5 Energy PDF

Fluid Mechanics for Construction Chapter 5 – Energy Equation
5 ENERGY EQUATION OF FLUID MOTION

5.1 Introduction
In order to develop the equations that describe a flow, it is assumed that

fluids are subject to certain fundamental laws of physics. The pertinent
laws are:
1. Conservation of mass;
2. Conservation of energy;
3. Conservation of momentum.
These principles were initially developed for the case of a solid body and
the application of these laws to a solid body is relatively straightforward
since the body will be of measurable size and mass. However, it is not for
a flowing fluid. Therefore, the equations should be modified before it can
be applied in a flowing fluid.
5.2 Continuity Equation
The principle of conservation of mass can be applied to a flowing fluid.

Considering any fixed region in the flow constituting a control volume,
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid Increase of mass of

entering per = leaving per + fluid in the control
unit time unit time volume per unit time
mass of fluid mass of fluid

entering Control Volume leaving
For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant
and the relation reduces to
Mass of fluid entering = Mass of fluid leaving

per unit time per unit time
P.5-1
Apply this principle to steady flow in a streamtube as shown below,
2
1 Area = dA 2
Velocity = V 2
Area = dA 1 Pressure = p 2
Velocity =V 1
Pressure = p 1
If there is no flow being evacuated from the stream tube except at the
outlet section 2, then
Q = V1A1 = V2A2
 Q = V1A1 = V2A2
where V1, V2 are the mean velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
The continuity equation for liquids many be generally expressed in the

form
Q = V1A1 = V2A2
where V and A are velocity of flow and the cross-sectional area normal to
the flow respectively at any section of the liquid stream.
The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation

between the flows into and out of a junction. For steady condition,
Total inflow to junction = total outflow from junction
P.5-2
A2
V2
Q2
A1
V1
Q1
A3
V3
Q3
1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
For an incompressible flow, 1 = 2 = 3, then
Q1 = Q 2 + Q3
or A1 V 1 = A2 V2 + A3 V3
In general, if we consider flow towards the junction as positive and flow

away for the junction as negative, then for steady flow at any junction the
algebraic sum of all the mass flows must be zero:
 Q =0
In differential form, the Continuity Equation becomes
   
 ( v x )  ( v y )  ( v z )  0
t x y z
For incompressible flow, i.e. density of the fluid is constant, then
v x v y v z
   0 or   V  0
x y z
P.5-3
Worked example:
1. Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in

series with a pipe BC of diameter d2 = 75 mm in which the mean
velocity V2 = 2 m/s. At C the pipe forks and one branch CD is of
diameter d3 such that the mean velocity V3 is 1.5 m/s. The other
branch CE is of diameter d4 = 30 mm and conditions are such that the
discharges Q2 from BC divides so that Q4 = ½ Q3. Calculate the
values of Q1, V1, Q2, Q3, d3, Q4 and V4.
V3= 1.5 m/s

D
A B C
Q 3=2Q 4
d 1=50 mm d 2=75 mm
V2 =2 m/s E
d4 =30 mm
Answer
Since pipes AB and BC are in series and water is incompressible, the

volume flow rate will be the same in each pipe, Q1 = Q2. But
 2
Q 2 = A2 * V2 = d 2 * V2
4
Q1 = Q2
= (/4)*(0.075)2*2
= 8.836*10-3 m3/s
Q1
V1 = Q1/A1 =
( / 4) * d1
2
8.836 *10 3
=
( / 4) * 0.052
= 4.5 m/s
Considering pipes BC, CD and DE, the discharge from BC must be equal
to the sum of the discharges through CE and CE. Therefore
Q2 = Q3 + Q4
P.5-4
And since
Q4 = ½ Q3
 Q2 = 1.5 Q3
Hence Q3 = Q2 / 1.5
= 8.836*10-3/1.5
= 5.891*10-3 m3/s
& Q4 = ½ Q3
= 2.945*10-3 m3/s
 2
Also, since Q3 = d 3 * V3
4
4Q3
Hence d3 =
V3
4 * 5.891*103
=
 *1.5
= 0.071 m
Q4
V4 =
( / 4) * d 4
2
2.945 *10 3
=
( / 4) * 0.032
= 4.17 m/s
P.5-5
5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation
Figure below shows a small streamtube element of cylindrical section with

uniform cross-sectional area. The fluid accelerates in the direction of the
flow. Taking this to be a control volume at an instant in the time,
ds
p'
(p+dp).A
z p.A mg

p'
Forces acting on the element in the s direction include:
(i) Pressure forces expressed as:

upstream end p.A
p
downstream end -(p + s)A
s
(pressure may vary with respect to space, s and time, t, therefore the
partial derivative is used).
(ii) Gravity force W.sin where W = .s.A
z z
(iii) sin = , then as s approaches zero, then sin =
s s
By applying Newton’s second law in the s direction, the following

equation is reached.
Fs = M*as
where M = mass of the cylindrical element = .s.A

as = acceleration in the s direction
P.5-6
Therefore, we arrive at the following equation by substituting the above

expression into the above equation.
pA  ( p  p ) A  W sin   sA * as

z
pA  sA  sA * as
s
Divide the whole equation by s.A, and taking the limit as s0, then

 ( p + z) =  .as - Euler’s equation
s
By rewriting the acceleration term in a general form as follows:
DV
as =
Dt
V V ds
= +
t s dt
V
For steady flow, =0
t
V
Then as = V
s
By substituting the above expression into Euler’s equation we obtain the

following
 V
 ( p  z ) = V
s S
Assuming the density of the fluid remains unchanged,
p z  
+ + (V 2 ) = 0
s s 2 s
By integrating the above equation with respect to s we have,

p + z + V2 = constant
2
P.5-7
p V2
or +z+ = constant
 2g
The subscript s is usually omitted and V is used to represent the velocity in

the direction of fluid flow.
The term p/ - pressure head

z - potential head (elevation head)
V2/2g - velocity head
The constant at the right hand side of the equation is the total head (total
energy per unit weight) of the flow field. The equation is applicable when
the flow is steady, non-viscous, and incompressible with the constant
density. Under these conditions the total head at any point along a
streamline of the flow field is the same.
Bernoulli’s equation is an expression of the principle of conservation of

energy.
In most applications, Bernoulli’s equation is applied at two points in the

flow field with z1 and z2 are referred to the same datum.
2 2
p1 V p V
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
P.5-8
Worked examples:
2. Determine the velocity of the water flowing at point 1 and 2 of the

pipe shown below, with the following data. Neglect all losses in
heads.
p1 = 120 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa, d1 = 0.4 m and d2 = 0.6 m
1 2
Answer
Apply Continuity equation to point 1 and 2
V1A1 = V2A2
(0.4) 2 2 (0.6) 2 2
Since A1 = m, A2 = m
4 4
(0.6) 2
 V1 = V2 *
(0.4) 2
= 2.25 V2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation along the central streamline to points 1

and 2
2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 = 120 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa

V1 = 2.25 V2
& z1 = z2 (same level)
2
120 ( 2.25V2 ) 2 200 V2
Hence   
9.81 2 * 9.81 9.81 2 * 9.81
 V2 = 6.3 m/s
and V1 = 2.25 v2
= 14.2 m/s
P.5-9
3. For a 50 mm diameter siphon drawing oil (S.G. = 0.82) from the oil
reservoir as shown below, the head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 1.5
m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m. Find the discharge of oil
from the siphon and the oil pressure at point 2.
2m dia = 50 mm
1
oil
5m
3
Answer
Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 3.

2 2
p1V p V
+ 1 + z1 = 3 + 3 + z 3  loss1-3
 2g  2g
p1 = p3 = 0 (patm = 0)
V1 = 0
(Assume the oil vessel is very large, the rate of the oil level drop is
negligible)
z3 = 0, z1 = 5 m
loss1-3 = loss1-2 + loss2-3
= 1.5 + 2.4 m
= 3.9 m
 0 + 0 + 5 = 0 + V32/(2*9.81) + 0 + 3.9
V3 = 4.646 m/s
Q = A3 * V3
= [(0.05)2/4]*4.646
= 0.00912 m3/s
P.5-10
Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + loss1-2
 2g  2g
z2 = 7 m
V2 = V3 (same pipe diameter)
= 4.646 m
loss1-2 = 1.5 m
 0 + 0 + 5 = p2/ + (4.646)2/(2*9.81) + 7 + 1.5

p2/ = - 4.6 m
p2 = - 4.6 * 9.81 * 0.82 kPa
= - 36.9 kPa
P.5-11
5.4 Flow Measurement
The three parameters most often involved in flow measurement are

pressure, velocity and discharge of flow. The relationships between these
parameters have already been defined through the Continuity and
Bernoulli’s equation. In this section, the principles and applications of
common flow measurement devices are discussed.
5. 4. 1 Stagnation Tube and Pitot Tube
When an L shaped tube is placed in a flow field, it can be used to measure

the velocity of flow.
z flow
vA,pA vB,pB
A B
(a) (b)
Since the flow is brought to a standstill at the front end of the tube, this
simple device is called a stagnation tube (fig. a). The velocity of flow
measured by the stagnation tube is expressed as
V = 2 gh - Torricelli’s formula
where V = velocity of flow

h = the level of fluid in the tube above the free surface.
This expression can be derived by applying Bernoulli’s equation to the

stagnation point and any other point upstream of it. For simplicity, choose
a point (point A) at the same level as the stagnation point (point B, i.e. the
velocity of fluid flow at this point is zero).
P.5-12
From Bernoulli’s equation,

2 2
pA V p V
+ A + zA = B + B + zB
 2g  2g
Since zA = zB, and VB = 0 (stagnation point), therefore

2
VA p p
= B- A
2g  
which can be applied to flow in closed or open conduits.
Since also pA = z and pB = (z + h), then
VA = 2 gh ,
where VA = the velocity of flow which is measured by the stagnation

tube
Since the application of the stagnation tube is limited by the pressure of the
flow, pitot tubes are often used in pressure pipes.
P.5-13
Worked examples:
4. Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in figure below. For
the given 0.2 m difference in manometer level, determine the flow rate
when the diameter of the small pipe, D is 0.05m.
0.2 m
h1
h2
water
0.1 m D
(1) Q (2)
Answer
Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
+ + z1= + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
V1 = 0 (stagnation point)
z1 = z2 = 0 (same level)
2
p1 p2 V2
 +0+0= + 0
  2g
( p  p2 )
V2 = 2 g 1

but p1 = h1 and p2 = h2

 p1 – p2 = (h1 – h2)
= 0.2 
0.2
Thus V2 = 2g * = 2g * 0.2 m/s

= 1.98 m/s
Q = A2 * V2
= [(0.05)2/4]*1.98
= 3.888*10-3 m3/s
= 3.888 L/s
P.5-14
5. Water is siphoned from a tank as shown below. Determine the flow

rate and the pressure at point A, a stagnation point.
0.04 m diameter
1
3m
2
A
water
Answer
Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 = p2 = 0 (patm)
V1 = 0
z1 = 3m, z2 = 0
 0 + 0 + 3 = 0 + V22/(2*9.81) + 0
V2 = 2 * 9.81 * 3 m/s
= 7.67 m/s
Hence Q = A 2 * V2
= [(0.04)2/4]*7.67 m3/s
= 9.64 * 10-3 m3/s
Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & A

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= A + A + z A
γ 2g γ 2g
VA = 0 & zA = 0
0 + 0 + 3 = pA/ + 0 + 0
or pA = * 3
= 9.81 * 3 kPa
= 29.43 kPa
P.5-15
5.4.2 Small Orifice
An orifice is a geometric opening in the side of a wall and tank, through

which fluid can flow. A circular sharp edged orifice at the side of a water
tank is shown. It is assumed that the size of orifice area, A is small
compared with the depth of water, H.
vA H
B
vB
Orifice area, A
The volume rate of flow discharged through an orifice will depend upon
the head of the fluid above the level of the orifice and it can therefore be
used as a means of flow measurement.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and B, assuming that there is no loss of

energy,
2 2
pA V p V
+ A + z A = B + B + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
Putting zA - zB = H, VA = 0, VB = V and pA = pB,
velocity of jet, V = 2 gH
Theoretically, if A is the cross-sectional area of the orifice,
Discharge, Q = Area * Velocity

= A 2 gH
In practice, the actual discharge is considerably less than the theoretical

discharge and is modified by introducing a coefficient of discharge, Cd, so
that
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd * Qtheoretical

= CdA 2 gH
P.5-16
There are two reasons for this phenomenon. First, the velocity of the jet is
less than that the theoretical velocity because there is a loss of energy
between A and B:
Actual velocity at B = Cv * V
= Cv 2 gH
where Cv = coefficient of velocity

 0.97
Second, the paths of the particles of the fluid converge on the orifice and
the area of the issuing jet at B is less than the area of the orifice A at C. In
the plane of the orifice, the particles have a component of velocity towards
the centre and the pressure at C is greater than atmospheric pressure. The
streamlines will converge at a short distance downstream of the orifice and
the minimum flow area is called the vena contracta. This is smaller than
the cross-sectional area of the orifice.
vena contracta
C v B vB
Contraction of issuing jet
The ratio of the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta to that of the
orifice is called the coefficient of contraction, Cc.
Actual area of the jet at B = CcA
 Actual Discharge = Actual area at B * Actual velocity at B

= CcA * Cv 2 gH
= Cc * Cv A 2 gH
Hence C d = Cc * Cv
P.5-17
Evaluation of the actual velocity from the displacement of the jet
vena
contracta
centre line
of jet
For horizontal motion,
S = x, u = V, and a=0
Hence x =V*t
where V = actual velocity at vena contracta
For vertical motion,
u = 0, a=g
1
y = g * t2
2
By eliminating t,
V = gx 2
2y
P.5-18
Worked examples:
6. Oil of specific gravity 0.82 discharges from an open tank through an

orifice of diameter 14 mm. The coefficient of velocity is 0.88 and the
coefficient of contraction is 0.62. The centre of the orifice is at a depth
of 0.9m from the surface of the oil. Determine the diameter of the vena
contracta and the discharge of oil through the orifice.
Answer
0.9m orifice hole

dia = 14mm
A =  * (14/1000)2/4 = 1.54 * 10-4 m2

Since Cc = Ac/A
0.62 = Ac / 1.54 * 10-4
hence Ac = 0.955 * 10-4 m2
or dc = 0.01102 m = 11.02 mm
Theoretical velocity, V = 2 gh
= 2 * 9.81 * 0.9 = 4.0202 m/s
Theoretical discharge, Q = V*A

= 4.02 * 1.54 * 10-4 = 6.47 * 10-4 m3/s
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Cv * Cc
= 0.88 * 0.62 = 0.546
Actual discharge = Cd * Theoretical discharge

= 0.546 * 6.47 * 10-4
= 3.53 * 10-4 m3/s
= 0.353 L/s
P.5-19
7. If viscous effects are neglected and the tank is large, determine the flow
rate from the tank as shown below. (Neglect all losses)
1
orifice dia oil
2m
= 50 mm 2 S.G.=0.81
0.7m
water
3
Answer
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between to 2 & 3

2 2
p2 V p V
+ 2 + z 2  3 + 3 + z3
γ 2g γ 2g
p2 = p1 + oilh = 2oil (p1 = patm = 0)

p3 = 0 (patm)
V2 =0
z2 = 0.7 m & z3 =0
 oil h
2
V
Thus + 0 + 0.7 = 0 + 3 + 0
w 2g
2 oil
V3 = 2 g * (  0.7) m/s
w
 oil
Since S.G.oil = = 0.81
w
 V3 = 2 g * ( 2 * 0.81  0.7) m/s
= 6.747 m/s
Q = A3 * V3
= [(0.05)2/4]*6.747 m3/s
= 0.0132 m3/s
P.5-20
5.4.3 Venturi Meter
The venturi meter is the most commonly used device for flow
measurement and is designed with a streamlined throat which can,
1. reduce the overall head loss, and

2. reduce the normal mechanical wear of the device. The discharge
equation for a venturi meter is the same as for an orifice meter, except
that the flow coefficient value of a venturi meter is generally higher
than that of an orifice meter and a flow nozzle. This follows since the
coefficient of contraction of a venturi meter is unity.
converging throat
cone
entry diverging section
1 2
Consider the pressure difference between point 1 & 2 as measured by the

U-tube manometer.
P1  P2  ( m   )h
By continuity equation, V1A1 = V2A2

A1
or V2  V1
A2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 & 2,

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g
z1 = z2
(γ m  γ)h
2 2
V A V
hence + 1 = ( 1 )2 1
γ 2g A2 2g
P.5-21
m
2 gh(  1)

V1 =
A1 2
( ) 1
A2
Hence discharge Q = A1V1

A1 
= 2 gh( m  1)
A 
( 1 )2  1
A2
Actual discharge = CdQ

Cd A1 
= 2 gh( m  1)
A 
( 1 )2  1
A2
P.5-22
Worked examples:
8. The flow of kerosene is measure using a venturi meter. The diameter

of the pipe and the throat are 50 mm and 25 mm respectively. A
differential manometer shows a deflection, h’ of 55 mm of mercury.
The coefficient of discharge is 0.96. Determine the flow rate of
kerosene. Take the S.G. of kerosene as 0.82.
1 2
y
 h'
A B
m
Answer
Area of cross-section of the pipe, A1 =  * 0.052/4 = 0.00196 m2

Area of cross-section of the throat, A2 =  * 0.0252/4 = 0.00049 m2
A1 0.00196
By continuity equation, V2 = ( )*V1 =( )*V1 = 4 V1
A2 0.00049
By Bernoulli’s equation, z1 = z2
p1 = p2 + h’*(m - k)
S.G.m
(p1 - p2)/ k = h’*( - 1)
S.G.k
13.6
= 0.055*( -1) m = 0.857 m
0.82
2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g
2 2
V (4V1 )
0.857 + 1 =
2g 2g
V1 = 1.059 m/s
or V2 = 4*1.059 = 4.235 m/s
Qactual = 0.96 * 4.235 * 0.00049 = 0.00199 m3/s = 1.99 L/s
P.5-23
9. The water supply to a gas water heater contracts from 10 mm in

diameter at 1 to 7 mm in diameter at 2 (figure below). If the pipe is
horizontal, calculate the difference in pressure between 1 and 2 when
the velocity of the water at 1 is 4.5 m/s. The pressure difference
operates the gas control through connections which are taken to
horizontal cylinder in which a piston of 20 mm diameter moves.
Ignoring friction and the area of the piston connecting rod, what is the
force on the piston?
1 2
Answer
For Continuity of flow,
V1A1 = V2A2
π(0.01) 2 π(0.007) 2
Since A1 = m2, A2 = m2
4 4
V1 = 4.5 m/s
(0.01) 2
 V2 = 4.5 * m/s
(0.007) 2
= 9.18 m/s
Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1= 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g
z1 = z2 (same level)
V1 = 4.5 m/s
V2 = 9.18 m/s
p1 4.5 2 p2 9.18 2
hence + 0= + 0
 2 * 9.81  2 * 9.81
P.5-24
p1  p 2 9.182  4.52
=
 2 * 9.81
= 3.267 m of water
p1 – p2 = 3.267 * 9.81 kPa

= 32.045 kPa
(0.02) 2 2
Area of piston, Ap = m
4
= 0.000314 m2
Force on piston = (p1 – p2)*Ap

= 32.045 * 0.000314 kN
= 0.01 kN
P.5-25
10. Air flows through the device shown below. If the flow rate is large
enough, the pressure within the construction will be low enough to
draw the water up into the tube. Determine the flow rate, Q and the
pressure needed at section 1 to draw the water into section 2. Neglect
compressibility and viscous effects.
dia = 25 mm
1 air 3
2
dia = 50 mm 0.3m dia = 50 mm

free jet
water
Answer
For Continuity of flow,
V2A2 = V3A3
(d 3 ) 2
 V2 = V3 *
(d 2 ) 2
(50) 2
= V3 *
(25) 2
= 4V3
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between to 2 & 3

2 2
p2 V p V
+ 2 + z 2  3 + 3 + z3
γ 2g γ 2g
p3 =0
p2 = -wh
p2 
=- w h
 air  air
9.81 *1000
=- * 0.3 m
12
= - 245.25 m
P.5-26
Thus - 245.25 + (4V3)2/(2g) + 0 = 0 + V32/(2g) + 0

(42 – 1) V32 = 245.25 * 2 * 9.81
V3 = 17.91 m/s
Q = A3*V3
= (0.05)2/4*17.91 m3/s
= 0.0351 m3/s
Also apply Bernoulli’s equation between to 1 & 3

2 2
p1 V1 p 3 V3
+ + z1  + + z3
 2g  2g
V1 = V3 (same diameter)
therefore p1 = p3
=0 (Patm)
P.5-27
Class Exercise 5.1:
Water flows down the ramp in the channel as shown below. The channel
width decreases from 4.5 m at section 1 to 2.5 m at section 2. For the
conditions shown, determine the flow rate.
1
Q 2
2m
0.5m 1m
width = 4.5 m
width = 2.5 m
(14.12 m3/s)
P.5-28
Class Exercise 5.2:
The water in a tank is 1.8 m deep and over the surface is air at pressure 70
kPa (gauge). Find the flow rate from an orifice of 50 mm in the bottom of
the tank if the Cd = 0.6
pressure
70 kPa
1
water
1.8 m
orifice dia = 50 mm 2
(0.0156 m3/s)
P.5-29
Class Exercise 5.3:
A horizontal venturi tube, 280 mm diameter at the entrance and 140 mm

diameter at the throat, has a discharge coefficient of 0.97. A U-tube
manometer filled with mercury is connected between the entrance and the
throat to measure the water flow between them. Calculate the flowrate
when the difference in the mercury level is 50 mm.
(0.0542 m3/s)
P.5-30
Tutorial: Energy Equation
1. Water flows from the faucet on the first floor of the building shown below
with a maximum velocity of 6.5 m/s. For steady inviscid flow, determine the
maximum water velocity from the basement faucet and from the faucet on the
second floor. Assume only two taps will be opened at each time and each
floor is 4 m tall.
1.5m
2.5m
v=6.5m/s 1.5m
1.0m
inlet
4m 1.5m
2. For the water shooting out of the pipe and nozzle under the conditions shown
in figure below, find the height, h about the nozzle to which the water jet will
shoot. Assume negligible head loss.
h
nozzle
dia=0.1m
1.1m
A point A
dia=0.2m
PA=55kPa
water
3. Oil (S.G = 0.86) flows through the system as shown in figure below. A
manometer is used to measure the flowrate of the oil. By neglecting any
losses, determine the flowrate of the oil.
A=0.012m2
oil
1.5m
0.25m
A=0.030m2
Q
SG=2.5
P.5-31
4. An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing upwards through a vertical pipe line,
which tapers from 400 mm to 200 mm diameter. A mercury manometer is
connected to the pipe line to measure the flow as shown in the figure below.
The distance between the manometer is 1 m and the reading is 250 mm. By
neglecting the losses between the tappings, determine
(i) the pressure between the two taped points, and

(ii) the flow rate of the pipeline.
d=0.2m
1m
250mm
D=0 .4m
5. Water flows through a venturi meter which contracts from D = 300 mm to d

= 150 mm at the rate of 0.0037 m3/s and the differential gauge has a
deflection, h of 1 m, as shown in the figure below. Specific gravity of the
gauge liquid is 1.25. Determine the coefficient of discharge of the meter.
SG= 1.25
1 2
water
dia=d
dia=D
venturi meter
6. The actual velocity in the contracted section of a jet of liquid flowing from a
50 mm orifice is 8.5 m/s under a head of 4.5 m. Determine
(i) the coefficient of velocity; and

(ii) the coefficients of contraction and discharge if the actual discharge is
11 L/s.
P.5-32
7. Oil flows through a standard 25 mm diameter orifice under 5.5 m head at a

measured rate of 3 L/s. The jet strikes a wall 1.5 m away and 0.12 m
vertically below the centreline of the contracted section of the jet. Determine
all the coefficients of the orifice.
8. A pitot tube is used to measure the air flow rate of a pipe as shown in the
figure below. Determine the velocity and hence the flow rate of the oil in the
tube. The S.G. of the manometer liquid is 0.827 and density of air is 1.2
kg/m3.
END
P.5-33

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Fluid Mechanics for Construction Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

5 ENERGY EQUATION OF FLUID MOTION

In order to develop the equations that describe a flow, it is assumed that

5.2 Continuity Equation

The principle of conservation of mass can be applied to a flowing fluid.

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid Increase of mass of

mass of fluid mass of fluid

Mass of fluid entering = Mass of fluid leaving

Apply this principle to steady flow in a streamtube as shown below,

where V1, V2 are the mean velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively.

The continuity equation for liquids many be generally expressed in the

The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation

Total inflow to junction = total outflow from junction

1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3

For an incompressible flow, 1 = 2 = 3, then

In general, if we consider flow towards the junction as positive and flow

In differential form, the Continuity Equation becomes

For incompressible flow, i.e. density of the fluid is constant, then

1. Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in

V3= 1.5 m/s

Since pipes AB and BC are in series and water is incompressible, the

5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

Figure below shows a small streamtube element of cylindrical section with

Forces acting on the element in the s direction include:

(i) Pressure forces expressed as:

(ii) Gravity force W.sin where W = .s.A

By applying Newton’s second law in the s direction, the following

where M = mass of the cylindrical element = .s.A

Therefore, we arrive at the following equation by substituting the above

pA  ( p  p ) A  W sin   sA * as

By rewriting the acceleration term in a general form as follows:

By substituting the above expression into Euler’s equation we obtain the

Assuming the density of the fluid remains unchanged,

By integrating the above equation with respect to s we have,

The subscript s is usually omitted and V is used to represent the velocity in

The term p/ - pressure head

Bernoulli’s equation is an expression of the principle of conservation of

In most applications, Bernoulli’s equation is applied at two points in the

2. Determine the velocity of the water flowing at point 1 and 2 of the

Apply Continuity equation to point 1 and 2

Apply Bernoulli’s equation along the central streamline to points 1

p1 = 120 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa

Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 3.

Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

 0 + 0 + 5 = p2/ + (4.646)2/(2*9.81) + 7 + 1.5

5.4 Flow Measurement

The three parameters most often involved in flow measurement are

5. 4. 1 Stagnation Tube and Pitot Tube

When an L shaped tube is placed in a flow field, it can be used to measure

where V = velocity of flow

This expression can be derived by applying Bernoulli’s equation to the

From Bernoulli’s equation,

Since zA = zB, and VB = 0 (stagnation point), therefore

which can be applied to flow in closed or open conduits.

Since also pA = z and pB = (z + h), then

where VA = the velocity of flow which is measured by the stagnation

Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

but p1 = h1 and p2 = h2

5. Water is siphoned from a tank as shown below. Determine the flow

Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & A

5.4.2 Small Orifice

An orifice is a geometric opening in the side of a wall and tank, through