Ma. Clarisse d.

Aquino, rmt
Neurulation in the early embryo
•Embryonic process by which cells of
the CNS and PNS are initially
produced.
•NEURAL PLATE - is a portion of the
dorsal ectoderm that is specified to
become the neural ectoderm; is the
first step of neurulation, which is
the generation of the neural tube.
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Nervous tissue consist of two cell types:
• Nerve cells or Neurons – long processes
• Glia / Glial / Nueroglial cells– short
processes;
 support and protect neurons.
participates in neural activity, neural
nutrition and defense process of
nervous system
 insulate the nerve cell bodies.
The nervous system enables the body to respond to continuous changes in its
external and internal environment. The nervous system provides rapid and
precise communication between different parts of the body via the action of
specialized nerve cells called neurons.

Functionally, the nervous system can be divided into the somatic nervous
system, which is involved in voluntary functions, and the autonomic nervous
system which exerts control over many involuntary functions. The autonomic
system can be further divided into sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric
division.

Afferent because they send information to the brain, while motor neurons
are efferent because they carry information from the brain to effector organs
like muscles or glands.

Effectors in ANS:
1. Smooth muscle – contraction of the muscle’
2. Cardiac conducting cells/ purkinje fibers = located within the conductive system of
the heart.
3. Glandular Epithelium – regulates the synthesis , composition and release of
secretions.
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Functions:
• Essential function is
communication
• Provides the structural and
chemical basis of conscious
experience
• Secretory capabilities with an
endocrine nature
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Functionally
• Somatic – involved in voluntary functions
(muscles, bones, skin)
• Autonomic – exerts control over many
involuntary functions (Smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, glands)
• Anatomically
• CNS – brain and the spinal cord
• PNS – all nervous tissue outside of the brain and
spinal cord
NEURONS
• Responsible for the
reception
transmission and
processing of stimuli
• Four parts:
• Dendrites – multiple shorter
processes specialized in
receiving stimuli from the
environment, sensory
epithelial cells or other
neurons
• Cell body (perikaryon) –
trophic center for the whole nerve
cell and also receptive to stimuli
More than 10 billion neurons
Nerve cells

Dendrites = transmit the impulses

from the periphery toward the cell
body.
Cell body = composed of nucleus and
other organelles
NEURONS
• Four parts:
• Axon – single long process specialized
in generating or conducting nerve
impulse to other cells
• The distal portion of the axon are
usually branched and constitutes
the terminal arborisation
• Each branch of this arborisation
terminated on the next cell in
dilatations called end bulbs
(boutons), which interact with
other neurons or non-nerve cells,
forming structures called synapses.
• Synapses transmit information
to the next cell in the circuit
•Synaptic junctions
Axon – transmits the impulses away from
the cell body to a specialized terminal
(synapse-makes a contact with another
neuron or an effector cell)
 Types of neuron:
•Based on the size and shape of their processes:
a.Multipolar Neuron
b.Bipolar Neuron
c.Unipolar Neuron
d.Anaxonic Neuron

Based on the size and shape of their processes, most

neurons can be placed in one of the following
categories:
 Types of neuron:
•Based on their functional roles
a.Sensory Neuron (afferent)
b.Motor Neuron (efferent)_
c. Interneurons

Afferent because they send information to the brain,

while motor neurons are efferent because they carry
information from the brain to effector organs like
muscles or glands.
NEURON: size and shape of their processes:
• (M. B. P. A)
• Multipolar neurons – more than two cell
processes
1.One axon + 2 or more dendrites ; direction of
the impulses: from dendrite to cell body to
axon or from cell body to axon.
Dendrites +cell body = are the receptor portions
of the cell
Plasma membrane = for impulse generation
Axon- conducting portion of the cell.
EX: motor neurons and interneurons

1. 1 axon + one dendrite (special senses: taste,

smell, hearing, sight )
NEURON: size and shape of their processes:
• (M. B. P. A)
• Bipolar neurons – one dendrite and one axon;
associated with special senses; found within the
retina of the eye and ganglia of vestibulocochlear
nerve.
1 axon + one dendrite (special
senses: taste, smell, hearing, sight
)
Associated
NEURON: size and shape of their processes:
• (M. B. P. A)
• Pseudounipolar neurons/ Unipolar – have a
single process that is close to the perikaryon and
divides into two branches.
One branch extends to the
periphery and other extends to the
CNS. Majority of this type are
sensory neurons located close to
the CNS.
NEURON: size and shape of their processes:
• (M. B. P. A)
• Anaxonic neurons – lack true axons and do not
produce action potentials, but regulate local
electrical changes.
NEURON: FUNCTIONAL ROLES
• (S =A; M=E)
• Sensory (afferent) neurons – convey impulses from
receptors to the CNS.
- Somatic Afferent Nerve Fibers
- Visceral Afferent Nerve Fibers
- Somatic Afferent Nerve Fibers =
convey the sensations of pain,
temp, touch, and pressure from
the body surface.
- Visceral Afferent Nerve Fibers =
transmit pain impulses and other
sensation from internal organs,
mucous membranes, glands and
blood vessels.
NEURON
Synaptic cell = a bulb at the end of the axon in which
neurotransmitter molecules are stored and from which they
are released.
• Motor (efferent) neurons – convey impulses from
the CNS or ganglia to effector cells.
- Somatic Efferent Neurons
- Autonomic Efferent Neurons
Presynaptic cell = the cell transmitting
signal
Postsynaptic cell= the cell receiving signal.
Processes of these neurons are include:
1.Somatic – send voluntary impulses to
skeletal muscles
2.Visceral – transmit involuntary impulses
to smooth muscle, cardiac conducting
cells (purkinje fibers) and glands.
 Functional Organization of the Nervous System

Nervous system

Sensory nervous system Motor nervous system

Contains receptors Transmits information from

CNS to the rest of the body
Transmits information from
Sends motor information
receptors to the CNS
to effectors
vosaAUNI
Somatic sensory Visceral sensory Somatic motor Autonomic motor

Receives sensory Receives sensory “Voluntary” “Involuntary”

information information nervous system: nervous system:
from skin, fascia, from viscera innervates innervates
joints, skeletal skeletal muscle cardiac muscle,
muscles, smooth muscle,
special senses glands
NEURON
• Neurons can be classified according to their functional roles:
• Interneurons / Intercalated Neurons –form a
communicating and integrating network between the
sensory and motor neurons.

Present only in the CNS

U saw ur crush-gigle or smile
Jowa ni crush- sad
CELL BODY
• Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and the
surrounding cytoplasm, exclusive of cell processes
• Vital for the survival of the entire cell
• Main role – serve as the nourishing center of the cell
• Contains a highly developed RER organized into aggregates
of parallel cisternae (Nissl Bodies)
• Golgi complex is located only in the cell body
• Neurofilaments are abundant in perikaryons and cell
processes
• Neurofibrils are neurofilaments impregnated with silver
• Axon hillock – area of the cell body that serves as a
landmark to distinguish between axons and dendrites.
 and is covered by a myelin sheath composed of other cells. Arrows show the direction of the nerve impulse. Th
terminal arborizations, each of which usually has a swollen end called bouton which forms a functional conn
can also branch closer to the cell bodies and form collateral branches that connect to other groups of cells. (b
DENDRITES
ll body with a long axon and several dendrites emerging from it. Evenly dispersed chromatophilic substance ca
nts can be detected in the processes. X100. H&E.
• Receptor processes that receive stimuli from other neurons or from the
s are extremely variable in size and shape. Cell bodies can be very large, measuring up to 150 m in diam
external environment.
or example, the cell bodies of granule cells of the cerebellum are only 4–5 m in diameter.

cording to •theSurface areprocesses

number of coveredextending
with numerous minute
from the cell thorny9–4):
body (Figure spines, or gemmules
ons, which have (dendritic
one axon spines/ dendritic
and two or trees)
many dendrites;

, with one • Serves

dendrite andasone
sites of and
axon; synaptic content
udounipolar • neurons,
Main role – tohave
which receive information
a single process thatfrom other
bifurcates neurons
close or from external
to the perikaryon, with the longe
and the other toward the CNS.
environment and carry that information to the cell body.
They have a greater diameter than
axons, are unmyelinated are
usually tapered and form extensive
arborizations (a fine branching
structure at the end of a nerve
fiber.)
AXONS (axis cylinder)
• are effector processes that
transmit stimuli to other
neurons or effector cells.
• Most neurons have only one
Initial
segment

axon, a very few have no axons

at all
• All axons originate from a short
pyramid-shaped region, the
axon hillock, that usually arises
from the perikaryon
• The plasma membrane of the
axon is called the axolemma, its
content is known as axoplasm
Neurolemmocyte / schwann cells / neurolemma
cell = produce the myelin sheath around
neuronal axons.
Myelin sheath =
a wrapping of myelin around certain nerve axon
s, serving as anelectrical insulator that speeds n
erve impulses to muscles and other effectors.
Axon collateral = side branch of neuron
Initial segment = region of the axon between
the apex of the axon hillock and the beginning
of the myelin sheath; it is the site at which an
action potential is generated.
AXONS (axis cylinder)
• The axons of many nerve cells
have a prominent sheath
called Myelin Initial
• The myelin sheath of the axis segment

cylinder is not part of the

neuron but rather a part of
an ensheathing cell (cell of
Schwann)
• Initial segment = it is the site
at which an action potential is
generated.
• Neurolemmocyte / schwann
cells / neurolemma cell
 SYNAPSE
ne | Print: Chapter 9. Nerve Tissue & the Nervous System http://accessmedicine.com/popup.aspx?aID=618112
• Are specialized junctions between neurons that facilitate the
transmission of impulses from one (presynaptic) neuron to another
ulse briefly opens calcium channels, promoting a calcium influx that triggers the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. The released neurotransmitters diffus
aptic cleft and bind(postsynaptic) neuron
receptors at the postsynaptic and other
region, promoting effector
a transient cells..
electrical activity (depolarization) at the postsynaptic membrane. Thes

• Types of Synapse:
called excitatory, because their activity promotes impulses in the postsynaptic cell membrane. In some synapses the neurotransmitter-receptor inte
opposite effect, promoting membrane hyperpolarization with no transmission of the nerve impulse. These are called inhibitory synapses. Thus, syn
• According
ite or inhibit impulse transmission toregulate
and thereby morphology:
nerve activity.

e used, neurotransmitters•are removed

Axo-dendritic – from
quickly by enzymatic axondiffusion,
breakdown, to dendrite
or endocytosis mediated by specific receptors on the presynaptic m
s removal of neurotransmitters is functionally important because it prevents an undesirable sustained stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron.
• Axo-somatic – axon to perikaryon or soma
phologically, various types of synapses are seen between neurons. If an axon forms a synapse with a cell body, it is called an axosomatic synapse;
• anAxo-axonic
drite, axodendritic; or with – axon
axon, axoaxonic (Figure 9–7).to
Theaxon
axoaxonic synapse is less common and is used to modulate synaptic activity.

gure 9–7.
SYNAPSE
• Types of Synapse:
• According to mechanism of conduction of nerve
impulses:
• Electrical synapses
• Chemical Synapses- achieved by the release of
chemical substances (neurotransmitters) from the
presynaptic neuron.
The presynaptic element of the axon is characterized by the
presence of numerous neurotransmitter – containing synaptic
vesicle.
Synaptic cleft = separates the presynaptic knob of the axon from
the post synaptic membrane of the dendrite.
Postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite = contains receptors with
an affinity for the neurotransmitters.
Once the molecules bind to the receptors at the postsynaptic
region it produces excitatory or an inhibitory effect at the post
synaptic membrane.
In excitatory synapses, release of neurotransmitters such as
acetylcholine, glutamine, or serotonin opens transmitter-gated
Na channels (or other cation to channels), prompting an influx of
Na that causes local reversal of voltage of the postsynaptic
membrane to a threshold level (depolarization). This leads to
initiation of an action potential and generation of a nerve impulse.
• In inhibitory synapses, release of
neurotransmitters such as -aminobutyric
acid (GABA) or glycine opens transmitter-
gated Cl channels (or other anion
channels), causing Cl– to enter the cell and
hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane,
making it even more negative. In these
synapses, the generation of an action
potential then becomes more difficult.
SYNAPSE
• Formed by: (three components of typical synapse)
• Expanded termination of n axon called pre-synaptic terminal or
element
• Post synaptic element – area of cell contact
• Synaptic cleft
In excitatory synapses, release of neurotransmitters
such as acetylcholine, glutamine, or serotonin opens
transmitter-gated Na channels, prompting an influx of
Na that causes local reversal of voltage of the
postsynaptic membrane to a threshold level
(depolarization).

In inhibitory synapses, release of neurotransmitters

such as y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or glycine opens
transmitter-gated Cl channels (or other anion
channels), causing Cl– to enter the cell and
hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane, making it
even more negative. In these synapses, the generation
of an action potential then becomes more difficult
neurotransmitters
•A substance in the body that
carries a signal (nerve
impulses) from one nerve cell
to another.
• Neurons: 2 major function properties
1.Irritability
2.Conductivity
Irritability – ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve
impulse
Conductivity – ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles
or glands
Neurons send messages electrochemically. This means that chemicals
cause an electrical signal. Chemicals in the body are "electrically-
charged" -- when they have an electrical charge, they are called ions.
The important ions in the nervous system are sodium and potassium
(both have 1 positive charge, +), calcium (has 2 positive charges, ++) and
chloride (has a negative charge, -)
When a neuron is at rest, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to
the outside. An action potentialoccurs when a neuron sends
information down an axon, away from the cell body. Neuroscientists use
other words, such as a "spike" or an "impulse" for the action potential.
The action potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created
by a depolarizing current.
Common neurotransmitters:
• Acetylcholine (Ach)- neurotransmitters between axons and
striated muscle at neuromuscular junction; serves as a
neurotransmitter in the ANS; Cholinergic neuron (neurons that
used Ach as their neurotransmitter); receptor: Cholinergic receptor
• Monoamine
• Serotonin / 5 –hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)- powerful
vasoconstrictor; functions as a neurotransmitter in the CNS;
neurons: Serotonergic
• Catecholamines
• Norepinephrine / Noradrenaline
• Epinephrine / Adrenaline
• Dopamine
• Neurons: Adrenergic neurons
•5-HT =formed from the hydroxylation and
decarboxylation of tryptophan
•From the enzymatic reactions from the
amino acid Tyrosine
•5-HT a chemical that is responsible for
maintaining mood balance, and that a
deficit of serotonin leads
to depression.
Common neurotransmitters:
• Amino Acids
• GABA,
• Glutamate- most common neurotransmitter in the brain
• Aspartate
• Glycine
• Small Peptides / Neuropeptides
• Enkephalin
• Neuropeptide Y
• Somatostatin
• Substance P
• Vasoactive intestinal peptide
• Cholecystokinin
• Neurotensin
•Enkephalins are
neurotransmitters which
work to suppress pain.=
pag iniiwan tayo at
ipinagpapalit
Neuroglia/glial cells =nerve glue

• Support neuronal survival and activities (SUPPORTING CELLS)

• Ten times more abundant in the mammalian brain than the
neurons.
• Develop from progenitor cells of the embryonic neural plate.
• 4 KINDS OF CNS NEUROGLIA
• Oligodendrocytes
• Astrocytes
• Ependymal cells
• Microglial cells
• 2 KINDS OF PNS NEUROGLIA
• Schwann cells
• Satellite cells
CNS NEUROGLIA:
OLIGODENDROCYTES
• Origin: Neural Tube
• Function: Maintain and
Produce the myelin sheath
around axons that provide the
electrical insulation for neurons
in the CNS.
• Smaller cells with dark staining
nucleus and a scanty cytoplasm
with few short processes having
few branches
• Homologue of the neurolemma
cells of Schwann
• Show intense movements
characterized by rhythmic
pulsation
White – lipid concentration
in the wrapped membrane
sheaths
(oligo- few or scanty)
OLIGODENDROCYTES
• Subdivided into:
• Perineural satellite –found
surrounding the nerve cells
in the gray mater of the CNS
• Perivascular satellite – cell
bodies and processes are
attached intimately to the
walls of blood vessels
• Interfascicular glia or
sheath cells – relate
intimately to nerve fibers
along which they form rows
or columns in the white
mater of the CNS
White – lipid concentration
in the wrapped membrane
sheaths
CNS NEUROGLIA:

ASTROCYTES
• Origin: Neural Tube
• Star shaped cells with
numerous branching
processes; most
numerous glial cells of
the CNS.
• Nuclei is larger, dark
staining and cytoplasm
is granular
• Biggest of the glia cells
glial fibrillary acidic protein
(GFAP) and vimentin;
Protoplasmic astrocytes are
present in gray matter.
Fibrous astrocytes are present
in white matter.
ASTROCYTES
• Two types by the character of
their cytoplasmic processes:
• Protoplasmic astrocytes/
mossy cells/ short-rayed
astrocytes
• Numerous processes with
short, wavy or tortuous
giving of several short
branches
• Fibrous astrocytes/ spider
cells/ long-rayed astrocytes
• Numerous in the white
mater
• Scarring cells of the
nervous system filling the
gaps after tissue is lost in
various disease processes
ASTROCYTES
• Functions:
• Play an important role in the
movement of metabolites and
wastes to and from neurons.
• Help to maintain the tight
junctions of the capillaries
that form the Blood-brain
Barrier
• Removes excess
neurotransmitters by
pinocytosis.
• Provides a structural support
and organization to the CNS
• Assist in the neuronal
development
• Replicates to occupy space of
dying neurons
glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)
and vimentin;
Protoplasmic astrocytes are
present in gray matter.
Fibrous astrocytes are present in
white matter.
Astrocytes = form and living barrier
between capillaries and neurons
CNS NEUROGLIA:

EPENDYMAL CELLS
• Origin: Neural Tube
• Are columnar or cuboidal
cells that line the
ventricles of the brain and
central canal of the spinal
cord.
• Cavities remain in the
adult as the ventricles of
the brain and central canal
of the spinal cord. Its lining
is made up of Ependymal
which retains the epithelial
character present in the
early embryo.
Apical surface –
movement of the CSF
Microvilli – absorption.
EPENDYMAL CELLS
• Functions:
• Lines the
ventricle of the
brain and central
canal of the
spinal cord
• Assist in the
production and
circulation of the
CSF.
CNS NEUROGLIA:

MICROGLIA/MESOGLIA
• Origin: Bone Marrow
(Monocytes)
• Very small cells with
small but deeply stained
nucleus surrounded by
scanty cytoplasm
• Covered with spines
• Scattered everywhere
throughout the brain and
spinal cord
MICROGLIA/MESOGLIA
• Secrete a number of
immunoregulatory
cytokines and constitute the
major mechanism of
immune defense in the CNS
(gray and white matter)
• Function:
• Phagocytic cells
that move through
the CNS
• Protect the CNS by
engulfing infectious
agents and other
potential harmful
substances
PNS NEUROGLIA

SCHWANN CELLS
• Neurolemmocytes
• Found in the Peripheral nerves
• Differentiate form precursors in
the neural crest
• In PNS, it produce the myelin
sheath
• Main role: to support the
myelinated and unmyelinated
nerve cell fibers.
Aids in cleaning up the
PNS debris and guide in
regrowth of PNS axons.
PNS NEUROGLIA

SATELLITE CELLS
• Located within the
PNS ganglia,
aggregated sensory or
autonomic neuronal
cell bodies
• They enclose each
perikaryon and
regulate its
microenvironment.
 Myelination by axons:
• Myelin protects and electrically insulates the fibers
• In CNS, Axons are myelinated by
“OLIGODENDROCYTES”
• In PNS, Axons are myelinated by “SCHWANN CELLS”
• Schwann cells myelinate the fibers like a jelly roll
• One axon in PNS is myelinated by many Schwann cells
• The gap between individual Schwann cells is also
known as “NODE OF RANVIER”
Diagram showing successive stages in the formation of myelin by a Schwann
cell.
a. The axon initially lies in a groove on the surface of the Schwann cell.
b. b. The axon is surrounded by a Schwann cell. Note the two domains
of the Schwann cell,
the adaxonal plasma-membrane domain and abaxonal plasma-
membrane domain. The mesaxon plasma membrane links these
domains. The mesaxon membrane initiates myelination by surrounding
the embedded axon.
c. A sheetlike extension of the mes axon membrane then wraps around
the axon, forming multiple membrane layers.
d. During the wrapping process, the cytoplasm is extruded
from between the two apposing plasma membranes of the Schwann
cell, which then become compacted to form myelin. The outer
mesaxon represents invaginated plasma membrane extending from the
abaxonal surface of the Schwann cell to the myelin. The inner
mesaxon extends from the adaxonal surface of the Schwann cell (the
part facing the axon) to the myelin. The inset shows the major proteins
responsible for compaction of the myelin sheath.
Central nervous system

BRAIN SPINAL CORD

•THE cns is covered by three connective
tissue layers, the meninges but contains
very little collagen or fibrous tissue.
•The CNS consist of the brain located in the
cranial cavity and Spinal cord located in
the vertebral canal.
•The CNS is protected by the skull and
vertebrae and surrounded by three
connective tissue membranes
(MENINGES)
•When sectioned: White matter and Gray
matter
GRAY MATER
• Composed of three elements
• Nerve cell bodies
• Arranged in columns in the spinal cord or in
layers as in the brain as just masses of nerve
cells as in the different nuclei of the brain
(basal ganglia)
• Proximal portions of the nerve processes, the
axons and dendrons
• Neuroglia
• The glial cells in the gray mater are mostly
protoplasmic variety,
Dark in color due to the
absence of myelin and the
presence of nerve cell
bodies
WHITE MATER
• Does not contain nerve cell bodies but only fibers,
which may be myelinated or non-myelinated and
neuroglia with small amount of areolar CT
containing blood vessels

• Abundant fibrous astrocytes

• Composed of:
• Medullated or myelinated nerve fibers with few
non-myelinated ones
• Neuroglia with delicate strands
Due to the glistening
whitish appearance of
myelin, the white mater
attains its whitish color
SPINAL CORD
• Cylindrical in shape and composed of inner core of gray mater
surrounded by an outer covering of white mater
• Gray mater on cross section – H shaped structure, anterior and
posterior gray columns
• White mater consists of nerve fibers, neuroglia and blood vessels
MENINGES
• Three membranes:
• Dura mater
• Outermost layer
• Cranial dura consist of two layers:
• Endosteal layer
• Fibrous layer
• Arachnoid
• Layer lies beneath the dura; Devoid of blood vessels
• Cobweb-like appearance
• Function is to transfer CSF to the blood of the venous sinuses
• Pia mater
• Contains large numbers of blood vessels
• The pia mater and arachnoid are closely adherent called pia-
arachnoid/ leptomeninx
• The blood vessels penetrate the CNS through tunnels covered by pia
mater termed the perivascular spaces
• The dura mater and pia mater are richly supplied with nerves
9.
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
• Prevents the passage of certain
substances from the blood to the
nerve tissues
• It results from the reduced
permeability that is a properly of
blood capillaries of nerve tissue
• Occluding junctions – provide
continuity between the endothelial
cells, represent the main structural
component of the barrier.
Bbb – main structural
component: capillary
endothelium in which
cells are tightly sealed
together
CHOROID PLEXUS
• The vascular tuft or capillaries from the pia
mater covered by lamina epithelialis and
pushing inward into the cavity of the ventricles
constitutes the choroid plexus
• Composed of loose CT of the pia mater, covered
by a simple cuboidal or low columnar
epithelium
• With tight junction – Site of blood CSF barrier
• Main function is to secrete CSF by epithelial
cells covering the plexuses
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• Fluid elaborated by the choroid plexuses
that completely fills the ventricles, the
central canal of the spinal cord, the
subarachnoid spaces and perivascular
spaces
• It is important for the metabolism of the
CNS, protecting the nervous system from
concussions and mechanical injuries.
Bathes and suspends the CNS
• Variable amount, 80-150ml, slightly viscous,
contains traces of proteins
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• Variable amount, 80-150ml, slightly viscous,
contains traces of proteins
• Its sources are primarily the blood vessel of
the choroid plexus, the pia mater and the
brain substance
• Arachnoid villi – provides the main pathway of
the rapid flow of CSF directly into the venous
circulation
• The nerve tissue is completely devoid of
lymphatic vessels.
peripheral nervous
system
NERVES GANGLIA NERVE ENDINGS
Nerve fibers
•Analogous to the tracts in the CNS
•Contains axons enclosed within sheaths of
glial cells specialized to facilitate axonal
function.
•Peripheral Nerve Fibers- axons are sheathed
by SCHWANN CELLS / NEUROLEMMOCYTES.
•Classification:
• Myelinated fiber
• Unmyelinated Fibers
Myelination of large-diameter PNS axons.
•A Schwann cell (neurolemmocyte) engulfs
one portion along the length of a large-
diameter axon. The Schwann cell
membrane fuses around the axon and
elongates as it becomes wrapped around
the axon while the cell body moves around
the axon many times. The Schwann cell
membrane wrappings constitute the myelin
sheath, with the Schwann cell body always
on its outer surface. The myelin layers are
very rich in lipid, and provide insulation and
facilitate formation of action potentials
along the axolemma.
•
Myelination of large-diameter PNS axons.
Nerve organization
• Nerves (Bundles of PNS Nerve fibers)
• Covering of a Typical Peripheral Nerve
• Epineurium: Outermost Connective tissue sheet covering all
the bundles of fibers in a nerve; consist of Reticular fivers,
scattered fibroblasts and capillaries.
• Perineurium: Middle Connective tissue sheet covering
individual bundle of fibers; consists of flat fibrocytes with
their edges sealed together by tight junctions.; isolates a
nueral environment (Blood –Nerve Barrier)
• Endoneurium: Innermost sheet covering the individual axon
of each fiber in a bundle.
GANGLIA
• A collection of nerve cells located outside the CNS
• Typically ovoid in structures containing neuronal cell
bodies and their surroundings glial satellite cell
• Structure of Ganglion:
• Composed of nerve cell, fibers, and areolar connective tissue
• Ganglion Proper- when the nerve cells predominate over the
nerve fibers
• 2 types:
• Sensory Ganglia
• Autonomic Ganglia
•Supporting structure:
areolar connective tissue
•While that of the CNS is
the Neuroglia
 Sensory Ganglia
• CEREBROSPINAL / CRANIOSPINAL GANGLIA
• Cell bodies of sensory neuron
• Receive afferent impulses that go to the CNS.
• Are associated with both cranial nerves (Cranial Ganglia)
and dorsal roots of the spinal nerves (Spinal Ganglia)
• Characteristics:
• Cells: Unipolar (relay information from the ganglion’s nerve endings
to the gray matter of the spinal cord via synapses with local
neurons)
• Cell body: surrounded by satellite cells
• Nucleus: “Owl’s eye or Fish eye appearance”
• Small size of Nissl bodies
• Supporting tissue: Areolar Connective tissue
 autonomic Ganglia
• Cell bodies of postganglionic autonomic nerves
• Autonomic Nerves affect the activity of Smooth
muscle, secretion of some glands, heart rate, and
many involuntary activities by which the body
maintains a constant internal environment.
• Distinguishing features:
– Cell body/Nerve cell: small and multipolar
– Nissl bodies: intermediate in size
– Nucleus: “fish eye”
– Chiefly it is composed of non myelinated fibers
REACTIONS OF NEURAL TISSUE TO INJURY
• Changes at the site of lesion:
• The supporting and other non-neural cells becomes activated, they
participate in the removal of neuronal debris, in the formation of a
glial scar, and possibly in the process of regeneration
• Principal cells of the CNS principally involved:
• Astrocytes – its processes expand to fill the vacated area to form
a dense glial scar which bridges across the traumatized zone
• Oligodendrocytes – responsible for sequestering large masses of
cellular debris by forming myelin ensheathment around them
• Blood borne phagocytes – invade the tissue if tehre has been
some changes in the neighboring capillaries
• Glial cells – initiate a vigorous repair process once the necrotic
tissue has been phagocytosed
• In the PNS, the Schwann cells show similar prompt response by actively
proliferating and phagocytosing the breakdown products o the
degeneration of the nerve cells. They form sheaths for the regenerating
axons.
• Reaction to the distal segment
• Terminal degeneration:
• Swelling and possibly loss of synaptic vesicles
• Marked increase in the number of
neurofilaments in the terminals
• Decrease in the number of synaptic vessivles
• Degenerated changes in the proximal
segment of the axon
• The axon will degenerate in the proximo-
distal sequence starting near the initial
segment should the parent cell die
• Reaction to axotomy of nerve cell
• Chromatolysis –the reaction usually seen in the
motor neurons, in sensory ganglion cells and in a
number of large central nerve cells in the
brainstem and spinal cord
• Progressive breakdown of Nissl substance
• Cell appear globular
• Cell death – nucleus becomes pyknotic, Nissl
substance is lost and perikaryon shrinks
dramatically.
• Trans-synaptic/ Transneural Degeneration
• Distinct atrophic or degenerative changes have been
observed in the neurons that are synapticall related
to those whose axons were interrupted.
Additional notes: CSF
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•First recognized by COTUGNO (1764)
•Not as ULTRAFILTRATE OF PLASMA
•Functions:
• Produces a mechanical barrier to cushion the brain and
spinal cord against trauma
• Supply nutrients to nervous tissues
• Removes metabolic wastes

CONSIDERED AS THE THIRD MAJOR FLUID IN

THE BODY.
Cerebrospinal fluid
• The brain and spinal cord is lined by
MENINGES which has 3 layers:
• DURA METER (hard mother) –
outermost layer
• ARACHNOID MATER (spiderweb-
like)- middle layer
• PIA METER (gentle mother)-
innermost layer
• Produced by the CHOROID
PLEXUSES
• Flows through SUBARACHNOID
SPACE around the brain and spinal
cord
• Reabsorbed by the ARACHNOID
VILLI / GRANULATIONS into the
superior sagittal sinus.
•The choroid plexuses are capillary
networks that form the CSF from
plasma by mechanisms of selective
filtration under hydrostatic pressure
and active transport secretion.
Therefore, the chemical composition
of the CSF does not resemble an
ultrafiltrate of plasma.
Cerebrospinal
• VOLUME:
fluid
• 20 ml of CSF is produced every hour
• ADULTS: 140 – 170 mL/ 90 -150 mL
• NEONATES: 10 – 60 mL
• BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER(BBB)- used to the
control and filtration of blood components
to the CSF and then to the brain.
• Composed of capillary endothelium held
together by tight junctions and choroid
plexuses
• Allows essential metabolites to pass from
the blood to the CNS
• Blocks most molecules >500 Daltons
• Damage BBB allows entrance of increased
mount of proteins and coagulation factors.
 Cerebrospinal fluid
•METHODS OF COLLECTION:
•Lumbar Puncture
• Routine method for CSF collection
• Between 3rd , 4th , 5th Lumbar
vertebrae
• Between 3rd or 4th lumbar
vertebrae in adults
• Between 4th or 5th lumbar
vertebrae in Children
•Ventricular Puncture- used in
infants with open fontanels
•Cisternal Puncture – collected in
sub occipital region
•Lateral Cervical Puncture
 Cerebrospinal fluid
•ORDER OF COLLECTION:
• 1ST TUBE: Chemistry and Serology
• 2ND TUBE: Microbiology
• 3RD TUBE: Hematology / cell count
• 4th TUBE: may be drawn for
Microbiology to provide better
exclusion of skin contamination.
•Tests are performed on a STAT
basis (within 30 minutes)
•Low volume of specimens
collected on one tube, order of
testing should be – Microbio,
Hema, Chemistry
•Preservation:
•1st tube: Frozen (-15 to – 30 ° C)
•2nd tube: Room temperature
(19-26 ° C)
•3rd tube: Refrigerated (2 to 8 ° C)
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•Normal Values for
CSF
•Color:
•Viscosity:
•Clarity:
•Specific Gravity:
•pH:
•Pressure:
•Colorless
•Same with water
•Crystal clear
•1.006-1.008
•7.30 to 7.45
•50-200 mm H2O
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•VARIATIONS IN CSF
•Slightly hazy= 200 to 500 wbc/ul
•Cloudy = above 500 wbc / ul
•Turbid / Milky = wbc, rbc, proteins, increased
lipid concentration, microorganisms, aspirated
epidural fats
•Clotted = Froin’s Disease (Increased proteins
and clotting factors)
•Bloody = Non pathologic: traumatic tap
Pathologic: Intracranial Hemorrhage
•Traumatic tap vs.
intracranial
hemorrhage
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• VARIATIONS IN CSF
• Bloody = Non pathologic: traumatic tap
Pathologic: Intracranial Hemorrhage
• Viscous = Cryptococcal Meningitis
• Oily = Radiographic Contrast Media
• Pellicle formation = Tubercular Meningitis
• Xanthochormia = Presence of RBC degradation product
PINK = very slight amount of oxyhemoglobin
ORANGE = Heavy hemolysis
YELLOW = Conversion of oxyhemoglobin to
unconjugated bilirubin
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
PROTEIN
GLUCOSE
LACTATE
GLUTAMINE
LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE
ISOENZYMES
CREATININE KINASE ISOENZYME
 CEREBROSPINAL
•CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
FLUID
PROTEIN
•Most frequently performed chemical test on CSF
•Normal Value: __________________
•Proteins Normally found in CSF
• ALBUMIN = major CSF protein
• PREALBUMIN = 2nd most prevalent
• HAPTOGLOBIN & CERULOPLASMIN
• TRANSFERRIN = major beta – globulin
• TAU PROTEIN = seen only in CSF
• IgG & small amouts OF IgA
•Proteins NOT NORMALLY found in CSF
• IgM, Fibrinogen, and Beta lipoproteins
15- 45 mg/dL
•Alpha globulin
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
PROTEIN
•Clinical Significance:
•Elevated in:
•Meningitis & Hemorrhage
•Damage to BBB
•Degeneration of Neural tissue
•Multiple Sclerosis
•Decreased in:
•Leakage of Fluid from the CNS
•Meningitis &
Hemorrhage = most
common
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
PROTEIN
• Laboratory test:
• Electrophoresis
• Agarose gel electrophoresis followed by Coomassie Brilliant
Blue (CBB) staining
• Method of choice when it is necessary to determine if the
fluid is CSF (“tau” identification)
• Detection of Oligoclonal Bands
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Presence of 2 or more oligoclonal bands in csf but not
in serum part when accompanied by increased IgG
index
• Other disorders with oligoclonal bands but not in serum
• Encephalitis, neurosyphilis, Guillain –Barre syndrome
& neoplastic disorders
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
PROTEIN
• Laboratory test:
• Protein Fractions
• CSF/ SERUM ALBUMIN INDEX
• Index value of <9 = intact BBB
• CSF IgG Index
• Index value of >0.77 = indicates IgG production
within the CNS
• Myelin Basic Protein
• Presence indicates recent destruction of myelin sheath
that protects the axons of neurons (demyelination)
• Used to monitor course of MS
• Measure of the effectiveness of current and future
treatments.
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
•CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
PROTEIN
GLUCOSE
LACTATE
GLUTAMINE
LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE
ISOENZYMES
CREATININE KINASE ISOENZYME
 Disease
associated
Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
•A most common type of dementia in the
elederly, affects both neuronal perikarya
and synapses within the cerebrum.
•A progressive degenerative disease of
the brain that ultimately results in
dementia.
•Dementia (mental deterioration)=
group of symptoms that negatively
affect the memory
•Alzheimers is a progressive disease
of the brian that slowly causes
impairment of memory and
cognitive function(attention,
memory, language, perception,
decision making and problem
solving)