.
• Drowned air valves. Bulk pipelines are • Permeation occurs when chemical
often equipped with air valves at vari- solvents associated with oil and petrol
ous points to ensure that air entering come into contact with plastic pipes,
the pipe can be vented. Air valves also compromising the physical integrity of
allow air to enter the pipe when the the pipe and entering the water. This
pipe is drained or when negative water occurs where plastic pipes are used in
hammer pressures occur. Thus when an areas where fuel or chemicals relat-
air valve chamber fills with water, this ed to petrol are spilled or leak from
potentially polluted water that may be storage tanks.
sucked into the system instead of air.
• Vandalism or unauthorised access by
• Insufficient backflow protection on people, particularly at reservoirs, re-
private systems that store water under sulting in accidental or even deliberate
pressure, or boost the pressure in their contamination of the water.
WATER QUALITY INTEGRITY
42
Water Quality Integrity
43
Chapter 4
that facilitate the delivery of high qual- stored, cleaned, flushed and disinfected
ity water. The multi-barrier water quality before being used in the system. The
system of a distribution system includes installation or rehabilitation of facilities
various aspects of physical and hydraulic such as storage reservoirs with float-
integrity, as well as specific water quality pa- ing covers must include water quality
rameters. Examples of barriers include the checks to ensure that water quality is
physical barrier of and intact distribution not adversely affected.
network, higher pressures in drinking than
• Sewer pipe placement should be
in recycled water systems, non-return valves
such that an adequate distance exists
on all consumer supplies and maintaining
between the sewer and water lines to
disinfectant residuals.
reduce the risk of sewage contaminat-
ing groundwater around water pipes.
4.6.1 Design and Construction
4.6.2 Operation
A number of design and construction
factors are important to ensure that water The following generic operational measures
WATER QUALITY INTEGRITY
quality integrity is maintained, including are important for maintaining water quality
the following: integrity:
• Storage reservoirs should be sized to • Risk assessment. SANS241 requires
ensure that water retention times are municipalities to assess risks of not
not longer than necessary to ensure a maintaining constituent concentrations
reliable supply, fully mixed water in within the required limits throughout
the reservoirs and that dead zones do the water supply chain including the
not develop. bulk supply system and distribution
• Materials should be selected to ensure zones up to the point of delivery. The
that the risk of negatively influencing risk assessment should be done at least
water quality is minimised, including once per year at the most critical time
the risk of permeation and the potential of the year, and when major changes
of leaching chemicals into the net- are made to the system. These risks are
work water. grouped according to their potential
impact on human health as follows:
• Dead-end mains should be avoided
as they often cause stagnant water ° Acute health impacts.
that create water quality problems ° Chronic health impacts oPresence
through a loss of disinfectant residuals of certain organic or radionuclide
and increased sedimentation. Water is contaminants.
wasted when dead-end pipes have to be
° Aesthetic impacts on water.
flushed regularly to remove accumu-
lated sediments. ° Operational importance.
• Construction procedures should ° The risk assessment includes the
ensure that new pipes are properly measurement of all the constituents
44
Water Quality Integrity
pH Fortnightly
Turbidity Fortnightly
Disinfectant residuals Fortnightly
E. coli (or faecal coliforms) Fortnightly but more frequently as population served increases
45
Chapter 4
Additional Reading
WATER QUALITY INTEGRITY
Risk and integrity of water distribution • The Department of Water Affairs has
systems a website that provide comprehensive
information about the their Blue Drop
• Committee on Public Water Supply Distri-
programme and water quality includ-
bution, National Research Council. (2006).
ing documents, tools and data on water
Drinking Water Distribution Systems: As-
quality in South African cities and towns.
sessing and Reducing Risks. Washington,
(www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/dwqr/).
D.C.: National Academies Press. The book
can be downloaded for free or ordered • Assessment of the occurrence and key
from http://books.nap.edu/catalog. causes of drinking-water quality failures
php?record_id=11728. within nonmetropolitan water supply
systems in South Africa, and guidelines
Water quality
for the practical management thereof. By
• The South African water quality guidelines G Mackintosh and U Jack. WRC Report
are published in SANS 241 Drinking water, TT373/08.
which consists of two parts:
• Quality of domestic water supplies
· SANS 241-1: Part 1: Microbiological,
· Vol: I: Assessment Guide. WRC Report
physical, aesthetic and chemical deter-
no TT 101/98
minands.
· Vol II: Sampling Guide. WRC Report no
· SANS 241-2: Part 2: Application of
TT 117/99
SANS 241-1.
· Vol III: Analysis Guide. WRC Report no
• The World Health Organisation’s 2008
TT 129/00
document “Guidelines for drinking-water
quality” provides an excellent resource for · Vol IV: Treatment Guide. WRC Report
water managers in developing countries. It no TT 181/02
and other WHO guidelines may be down-
· Volume V: Management Guide. WRC
loaded free of charge from www.who.int/
Report no TT 162/01
water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/.
46
SYSTEMS FOR
MANAGING OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
5
AND MAINTENANCE
Operation and maintenance of water dis- tant to understand exactly what each of the
tribution happen in a dynamic and com- terms in the water balance means. Most
plex environment with many influencing are obvious from their names, but these
factors and competing objectives. Thus it is may not be:
necessary to put systems in place to bench-
• Authorized Consumption is the
mark and guide operation and maintenance
volume of water delivered to registered
actions to have optimal impact. This chap-
customers of the water supplier and
ter presents three systems that are essential
others who are authorised to do so
for any operation and maintenance plan:
for domestic, commercial and indus-
• Water balance trial purposes, whether these users
are metered or not. It includes water
• Asset management
exported and water used for fire fight-
• Water safety plan ing, flushing, street cleaning, etc.
• Water Losses are defined as the
5.2 Water balancer System Input Volume minus Authorised
Consumption. Water Losses consist of
The International Water Association (IWA) Real Losses and Apparent Losses.
has been leading efforts to categorise
water in the municipal system, and does • Real Losses consist of physical water
this through the water balance shown in losses from the system up to the point
Figure 7. of customer meters. It includes water
lost through all types of leaks, bursts
The annual volume used in each of the and overflows.
47
Chapter 5
ipality, but are actually consumed. through all the consumer meters served
Apparent losses are mainly made up by by it or by analysing the minimum night
Unauthorised consumption (theft or ille- flow in a DMA. Leak detection teams and
gal use) and Metering inaccuracies, but pipe replacement programmes can then be
can also include administrative errors. focussed on the most problematic areas.
• Non-Revenue Water is the difference Leaks in distribution pipes are categorised
between the System input volume and as bursts or background leaks. Bursts are
Billed Authorised consumption. large enough to be detected through active
Standard methods have been developed to leak detection efforts, while background
estimate the different components of the leaks are too small to be detected and thus
water balance, and should be calculated and remain in place.
analysed on an annual basis. Municipalities
Real losses are reduced through four actions
should operate and maintain their sys-
as shown in Figure 8:
tems in such as way that water losses are
minimised. • Active leakage control, which includes
various methods to actively find and
5.2.1 Real losses repair leaks in the system. Various leak
detection devices exist, some based on
A comparison of the readings on bulk listening for the sound leaks make from
transfer, zone, DMA and consumer water outside the network, while others place
meters can be used to estimate real losses in a sensor inside the pipe. Advanced
different parts of the network. This is done DMA meter data analysis techniques
48
Systems for Operation and Maintenance
Water losses and non-revenue water are estimat- tion and unbilled unmetered consumption. Enter
ed based on the IWA Water Balance in the way their sum in unbilled authorised consumption.
described below. In each case, the value deter-
mined for a component is entered into the wa- Step 5: Add billed authorised consumption and
unbilled authorised consumption to give autho-
ter balance table. Values are split up in the table
rised consumption.
so that columns will always add up to the same
totals. For example, the values in the Apparent Step 6: Calculate water losses as the difference
Losses and Real Losses cells should add up to the between system input volume and authorised
value in the Water Losses cell. consumption.
Step 1: Estimate the system input volume. Step 7: Assess components of unauthorised
consumption and metering inaccuracies and add
Step 2: Estimate the billed metered consumption these to get apparent losses.
AND MAINTENANCE
Step 3: Calculate the volume of non-revenue Step 9: Assess the components of real losses us-
water as the system input volume minus revenue ing methods such as minimum night flow analy-
water. sis, burst frequency - flow rate - duration calcula-
tions, modelling, etc. Add these components and
Step 4: Estimate unbilled metered consump- cross-check with real losses.
Unavoidable
annual
Economic real
level of real losses
losses
49
Chapter 5
are becoming available that detect new This measure only refers to cases where
leaks as they occur in a DMA. the consumer meter is inside the prop-
• Pressure management refers to the erty boundary. If the consumer meter
practice of maintaining pressures in the outside the property boundary, Lp is
system as close as possible to the mini- equal to zero.
mum required levels. Pressure manage- • h is the average pressure head in the
ment has been shown to have various system (measured in metres).
advantages including lower failure
rates, longer pipe service lives and lower Once the UARL is estimated, the
water losses and wastage. Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) is calcu-
lated as the ratio of the current annual real
• Speed and quality of repairs to ensure
losses (CARL) to the UARL, or
that leaks are stopped as quickly as pos-
sible and do not reoccur.
ILI =CARL
• Pipeline renewal is the process of UARL
SYSTEMS FOR MANAGING OPERATION
5.2.2 Benchmarking system leakage level of leakage, where the cost reducing
leakage is higher the savings achieved (see
It is not possible to completely eradicate Figure 8).
leakage in a distribution system. To pro-
Finally the ILI can be used to quantify
vide a measure of the lowest levels of losses
improvements in loss management and
possible to achieve in a distribution system
benchmark a municipality against others.
the concept of unavoidable annual real
losses (UARL) was developed k. To calcu- Table 7 provides a classification for distribu-
late the UARL of a system, the following tion systems based on their ILIs and Table 8
formula is used: recommends water loss interventions based
UARL (litres/day) = (18 x Lm + Ns x (0.8 + on the classification.
25 x Lp/1 000)) x h
Where 5.3 Asset management
50
Systems for Operation and Maintenance
The wider water services sector in South DWA developed a National Water Services
Africa is responsible for infrastructure assets IAM strategy with support of a number of
with a replacement value of approximately important stakeholders. DWA is leading
R200 billion that is essential for healthy efforts to implement this policy at water
communities and economic growth. service providers throughout the country.
Thus the Government’s IAM strategy is
An assessment of the state of water ser- part of their proactive approach to ensure
vices infrastructure in South Africa by effective operation and proper maintenance,
the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) aimed at ensuring optimal utility from
indicated severe problems that needed to public investments and reliable and sustain-
be addressed urgently. It was realised that able service delivery g. The Water Services
municipalities generally don’t manage their Act requires every municipality to have an
assets effectively due to growing demands in asset management plan.
the quantity, capacity and quality of infra-
structure services, the aging and deteriora- In simple terms, asset management is a pro-
AND MAINTENANCE
within the Municipal area of jurisdiction, can
In response to the problems identified, continue in the long termb.
Developing Developed
General description of Real Loss manage-
Countries Countries BAND
ment Performance Categories
ILI range ILI range
51
Chapter 5
A municipality has a water distribution system From Table 7 for a developing country: B and C,
AND
with 200 km of water mains and 10 000 service which means poor.
SYSTEMS
UARL = (18 x 200 + 10 000x (0.8 + 25 x 2/1 000)) • Identify and replace pipes with the highest
x 50 = 605 000 litres/day or 221 Ml/a burst frequencies
52
Systems for Operation and Maintenance
While the DWA and IMESA asset manage- • A description of the scope of the
assets and services the municipality is
ment systems differ in their approaches and
responsible for.
steps, they have a great deal in common and
aim to achieve the same essential objectives. • An asset register containing data on all
The two systems are compared in Table 9. the assets owned by the municipality.
Three phases can be identified in the devel- • Financial requirements for developing
Table 9 Steps in the development of an asset management plans as proposed by DWA and IMESA.
AND MAINTENANCE
DWA IAM
Phase Steps in IMESA IAM
Step Questions answered
1. Asset What do you own? 1. Asset Register
register Where is it located?
Technical What is it worth?
assessment 2.Condition What is its condition? 2. Condition assessment
assessment What is critical? 3. Remaining Useful Life
What is its service life?
3.Current and Service Level Requirements 5. Levels of service and demand
future needs Investment Requirements
Financial Funding Requirements
assessment 4.Costing Depreciation of Assets 4. Valuation and life cycle cost
analysis Life time Cycle Costs 6. Business risk exposure
Risk Analysis
5.Operational Organisational Development 7. Operation and
plan Plan maintenance plans
Asset Training & Development 8. Capital investment validation
management Emergency response 9. Future expenditure model and
practices funding
6.Maintenance Current Practices
plan Gap Analysis 10. Asset management plan
to suit budget
Routine and long term
maintenance
53
Chapter 5
• The practices that must be put in the asset, such as the asset hierarchy it
place to make the asset management belongs to, coordinates and size. The assets
successful. are then listed in an asset register that
contains information on things like the
• The people that manage and imple-
ment the asset management plan. asset number, description, material, year
constructed, photograph, condition and
In developing an asset management plan replacement value.
the following approach is recommended g:
start with the basics, and get them right. The second part of the technical assessment
Use an incremental approach, but do not is an assessment of the condition of each
proceed to the next level until the basics asset. This can be done by scoring each asset
are right. Address the weakest links in the according to three scales:
system first, and then the next weakest once
• The condition of the asset
the first has been improved. Where there is
(see Table 10)
strength, support it, and build on it.
• The extent of defects in the asset
SYSTEMS FOR MANAGING OPERATION
The technical assessment consists of iden- • The relevance of defects in the asset in
AND MAINTENANCE
tifying all assets in the municipality and relation to it performing in its intended
assessing their condition. Assets include function or impact on safety (see
both movable (vehicles, furniture, equip- Table 12).
ment, etc.) and immovable (reservoirs,
5.3.3 Financial assessment
pipelines, buildings, etc.) assets. Each asset
should be identified using various sources Financial assessment includes an analysis of
of information such as as-built drawings, the needs and costs of managing the assets.
reports and site inspections. This can be a As part of this process, it is important to
tedious and long process, but is very impor- determine the value of assets owned by the
tant to do well. municipality. The following aspects need to
The identified assets are then placed in a be considered:
hierarchy consisting of five levels: • The value of the asset, which may be
• System (e.g. water services, roads, the replacement value (i.e. how much
electricity) would it cost to replace the asset with a
new one) or the current value (what is
• Sub system (e.g. water or sewerage) it currently worth).
• Facility (e.g. water treatment plant) • The useful life of the asset, which is
• Asset (e.g. pump station or reservoir) the period that the asset can fulfil its
intended function before it has to be
• Component (e.g. a valve, pump or replaced. The useful life of an asset
flow meter)
depends on many factors, such as how
Each asset is then given a unique number well it is maintained, the climate, how
that preferably contains information about often it is used, etc.
54
Systems for Operation and Maintenance
AND MAINTENANCE
4 General, occurring extensively at all locations
Table 12 Scale for the relevance of defects for safety of the ability of the asset
to fulfil its intended function
• Assets depreciate in value over their life plans for the assets. A starting point is to
spans. Typically, the value of the asset at identify the type and frequency of mainte-
the end of its service life (or its residual nance that is required for each asset. Based
value) is estimated, and its value is then on this information, a maintenance sched-
determined by a linear depreciation ule can be developed and used to ensure
over time. that other systems are in place to support
the required planned and unplanned main-
5.3.4 Asset management practicesb tenance, such as the right items in the stores
and plans for emergency maintenance.
Asset management practices consist of The manufacturer’s recommendations are
developing operational and maintenance very important for any asset and should be
55
Chapter 5
incorporated in operational and mainte- cept. The multiple barrier concept refers to
nance plans. actions at all stages in the water purification
and distribution process to ensure that con-
Asset management practices also include sumers are supplied with water of adequate
the appointment and training of competent quality. This includes the protection of
staff that can run the different aspects of the water sources, the different water treatment
operation and maintenance plans. processes, the water distribution system
The maintenance plan should cover every and even the handling of water within
component of every asset in every facility households.
and system in the municipality. It is a good A WSP provides an organised and struc-
idea to start with a maintenance plan for tured system to minimize the risk of water
the following year, and then cover at least quality failures due to oversight or man-
five years into the future. The plan should agement lapse. It also includes contingency
be reviewed on an annual basis. plans to respond to system failures or haz-
ardous events.
SYSTEMS FOR MANAGING OPERATION
56
Systems for Operation and Maintenance
AND MAINTENANCE
Additional Reading
Asset management Water losses
• DWAF (2011), Water services infrastruc- • Couvelis, F.A., Van Zyl, J.E. (2012)
ture asset management strategy (WSIAM), Apparent water losses related to municipal
Water services: policy and strategy, metering in South Africa, Water Research
Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria, Commission, Pretoria
South Africa. www.dwaf.gov.za. • Aqualite Water Balance Software – User
• Bannister, M. (2012) Asset management Guide by RS McKenzie. WRC Report no TT
plan – ‘getting started’, Department of 315/07.
Water Affairs, Pretoria • PRESMAC: Development of a pragmatic
• Infraguide (2003) water – developing a approach to evaluate the potential savings
water distribution system renewal plan, from pressure management in potable
National guide to sustainable municipal water distribution systems in South Africa.
infrastructure, NRC, Canada (Presmac User Guide Version 1.1) by R
• IPWEA (2011) International infrastructure McKenzie R and A Lambert. WRC Report
management manual, International ver- No: TT 152/01.
sion, Institute of public works engineering • Development of a simple and pragmatic
Australasia approach to benchmark real losses in po-
• Development of a toolkit for strategic table water distribution systems in South
asset management by Peter Dunn, Ronnie Africa: BENCHLEAK by Ronnie McKenzie
McKenzie, Caryn Seago. WRC Report no and Allan Lambert. WRC Report No: TT
TT 413/09. 159/01.
57
Chapter 5
58
PIPES 6
6.1 Introduction tions: design and construction requirements
that facilitate operation and maintenance,
The vast majority of a water distribution operation requirements and maintenance
system consists of pipes and couplings to requirements.
PIPES
link them to each other in different config-
urations. Bulk water suppliers and munic-
ipalities invest considerably more in the
6.2 Joint types
pipe network than in all other water assets
Various types of joints are available to con-
combined, and thus it is important that
nect pipes to each other. The type of joint
pipes are operated within their limits and
used is mostly determined by the pipe ma-
maintained to ensure that their service lives
terial used, but also by other requirements
are maximised.
such as the ability to handle tension forces,
Various different pipe, lining and jointing toleration of small deflections and ease of
materials have been used over the last cen- use in the field. The most common types
tury, and since pipes sometimes stay in ser- of joints are listed below and illustrated in
vice for fifty to a hundred years, it is likely Figure 9:
that different pipe materials will be present
in a given distribution system. • In spigot and socket (or bell and
spigot) joints, one end of a pipe section
This chapter discusses the most common (the bell) is enlarged and provided with
types of joints and pipe materials used in a rubber seal, while the other end (the
water distribution systems. This is followed spigot) is left unchanged. To join two
by a discussion of the ways pipes deteriorate pipes, the spigot of one pipe is pushed
and/or fail. Finally, operation and mainte- into the bell of the other pipe to create
nance of pipes are discussed in three sec- a watertight seal.
59
Chapter 6
• Butt fusion jointing is used to connect special scraping tool to expose virgin
HDPE pipes: the ends of both pipes material. The electrofusion collar is
are heated and then pressed together at then placed over the pipe ends and an
a prescribed pressure to create a bond. electrical current applied to the heating
The quality of workmanship in butt coil. The heat melts the material of the
fusion jointing is very important to collar and pipe together. Quality con-
ensure a strong and lasting joint. trol is critical and it is important that
pipe ends are perfectly round and clean,
• Electrofusion is an alternative jointing
that the pipes are restrained throughout
method for HDPE pipes that employs
the fusion process and that joints are
special collars with built-in heating
allowed to cool down fully before the
coils. The ends of the pipes are cleaned
restraints are removed.
and their outer layers removed using a
socket or bell
a) b)
PIPES
spigot
bolt
heater coil electrofusion collar gasket
fused into pipe pipe
d)
c)
flanges
nuts
e) f)
Figure 9 Common types of pipe joints: a) spigot and socket; b) butt welded; c) electrofusion;
d) flanged; e) welded; f) mechanical coupling.
60
Pipes
• Flanged joints consist of both pipes with water, tubercles may form that can
ending in flanges with holes allowing severely restrict flow through the pipe.
them to be bolted together. A gasket is Disadvantages include that pipe sec-
fitted between the two flanges to ensure tions are heavy and difficult to handle,
a watertight seal. that wrapping and corrosion protection
is required (especially in corrosive soils)
• Large diameter steel pipes may be
and that stray currents may accelerate
joined by welding them together in
corrosion.
the field. Quality control is critical to
ensure that welds are done properly. • Ductile iron pipes replaced cast iron
around the middle of the 20th century
• Flexible mechanical couplings that and are often lined with cement mortar
compress sealing rings when their bolts or bitumen. Bitumen and bitumen tape
are tightened. These couplings can be are commonly used as coating. Spigot
used to join the same or different types and socket joints with rubber seals are
of pipe with plain ends. It is possible generally used. Ductile iron pipes have
to leave a gap between the pipes being relatively good corrosion resistance and
joined, which is useful in valve cham- can handle water hammer pressures
bers or pump stations where this gap and soil loads due to its high strength.
allows components to be easily disas- Disadvantages are the same as for cast
sembled and reassembled. iron pipes.
PIPES
• Steel pipes also came into use from
6.3 Pipe materials about the middle of the 20th century
and are still used today for large diame-
Commonly used pipe materials in water ter pipes and high pressure applications
distribution systems are briefly discussed due to its high strength. Steel pipes are
in this section from the earliest to the most susceptible to corrosion and thus need
modern pipe materials: to be protected from the environment
both on the inside and outside of the
• Cast iron is one of the earliest pipe pipe. Cement mortar, bitumen, epoxy
materials and is still found in older and hot-dipped galvanising are used
distribution systems. Earliest versions for linings. Coatings may use the same
were cast in pits, while later pipes were materials, as well as wrapping applied
centrifugally cast. Cast iron has much on site to seal the outside of the pipe.
better corrosion resistance that duc- Bell and spigot joints with rubber seals,
tile iron and steel, and was often used mechanical couplings and flanged
without any coating or lining. Spigot couplings are commonly used. Welding
and socket joints were mostly used, can be used to join pipes of 600 mm
although flanged joints are also found. diameter and larger. Steel pipes are not
Early cast iron pipe joints were sealed brittle and thus can deflect without
with lead, which was later replaced breaking. They are lighter than duc-
with leadite and then with rubber. tile iron pipes, are resistant to shock
When unlined cast iron pipes react loads (such as water hammer) and can
61
Chapter 6
pipes resulted in asbestos cement not pressure, and thus may be more likely
being used for new pipes anymore. to leak at low than at high pressures.
However, most municipalities have PVC pipes and fittings should not be
significant quantities of AC pipes in use exposed to direct sunlight for long peri-
and studies have not linked water sup- ods as this discolours the material and
plied through AC pipes with increased makes it brittle, and thus unsuitable for
health risks. AC pipe is normally bitu- use in water distribution. PVC pipes
men lined. Since it is a brittle material, should be stored in covered racks with
good bedding and continuous support all pipes laid flat and parallel. Socketed
is essential. Insufficient support, point pipes should be stacked with socket
loads or soil movements can lead to and spigot ends alternating to eliminate
the pipe cracking. Joints are typically sagging or distortion of the pipe. PVC
push-on with rubber gaskets using a pipes require good backfill support,
short coupling piece. Some connectors, have limited resistance to cyclic loading
such as twin-gasket couplings, are made and susceptible to impact loads, point
out of AC, while others are made out of loads and permeation.
cast iron. AC pipes are lightweight and • High density polyethylene (HDPE) is
low cost compared to metal, but are another material that is commonly used
susceptible to corrosion by soft waters, today in water distribution systems.
acids and sulphates. Mechanical joints Unlike PVC, it is flexible, which means
may not work on AC pipes unless the that it can be transported in rolls and
ends are reamed to provide a smooth used in trenchless installations where
62
Pipes
PIPES
c)
a)
d)
b)
e)
Figure 10 Samples of different pipe materials: a) flanged cast iron pipe showing corrosion tubercles; b)
steel pipe with protective wrapping; c) steel pipe with cement mortar lining; d) AC pipes; e) GRP pipe
63
Chapter 6
at high pressures relative to their and typical failure modes are summarised in
design loads and new plastic pipes are Table 14 and illustrated in Figure 11.
designed with large safety factors to
compensate for visco-elastic creep.
Table 14 Main causes of failure and typical failure modes of different pipe materials f
64
Pipes
PIPES
Exposure to solvents
Difficult to find non-metallic pipe underground
HDPE Excessive deflection Joint imperfections
Joint misalignment Mechanical degradation
Welding jointing weakness due to misalignment, from improper installation
incorrect welding procedure or impurities methods
Excessive internal working or water hammer pressures
Exposure to solvents
Difficult to find non-metallic pipe underground
Notes: s small diameter (< 375 mm); m medium diameter (375 – 500 mm); l large diameter (> 500 mm)
65
Chapter 6
Spiral break
66
Pipes
PIPES
pipes should be done carefully and • The rated operating pressure of a pipe
in accordance with manufacturer should never be exceeded even for short
specifications. periods such as under water hammer
conditions.
• Bedding and blanket should consist of
selected granular material compacted in • Negative pressures should be avoided
layers. The bedding depth should be at under all operating conditions.
least 100 mm or one sixths of the pipe
diameter, whichever is greater. 6.5.3 Maintenance
• Adequate cover should be provided
Maintenance requirements of pipes include
to ensure pipes are not damaged by
activities above ground. Cover mate- the following:
rial should be placed and compacted in • Check for pipe leaks through appro-
layers. Cover above the pipe should be priate active leak detection methods at
at least 600 mm under normal con-
regular intervals.
ditions, and at least 800 mm at road
crossings. • Flush pipes to remove accumulated
sediments, especially those pipes where
• Pipes should be located in road
low velocities are likely to occur such as
reserves and passing them under roads
dead-end pipes.
or through private property should
be avoided. Models are available to determine when
67
Chapter 6
c)
a)
b)
d)
PIPES
e) f)
h)
g)
i)
Figure 12 Examples of failed pipes in water distribution systems: a) longitudinal split in a steel pipe;
b) corrosion holes in a steel pipe; c) longitudinal crack ending in a bell shape in an AC pipe; d) erosion
damage due to soil agitation on the outside of an AC pipe with a longitudinal crack; e) damage due
to improper storage of PVC pipes; f) damage due to PVC pipes improperly stored against unprotected
wooden poles; g) black discolouring indicating permanent damage to the structure of PVC pipes
improperly stored in direct sunlight; h) damage to PVC pipes due to negative pressures; i) poorly done
electrofusion weld on an HDPE pipe (note the melted plastic that flowed out of the joint).
68
Pipes
a pipe should be replaced, i.e. when the if other techniques are not available
cost of replacing it is lower than the cost of or fails. Care should be taken not to
on-going maintenance. A rule of thumb of cause damage to the pipe with a pick or
three failures in the life of a pipe section is shovel during the digging process.
sometimes used as an indication that this
It is a good idea to get different suppliers to
point has been reached and the pipe should
demonstrate their equipment on a known
be replaced.
section of pipe to ascertain their effective-
Figure 12 provides some examples of failed ness before deciding on a system to pur-
pipes in water distribution systems. chase.
PIPES
pansion purposes. Valve boxes and hydrants • A. Gas injection. In this method a gas
may also be useful markers for the location detector is used to find the presence of
of a pipe. In addition, as-built drawings a tracer gas that has been injected into
should accurately indicate the location of an emptied pipe. Hydrogen is the most
pipes and other components. common gas employed, but helium
Where the above methods are not available, can also be used. A probe is used along
pipe location techniques may be useful to the route of the pipeline to detect gas
avoid unnecessary digging. The following released through leaks in the pipe.
techniques are available: • B. Manual listening stick. A stetho-
scope or listening stick with an earpiece
• Steel pipes may be located using elec- is pressed against fittings to listen for
tromagnetic metal detectors, some- nearby leaks in the pipe.
times inducing a signal into the pipe
from a valve or hydrant that may be • Leak noise correlation. Leak noise
picked up by an above-ground sensor. correlators work by comparing the
noise detected at two different points
• Other methods include ground-pene- on the pipeline. The times that a noise
trating radar, sonic wave methods and signal reaches the respective sensors
infrared thermography. are used to estimate the location of the
• Excavating across the line of the leak on a pipe. Noise correlators will
pipe is a technique that may be used also pick up non-leak sources of noise,
69
Chapter 6
and thus the existence of a leak should in the pipe and pick up leak noises as
be verified, for instance using a ground they pass through it. Tethered and free
microphone. Two types of noise corre- swimming systems are available.
lators are used:
• F: Leak noise loggers are placed on fit-
° C: Accelerometers. In this method, tings and pick up the noise created by a
two accelerometer sensors are
leak in the pipe.
deployed on pipe fittings on either
side of the suspected leak position.
6.6.3 Repairing leaking pipes
This method is most effective on
metallic pipes.
The following steps are used to repair a
° D: Hydrophones. Leak location with leaking pipe:
accelerometers is harder in plastic
pipes due to their higher elasticity, 1. Locate the failure from an external
and in large diameter pipes due to sign such as a water jet or wet area of
the higher diameter to wall thickness soil, or from specialised leak detection
ratios. Hydrophones are placed in equipment.
contact with the water, for instance at
hydrants, and pick up the noise signal 2. Close isolation valves in the system to
directly from the water. isolate the leak. Clearly mark each valve
PIPES
70
Pipes
3. Ensure that the work area is safe for 9. Ensure that all isolation and scour valves
working using appropriate signs, barriers opened or closed are reinstated to their
and traffic diversion measures. correct state.
4. Excavate the failed pipe section while 10. Flush the section using a hydrant to
ensuring worker safety and avoiding ensure that any contaminants and solids
further damage to the pipe. are removed.
5. Use an extractor pump capable of han- 11. Once the section is under pressure,
dling sludge to drain water from the inspect the repairs for leaks.
trench.
12. Reinstate the pipe bedding, blanket
6. Repair the failed pipe using an appropri- and backfill using appropriate placing
ate method: and compaction methods and materials.
a. For a small leak, a repair clamp may 13. Reinstate and clean the area where the
be fixed over the leak to seal it. Small excavations were done.
leaks in steel pipe may be welded
closed. 14. Complete a pipe repair report, includ-
ing an analysis of the likely cause of
b. For a more extensive leak, the the failure. Failure reports should be
damaged section of pipe is cut out, securely stored for future reference. A
a new section of pipe installed using
PIPES
sample form for pipe repairs is provided
appropriate connectors. PVC is often in Appendix B.
used for the replacement section and
special fittings are available to connect
PVC to other pipe materials. Note 6.6.4 Trenchless rehabilitation and
that AC pipes should not be cut – replacement of pipes v
rather replace a whole length of pipe.
Trenchless technologies refer to a range of
c. Replace a whole length of pipe if techniques used to replace or rehabilitate
damage is extensive or it is clear that pipes with minimal excavation. Excavation
the pipe is bad condition and likely to is mainly required to gain access to the
fail again. start and end of a pipe section, and most
7. In all cases, ensure that exposed and new techniques are limited to a straight section
sections of pipe are carefully cleaned of pipe only. All service connections, valves
and disinfected (see Section 6.6.5). Take and other fittings also have to be individu-
special care to ensure that any solids that ally excavated and reinstated on the new
may have entered the pipe during the pipe.
repair are removed.
Various trenchless options are available to
8. Slowly open one or more of the closed rehabilitate a pipe that has reached the end
isolation valves as well as a hydrant or of its service life, which may be indicated
valve to allow air to escape from the by a high failure frequency, high friction
system. losses or water quality problems. These
71
Chapter 6
a) c)
PIPES
b) d)
Figure 13 Some steps in the pipe repair process: a) ensuring the work area is safe; b) carefully
excavating the pipe; c) draining water from the hole; d) repairing the leak with a repair clamp.
methods may be divided into three catego- to create a significant reduction in the
ries: non-structural lining, structural lining diameter of smaller pipes.
and replacement. • Epoxy lining, which places an epoxy
In non-structural lining, a thin coating of lining of about 1 mm thick on the
a material is placed in the pipe to prevent inside of the pipe.
leaks and increase the service life of the Structural linings provide a new surface
pipe. Before non-structural lining, the pipe inside the existing pipe that also provides
needs to be cleaned to remove scale, cor- at least some structural support. Common
rosion products and sediments. Common structural lining techniques include the
non-structural lining techniques include the following:
following:
• Sliplining. In sliplining, a new pipe
• Cement-mortar lining applied by with a smaller diameter is pulled in
special equipment to the inside of the through the existing pipe. It is a rel-
pipe. The thickness of the lining can atively simple and inexpensive tech-
be varied, but is typically large enough nique, but the new pipe has a smaller
72
Pipes
PIPES
original circular shape.
nections and other fittings.
Trenchless pipe replacement methods,
where the existing pipe does not play any Table 17 Methods used for pipe rehabilitation
continued supporting role in the new pipe, arranged from low to high cost v
include the following:
Method Pipe size range (mm)
• Pipe bursting involves the use of a pipe
Cement mortar lining 100 - 1 500
cutting or bursting tool that breaks and
opens up the old pipe. The replacement Epoxy lining 100 - 300
pipe (mostly HDPE) is pulled into
Sliplining 100 - 2 500
the void left by the cutting tool. The
replacement pipe can be up to two pipe Close-fit-pipe 50 - 1 000
sizes larger than the existing pipe.
Fold and form pipe 200 - 500
• Microtunneling uses a remote con-
trolled laser-guided pipe jacking system Pipe bursting 100 - 900
that forces a new pipe horizontally
through the ground. The method can Cured-in-place pipe 150 - 1 400
be cost-effective in built-up areas, to Microtunneling 300 - 3 700
install pipes through existing roads or
in areas sensitive to disturbance by sur- Horizontal directional
50 - 1 500
face excavation. Various types of pipes drilling
73
Chapter 6
Important points
• Never cut or grind AC pipes due to the • Steel and ductile iron should always be
health risk of asbestos fibres when inhaled. protected from corrosion.
• Ensure that pipes were manufactured from • Do not store PVC pipes in direct sunlight.
high quality materials and with good quality
• Ensure that grit and dirt do not enter the
assurance checks, particularly for plastic
pipe system when doing pipe construction
pipes.
or repairs.
• The use of correct equipment, well trained
• Ensure that new or repaired pipes are
workers and good quality assurance
flushed and disinfected before connecting
measures are essential when doing butt or
them to the rest of the network.
electrofusion welding.
74
Pipes
PIPES
Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings for water ments Part 3: Guidance for design
supply - Part 3: Fittings • Section L: Medium-pressure pipelines
• SANS 4427-5:2008 - Plastics piping systems - • Section LF: Erf connections (water)
Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings for water
• SANS 10120-4 L:1983 - Code of practice for
supply - Part 5: Fitness for purpose of the
use with standardized specifications for civil
system
engineering construction and contract docu-
• SANS 10112:2011 - The installation of poly- ments Part 4: Typical schedule of quantities
ethylene and poly vinyl chloride (PVC-U and
• Section L: Medium-pressure pipelines
PVC-M) pipes
• Section LB: Bedding (pipes)
PVC pipes
• Section LF: Erf connections (water)
• SANS 966-1:2013 - Components of pressure
pipe systems Part 1: Unplasticized poly vinyl • SANS 10120-5 L:1983 - Code of practice for
chloride (PVC-U) pressure pipe systems use with standardized specifications for civil
engineering construction and contract docu-
• SANS 966-2:2013 - Components of pres-
ments Part 5: Contract administration
sure pipe systems Part 2: Modified poly vinyl
chloride (PVC-M) pressure pipe systems • Section L: Medium-pressure pipelines
• SANS 10802:2010 - Ductile iron pipelines - • Section LF: Erf connections (water)
Hydrostatic testing after installation
• SANS 108032010 - Design method Training
75
76
PIPE FITTINGS
AND ACCESSORIES
7
77
Chapter 7
the network, release air or regulate flow or where they have to be opened frequently,
pressure in the system. The main types are or will be open most of the time. However,
the following: critical valves that are closed most of the
time, such as scour or DMA isolation valves,
• Isolation valves should use a metal-to-metal seals.
• Air valves
Isolation valves are prone to deterioration
• Scour valves and failures such as stripped, broken or
• Non-return or check valves bent stems, leaking O-rings or packing, cor-
rosion of the valve body and bolts and wear
• Control valves on the valve disk and seat h.
7.2.1 Isolation valves Isolation valves have the following opera-
tional requirements:
Isolation valves are used to close off and
thus prevent any flow through pipes. This • Isolation valves should only be oper-
PIPE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
may be required to shut down a section of ated by staff trained and authorised
pipe for repairs or isolate one supply zone to do this, and all changes in valve
from another. Most valves are made out of setting should be recorded on a form
steel, ductile iron or cast iron. Gate valves designed for this purpose. Contractors
are typically used for isolation of small di- should not be allowed to operate valves
ameter pipes, while butterfly valves are used without being specifically authorised to
for large diameter pipes. do this and complying with the same
standards as municipal staff.
Isolation valves are installed at junctions in
• Gate valves should not be used to iso-
pipe networks and at regular intervals of
late pipes for pressure testing when the
one to two kilometres on transmission lines.
testing pressures exceeds the operational
They should be located near street corners
rating of the valve, as this can damage
and in line with property side-boundaries
the valve seals.
so that they are easier to find. All isolation
valves in a system should close in a same di- • Isolation valves should be opened and
rection, whether clockwise or anti-clockwise. closed slowly (approximately 10 min-
utes), especially on large pipelines to
Isolation valves can shut the flow off with prevent water hammer. Valves on pipes
a close fitting metal-to-metal seal or alter- with a water hammer risk should be
natively use a rubber seal (called a resilient fitted with gearboxes or actuators that
seal valve). While resilient seal valves are regulate the valve closing speed.
generally cheaper and have some operational
advantages, the rubber seal tends to lose its • A gate valve should be turned until it is
flexibility when the valve is closed for long completely opened or closed, and then
periods of time, resulting in the valve subse- half a turn in the opposite direction.
quently not being able seal perfectly. Thus, This helps to prevent the valve from
resilient seal valves can be used in locations getting stuck.
78
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
• Gate valves should not be used to slightly before opening it again) at least
throttle flow as the high velocity of once a year. However, critical valves
water through a small valve opening in the system should be inspected at
can cause cavitation and scour damage more regular intervals to ensure they
to the valve. Butterfly valves are better are ready should it become necessary to
suited to throttling. operate them.
• Large isolation valves should be fitted
7.2.2 Air valves
with bypass valves to allow the pres-
sure to be equalised on both side of the Air valves are installed on pipelines to con-
large valve before it is opened. trol the flow of air into and out of the sys-
• To prevent operators from using too tem. Pipelines should be completely filled
much force when closing a valve result- with water under normal operating condi-
ing in shearing of the valve stem, it tions, and thus any air that enters a system
is advisable to use special valve keys needs to be released. This is necessary when
that will not allow excessive force to filling a drained pipe, or when air enters the
79
Chapter 7
80
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
81
Chapter 7
• Level control valves close when a res- this will not result in permanent damage to
ervoir is full, and opens when the water the system. For instance, the distribution
level drops to a pre-determined level. downstream of a PRV should be able to
• Surge control valves open or close handle the increased pressures if the PRV
to help dissipate water hammer pres- fails. Break-pressure tanks may provide a
sures in a pipe or protect components fail-safe alternative where this is a risk. It is
against it. also advisable to monitor pressures up-
stream and downstream of control valves
• Pump control valves prevent water to allow the operation of the valves to be
hammer from occurring in a system
monitored.
by controlling the rate at which the
flow changes when pumps are started Control valves must be kept clean from dirt
or stopped. and insects, especially the breather holes
Control valves are used where special con- on the valves and pilots. They should be
trols are required in a network, such as flow inspected at least twice a year (more for large
PIPE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
or pressure control. Most control valves control valves) and serviced every three years.
also function as non-return valves. Control
valves generally have a certain range that
they can operate on, and in some cases it 7.3 Fire hydrants
is necessary to use more than one valve in
series or parallel to get the desired results. Fire hydrants are used to provide water from
the distribution system for fire fighting. Fire
Designers should consider the consequences hydrants incorporate an isolation valve and
of a control valve failing and ensure that a standard fitting for connecting a fire hose.
82
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
83
Chapter 7
flange bolts tightened if necessary. of the meter, including expected service life,
The hydrant body should be cleaned loss of accuracy over time and failure rate,
and corrosion protection applied if and not on purchasing price only.
required.
PIPE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
84
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
for signs of damage or wear. A checklist ply areas. The meter database should be
should be completed by maintenance used to identify meters that need urgent in-
crews that include location and meter data, spection or maintenance, and information
condition of the meter and auxiliaries and obtained from maintenance visits should
actions taken.
be fed back into the database for future
Knowledge of the system should guide a use. It is recommended that maintenance is
municipality on maintenance requirements done on large water meters at least once a
of different meter models in different sup- year. Domestic meters require less frequent
85
Chapter 7
maintenance and meter readers may be used The accuracy of meters needs to be checked
to report on leaks or problems that require to ensure they are still operating satisfacto-
attention. Meters of 50 mm and larger rily. Meters of 100 mm and larger should be
can often be serviced instead of replaced. tested once a year and smaller meters once
However, a municipality should have the every five years. It is not feasible to test
capability to calibrate and test meters before all domestic meters, and a representative
servicing can be an option. sample of domestic meters should rather
be tested based on size, model and year of
Like any mechanical device, water meters installation, to estimate their performance.
deteriorate with use and generally under- Meters may be checked in situ using a
register as they age. The starting flows and calibrated master meter, portable test rig or
accuracy at low flows are the areas on the insertion flow meter. However, if a meter
accuracy curve that tend to deteriorate needs to be verified for trade purposes, such
most rapidly. as a legal dispute on meter accuracy, the
meter has to be tested by a certified testing
PIPE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
It may also be desirable to log the flow officer in an approved testing laboratory.
through an existing meter in the system
to characterise the flow pattern through An adequate number of spare meters should
the meter, or determine if the meter is cor- be available to replace broken or faulty
rectly sized. meters without delay.
c)
a)
b)
Figure 17 Examples of water meters: a) domestic meter installation; b) bulk consumer meter
installation with isolation valves and dirt box; c) electro-magnetic meter installation.
86
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
87
Chapter 7
Markers should be used to indicate the po- Pipe markers or beacons should be installed
sitions of important fittings, either through at pipe bends and at regular (no more than
permanent marker posts on the verge 500 m) intervals to ensure that its location
opposite the fitting, or by painted symbols can be determined. Where a pipe crosses
on the road surface, kerb, telephone poles underneath a road or other obstacle, pipe
or other structures. Symbols on markers markers should be installed on both sides
should be durable and markers should be of the road. The pipe should follow straight
repainted or replaced at regular intervals. lines between these markers.
88
Pipe Fittings and Accessories
BEND IN
VERTICAL
PLANE
BEND IN
HORIZONTAL
PLANE
TEE
ANCHORAGE
TEE ANCHORAGE
IN HORIZONTAL
PLANE
MECHANICAL JOINT OR
DISMANTEING JOINT
VALVE
ANCHORAGE
89
Chapter 7
Important points
• The positions of pipes, valves, hydrants and • A pipeline should never be operated while
other components should be clearly marked any of its air valves is isolated or missing.
in the field and accurately shown on draw- • Air valve chambers should have air vents
ings to allow them to be easily located. that allow unobstructed air flow.
• Resilient seal valves should not be used for • The outlet of scour valves should be pro-
valves that are closed for long periods of tected from erosion and visible to allow
time, such as scour or DMA isolation valves. releases to be observed.
• Isolation valves should always be opened • Thrust blocks should always be replaced, if
and closed slowly, especially in large diam- removed during maintenance, before a pipe
eter pipes, to prevent water hammer. is put back into operation.
• Gate valves should not be used to
throttle flow.
PIPE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Additional Reading
South African National Standards - Pipe Components
• SANS 4633:2008 - Rubber seals - Joint rings for water supply, drainage and sewerage pipelines -
Specification for materials
Water metering
• Introduction to Integrated Water Meter Management by JE van Zyl provides a practical guide to
municipal water metering in developing countries. It can be ordered from the Water Research
Commission, or downloaded from their website www.wrc.org.za.
90
RESERVOIRS
AND WATER TOWERS
8
8.1 Introduction 8.2 Reservoirs and
water towers
RESERVOIRS
Water demand in a distribution system is
highly variable and changes with the season, It is important to distinguish between
day of the week and hour of the day. In reservoirs and water towers as they have dif-
addition it is affected by various external ferent functions: reservoirs are constructed
factors such as temperature, rainfall and
AND
on ground level and provide the bulk of the
public holidays. In contrast to the vari- required storage volume. Where possible,
ability in water demand, components such
WATER TOWERS
reservoirs are located on higher ground
as water treatment plants, pump stations above the system to provide the required
and bulk pipelines are designed for a fixed pressure. However, in some cases users are
flow rate for cost and operational reasons. located at high elevations relative to the res-
An important function of storage reservoirs ervoir and thus cannot be supplied with ad-
is to provide balancing storage between equate pressure. In these cases water towers
the constant inflow and variable outflow. are commonly used to provide additional
This means that reservoir water levels drop pressure for these users. Since it is expensive
during the day when consumption is high, to provide elevated storage, water towers are
and increase again during the night when sized for a few hours of peak demand only,
consumption is low. and the pumps that supply them are sized
to provide the peak user demand. Little
Other functions of reservoirs include emergency storage is provided in water
the provision of emergency storage (for towers, with the ground storage reservoirs
instance when the pipe supplying the holding the bulk of the required emergency
reservoir is shut down to repair a burst) storage.
and ensuring that water is available for
fire fighting. Finally, the water elevations Reservoirs are mostly constructed from
of reservoirs and water towers determine reinforced concrete, although smaller
the pressure that can be supplied to users reservoirs are sometimes built out of bricks
through gravity. or steel panels. Water towers are mostly
91
WATER TOWERS
AND Chapter 8
92
Reservoirs and Water Towers
RESERVOIRS
8.4 Operation and
8.4.1.2 Structure
maintenance of reservoirs
and water towers The structure of a reservoir or water tow-
ers should have following components for
8.4.1 Design and construction proper functioning d:
AND
• The inlet and outlet of a reservoir
WATER TOWERS
8.4.1.1 Reservoir sizing should be designed in such a way
that water in the tank remains fully
Larger reservoirs are less likely to run dry
and are thus inherently more reliable. mixed, and that dead zones should be
However, larger reservoirs cost more to con- avoided f.
struct and maintain, and increase the time • A roof to prevent evaporation and con-
water spends in the system (called the reten- tamination by bird droppings, rainwa-
tion time). Longer retention times increase ter and animals, and to keep the reser-
the risk of chlorine depletion and disinfec- voir dark to prevent growth of algae.
tant by-product formation. The challenge
for the system designer is thus to find an • A mechanical or electronic water level
appropriate balance between the risk of a indicator.
reservoir running dry and operational costs • Inside and outside access ladders with
and problems. cages to prevent falling.
The South African design guidelines specify • An access hatch in the roof that is
reservoir capacity of 48 hours of annual hinged locked and won’t let rainwater
average daily demand (AADD) plus al- into the reservoir. Preferably two access
lowances for fire fighting and operational hatches should be provided to allow
requirements. This has been shown to be workers inside the reservoir to escape in
excessive for many systems using stochastic the case of an emergency.
93
Chapter 8
• Ventilation openings fitted with insect- supply consumers when the reservoir is
proof netting. taken out of operation, a bypass valve
• Lightning protection. and a PRV installation (if applicable)
should be provided.
• Telemetry to allow the reservoir level to
be checked and pumps and valves oper- • A level control valve on the inlet pipe
ated remotely. The telemetry system that closes when the reservoir is full (to
should raise alarms for conditions such prevent water wastage due to overflows)
as the reservoir level being too high or and opens when its level drops.
low, and for unauthorised intrusion. • An isolating valve on the inlet pipe to
• An overflow to allow excess water to be allow the reservoir to be isolated.
released without damage to the struc- • Outlet pipes supplying the distribu-
ture or erosion of the soils surround- tion network (and thus users) from the
ing the foundations. The overflow reservoir or water tower. The entrances
should be located in such a way that
WATER TOWERS
compartments that allows one half of close as possible to the reservoir. This
the reservoir to be drained for mainte- is important since a pipe burst between
nance or cleaning, while the other half the reservoir and isolating valve cannot
is used to supply consumers. In such be isolated except by emptying the
cases the reservoir pipework should be reservoir.
designed to allow each compartment of
the reservoir to act independently. • Water meters on both inlet and
outlet pipes.
8.4.1.3 Pipe work • A scour valve with its entrance slightly
The pipes transporting water to reservoirs below floor level to allow the reservoir
and water towers, and from them to con- or water tower to be emptied for main-
sumers normally have the following compo- tenance purposes.
nents d: • The entrances of outlet and scour pipes
may be covered with steel grids to
• Inlet pipes supplying water to the res- prevent any large items that enter the
ervoir or water tower from a source. reservoir accidentally or through van-
• If an upstream reservoir will be used to dalism from entering the pipes.
94
Reservoirs and Water Towers
a) b) e)
RESERVOIRS
c) d) f)
Figure 22 Examples of reservoir and water tower components: a) and b) reservoir roofs with air vents;
c) grid over a reservoir outlet; d) reservoir scour valve; e) a water quality sampling point covered to
protect it against contamination; f) an opened water quality sampling point.
AND
WATER TOWERS
• A sampling point to take water quality • Rainwater drainage and protection to
samples. The sampling point should be prevent contamination of the reservoir
protected from contamination with a or erosion damage to the terrain.
lockable cover.
• Trees and shrubs should not be
• In some cases a pump station to trans- allowed on reservoir and water tower
port water to a water tower or another terrains as their roots may cause
reservoir. damage to the structures.
8.4.1.4 Other • In some cases special security meas-
ures, such as such as intruder alarms
Other requirements for a reservoir or water and electrical fencing may be required.
tower include the following:
95
Chapter 8
96
Reservoirs and Water Towers
• Take all water meter readings and spades, scrapers and brooms and re-
compare inlet and outlet meters to look move it with buckets through the entry
for signs of water losses. Note that dif- hatch. Alternatively the sediments may
ferences in meter readings may be due be liquefied using a high pressure spray
to variations in reservoir levels between and washed out through the scour
the readings. valve. Special care should be taken
not to damage linings that have been
Movable parts on valves should be greased installed to waterproof the reservoir.
every three months. Finally, reservoirs and
water towers should be drained, cleaned, 3. Wash down the reservoir walls and
inspected and maintained every three to floor using a suitable detergent, high
five years. pressure spray and brooms. Use appro-
priate measures to reach higher parts of
the walls and ensure that all joints and
8.5 Common operation and corners are properly cleaned.
maintenance tasks
RESERVOIRS
4. Rinse the walls and floor using a high
8.5.1 Reservoir cleaning d pressure spray until no traces of deter-
gent are left in the rinse water.
Reservoirs are mostly cleaned by staff
5. Inspect internal surfaces and joints to
AND
entering the drained reservoir to remove
accumulated sediments. During cleaning, ensure that all is in good condition. Do
repairs if required.
WATER TOWERS
consumers can be served from another
reservoir or by a different part of the res-
6. Disinfect the reservoir as described in
ervoir if it is sub-divided. Reservoir clean-
Section 8.5.2.
ing should be done during winter months
when consumption, and thus the load on
the reservoir, is at a minimum. In some 8.5.2 Disinfection
cases, specially trained and certified div-
ers may be used to clean the reservoir with After construction, maintenance work or
special equipment without draining it. The inspections where personnel enters a reser-
steps required to clean the reservoir are as voir or water tower, the following disinfec-
follows: tion procedure should be followed t:
1. Empty the reservoir. The reservoir 1. Ensure that the walls and floor of the
level should be allowed to drop as low reservoir are clean and all traces of
dirt and detergent washed out.
as feasible by normal consumption. The
valves on supply pipes are then closed 2. Ensure that the scour valve is closed.
and the scour valve opened to drain the
remaining water. 3. Prepare a solution of water with a
pH less than 7.5 (for optimal action of
2. Collect accumulated sediments from chlorine) and a chlorine concentration
the bottom of the reservoir using of 50 mg/l.
97
Chapter 8
4. Thoroughly hose down all internal Care should be taken to neutralise high
surfaces, including pipe work and fit- chlorine content in the scour water
tings with the chlorinated water. where it can cause damage to the en-
vironment (for instance using sodium
5. Some of the chlorinated water is thiosulphate).
poured or sprayed over the internal
access ladder once all personnel have 7. The structure is filled with potable
left the reservoir. water after a period of at least 6 hours.
Important points
• It is important to protect water in reservoirs voir outlets and inlets.
from access by rodents, insects, sunlight and • Reservoir terrains should be kept neat, clean
unauthorised persons. and free of bushes and trees.
• Reservoir pipework should be designed to • The most critical time for reservoir reliability
keep reservoirs fully mixed in order to avoid is during the summer peak demand period.
AND
managed to minimize water retention time this period, and routine maintenance should
while ensuring adequate levels or reliability. be done during the winter months when
• Reservoir overflows and under-floor drain- demand is at a minimum.
age should be visible to allow overflows or • Reservoirs should be cleaned every three to
leakage to be observed. five years.
• Water meters should be installed on reser-
Additional Reading
The Operation and Maintenance Project of the Northern Cape, a partnership between several
national and international bodies, produced the Water Supply Services O&M Handbook, a compre-
hensive and practical set of documents that can be of great use to municipalities in South Africa and
other countries. It consists of a number of booklets, but the following booklet applies specifically to
pumps:
x. O&M of reservoirs
This document may be obtained from Mr Kobus Streuders, Department of Water Affairs (Northern
Cape), Private Bag X6101, Kimberley, 8300, Ph. 053 830 8800, Email streudersk@dwa.gov.za.
98
PUMPS 9
9.1 Introduction forward (similar to a boat propeller) or
spinning it out using centrifugal forces. The
Pumps are used to add energy to water in latter type is called centrifugal pumps.
order to move it to a higher elevation, boost
pressure or increase its flow rate. While Centrifugal pumps are the most common-
P UMPS
different pump types exist, centrifugal ly used pump type in water distribution
pumps are almost exclusively used in water systems. They use enclosed spinning disks
distribution systems. A brief overview of with curved vanes called impellers to gener-
centrifugal pumps and their behaviour is ate centrifugal forces.
given before discussing their operation and
maintenance requirements. 9.2.2 Characteristic curves of a
centrifugal pump
99
Chapter 9
100
Pumps
The efficiency of the pump describes how elevation above sea level and temperature of
much of the energy its motor receives from the water. The pump designer should con-
the electrical grid is converted to hydraulic firm that the actual NPSH is always higher
energy. For example, an efficiency of 80 % than the required NPSH to ensure that the
means that if 100 kW of energy is taken pump will not experience cavitation.
from the electrical grid, 80 kW of energy is
converted to hydraulic (flow and pressure)
9.2.3 System curve
energy, while 20 kW is lost in the process -
mostly through heat.
Consider a system consisting of two reser-
The cost of energy used by a pump over its voirs connected by a pipeline as shown in
service life is much more than the capi- Figure 24. To pump water from the bottom
tal cost of the pump, and thus it is very to the top reservoir, energy is required to
important that the pump is operated at achieve three objectives:
the best efficiency possible. It can be seen • Lift the water to a higher elevation.
from Figure 23 (b) that the pump efficiency
reaches a maximum value at a certain flow • Produce a velocity (and thus flow rate)
rate. This is called the best efficiency point, in the pipe.
and every effort should be made to run the • Overcome the friction losses the water
pump as close to this point as possible. will experience as it moves through the
pipe and fittings.
P UMPS
9.2.2.3 NPSH curve
The third characteristic curve of a centrifu- The height that the water has to be lifted
gal pump is called the NPSH curve. It also is called the static head, and is simply the
uses the same flow rate scale as the head- difference in elevation between the deliv-
flow on its X-axis. On its Y-axis it gives the ery and suction reservoir water levels. The
required NPSH (net positive suction head) other two components are both quadratic
of the pump. The actual NPSH of the functions of the flow rate, meaning that
pump is calculated with a formula and is af- they increase steeply as the flow rate in the
fected by the suction pressure at the pump, pipe increases.
hstatic
Static
head
101
Chapter 9
A system curve is a curve of the pumping intersect. This is called the duty point of
energy head required to move water from the pump. The efficiency and required
the bottom to the top reservoir for different NPSH of the pump can be read at the duty
flow rates as shown in Figure 25. point flow rate as shown in Figure 26.
function of the flow rate. large range of pump makes and models that
can be chosen, other variables should also
It should be noted that the system curve be considered, including the following:
would change if any of the system param-
eters changes. For instance, if the differ- • The pump speed can be increased or
ence between the reservoirs water levels decreased to move the pump curve up
increases, the whole system curve will move or down respectively. This is normally
up accordingly. If instead a valve is used to done with a variable speed drive,
throttle the flow, the friction of the system although mechanical pump speed
will increase and the curve will rise at a adjusters were mostly used in the past.
steeper rate. • Pumps may be linked in series as
shown in Figure 27 (a) to increase the
9.2.4 Duty point pressure that can be delivered. Pumps
are mostly linked in series by using
To determine what will happen if the pump multistage pumps, in which more than
in Figure 23 is now installed in the system one pump impeller is installed on the
in Figure 24, the pump and system curves same shaft.
are plotted on the same axes as shown in
• Pumps may be linked in parallel as
Figure 26.
shown in Figure 27 (b) to increase the
The only point where both the pump and flow rate delivered and to provide oper-
system can operate is where the two lines ational flexibility and backup.
102
Pumps
QDP Q
Efficiency
EfficiencyDP
QDP Q
P UMPS
NPSH
NPSHDP
QDP Q
(a)
(b)
Figure 27 Pumps in a)
series and b) parallel.
103
Chapter 9
kilowatt-hour (kWh). For instance, a pump accounted for by using the applicable en-
using 10 kW of power and running for 8 ergy price for each time period. Others use
hours will use a total of 80 kWh. Electricity a block rate for which the unit price drops
consumption is charged per kWh unit, and as the total power consumed increases. Still
may be more expensive during peak than others use block rates that change based on
off-peak periods. overall electricity consumption patterns.
b) d)
a) c) e)
Figure 28 Examples of pump installations: a) centrifugal pump installation viewed from the delivery side b)
centrifugal pump installation viewed from the side (electrical motors in front) showing the isolation valves
on both sides and floor drainage; c) electrical switchgear and access door; d) crawl beam; e) air vents.
104
Pumps
P UMPS
• In general, pumps should be designed first have to be filled with water. This is
not to operate for more than 18 called pump priming. Various meth-
hours per day. ods are available for priming of pumps,
• The maximum economical pump- such as special priming pumps or water
ing line velocity is normally tanks, or simply to install the pump
around 1.8 m/s. below the suction water level.
105
Chapter 9
106
Pumps
a major part of water supply operating Where parallel pumps are used, the system
costs, and thus it is important to ensure should be operated in such a way that all
that pumps are operated as efficiently as pumps are regularly used, rather than keep
possible. Many pump stations provide the backup pumps for emergencies only.
opportunities for cost savings by improving This will ensure that the backup pump
their operational parameters and schedules. remains in a good operational state.
Because so much energy is required for
Finally, a pump should never be throttled
pumping, a savings of only few per cent
on its suction side as this can cause cavita-
can add up to substantial savings over the
tion to occur in the pump.
course of a year. Some stations operate as
much as 20 to 30 % below their optimal
9.3.3 Maintenance
efficiency s.
Common operational problems that con- Health and safety requirements are very
tribute to high energy use are: important in pump stations, including not
wearing loose clothing, preventing acciden-
• Pumps should be tested to determine tal contact with moving equipment, switch-
their operational pump curve as soon as ing off electricity when working on electri-
possible after commissioning, or when cal equipment, ear protection and ensuring
starting a new monitoring programme. that pumps are completely switched off
P UMPS
Such measurements will take into con- (and cannot be switched on automatically)
sideration the actual pump operational when working on them.
conditions, and thus provide a bench-
mark to test the pump curve against as Backup power supply should be tested regu-
the pump ages. larly to ensure that it is in good operating
condition and starts up automatically.
• Pumps that are no longer pumping Backup engines should be run for at least
against their design head. one hour a month to lubricate all internal
• Pumps not running on their original parts and ensure that batteries are fully
curves due to deterioration of their charged. Switchgear on engines and genera-
impellers. tors should be checked regularly for correct
operation.
• Variable-speed pumps being run at
speeds that corresponds to inefficient The pump station floor, surfaces and con-
operating points. trol panels should be kept neat, clean and
• Various pumps starting at the same free from spills.
time. This increases the maximum The following documents that explain
power used and thus has an impor- maintenance requirements of centrifugal
tant impact on the electricity capacity pumps and electrical motors are provided in
charge. It is advisable to stagger pump Appendix B:
starting times to reduce the maximum
electricity demand. • Pump station weekly mainte-
107
Chapter 9
pressure gauges are in good condition and 9.4.2 Common pump problems
accurate.
Table 18 gives a useful description of
Operate the pump and take readings on common pump problems, possible causes
the flow meter as well as the two pressure and remedies, developed by the Southern
gauges. Determine the pumping head by African Pump Systems Development
subtracting the suction pressure from the Association (SAPSDA, www.sapsda.co.za).
delivery pressure (if the suction pressure Note that work on pumps
is a negative it will thus be added). Then can be very dangerous, and thus it is crit-
plot the flow rate and delivery pressure on ically important to obtain and follow all
the pump’s head-flow curve that should be applicable safety guidelines before doing
on record, or can be obtained from manu- any such work.
facturers. If this point plots on or close to
the original pump curve, the pump is still
operating on its original curve.
108
Pumps
Table 18 Common pump problems, possible causes and remedies (SAPSDA, www.sapsda.co.za)
Pump not properly primed -air or vapour Stop pump and reprime.
lock in suction line.
Air leaks in suction line or gland Make good any leaks or repack gland.
arrangement.
Pump does not Air or vapour lock in suction line. Stop pump and reprime.
deliver rated
P UMPS
quantity Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently Increase suction depth of suction pipe to at
submerged and sucking a vortex in the least 3 x diameter of suction pipe.
water.
Air leaks in suction line or gland Make good any leaks or repack gland.
arrangement.
Restriction in delivery pipe work or pipe Clear obstruction or rectify error in pipe
work incorrect. work.
Head underestimated and/or pump Check head losses in delivery pipes, bends
incorrectly selected. and valves, reduce losses as required or
re-select pump to required delivery rate.
Excessive wear at neck rings or wearing Dismantle pump and restore clearances to
plates. original dimensions.
109
Chapter 9
Suction/delivery or non return valves faulty Check valves for defects replace if
or not fully open. necessary.
Pump does not lmpeller rotating in wrong direction. Reverse direction of rotation by swapping
generate its rated two phases on the electrical supply.
delivery pressure
lmpeller neck rings worn excessively. Dismantle pump and restore clearances to
original dimensions.
Pump loses liquid Suction line not fully primed - air or vapour Stop pump and reprime.
after starting lock in suction line.
Air leaks in suction line or gland Make good any leaks or renew gland
arrangement. packing.
Liquid seal to gland arrangement lantern Clean out liquid seal supply orifice.
ring (if fitted) orifice choked.
Lantern ring not properly located. Unpack gland and relocate lantern ring
under supply orifice.
110
Pumps
Gland packing too tight. Stop pump, close delivery valve to relieve
internal pressure on packing, slacken back
the gland nuts and retighten to finger tight-
ness.
Pipe work exerting strain on pump. Disconnect pipe work and realign to pump.
Pumping a product with a different density Check for what liquid the pump was
than what the pump was designed for designed for. Change the liquid product or
(sludge vs water). change the pump.
Bearings wear Pump and driving unit out of alignment. Disconnect coupling and realign pump and
P UMPS
driving unit.
Rotating element shaft bent. Replenish with correct grade of oil or drain
down to correct level.
Bearing badly installed. Drain out bearing, flush through and refill
with correct grade of oil. Determine cause
of contamination and rectify.
Pipe work exerting strain on pump. Ensure that bearings are correctly bedded
to their journals with the correct amount of
oil clearance. Renew bearings if necessary.
Deterioration of the oil lubricating Clean out old grease and repack with
properties due to ingress of dirt, moisture correct grade and amount of grease.
and excessive heat
111
Chapter 9
Pump and driving unit incorrectly aligned. Disconnect coupling and realign pump and
driving unit.
Foundation not rigid or baseplate holding Remove pump, strengthen the foundation
down bolts loose. and reinstall pump. Tighten holding down
bolts and fit lock nuts.
motor combination.
Cavitation due to implosion of air bubbles. Ensure that there is sufficient NPSH (Net
Positive Suction Height) available. Bring
the pump closer to the suction surface.
Foundation/Pump plinth not wide enough. Drop a vertical line from the center of
the motor, two lines radiating out thirty
degrees from this center-line should pass
through the baseplate, not the sides of
the foundation. Increase the width of the
foundation.
Harmonic vibration from nearby The pump, or one of its components can
equipment. vibrate in harmony with another piece
of equipment located in close proximity.
Isolate the vibration by installing vibration
dampers.
112
Pumps
Oil level too low or too high. Replenish with correct grade of oil or drain
down to correct level.
Too much grease in bearing. Clean out old grease and repack with correct
grade and amount of grease.
P UMPS
Pipework exerting strain on pump. Disconnect pipe work and realign to pump.
Irregular delivery Air or vapour lock in suction line. Stop pump and reprime.
Fault in driving unit. Examine driving unit and make good any
defects.
Air leaks in suction line or gland. Make good any leaks or repack gland.
arrangement.
Excessive noise level Air or vapour lock in suction line. Stop pump and reprime.
Air leaks in suction line or gland Make good any leaks or repack gland.
arrangement.
113
Chapter 9
Foundation or baseplate not rigid. Remove pump and driving unit strengthen
foundation.
Cavitation due to pump not operating Throttle the pump delivery valve to force the
on it’s designed duty point. pump back onto its operating curve. Select
another pump to fit with the required duty.
Mechanical seal arrangement has come Stop the pump and replace the seat.
loose from the pump shaft. Remachine pump shaft in case of serious
damage.
P UMPS
Mechanical seal faces are running dry Ensure that the pump is fully primed and
causing a high pitched whistling noise. avoid running the pump without water or
fluid in the volute.
The pump is being operated at a Avoid operation of the pump at the critical
critical speed. (Any object made of an speed or ensure that there are sufficient
elastic material has a natural period restraining measures in place to deal with the
of vibration. At the speed at which unbalanced forces.
the centrifugal force exceeds the
elastic restoring forcer the rotating
element will vibrate as though it were
seriously unbalanced - if it runs at that
speed without restraining forces, the
deflection will continue until the shaft
fails.)
114
Pumps
Table 19 Common motor problems, possible causes and remedies (SAPSDA, www.sapsda.co.za)
Oil level too low or too high. Replenish with correct grade of oil or drain
down to correct level.
P UMPS
Too much grease in bearing. Clean out old grease and repack with correct
grade and amount of grease.
Too much tension in chain or belt drive. Reduce tension in chain or belt.
Excessive end thrust. Check motor if level, shim up. Reduce thrust
from drive or machine. Shaft should have
reasonable ‘axial’ float.
Bearings not greased regularly. Motors fitted with greasable bearings should
be greased at least weekly with an amount as
prescribed by the manufacturer.
Bearing wear rapidly Pump and driving unit out of alignment. Disconnect coupling and realign pump and
driving unit. Renew bearings if necessary.
115
Chapter 9
Induced currents from variable speed Some variable speed drive switch gear induce
drive. eddy currents in drive. the bearings causing
the bearing to react like a capacitor. This
causes arcing between the ball races and
the bearing casing. This phenomenon can
be prevented by using an in-line sine wave
filter on the electrical supply or by installing
ceramic bearings.
Excessive vibration Pump and driving unit incorrectly Disconnect the coupling set and realign pump
aligned. and driving unit.
shaft.
Mounting bolts not tight. Tighten mounting bolts and fit lock nuts to
prevent them from loosening again.
Motor overheating Motor incorrectly sized for duty. Check design requirements and replace motor
if necessary.
Cooling air ducts/fan choked. Remove fan cowl and clean fan and ducting.
On standard protected machines, it may be
necessary to strip the motor and clean.
Amps drawn too high due to under- Check and rectify incoming supply.
voltage in supply.
116
Pumps
Motor fan shear pin has failed allowing Open motor fan cover and replace shear pin.
slippage. Check fan bush for damage and replace if
necessary.
Ammeter fluctuating Incoming electrical supply inconsistent. Contact supply authority to rectify supply.
during pump
operation Loose connection in system. Check all connections in control panel,
starters, terminal boxes.
Stator windings insulation breaking down. Remove cable from motor terminal box and
test windings and cable separately. Replace
cable or have motor windings rectified by
rewinding, re-insulation.
On slipring motor brushes not contacting
P UMPS
sliprings correctly. Expose sliprings and check and rectify
brushes, brush holders, pressure springs.
Ammeter faulty.
Check and replace if necessary.
Motor will not start Supply voltage not reaching motor. Investigate and rectify.
Connections in system faulty or cable Tighten and clean all connections and check
broken. cable for continuity.
Motor incorrectly sized for application. Try starting motor uncoupled. Check sizing
of motor to requirements of pump. If
necessary change to motor more suited to
requirements, i.e. high starting torque. etc.
Brushes not contacting slip rings correctly. Expose sliprings and check and rectify
brushes, brush holders and pressure springs.
117
Chapter 9
Motor starts but will Overload incorrectly adjusted, or Check and reset to required value.
not take load incorrect size of overload.
Excessive hum Pump and driving unit out of alignment. Replace bearings, check if rotor did not
Uneven air gap. Check with feeler rubbed against stator.
gauge.
Winding fault, could be short circuit. Inspect and test windings by an electrical
re-winder.
118
Pumps
Important points
• Pumps should be provided with flow meters in such a way that NPSH requirements are
on their delivery sides, and pressure gauges met.
on both sides to allow their pump curves to
• Backup pumps should be provided and
be measured.
regularly operated.
• Pump efficiency is very important for opera-
• The potential for water hammer should be
tions costs, and thus pumps should be se-
investigated and appropriate steps taken to
lected based on the best possible efficiency,
limit its impact if required.
and operated at their best operating points.
• Pumps should be operated to minimize
• It is very expensive to fix NPSH problems
operational costs by staggering pump starts
after a pump installation, and thus it is
and pumping during low electricity demand
important that pump stations are designed
periods.
Additional Reading
The Operation and Maintenance Project of the Northern Cape, a partnership between several
national and international bodies, produced the Water Supply Services O&M Handbook, a compre-
hensive and practical set of documents that can be of great use to municipalities in South Africa and
P UMPS
other countries. It consists of a number of booklets, but the following booklet applies specifically to
pumps:
vi. O&M of pumps, drives and pump stations
This document may be obtained from Mr Kobus Streuders, Department of Water Affairs (Northern
Cape), Private Bag X6101, Kimberley, 8300, Ph. 053 830 8800, Email streudersk@dwa.gov.za.
119
120
WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
10
121
Chapter 10
When water flows through the pipes from are at a minimum. The typical variation of
the reservoirs to the consumers and leaks, demand and pressure in a system is shown
friction energy losses occur, which result in Figure 29.
in a reduction of pressure at any point
in the system. The higher the demand When the pressures in the system become
in the system is, the greater the pressure too low, the system is not able to supply the
losses will be. required flow rate and the system experi-
ences a loss of hydraulic integrity. Design
From this explanation it should be clear guidelines specify the minimum system
that the system pressure would be at a pressure, which is typically 24 mt.
maximum when consumer demand is at
a minimum (typically between 3:00 and 10.2.3 Hydraulic network models
4:00 in the morning). Conversely, when
the demand in the system is at a maximum It is very difficult to calculate the hydrau-
(typically between 6:00 and 7:00 in the lics (flows and pressures in the system) due
W ATER D ISTRIBUTION S YSTEMS
morning), energy losses are at their high- to the size and complexity of the network
est and thus the pressures in the system layout, different operational conditions that
may occur (for instance pumps
switching on and off, and res-
ervoir or control valves open-
Demand
122
Water Distribution Systems
calibrated against measured flows and pres- In South Africa, like many other countries,
sures in the system. legislation requires municipalities to meter
all consumers and monitor water losses in
10.2.4 Flow measurement accordance with national standards. Water
meters are used to sell water to consumers,
Water meters are essential in the manage- and thus have to comply with strict accu-
ment of water distribution systems, as they racy requirements.
record the quantities of water that enters
the system, how it is transported to differ- 10.2.5 Pressure measurement
ent parts of the network and how much
is delivered to consumers. There are four Pressure can be measured using a mechani-
fundamental drivers for water metering in cal pressure gauge or an electronic pressure
distribution systems: transducer, which converts the pressure
reading to an electronic signal that can be
• Equity. Consumer water meters form logged or transmitted to a control room.
• Economic benefits. Water meters form Most important is that pressure gauges and
the basis of most municipal water transducers should be calibrated or veri-
bills, and thus have a direct impact on fied before being put in use, and at regular
municipal revenues. Consumer water intervals while in use. Errors in the pressure
meters are sometimes called the cash readings may cause difficulties when inter-
registers of a municipality. preting and using the data.
• System management. Water meters Pressures in a water distribution system are
in the distribution system are essen- measured to monitor the level of service,
tial to know how much water enters but also to assist with leak detection and
the system, where it is distributed too network model calibration. Pressure read-
and what the losses in certain areas ings are invaluable when investigating the
are. Water meters also play an essen- cause of network problems, especially if the
tial role in calibrating hydraulic net- readings are available in real time. Pressure
work models. readings are normally taken at pumps,
123
Chapter 10
critical points in the network (i.e. lowest served from more than one source is
pressure points) and at points representing inherently more reliable since the net-
the average zonal pressure. work will get water even if one of the
sources fails.
If pressure readings need to be taken for a
short period of time only, a pressure gauge • Water demand patterns and growth.
can be connected to a fire hydrant or tap. Water demand tends to grow with
However, it is important to note that flow time due to economic growth and
in the pipe between the pressure gauge densification, and thus the system
and the intended measuring point on the should be designed for the demand
distribution system will affect the pressure at the design horizon, typically ten or
readings and should be avoided if possible. twenty years into the future. In addi-
Unless they are close together, it is impor- tion, water demand within any year is
tant to record the elevation of both the pipe highly variable, especially in seasonal
and the pressure gauge, and to adjust the and diurnal patterns – consumers use
pressure reading to represent the system more water in summer than in winter,
W ATER D ISTRIBUTION S YSTEMS
pressure. If the pressure gauge is higher and peak consumption typically occurs
than the pipe, the elevation difference early in the morning when people get
between the gauge and pipe is added to the ready for the day. The pipe network
measured pressure head to get the correct should be designed to handle the diur-
pressure in the pipe. nal peak demand during the seasonal
peak demand period at the end of the
design horizon.
10.3 Operation and
• A looped pipe layout is better than a
maintenance of water
tree layout as this provides robustness
distribution systems in the system and reduces the risk of
water stagnating. A network allows
10.3.1 Design requirements water to reach consumers via more
than one route and thus is better able
Each component in a pipe network has to to maintain supply even when sections
be designed or selected to function cor- of the network are isolated for mainte-
rectly under local conditions. However, nance purposes.
these components function together as a
• The maximum allowable pressure in
unit in the network, and thus a failure of
the system should not be exceeded, par-
one component can affect other aspects of
ticularly at night when there demand
the system.
is at a minimum. The South African
A network should be designed and con- guideline for maximum pressure is 90
structed with operation and maintenance m, but it is highly recommended that
in mind. The following aspects should be the maximum pressure is kept as low
considered: as possible. Higher pressures cause pipe
leaks to occur more frequently, pipe
• Multiple sources. A distribution service lives to be reduced and the flow
124
Water Distribution Systems
125
Chapter 10
with minimum impact on the rest of ensure that the construction was done
the network. Isolation valves should correctly and is leak free.
be installed so that not more than four
valves need to be closed to isolate a 10.3.2 Operation
pipe section of no longer than 600 m.
However, the ideal is to have isola- Key system parameters should be contin-
tion valves at every branch at network uously monitored to ensure that problems
nodes, so that only two valves are in the system are identified as quickly as
needed to isolate a pipe section. Bulk possible. The following parameters should
pipelines should have isolation valves be monitored:
every one to two kilometres.
• System input flow rates from water
• Use different pipe materials or treatment plants, bulk water suppli-
colours when dual water distributions ers and other municipalities, as well as
with both drinking and non-potable water supplied to other municipalities.
water are installed. These flow rates are the largest in the
W ATER D ISTRIBUTION S YSTEMS
126
Water Distribution Systems
monthly basis. Metered consumption to ensure that repairs are done cor-
should be analysed to identify patterns rectly and safely, and cross-connec-
that may indicate defective meters, tions on parallel systems do not occur.
meter bypassing and on-site leakage. For instance, valves should be opened
• System flow rates are important for or closed slowly to ensure that water
monitoring the movement of water hammer pressures are not generated.
in the distribution system and main- Pipe repairs provide an ideal opportu-
taining adequate reservoir water levels nity to gather data on the state of the
while ensuring that pumps are operated network and thus repair teams should
in the most efficient cost periods. be trained to complete reports on the
state of the system as part of their
• Water quality should be monitored maintenance tasks.
and corrective action taken immedi-
ately if problems are found. • Sudden changes in velocity should
be avoided to prevent accumulated
• Information should be gathered from sediments from being suspended in
127
Chapter 10
128
Water Distribution Systems
129
Chapter 10
130
Water Distribution Systems
when they reach certain critical levels. • Develop a system to ensure that
constraints on reservoir water levels
For a single pumping line, the optimal and system pressures are adhered to.
pump schedule is reasonably simple to find
by considering different scenarios. However, • Estimate water demand patterns for
systems with multiple pumps and/or res- the period analysed.
ervoirs quickly become very complex to • Run the optimisation routine.
analyse, and optimisation algorithms or
specialist software become necessary. • Check that the results are reasonable.
• Discuss the results with the system
The general used to find the optimal pump
operators.
scheduling are as follows:
The last point is particularly important
• Build a calibrated extended-period since operators often prefer to minimise the
network model that includes pump risk of reservoirs running dry by keeping
efficiency curves. them as full as possible, and they may resist
131
Chapter 10
distribution system.
• Maintain all pumping stations, water
• Determine what is needed to achieve towers, reservoirs and chambers.
the intended level of service.
• Exercise and inspect the distribution
• Develop a plan to upgrade inadequate system valves and hydrants.
components.
• Flush water mains.
• Maintain an adequate disinfection
• Use a maintenance management
residual in all parts of the system.
system and GIS.
• Maintain positive water pressures
under foreseeable operating conditions. • Maintain a spare parts inventory.
• Monitor the quality of the water. This • Prepare a contingency plan for emer-
includes water received from the treat- gencies.
ment plant, in the distribution system • Prepare a plan to ensure the financial
and at the point of use (i.e., at the tap). sustainability of the water system.
Additional Reading
Infraguide (2005) Small System Operation and Maintenance Practices, Federation of Canadian
Municipalities and National Research Council, available from www.infraguide.ca.
Walski, T.M., Chase, D.V., Savic, D.A., Grayman, W., Beckwith, S., Koelle, E. (2003). Advanced Water
Distribution Modeling and Management, Haestad Press, Waterbury, CT, USA.
Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution, National Research Council. (2006). Drinking Water
Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
Malcolm Farley, lcolm Farl (2003) Losses in Water Distribution Networks: A Practitioner’s Guide to
Assessment, Monitoring and Control, IWA Publishing.
Hamilton, S. and Charalambous, B. (2013) Leak detection – technology and implementation, IWA
publishing, London.
132
REFERENCES
a. Ahao, J., & Rajani, B. (2002).
Construction and Rehabilitation
R
Distribution Systems: Assessing and
Reducing Risks. Washington, D.C.:
Costs for Buried Pipe with a Focus National Academies Press.
on Trenchless Technologies. Report
No IRC-RR-101. National Research g. DWA (2011), Water services infra-
Council Canada. structure asset management strategy
(WSIAM), Water services: policy and
b. Bannister, M. (2012) Asset man- strategy, Department of Water Affairs,
agement plan – ‘getting started’, Pretoria, South Africa.
Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria
h. FCMNRC. (2003). Deterioration and
c. Byrne, R., Pietersen, J., Kumar, K., et inspection of water distribution sys-
al (2010) Taking a national approach
tems - a best practice by the National
REFERENCES
to driving justified improvements in
Guide to Sustainable Municipal
sustainable infrastructure asset man-
Infrastructure. Retrieved 10 2012 from
agement (SIAM) – A discussion paper
designed to promote the adoption of www.infraguide.gc.ca
a national municipal SIAM program i. Hamilton, S. and Charalambous, B.
in South Africa, Institute of Municipal (2013) Leak detection – technology
Engineers of Southern Africa. and implementation, IWA publish-
d. Carlsson, B., Roux, J. (Editors) (2010) ing, London
Water supply services O&M hand-
j. Infraguide (2003) Potable water –
book, Department of Housing &
developing a water distribution system
Local Government, Northern Cape,
renewal plan, National guide to
and Department of Water Affairs &
Forestry: Northern Cape Region. sustainable municipal infrastructure,
NRC, Canada
e. Chang C.-C., Van Zyl, J.E. (2014)
“Optimal reliability-based design of k. Lambert A; Brown T G; Takizawa
bulk water supply systems”, Journal M; Weimer D (1999) A Review of
of Water Resources Planning and Performance Indicators for Real Losses
Management, 140 (1) 32 - 39 from Water Supply Systems. AQUA
f. Committee on Public Water Supply l. Male, J.W. and T.M. Walski, 1990.
Distribution, National Research Water Distribution Systems – A
Council. (2006). Drinking Water Trouble Shooting Manual.
133
References
o. SABS (2011) SANS 241: Drinking v. WHO (2008) Guidelines for drink-
water, South African Bureau of ing-water quality, World Health
Standards, Pretoria. Organisation, www.who.int/
water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/.
p. Van Zyl, J.E. (2011). Introduction to
Integrated Water Meter Management, w. Selvakumar, A., Clarck, R.M.,
ISBN 978-1-4312-0117-4, Report Sivaganesan, M. (2002) Costs for water
TT 490/11, Water Research supply distribution system rehabil-
Commission, Pretoria itation, Journal of Water Resources
Planning and Management, 128 (4).
q. Van Zyl, J.E., Legat, Y., Piller, O.,
REFERENCES
r. Lambert, A., Hirner, W. (2000) “Losses y. McKenzie, R.S., Wegelin, W., (2009),
from water supply systems: Standard Implementation of Pressure man-
terminology and recommended perfor- agement in Municipal Water Supply
mance measures”, International Water Systems, Available from http://www.
Association. Available from http:// miya-water.com/user_files/Data_
www.iwahq.org/contentsuite/upload/ and_Research/miyas_experts_arti-
iwa/all/Documents/Utilities/blue_ cles/3_DMAs_Pressure_manage-
pages_water_losses_2000.pdf. ment/03_Implementation%20of%20
pressure%20management%20in%20
s. Van Zyl, J.E., Piller, O., Legat, Y. municipal%20water%20supply%20
(2008). “Sizing municipal storage tanks systems.pdf
based on reliability criteria”, Journal
of Water Resources Planning and z. Infraguide (2005) Small System
Management, 134 (6) 548-555. Operation and Maintenance Practices,
Federation of Canadian Municipalities
t. Walski, T.M., Chase, D.V., Savic, D.A., and National Research Council, availa-
Grayman, W., Beckwith, S., Koelle, E. ble from www.infraguide.ca.
134
A
APPENDIX
ORGANISATIONS
Municipal Benchmarking Initiative
Website: www.munibench.co.za
ORGANISATIONS
Website: www.watersupport.co.za
Phone 082 819 6862
135
B
APPENDIX
FORMS
BULK CONSUMER WATER METER FIELD INVESTIGATION
Street Number
Council Reading (m3 only)
Time (with Reading)
Misalignned Numbers Y N
Inspection By
Legible Y/N Y N
Inspection By (Assist)
Working Y/N Y N
Ref Number
Noisy Y/N Y N
GPS ID
Erratic Y/N Y N
GPS East Co-ord
Loggable Y/N Y N
Photo Number Strainer/s Y/N Y N
Type of Business Longitude Orientation H I
Fire Supply Metered Y N Lateral Orientation H I
Vacant Stand Y N Sub-Meter Y/N Y N
136
Forms
FORMS
5.2 Surfaces:- Tarmac Concrete Ground water table Other ........................
5.3 In situ ground:- Sand Sand Clay Soil/Stones Boilders
5.4 Backfill in trench:- Sand Clay Soil/stones Roots
6. Details of failure
6.1 Cause:- Crack Corrosion Joint Clamp Ferrule
6.2 If crack:- Circular Longitudinal Top Side Bottom
6.3 Was failure due to subsdance? Yes No Was failure due to roots?
6.4 If damage by other party, (a) State name, (b) Foreman’s name and contact details and (c) how damage occurred:-
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
7. Times: Reported to plumber ............................ On site ............................. Job complete ..........................
137
Appendix B
ANNUALLY
MONTHLY
ITEM
WEEKLY
MAINTENANCE ACTION
OTHER
DAILY
NO
1 Pipelines
138
Forms
ANNUALLY
MONTHLY
ITEM
WEEKLY
MAINTENANCE ACTION
OTHER
DAILY
NO
5 Valves
5.1 Open and close isolating valves √
5.2 Check functionality of scour valves √
5.3 Check functionality of air valves √
5.4 Check functionality of pressure reducing valve √
5.5 Service pressure management valves (pressure controllers) every two years √
5.6 Maintain valve equipment/accessories √
5.7 Replacement of valves √
5.8 Clean valve chambers. Check the cover lock √
6 Fire Hydrants
6.1 Check for leakages √
6.2 Check and if required refurbish beacon/marker √
6.3 Check functionality of hydrants √ √
6.4 Test flow rate of hydrants √
6.5 Maintain hydrant equipment/accessories √
FORMS
6.6 Replacement of fire hydrants √
7 Record Keeping and reporting √ √ √ √
139
Appendix B
RESERVOIR CHECKLIST
Every three
Grease movable parts on valves
months
140
Forms
FORMS
141
Appendix B
Checked Remarks
1. Submersible Pumps Yes No
1.1 Check for blockages and ttems snagged on
impellor and remove
1.2 Start the pump and check full load current Full load current: Amps:
1.3 Check pressure gauge readings Delivery pressure: kPa:
1.4 Lift pump and cfheck operation of quick coupling
(If fitted)
1.5 Remove pump and clean off deposits with high
pressure water jet (6 monthly}
2. Centrifugal Pumps
142
Forms
FORMS
2.1 0 Check the condition of the coupling, and coupling guard
2.11 Check operation of the non-return valve
2.12 Check operation of the motor cooling fan
2.13 Grease oil pump bearings
3. Electrical Switchgear
3.1 Check operation of starters, contactors
3.2 Check operation of over/under voltage protection mechanism
3.3 Check operation of overload mechanism and circuit breakers
3.4 Start the pump and check operation of ammeters and voltmeters
3.5 Check proper operation of all panel lamps
3.6 Check operation of overhead lighting
3.7 Check operation of sump level control system
3.8 Check operation of telemetry system (it fitted)
3.9 Check condition of electrical motor bearings
3.10 Wash down all switchgear enclosures with a wet cloth
3.11 Blow out all dust and insects from inside of panel with blower
3.12 Remove and dean all contactors using a suitable solvent
3.13 Tighten all cable glands
3.14 Check that all cables in racks and conduits are secure
3.15 Check all terminals for integrity and corrosion
3.16 Check ultrasoniclevel sensor settings and clean sensor face
3.17 Check and tighten all electric motor terminals
3.18 Grease all motor bearings
3.19 Check all earthing systems and lightning arrestors for correct operation
143
Appendix B
144
Introduction to Introduction to
Operation and Maintenance Operation and Maintenance
Professor JE (Kobus) van Zyl holds Bachelor and Master’s degrees in Civil
Engineering, and a Diploma in Scientific Computing from the University of
Johannesburg, and obtained a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering at the University
of Exeter in 2001. He was Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering
Science and held the Rand Water Chair in Water Utilisation at the University
of Johannesburg before joining UCT in 2009. He is currently the Assistant
Dean for Academic Development in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Environment.
Prof van Zyl has twice been awarded the Best Paper prize in the Journal of the
South African Society for Civil Engineering. He is an Associate Editor of the
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, and a member of the
Editorial Board of the Urban Water Journal.
Prof van Zyl’s research focuses on water distribution systems, and his current
interests include hydraulic modelling, impact of pressure on leakage, reliability of
bulk supply systems and water demand management.
JE Van Zyl
JE van Zyl
TT 600/14 TT 600/14