CHAPTER 1

AN OVERVIEW
AN OVERVIEW

Karachi is main metropolitan city of Pakistan, a seaport and a centre of

economic activities. it is estimated to have a population of roughly
16 million people. The traffic volume has increased due to increasing
number of individual vehicles, which is greater then the planed capacity.
Due to lack of mass transit system, traffic congestions are seen daily on
major and minor arterials, resulting in loss of time and capital. To overcome
this many flyovers are being proposed and constructed at different parts of
the city.

One such example is of hino pak chowrangi where a flyover is

proposed. The responsibility of developing this intersection has been given
to the nespak. Sap 2000 finite element based software is utilized for
analyzing the superstructure of this box girder bridge while the designing of
individual member’s are carried out using specifications from different
codes.

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

This project started as an assignment for the requirement of
completing Bs degree has eventually resulted in providing knowledge
and software usage for future practice. This vigorous exercise has also
provided us with the following valuable lessons for future
assignments.

• Behavioral study of different bridge elements.

• Learning of civil engineering software as a tool.

• Different working loads and their association with the codes.

• The idealization process of structures.

CHAPTER 2

BRIDGES IN BRIEF
BRIDGES IN BRIEF

This chapter describes the different types of bridges according to

classifications. It also deals with the main components of the super structure
of the bow girder bridge.

2.1 BRIDGE

Bridge is an important type of structure, which covers a gap over

obstacles without crossing the way beneath or a structure that affords
passage over low ground, water or other obstructions. Usually bridges carry
a road or a railroad across a river, canal or another highway or railroad.

2.2 TYPES OF BRIDGES

Bridge can be categorized in several ways depending on the objective

of classification. The necessity of classifying bridges in various ways has
grown as bridge have evolved from simple wooden plants bridges to modern
suspension bridges and cable stayed bridges. Bridges are characterized in
terms of the bridge’s super structures, and super structures can be
characterized according to the following characteristics.

• Material of construction

• Span lengths

• Structural forms

• Structural types

• Load path characteristics

 • Usage

• Position (for moveable bridges).

• Deck type (for combination and deck bridges).

2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BY MATERIAL OF

CONSTRUCTION

Bridges can be identified by the materials, from which their

superstructures built, namely.

• Timber

• Concrete

• Steel

They are described as timber bridges, concrete bridges, and

steel bridges respectively. Often a combination of materials is used in bridge
building, for example, a bridge may have a reinforced concrete deck and
steel stringers, which typical of many highway bridges super structures.

2.2.1.1 STEEL BRIDGES

Truss and railway bridges are mostly from steel, although a few
older timber bridges still exist. In some cases, a deck may consist of steel
plate deck of conventional concrete deck.

2.2.1.2 CONCRETE BRIDGES

 concrete bridges include bridges built from both reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete, reinforced concrete bridge generally has
all it’s super structural elements, such as deck, stringer, and parapets, built
from reinforced concrete, a typical short span prestressed concrete bridge
has reinforced concrete deck supported by prestressed concrete beamsl for
medium span bridges, prestressed concrete box girders are used, often, these
box girders are enough to provide for the entire bridge width.

2.2.1.3 TIMBER BRIDGES

Today timber bridges are seldom built except in parks and

Recreational facilities, typically, the deck and the supporting members
(stringers and floor beams) are all wood members. Timber bridges are
mostly use for short span bridge in a 12-meter range.

2.2.1.4 COMPOSITE BRIDGE

Long used by the aerospace aircrafts, and defense industries

Advance composite materials (ACMs) are now being explored from
structural application in bridges for both super structures and sub structures.
ACMs are high strength, light, and corrosion resistant with desirable fatigue
properties. ACMs particularly show their full properties when they are used
compositely with concrete and steel.

2.2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BY SPAN LENGTH

In bridge engineering, it is customary to identify bridges as

short span, medium span, and long span, depending on span lengths,
presently there are no single established criteria to define the range of span
for these different classifications, and practices vary.
2.2.2.1 SHORT SPAN BRIDGES

Bridges in which the load effects are governed by a single

Actual vehicle on the span can be considered short span bridges. In case of
absence of data following range can be considered short span bridges. In
case of absence of data following range can be used to classify:

• Short span bridge = 6 to 38 meter

2.2.2.2 MEDIUM SPAN BRIDGES

Bridges in which the maximum load effects arte governed by a

Train of moving vehicles can be considered as medium span bridges, in case
of absence of data following range can be used to classify:

• Medium span bridge = 38 to 122 meter.

2.2.2.3 LONG SPAN BRIDGES

From an engineering perspective their structural form

Classifies bridges; this necessary because the methods of analysis used
depend on the structural form. Only certain types of structural forms are
suitable and economically viable alternatives for certain span ranges,
structural room refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge. From this
perspective bridges can be classified as follows:

2.2.3.1 SLAB STRINGER BRIDGE

In a slab stinger bridge, the deck is supported on stingers that
Are themselves supported on abutments (single span bridge) or on piers
(continuous span or multiple span drudges). All bridge loads are transferred
from deck to stringer to abutments or pies, the deck is usually built firm
reinforced concrete. Stringers can be of steel, reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, etc. the slab stringer system is most suitable for short
span bridges. Plate girder bridges are essentially slab stringer bridges. These
bridges are economically suitable for a span up to 61 meter.

2.2.3.2 TRUSS BRIDGE

The truss is a simple skeletal structure, in design theory, the

Individual members of a simple truss are only subjected to tension and
compression forces and not bending forces, thus, for the most part. All
beams in the truss bridge ate straight. Trusses are comprised of many small
beams that together can support a large amount of weight and span great
distances. In most cases the design, fabrication, and erect ion of trusses is
relatively simple. However, once assembled trusses take up a greater amount
of shape and, in more complex structures, can serve as distraction to drivers,
toss bridges are mostly used for they long spans like railway, sports
complex, etc.

2.2.3.4 RIGID FRAME BRIDGE

Rigid frame bridges are sometimes also known as rahmen
bridges, in a standard girder bridge, the girder and the piers are separate
structures. However a rigid frame bridge is one in which the piers and
girders are one solid structure. The cross sections of beams in a rigid frame
bridge are usually I shaped or box shaped. Design calculations for rigid fame
bridges are more difficult than those of simple girder bridges. The junction
of piers and the girder can be difficult to fabricate and requires accuracy and
attention to detail.

2.2.3.4 ARCH BRIDGE

Arches are g99d choices for crossing valleys and rivers since
the arch doesn’t require piers in the center, arches can be one of the more
beautiful bridge types. Arches use a curved structure, which provides a high
resistance to bending forces. Unlike girder and truss bridges, both end of an
arch are fixed in this horizontal direction (i.e. a car passes over it) horizontal
forces occur in the bearings of the arch. These horizontal forces are unique
to the arch and as a result arches can only be used where the ground or
foundation is solid and stable.

2.2.3.5 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

A typical cable stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or

More towers erected above piers in the middle of the span, from these
towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support
the girder. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are
very economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure, which is still
able to span great distances. Though only a few cables are strong enough to
support the entire bridge, wind force reduces the flexibility lf these cables,
but we rarely consider the wind force.
2.2.3.6 SUSPENSION BRIDGE

of all the bridge types in use today, the suspension bridge

allows for the longest spans. At first glance the suspension and
 cable-stayed bridges may look similar, but they are quite
different. A typical suspension bridge is a con tenuous girder
with one or more towers erected above piers in the middle of
the span. The girder itself it usually a truss or box girder though
in shorter spans, plate girders are uncommon. At both ends of
the bridge large anchors or counter weights are placed to hold
the ends of the cables.

2.2.4 CONTINUOUS SPAN BRIDGE

Bridges can be classified by type of span used with respect to

the support conditions, namely simple or continuous.

2.2.4.1 SIMPLE SPAN BRIDGE

Short span bridges are built as single span having simple

support. Under gravity loads, the moment is positive and
maximum at the mid span and for all other loads the maximum
moment occur at the point of application of load.

2.2.4.2 CONTINUOUS SPAN BRIDGE

In medium or long span bridges, depending on the site

conditions, multiple sample spans can be built to span the
distance. Such a bridge would consist of two and abutments and
several piers as intermediate supports, in a continuous span
bridge, the positive moments are considerably reduced in the
mid span portion of the bridge, but negative moments are
created ate the supports.

2.2.5 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO

 THE UTILITY OF BRIDGES
In addition to the highway and railroad bridges, there are
bridges that carry non-vehicular traffic and loads. These bridges include.

• Pedestrian bridges

• Pipeline bridges

• Conveyor bridges

2.2.6 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO

THE DECK TYPE OF THE BRIDGES

1. solid slab
2. box girder
3. grid
4. Continuous beam and slab.
5. multicellular
6. spaced beam and slab

2.3 BRIDGE

All bridges can be divided into two main parts, superstructure

and Substructure.

2.3.1 SUPER STRUCTURE

The part of the bridge that directly transfers the loads coming
Over the carriage way into the ground is termed as super structure, it is
further subdivided into various super structural elements, which are as
follows.

2.3.1.1 DECK SLAB

One of the main structural element of bridge on which all the
vehicles are moving is known as deck slab. The deck slab consists of
wearing course, which directly bears the entire load coning over it. Initially
the thickness of deck slab is calculated from the AASHTO specifications,
the thickness of deck slab should not be less than l/24 for end continuous
and l/28 for both end continuous.

2.3.1.2 BOX GIRDER

A box girder is usually thought of as a flexural member who

Carries inside box or boxes; a box girder is basically a large beam, both in
span and cross condition, the large cross section usually being a
consequence of the long span.

The preliminary section for analyzing the box girder is set according
relevant specifications.

Recommended minimum depth for continuous box-girder =0.055*s

S = span length

2.3.1.3 DIAPHRAGM
 Diaphragms are structural members positioned transversely
between the adjacent girders at suitable intervals. Diaphragm is used to
provide the lateral distribution of live load at various adjacent girders.

The minimum number of diaphragm according to AASHTO (clause 8.12)

Are two at the ends and one intermediate diaphragm at the place of
maximum moment of span less than 40 feet (12.195 meter). For span more
than 40 feet (12.195) provide diaphragms at maximum moments points.

2.3.1.3 BEARINGS

Bearings used in bridge structures could be categorized into two

groups, metal and electrometric, we have used electrometric
bearings which are made of chloroprene rubber or material
rubber, and the resulting structural component can absorb
vertical loads, horizontal movements and rotations around all
axes.

Electrometric bearings confirm to various international standards, such as

AASTHO, are used globally for bridges.
 CHAPTER 3

CODES PRACTICED

AND WORKING LOADS

CODES PRACTICED AND WORKING LOADS

 Specific codes in association to the working loads are used for the
bridge and analysis, normally used by the consultants and adopted for this
bridge are explained as under.

3.1 ADOPTED CODES

After independence, the hand over of existing structures could not
provide database required for formulating guidelines for planning and
designing of such structures. However, these limitations did not obstruct in
developing a code in 1967 known as the West Pakistan Highway Code. This
code identifies the governing parameters for constructing such structures and
still is used for modern bridges without having any modifications made.
Now to overcome advancement, the engineers of Pakistan have adopted
different codes with the existing. The most commonly used code is
American Association of State Highway and Transport officials (AASTHO)
and for reinforced cement concrete is American Concrete Institute (ACI).
The followed codes are as under:

• American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials.

(AASHTO 2000).
• Code of practice, West Pakistan Highway Department. (WHPD
1967).
• American Concrete Institute. (ACI 2002).

3.2 WORKING LOADS

Bridges should be designed safely to support all the vehicles that might pass
over the bridge during the life of structure. To ensure the safety of structure
some form of control must be maintained, for this the designer has to
provide sufficient strength in the structure to carry present and future
predicted loads.

3.2.1 DEAD LOADS

 According to AASTHO Article 3.2.1 structure will be designed
for the forces like dead load, live load, Impact load and wind forces etc.
details are as follows:

The dead load consists of weight of entire structure including

carpeting, end barrier, deck and girder. Following weights are used in
computing dead loads:

• Concrete Asphalts
• Self weight of the girders
• In-situ

3.2.2 LIVE LOADS

According to code of practice, West Pakistan highway
Departments live loads will consist of applied moving loads of vehicles, cars
and pedestrian,

3.2.2.1 HIGHWAY LOADING

The highway live loading on the roadway of bridge should
consist of a truck train loading and 70ton military tank.

3.2.2.1.170 Ton-Military Tank (Class AA

Loading)

It consists of 70 ton tracked vehicle, having restriction of nose

To tail distance between two successive vehicles is not less than 91.44
meter. No other lived loads will cover any part of roadway of bridge when
this vehicle is crossing the bridge.
3.2.2.1.2 STANDARD TRUCK TRAIN

LOADING (CLASS A LOADING)

the wheel spacing, weight distribution and clearance of

standard loading is as shown in figure 2.2 with the following conditions: 1)
within curb to curb width of road way, the standard vehicle or train will be
assumed to travel parallel maximum stresses, provided that minimum
clearance between the vehicle and the toad way face of the curb and between
two passing or crossing vehicles. 2) For each standard vehicle, all the axle of
a unit vehicle will be considered as acting simultaneously in the position
causing maximum stresses. 3) Vehicle in adjacent lanes will be taken as
headed in the direction producing maximum stresses. 4) The spaces on the
carriageway left un-covered by the standard vehicle will be assumed as not
subjected to any additional live load.

Whereas the class ‘B’ loading shall be identical to class ‘A’ loading except
for the axle loads which shall be 60% of class ‘A’ loading.

3.2.2.1.2.1 REDUCTION IN LOAD

INTENSITY
Where maximum stresses are produced in any member more than one
simultaneous truck-train loads, the following percentages of resultant live
load stresses will be used in view of unlikely coincident maximum loading:

Position of live loads percentage

One or more truck –train loading 100%
Three truck-train loading 90%
Four or more 75%

Table 3.1: positions of live loads with their intensities

3.2.2.1.2.2 IMPACT FACTOR

 Live load stresses produced by standard truck-train loading will
be increased for item in-group A for dynamic vibrator and impact effects.

• Group A

1) Super structure, steel or concrete supporting columns, steel towers,

legs of rigid frames and generally chooses portions of structure, which
extend down to main foundation.

2) The portion above the ground lines of concrete or steel piles, which
are rigidly, connected to super structure as in rigid frame or
continuous designs.

• IMPACT FORMULA

The amount of this allowance is expressed as a fraction of live

And will be determine by the formula:

I= 15/ (l+20)

Where,

I = impact fraction (maximum 30%)

L= length of the span in feet.

 Chapter 4

INVESTIGATIVE
PROCEDURE

“INVESTIGATIVE PROCEDURE”:
 The under discussion chapter outlines the mathematical and geometric
simplifications required for calculating critical failure stresses due to the
extreme conditions that may develop in a bridge.

4.1 adopted strategy for analysis:

The following strategy was adopted for the completion of the project.

4.1.1 SPACING OF RIBS

On the basis of the traffic capacity analysis the width of the

Carriageway is set up. Trial numbers of ribs with their respective spacing are
arranged in such a manner that the load each girder is equally distributed
with reference to the limitations in depth of girder.

4.1.2 SELECTION OF CROSS SECTION

The depth of the girder is assumed by using the empirical formulas
established in codes.

4.1.2 DEFINING LOADS

From WPHC we took the dead live loads Factors. Moving load has
taken from the West Pakistan Highway Code. In the moving load
we have two main classes i.e. class A.

4.1.3 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

After assigning the loads, the analysis and design of box Girder
Bridge
Components is performed by using the electronic and physical means, for
complex analysis finite element civil engineering software like SAP 2000 is
used and then analysis results are used to designed the elements manually.

4.2 PRACTICED STRATEGY FOR THE

ANALYSIS OF SUPER STRUCTURE

The super structure includes the deck slab, girder and the bearings
which are described as follows:

4.2.1 DECK SLAB

There are different methods, which can be used for the analysis.
All the methods have their own advantages and limitations. SAP 2000 is
used for the analysis of deck slab by developing the 3D model.

By using empirical equations as per AASTHO and West Pakistan

Highway Code design of deck slab is made manually. The results obtained
from SAP 2000 analysis are used in design.

4.2.2 GIRDER

For girder, line element is used for the analysis of the dead load
(self-weight and cast-in-situ) and standard truck-train loading, but
3D model is generated for the analysis of sundries. The model is
analyzed y using SAP 2000.

4.2.3 BEARING

Bearing used in the bridge structures could be categorized into two

Groups: metal and electronic. Metal bearings sometimes become inoperable
(sometimes referred as “froze”) due to corrosion, mechanical bindings,
buildup of debris, or other interferences. Frozen bearings may result in
bending, buckling, and improper alignment of members. Other types of
damage are missing fasteners, cracked welds; corrosion on the sliding
surface, sole plate rests only on a portion of the masonry plate, and binding
of lateral shear keys.
 CHAPTER 5

INTRODUCTION

TO SAP

“INTRODUCTION TO SAP 2000”:

SAP has a synonymous with state of the art analytical solutions. It is

finite element based software that adds a tremendously easy as complete
graphical user interface linked with powerful design capabilities, providing
the structural engineer with an analysis and design program unequaled in
efficiency and productivity.

5.1 INITIALIZING A MODEL:

SAP 2000 analyzes and designs the structure using a model that a user
defines in the graphical user interface; the model consists primarily of
the following types of components:

• Units

• Objects

• Coordinate system and grids

• Properties

• Load cases

• Combinations

• Design settings

• Output and display definitions.

The graphical user interface provides the user with many powerful
features to create the model. User can even start with the preliminary
model, and then use the SAP 2000 design-optimization feature to refine
the model with little effort. A brief explanation of the components of
entailing the model is as follows:

5.2 UNITS

Objects represent the physical structural members in the model. Using

The surface, user “draw” the geometry of an object then “assign” properties
and loads to the object to completely define the model of the physical
member. The following object types are available, listed in order of
geometrical dimension:

• Point objects:
These are automatically created at the corners or ends of
other types of objects.

• Line objects:
Used to model beams, columns, braces, trusses, and/or
cable members.

• Area objects:
Used to model walls, floors, and other thin-walled
members, as well as two-dimensional solids (plane stress,
plane strain, and ax symmetric solids).

• Solid objects:
Used to model three-dimensional solids.

5.4 COORDINATE SYSTEM AND GRID:

All locations in the model are ultimately defined with respect to a

single global coordinate system; this is a three-dimensional, right-handed,
Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system.

The three axes denoted X, Y and Z, are mutually perpendicular, and

satisfy the right-hand rule.

Sap 2000 always considers the +Z direction as upward. By default,

gravity acts in the -Z direction

5.5 SIGN CONVENTION

5.5.1 NORMAL AXIS 3:

Local axis 3 is always normal to the plane of object or to the

Surface of the object. This axis is directed towards the user when the path j1-
j2-j3 appears counter-clockwise. For quadrilateral elements, the vectors that
connect the midpoints of the two pairs of opposite sides define the element
plane.

5.5.2 DEFAULT ORIENTATION:

The default orientation of the local 1 and 2 axes is determined by

the relationship between the local 3 axes and the global z- axis.

• The local 1 axis is horizontal, i.e. it lies in the X-Y plane.

5.6 PROPERTIES:

Properties are assigned to each object to determine the structural

behavior of that object in the model. Some properties, such as material
and section properties are named entities that must be defined before
assigning them to objects. Other properties, such as frame end releases
or hint support conditions, are assigned directly to objects.

5.7 LOAD CASES

Loads represent actions upon the structure. User can be define as

Many named load cases as he like. Typically user has to define separate load
cases for dead load, live load, wind load, snow load, thermal load, and so on.
Different loads can be assigned to different objects as part of a single load
cases and also each object can be subjected to multiple load cases.
5.8 LOAD COMBINATION:

A SAP2000 combination, also called a “combo,” is a named

Combination of the results from one or more analysis cases and/or other
combinations. When a combination is defined; it applies to the results for
every object in the model.

5.9 OUTPUT AND DISPLAY DEFINATIONS:

The definition of the SAP 2000 model and the results of analysis and
design cab be viewed and saved in many different ways. These
include:

• Two and three-dimensional views of the model.

• Tables of values in plain text, spreadsheet, or database format.

• Formatted documents containing tables of values in rich text and

HTML format.

• Format plot of analysis results.

• Design reports.

• Export to other drafting and design programs.

User may save named definitions of display views, sets of output tables,
document formats, and function plots as part of his model.

5.10 DEFINE BRIDGE LOADS:

User can use the documents to specify lanes, vehicle loads and
Classes and bridge responses to enable moving-load analysis of bridge
structures. The general includes the following definitions:

• Lanes are defined and then frame elements are assigned to the defined
lanes.

• Vehicles loads are defined and then the defined loads are added to one
or more vehicle classes.

• The bridge response is defined, which specifies what information is

calculated for hints and frame elements, thereby controlling the
complexity of, and thus the time require to complete, the analysis.

• The defined lanes, vehicle loads, vehicle classes, and bridge response
are then used in defining a moving load analysis case.

5.11OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

MODEL:

This bridge is defined for both class A and class AA vehicles s

specified in west Pakistan highway code, in order to achieve the results for
this live loads, two models were developed i.e. 3D model, for class A
vehicle was developed for analysis. In model three cases were defined for
lanes and one case was analyzed at a time. SAP 2000automatically runs all
the possible positions of the truck-train at two lanes.

Generation of box girder model includes the definition of both

frame and shell elements with their properties at their required positions.
Box girder model is shown in the figure 5.2.