University of applied science Amsterdam

Domain Technology
Aviation Studies

Preface

In the second year of Aviation Studies the second project is to design an engine which can be applied on the
Fokker 100 and the Fokker 100 Next Generation. The achieved skills from the previous projects will now be
used by group 2A2A to succeed in this investigation. This investigation is focused on the operation of an engine
and its components, the design of different concept engines and the application of the new chosen engine on
the Fokker 100 and Fokker 100 Next Generation.
The group 2A2A would like to thank Arjan Stander (HvA), Rob Scholder (HvA) and Arjan van Dijk (EASA) for their
support during this project.

Project group 2A2A,

January 7, 2010

Project Group 2A2A, from left to right: Douwe Kijvekamp, Alides Beenen, Darryl Godfried, Karim El Esawy,
Rob Vermeij, Pampou Amadou Bah, Lars Meijs, Remy van Vugt

CP-800AS
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University of applied science Amsterdam
Domain Technology
Aviation Studies

Table of contents
Summary .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Design requirements................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1 Fokker Aircraft .............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.1 Performance and specifications ........................................................................................................ 4
1.1.2 Required specifications ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Regulations ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2.1 Technical aspects .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Emission ............................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.3 Noise.................................................................................................................................................. 7
2. Gas Turbine Main Components ................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Thermodynamics ................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Gas turbine main components ............................................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 Intake............................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Compressor ..................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.3 Combustion chamber ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 Turbine ............................................................................................................................................ 14
2.2.5 Exhaust system ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.3 Gas Turbine related system ................................................................................................................. 17
2.3.1 Power supply ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Fuel system...................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.3 Starting system ................................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.4 Internal air system........................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.5 Lubrication ...................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.6 Fire protection ................................................................................................................................. 20
2.3.7 Thrust reversers .............................................................................................................................. 21
2.3.8 Vibrations ........................................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.9 Bleed air system .............................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Function research ................................................................................................................................ 22
3. Core Power Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 23
3.1 Morphologic overview ......................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1 Pre-design........................................................................................................................................ 23
3.1.2 Intake............................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.3 Compression .................................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.4 Combustion ..................................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.5 Power Supply................................................................................................................................... 26
3.1.6 Exhaust ............................................................................................................................................ 27
3.2 Concept designs ................................................................................................................................... 28

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Aviation Studies

3.2.1 CP-700AS ......................................................................................................................................... 28

3.2.2 CP-800AS ......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 CP-900AS ......................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3 Pros and Cons ...................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.1 Concept criteria’s ............................................................................................................................ 32
3.3.2 Concept comparison ....................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Concept choice .................................................................................................................................... 34
4. CP-800AS ............................................................................................................................................... 35
4.1 Maintenance ........................................................................................................................................ 35
4.1.1 On wing ........................................................................................................................................... 35
4.1.2 Off wing ........................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Certification ......................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2.1 CP-800AS certification ..................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.2 Fokker 100 Certification .................................................................................................................. 37
4.3 Financials ............................................................................................................................................. 37
4.3.1 Costs ................................................................................................................................................ 37
4.3.2 Benefits ........................................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.3 Break-even point ............................................................................................................................. 39
4.4 Recommendation ................................................................................................................................ 40
Abbreviationlist ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................... 42

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Domain Technology
Aviation Studies

Summary

The new engine has to meet the specific performance requirements of Fokker Aircraft. One of these require-
ments is the needed thrust in the most critical situation. This situation is determined in the climb just after
take-off with one engine out at 9000 feet and a temperature of 45°C (318 K). In this situation the required
thrust per engine is almost 45 kN.
Furthermore, the Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption is very important for an airline company due the high costs
for fuel. Therefore, the Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption must be as low as possible. The Thrust Specific Fuel
Consumption must be less than 0.0936 kg/Nhr due calculations. A low Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption also
results in a larger range.
The technical requirements are set by the European Aviation Safety Agency in the Certification Specification 25
(Subpart E) and Certification Specification Engine. The engines must operate completely independent from
each other and it must be possible to start and stop an engine during flight. All the components must be de-
signed in such way that they are resistant against foreign objects and high temperatures and that spreading of
fire is reduced to a minimum. The environmental requirements are set by the International Civil Aviation Or-
ganization in the Annex 16 Volume I and II. The maximum amount of emission depends on the maximum thrust
available. The maximum noise level depends on the maximum weight of the aircraft and the amount of en-
gines. Noise is measured during lateral full power, flyover and approach in EPNdB.
The thermodynamics of a gas turbine engine are based on the cycle process of Joule. This can be seen clearly in
a pressure-volume diagram. In the first stage, the compressor compresses the air to a higher pressure. Sec-
ondly, the air is mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustion chamber. This increases the volume of the air. In
the exhaust the air is able to expand and the volume increases while the pressure is returning to its original
amount. The intake size is dependent on the by-pass ratio. This is the ratio between by-passed air and the air
that goes through the core. The compressors are categorised in a centrifugal and an axial compressor. When
the air reaches the combustion chamber it is ignited to temperatures up to 2000°C. Therefore, cool air from the
by-pass is added before the turbine. The turbine is set in motion by the passing hot air. Via the engine shaft,
this rotation is transported to the fan and compressor blades. The aircraft uses hydraulic, pneumatic and elec-
trical power for all kind of systems, like the landing gear and flight instruments. The power is generated by
pumps and generators, or accessory units. The motion from the engine shaft is also transported to the external
gear box which is connected with these accessory units. When the engine is switched off, no air is going
through the engine and the fan, compressor and turbine set still. The external gear box is set in motion by add-
ing air to the starter motor. This causes the engine shaft to rotate and therefore the other components. An
engine fire is dangerous because there are large amounts of fuel on the aircraft and relative near the possible
fire hazard. To protect the aircraft against fire, fire resistant barriers are placed and sensors are installed.
The main differences between the engine designs are the amount of spools for the compressors, turbines and
the type that is used; if it is a by-pass or a straight jet engine; the by-pass ratio and the type of combustion
chamber. For this, three concepts are composed that have these differences and by evaluating them, one of
these is chosen. Some of the options are ruled out on forehand because of the aging or inefficient technology
that is used, for this aircraft. Furthermore, the materials are predetermined for each component to be able to
make a fair evaluation. The by-pass ratios are also predetermined, a ratio of 3.5:1 for low by-pass, 5:1 for me-
dium by-pass and 7:1 for high by-pass engines. A morphologic overview has been created according to the
functions determined in the function research. Out of this, three concepts where composed, the CP-700AS, the
CP-800AS and the CP-900AS. The CP-700AS is a triple spool high by-pass engine. It has a by-pass ratio of 7:1 and
triple spool axial compressors with 16 stages in total. Furthermore, it uses multiple combustion chambers with
normal cooling methods. The power is supplied by reaction turbines with in total 18 stages and direct drive.
The exhaust gasses and by-pass flow are externally mixed. Sound is suppressed by sound absorbing linings. It
has a take-off thrust of 113.5kN at 9000ft which is more than the minimum required. Furthermore, it has a
TSFC of 0.05267 kg/N.Hr which give it a range of 1963 nm. The CP-800AS it is a twin spool med by-pass engine
with a by-pass ratio of 5:1 and a twin spool axial compressor with a total of 15 stages. Combustion is realized in
the annular combustion chamber cooled by network passages from which the gasses flow through the impulse-
reaction turbines which have in total 12 stages. The accessory gearbox is connected to the turbine by a stub
shaft drive. After the gas flow passed the turbine, it is partially internal mixed with the by-pass flow in the ex-
haust. Sound is suppressed by sound absorbing linings. No other sound suppression is required as it has a med
by-pass ration which produces less sound compared to low by-pass engines. It has a take-off thrust of 72.1 kN

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at 9000 ft and a TSFC 0.05831 kg/N.Hr which give it a range of 1894 nm. The CP-900AS is a single spool low by-
pass engine. The by-pass ratio of this engine is 3.5:1 and it utilizes a single spool axial compressor with 8 stages.
Furthermore the combustion chambers are of the tubo-annular type and are cooled using network passages. It
uses an impulse turbine with idler gear drive as power supply and has 4 stages. The by-pass flow is internally
mixed with the exhaust gasses. Sound is suppressed by using a corrugated exhaust and sound absorbing linings.
It has a take-off thrust of 59.8 kN at 9000 ft and a TSFC 0.06864 kg/N.Hr and a range of 1609 nm.
These three concepts where reviewed using the following criteria; performance, modification, emissions,
sound production and complexity. The result of these reviews, the CP-800AS came out as the best engine be-
cause of its high performance, few or no modifications that are required and low emissions. One might think
the CP-700AS had the best performance as previously told, but during calculations the network passages cool-
ing has not been taken into account which requires 50% less cooling air so 50% of this normally cooling air goes
through the combustion chamber. Therefore thrust is increasing and the TSFC is decreasing which means it has
a lower TSFC than the CP-700AS and thus the CP-800AS has a greater range.
As the CP-800AS is a very complex engine, a good maintenance program, which contains descriptions of main-
tenance procedures, for both on wing and off wing maintenance, must be made. Therefore, Core Power has
made recommend non-exceed-limit schedules for scheduled on wing maintenance and determined the life
cycle for several main components. This is made for components in the cold area, which is defined as the area
from the intake until the end of the compressors, and in the hot area, which is defined as the area from the
beginning of the combustion chamber to the end of the exhaust. But before the CP-800AS may actually go into
service, it must be certified by the EASA first which is divided into four steps. First of all a Type Certificate Basis
(TCB) is made by a dedicated team from EASA. This document defines the needs of the applicant and the pro-
gress that has to be made by the applicant to achieve this goal. Hereafter, the certification program is planned
by the Core Power, in this document the manor of proof by the applicant and the time and date of the EASA
progress checks are determined. The third step is to proof that the new engine is CS-E compliant, this is done
by CP during the Type Investigation Program (TIP). Part of the process of showing compliance is to produce a
maintenance and overhaul manual and an operating instruction manual. The final step for CP is to declare, by
producing a document, that the new engine is CS-E compliant and after this document is approved by the Pro-
ject Certification Manager and the Certification Manager, a Type Certificate is issued.
However to be able to develop and produce this engine, enough funds must be available. The costs that are
directly involved, which are the research -, production- and certification costs, sum up to a total of €
12,900,194. Although this is a large investment, significant savings are made in fuel-, environmental- and main-
tenance costs compared to the RR Tay 650 engine. In total this could be a rough € 755,818 each year. This
means the CP-800AS earns the investment back in about 12 years, after which it start to make profit.

Concluding, the CP-800AS is the recommend design to replace the aging RR Tay 650 and to power the new
F100NG. By having said this, CP concludes its report on the CP-800AS.

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Domain Technology
Aviation Studies

Introduction

The second project in the second year of Aviation Studies at the University of Amsterdam revolves around
designing an engine for Fokker Aircraft to install on both their current and next-gens Fokker 100’s. This fleet
will operate in both Europe and South America. The new engines must meet the current demands set by the
EASA and ICAO. Besides these requirements, the demands set by Fokker Aircraft must be met too. This includes
that the engines must produce enough thrust to take-off from a maximum altitude of 9000 ft and it must have
a minimum range of 1500 nm.

Project group 2A2A has been given this assignment of designing the new engine. The design will be presented
in the form of a project and three weeks after the project deadline, it will be presented in the form of a oral
th
presentation. The project deadline is set at the 7 of January 2010.
The group reached their goal in three phases divided in four chapters. The three phases are the definition,
design and implementation phase.

The definition phase consists of two chapters. The group first examine the demands set by the law and by Fok-
ker Aircraft. The performance of the current engine will also be looked into to make comparison with the Core
Power engine later on (1). The second part of the definition phase will be the description of the principles, type
of components and systems of modern gas turbine engines. The basics of thermodynamics are first described
followed by both the main and related systems of the gas turbine engine. The components are explained in a
uniform manner. First the goal of the component is described followed by operation and if applicable the ma-
terials which are used. This chapter ends with a function research which is an introduction to the next phase
(2).
In the definition phase the group will produce a morphological overview with the help of the functions set in
the previous phase. The morphological overview will produce three possible designs. A performance research
will confirm that the requirements set in chapter one are met. All three concepts are also calculated for their
emissions and noise pollution. When these calculation are made the engines will be rated in a pros and cons
research which will ultimately point out the best concept design (3).
In the third and final phase the implementation of the chosen concept design is described. First the mainte-
nance procedure for the new engine will be explained. The certification process is then described to give Fok-
ker Aircraft the ideas of what steps are needed before the new engine can be operative. Finally the financials
are looked into. The financials are split up in costs, benefits and finally the break even point. The break even
point will point out if the Core Power engine is more cost efficient than the original Rolls Royce engine. With
this last phase Core Power will present Fokker Aircraft with a conclusion and ultimately a recommendation (4).

The project book “Power Plant Fokker 100” by Frenchez Pietersz (2009) was used for the understanding of the
project. This report is written according to “Wentzel” (2007). The complete bibliography is provided at page 42.
The appendices are present in the appendices book. The appendices start off with the project assignment (Ap-
pendix I), pyramid model (Appendix II) and the planning (Appendix III).

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1. Design requirements

The new engine has to meet requirements from Fokker Aircraft itself and the Authorities. The requirements by
Fokker Aircraft are specific on the performance and Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) (1.1). Demands by
the authorities are set in the CS-25 and CS-E of the EASA and Annex 16 of ICAO. These requirements are based
on technical safety and environmental aspects (1.2).

1.1 Fokker Aircraft

The determination of the thrust and the Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption depends on the weight and the air-
speed of the aircraft (1.1.1). During climb with one engine out the remaining operated engine has to produce
more thrust so that the pilot can continue with the climb. This flight phase is therefore the most critical point
for the engine (1.1.2).

1.1.1 Performance and specifications

The Fokker 100 (F100) can carry a maximum of 119 passengers and the aircraft is powered by the Rolls-Royce
(RR) Tay 620 or RR Tay 650 (table 1.1). Most F100 aircraft are equipped with the RR Tay 650-15 because it per-
forms better at higher altitude and has a better climb rate than RR Tay 620-15 which is used by the first manu-
factured F100. The maximum take-off weight (MTOW) is 44,450 kg (98,500 lb). The F100 has a fuel capacity of
10,240 kg (22,690 lb) and a range of 2700 km (1680 nm).

RR-650-15 Value
Trust at MSL/ISA 67 kN
Inlet mass flow 13.6 kg/s
Bypass ratio 3.10
Pressure ratio 16.4
Fan diameter 1.14 m
Engine weight 1510 kg
Engine length 2.41 m
Turbine inlet temperature 1,386 K
Cruise thrust 14.2 kN
Specific fuel consumption 0,07034 kg/N hr
Flat rate to 303 K
Table 1.1 RR-650-15 Performance

The thrust is the propulsive force which the engine produces. The inlet mass flow is the amount of air mass
flowing per second through the inlet and the compressor. The bypass ratio is the ratio between the mass flow
per second through the fan and mass flow per second through the core. The pressure ratio is the ratio between
the total air pressure at front of the compressor and the total air pressure at the back of the turbine. The
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) is the fuel consumption per hour of the engines. The flat rate of 303 K
means that the thrust of the engine maximum is constant below 303 K. Other specifications of the current F100
are less relevant (Appendix IV).

1.1.2 Required specifications

The new designed engine has to deliver a thrust so that the aircraft can start and land under different weather
circumstances and at 9000ft. The fuel consumption and noise level of the new designed engine must be lower
than the RR Tay 650. Without refuelling the aircraft, it must have the capability to fly a range of 1500 nm. The
performance calculations are divided into: required thrust for the climb (A) and TSFC calculation (B).

A Required thrust for the climb

The most critical point is a climb with one engine out, as one engine must propel the whole aircraft during
climb which has extra drag of the other engine. For this the thrust needed for a climb with one engine out is
calculated. Fokker Aircraft requires that the F100 equipped with the new engine is able to take-off on 9000ft
with a temperature of 45° C (318 K). With this temperature, the pressure at this altitude is calculated (formula
1.1) (Appendix V) and is at 9000 ft is 60,297.17Pa.

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𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 − 𝟓𝟓,𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 P9000ft= Pressure at 9000 ft

𝐏𝐏𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × � � Tisa=Temperature at mean sea level
𝑻𝑻𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 T1= Temperature during the take-off

Formula 1.1 Air pressure at 9000ft

Now the pressure at 9000 ft is calculated. The next step is to calculate the density of air at 9000 ft which is
needed to determine the lift coefficient. The lift coefficient (CL) is calculated with the lift(L) (formula 1.2). In the
Aircraft Operation Manual (AOM) of F100 stays that the MTOW is 44,680 kg and the indicated airspeed during
climb is 133.76 m/s. This results in a of CL is 0.426 (Appendix VI).

P= pressure
𝝆𝝆= density
𝑳𝑳 = 𝑾𝑾′ = 𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐 × 𝝆𝝆 × 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 × 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 × 𝑺𝑺 L= lift
W= weight
TAS= True airspeed
CL = lift coefficient
S= wing area
Formula 1.2 Lift

By calculating first the drag coefficient (CD) than the total drag (D) (formula1.3) of the aircraft for the climb is
determined. The parasite drag coefficient (CD0) of an commercial airplane is around 0.02 and 0.03 and for the
value Oswald efficiency factor (e) is around 0.70 and 0.80. With a calculation (Appendix VII) the D 44,511.46
N.

D= drag
CD= drag coefficient
𝑪𝑪𝑫𝑫
𝑫𝑫 = × 𝑾𝑾 W= weight
𝑪𝑪𝑳𝑳

Formula 1.3 Drag

Once the climb angle (γ) is determined the required thrust (T) for the climb is calculated (formula1. 4). During
the constant climb the sum of all forces applied on the aircraft are zero (Appendix VIII). According to CS-25
the required climb gradient with one engine out is 2.4 % and this mean that the climb angle is 1.37°. With cal-
culation (Appendix IX) the required thrust for the climb with one engine out is 44,511.46 N.

γ= climb angle
T= thrust
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑫𝑫 + 𝑾𝑾 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜸𝜸 D=drag
W=weight

Formula 1.4 Thrust during climb

B Specific Fuel Consumption calculation

Using the following values in the range formula the TSFC is determined (formula 1.5). During the take-off the
aircraft uses 1/5 of the fuel capacity. The fuel capacity of the F100 is 10,293 kg, this decreases after take-off to
8,234.4 kg. Adding this amount to the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) which is 36,740 kg. The weight of
the aircraft after take-off (W0) is 44,974.4 kg. The aircraft cruises at a maximum altitude of 35,000 ft. At this
altitude the temperature is 218.7 K and the air pressure is 238.27 hPa. Then the time that it takes to reach the
1,500 nm is calculated with a True Airspeed of 320 kts (164 m/s). Adding the calculated time to one hour fuel
capacity after the aircraft has landed to determine the new range. This new range is 1818.8 nm. The lift- and
drag coefficient are calculated and have a value of 0.9244 and 0.033. The maximum weight for the landing (W1)
is the MZFW which is 36,883 kg. With this new range the TSFC can be calculated. The TSFC of the new designed
engine must be less than 0.0936 kg/N hr to reach a range 1500 nm plus one hour extra flight (Appendix X).

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R=range
CT=Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 W1= weight for the l.anding
𝑹𝑹 = × 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 × × �𝟏𝟏 − � �
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑾𝑾𝟎𝟎 W0= weight after the take-off
Cl= lift coefficient
Cd= drag coefficient at maximum range
Formula 1.5 Range

1.2 Regulations
The engine concept must comply with the demands set by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The technical aspects (1.2.1) are found in the Certification
Specification 25 (CS-25) Subpart E and Certification Specification Engine (CS-E). Furthermore the group must
design an engine which produces less noise (1.2.2) and emission (1.2.3). The regulations regarding these as-
pects are stated in Annex 16 Volume I and II.

1.2.1 Technical aspects

The technical aspects specified in the CS-25 are divided into three parts. The general regulations contain re-
quirements that apply to the whole engine (A). The regulations of the components within the engine are then
examined (B). An important issue with the engine is safety, in particular fire protection (C).

A General
For the installation of the engine, precautions must be taken to minimize hazardous situations to the aircraft in
the event of an engine rotor failure or severe fire. In case of an engine failure there must be means of restart-
ing the engine. For this a power source independent of the engine-driven electrical power generating system
must be provided.
The engines must be isolated from each other, this is to ensure that when one engine fails the other will stay
operative. There must also be means of stopping the engines in flight, each component of the stopping system
on the engine side of the firewall that might be exposed to fire must be at least fire resistant.

B Components
The air intake system must supply the air required by the engine for each flight situation. The aircraft must be
designed that water will not enter the intake in hazardous quantities when landing, taxiing or take-off. Also it
must be shown with tests that foreign objects can be taken in without resulting in failures of components that
could create a hazardous situation.
The exhaust must dispose its gasses safely without fire hazard and leakage into any personnel compartment.
Because the exhaust has parts that are hot enough to ignite leaked fluids, these hot parts must be isolated so
any leakage does not cause a fire hazard.
The exhaust piping must be heat and corrosion resistant, also it must withstand any vibration and inertia loads
to which it would be subjected.
Each fuel system must be constructed in such a way that ensures a flow of fuel at a proper rate and pressure
under each likely operating condition including any allowed manoeuvre. The system must also be designed and
arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel vapour within the system.

C Fire protection
The combustion, turbine, and tailpipe sections of turbine engines must be isolated from the rest of the aircraft
by firewalls. Each of these firewalls must be fireproof, protected against corrosion and constructed so that no
hazardous quantity of air, fluid, or flames can pass from the compartment to other parts of the aircraft.
On components that carry a flammable fluid, there must be a fire extinguisher system available. The fire-
extinguishing system, the quantity of the extinguishing agent, the rate of discharge, and the discharge distribu-
tion must be adequate to extinguish fires. It must also be proven that under critical airflow conditions there is
adequate fire extinguishing available for the designated zones. These zones are the engine power section, the
compressor and accessory section of turbine engines and the combustor, turbine, and tailpipe section of tur-
bine engine installations that contains lines or components carrying flammable fluids or gases.

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1.2.2 Emission
In order to reduce the damage which emissions cause to the environment, there are requirements set by ICAO
in Annex 16 volume II. In this Annex, the smoke and gaseous emissions are described. The smoke emission is
measured in terms of smoke number (SN). The gaseous emissions are subdivided into three types of gasses.
These are the unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and the oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
These gaseous emissions are determined and measured during a landing and take-off cycle (LTO). The amount
of emission is expressed in grams and depends on the thrust settings of the engine and the time of measure-
ment which differs per phase of the LTO (Table 1.2). F00 stands for the maximum thrust available under ISA
conditions.

LTO Phase Thrust settings (Rated thrust in Time (minutes)

kN)
Take-off 100% of F00 0.7
Climb 85% of F00 2.2
Approach 30% of F00 4.0
Taxi/Ground idle 7% of F00 26.0
Table 1.2 Thrust settings and time of measurement during a LTO

The SN may not exceed the maximum emission during any of the phases of the LTO. The maximum emission SN
can be calculated (Formula 1.6). Either the result or a standard value of 50 SN will be used, whichever is lower.

-0.274
Regulatory SN = 83.6 (F00) F00 = The maximum thrust available under ISA condi-
tions, in normal operations
Formula 1.6 Maximum Emission SN

The different maximum gaseous emission for HC, CO and NOx can be calculated using the amount of emission
in grams. The grams are expressed in DP. The relation between F00 and DP determines the maximum allowed
emission. The relation DP/F00 for HC is set at 19.6 and the DP/F00 for CO is set at 118. The maximum allowed
emission of NOx is calculated with an extra factor, the pressure ratio factor. This factor determines the formula
which is needed to calculate the maximum allowed emission NOx.
All the measurements are done following the procedures which are stated in Annex 16.

1.2.3 Noise
The amount of noise an aircraft engine may produce is also determined by ICAO. These regulations are also
stated in Annex 16 Volume I. The noise production is expressed in Effective Perceived Noise level decibel
(EPNdB). There are three chapters regarding noise regulations, these are based on the time of certification of
the aircraft. Only one is applicable for designing a new engine. In this case chapter 4 of Annex 16 is applied, the
new design concept must meet the regulations of 2006 and further.
The maximum noise levels depend on the weight of the aircraft and the amount of engines. There are three
points of measurement:
1. Lateral full power
2. Flyover
3. Approach

Ad 1. Lateral full power

The measurement point is placed everywhere on an imaginary parallel line from the centre line of the runway.
This parallel line is located 450m from the centre line of the runway. This measurement point may not be ex-
ceeded when the aircraft applies full thrust. The maximum noise level for the Fokker 100 is calculated by the
using the Maximum Take-off Mass (MTOM) (Formula 1.7). The minimum EPNdB allowed is 94 EPNdB and the
maximum is 103 EPNdB at a MTOM of 400.000kg. The MTOM for the Fokker 100 is 44.450 kg so the maximum
noise level is about 94,9 EPNdB.

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Max EPNdB = 80.87 + 8.51 Log (MTOM/1000) MTOM = Maximum Take-off Mass in kg

Formula 1.7 Maximum Noise Level

Ad 2. Flyover
The second measurement point is when the aircraft is in its climb. From the start of the roll on the imaginary
extended centre line of the runway, the measurement point lays 6,5km further. The aircraft will not use full
thrust anymore because on certain height a power cutback is performed. The Fokker 100 has two engines and
with its MTOM 44.450 kg the maximum noise level at this point is calculated (Formula 1.8). The minimum is 89
EPNdB and the maximum 101 EPNdB. Because the result of the calculation with the MTOM of the Fokker 100 is
lower than 89 EPNdB, the maximum noise level will be 89 EPNdB at the flyover measurement point.

Max EPNdB = 66.65 + 13.29 Log (MTOM/1000) MTOM = Maximum Take-off Mass in kg

Formula 1.8 Maximum Noise Level

Ad 3. Approach
The third measurement point is determined by using the threshold. When the aircraft follows a glide path of 3°
and is on a vertical distance of 120m, it is 2000m away from the runway and another 300m more of the thresh-
old. For the calculation of the maximum noise level at approach (Formula 1.9), the Maximum Landing Mass
(MLM) is used. The MLM is 39.915 kg. The minimum is 98 EPNdB and the maximum 105 EPNdB. Using the for-
mula the maximum noise level is 98,5 EPNdB at the approach.

Max EPNdB = 86.03 + 7,75 Log(MLM/1000) MLM = Maximum Landing Mass in kg

Formula 1.9 Maximum Noise Level

In some cases, when one or two measurement points are exceeded, trade-off agreements are given. There are
three rules in relation to trade-off in the category of the Fokker 100:
• The maximum noise levels shall not be exceeded at all three measurement points.

• The sum of the differences at the three measurement points between the maximum noise levels and
the maximum permitted noise levels shall not be less than 10 EPNdB.

• The sum of the differences at any two measurement points between the maximum noise levels and
the corresponding maximum permitted noise levels shall not be less than 2 EPNdB.

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2. Gas Turbine Main Components

The gas turbine theory is based on the third law of Newton which states; action creates an opposite reaction.
The other principle of gas turbines is the one of the cycle process of Joule which is a combination of adiabatic
and isobar phases. (2.1). This cycle is realized by the main components in the gas turbine engine (2.2). The
operation of gas turbine engine is related to other system of the aircraft (2.3). The acceleration of air pass
through five stage of the engine(2.4).

2.1 Thermodynamics
The cycle process of joule is a four process cycle that occurs in a gas turbine engine. These are compression,
combustion, expansion and the return to the initial situation. These processes take place in different parts
throughout the engine, which can be seen as different stages.

Figure 2.1 Pressure-Volume diagram

The cycle of joule is a closed cycle and can be viewed in a pressure-volume diagram (figure 2.1). In this diagram
the phases are seen idealistic. The compression and expansion progress adiabatic. The combustion chamber
and compressor are openly connected so the process is isobar. The compressor and turbine are mechanical
attached to each other. The useful energy of the engine can be used for thrust or to power a generator. In the
engine there is a loss of energy. This can be calculated with an effectiveness formula (formula 2.1).

𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 η =effective energy Dimensionless

𝜼𝜼 = 𝟏𝟏 −
𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 T= Temperature K
Formula 2.1 Effective energy

The gas turbine has a few advantages compared to a with a petrol engine. There are no up and down moving
parts which will reduce the wear of the engine. The gas turbine is better balanced which will reduce the vibra-
tion of the engine. This results in a more silent engine. The gas turbine produces much thrust compared to its
weight.
The first process of the gas turbine (figure 2.2) starts with the compression. The compression takes place in the
compressor (1). The air of the intake is pressurized when it goes through the compressor. The air is pressurized
to get an good air ratio for combustion. In the Pressure-Volume diagram the compression is step 1-2. The com-
pression process occurs adiabatic. This means there is no exchange of heat with the environment. This only
works for an idealistic process. The principles of Poisson are used to calculate the changes in the process. The
pressure changes in the compressor and turbine can be calculated. The possion principle applied on pressure
and volume can be used in these calculations (formula 2.2).

𝜸𝜸 𝜸𝜸
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 ∙ 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 P= Pressure Pascal
V= Volume m³
γ= Poisson constant Dimensionless
Formula 2.2 Poisson with pressure and volume

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In the compressor the temperature will raise, this happens because the air is forced in a space. This results in
heat development. The temperature in the compressor is necessary to determine which materials can be ap-
plied. When the principle of Poisson is adapted for the temperature and volume, the temperatures in the com-
pressor can be calculated (formula 2.3).
𝜸𝜸−𝟏𝟏 𝜸𝜸−𝟏𝟏 T= Temperature K
𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 ∙ 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
V= Volume m³
γ=Poisson constant dimensionless
Formula 2.3 Poisson with temperature and volume
In the process, an adiabatic process takes place two times. This is in the compressor and turbine. During these
processes work is delivered. This can be calculated with the formula for work in an adiabatic process (formula
2.5). The formula can be rewritten to a formula in which the pressure and temperature can be determined.
−𝟏𝟏 W= Work Joule
𝑾𝑾 = (𝑷𝑷 ∙ 𝑽𝑽 − 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 ) P= pressure Pascal
𝜸𝜸 − 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
V= Volume m³
γ=Poisson constant dimensionless
Formula 2.5 Work in an adiabatic process
In the reality, the air in the compressor will slightly increase in temperature due to the compression of the air in
the intake and by the compression of the compressor. This results in an efficiency drop of the compression.

Figure 2.2 gas turbine process

1. Compressor
2. Combustion room
3. Turbine

The combustion is an isobar process. In the pressure-volume diagram the isobar process is seen in step 2-3. The
combustion chamber (2) is directly connected with the compressor which results in an equal pressure. In the
combustion chamber, the temperature will highly increase. When the temperature increases more, the air will
expand more. This results in an higher velocity of the air. The combustion chamber develops high temperatures
which need to be calculated for the material choice for this part. Changes are calculated with the ideal gas law
(formula 2.6).

𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 V= Volume m³

= T= Temperature K
𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐

Formula 2.6 Ideal gas law

The combustion and at the intake are isobar processes. The combustion produces energy and at the intake
energy was necessary to get to the initial conditions. For these processes, the work can be calculated with the
formula for work in an isobar process (formula 2.7). When all the work of the steps is calculated, the total work
that the engine delivers can be determined. This work can be used for thrust.
𝑾𝑾 = 𝑷𝑷 ∙ (𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 − 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 ) W= Work J
P= Pressure Pascal
V= Volume m³
Formula 2.7 Work in an isobar process
Through the ignition of the air-fuel mixture the temperature will raise. The rate of fuel in the air will inflict the
temperature raise of the air. The type of fuel is also responsible for the temperature raise in the combustion
process. The fuel has influence on the efficiency of the combustion. The combustion efficiency of gas turbines

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at sea level is almost 100 percent. When an aircraft is flying on altitude flight conditions, the combustion effi-
ciency will decrease to an efficiency of 98 percent. The efficiency drop will result in loss of work, this inflicts the
thrust.
In the cycle of joule the expansion is the step 3-4. The expansion is an adiabatic process. In the gas turbine the
expansion takes place after the combustion in the turbine and the exhaust (3). The expansion in the turbine has
the same shaft as in the compressor. This means that the compressor delivers the same power as the turbine.
Ideally seen this means the temperature and pressure will change equal to each other. The expansion ends in
the exhaust where the exhaust gasses will mix with the undisturbed airflow and will return to the inertial condi-
tions. In the cycle process, this is the last step from 4-1. With this step the cycle is closed.

2.2 Gas turbine main components

The goal of the main components in a gas turbine engine is to accelerate the incoming air. This starts at the
intake, where the air enters the engine (2.2.1). The compressor is the second stage in the process, it com-
presses the air to a certain pressure and temperature before it flows to the combustion chamber (2.2.2). In the
combustion chamber, fuel is mixed with the incoming air and this mixture is then ignited, this results in accel-
erating and high temperature airflow (2.2.3). The airflow drives the turbine, which in its turn drives the com-
pressor and the fan (2.2.4). At last the exhaust creates a propulsion force as the air leaves the engine (2.2.5).

2.2.1 Intake
The intake is where the process begins and where the air is sucked in (A). The dimensions of the intake depend
on the kind of engine that is used, or in other words, if there is a fan installed or not (B). This fan is subjected to
specific stresses that must be withstand (C).

A Goal of the intake

Air is sucked into the engine through the intake. The goal of the intake is to let this happen without disturbing
the incoming airflow to avoid friction losses and decreases in the airflow speed. This is realized by making the
intake as smooth and seamless as possible, because a small dent could seriously disrupt the airflow. The second
goal is to begin to build up some pressure before the compressor as the intake is divergent.

B The by-pass principle

Before the gas turbine engines, propeller engines where mainly used. A difference between gas turbine and
propeller engines is that the last one is the more efficient till speeds of 305 knots and the gas turbine engine is
more efficient above this speed. As modern commercial aircraft cruise just above this boundary speed and
during climb and descent below this speed, a pure jet engine or a pure propeller engine would both be ineffi-
cient at some of the flight stages. For this the turbo-fan jet engine or by-pass engine is developed. In this kind
of engine (figure 2.3), one or several fans, which could also work as a low pressure compressor, are installed in
front of the compressor (1). These fans suck air into the by-pass ducts (2).

1. Fans
2. By-pass ducts

Figure 2.3 By-pass engine

By-pass means exactly what the word says, air is by-passed around the engine core. This shows a little likeness
with a standard propeller engine, where the airflow is not compressed and ignited. A by-pass engine comes
with a by-pass ratio, which gives the ratio of amount of air that is by-passed against one amount of air that is
going through the core. For example 3:1 is three kilo of air that is by-passed against one kilo of air that is going
through the core. In practice, a distinction is made between a low by-pass ratio engine and a high by-pass ratio
engine where the last one is more efficient (Appendix XI). However a high by-pass engine requires a much
larger fan in diameter then a low by-pass engine which means the intake diameter is also larger.

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C Materials
The intake is mostly made out of aluminium and stainless steel to make it a smooth as possible. Furthermore,
good heat conduction is required for the de-icing. The fan blades have to withstand high centrifugal stresses
but must also be light to minimize the imbalance in the front of the engine that occurs when one of the blades
breaks. Therefore most fan blades are made out of a titanium skin with a hexagonal core. To provide aerody-
namic stability even during high rotation speeds wide chord blades are used. An even better fan blade is the
sweep back fan blade which is made out of carbon reinforced epoxy; this type of blade is lighter and has better
aerodynamics which increases fan efficiency.

2.2.2 Compressor
The compressor is the second phase in the gas turbine engine, after the air is sucked in (A). There are two types
of compression methods to create the desirable effect: one is the centrifugal compressor, which gives a cen-
trifugal flow (B) and the other is the axial compressor, which gives an axial flow (C). The generated high air-
speeds, temperatures and pressure ratios require well considered material choice (D).

A Goal of the compressor

The compressor in the gas turbine engine provides the compression of the incoming air to increase the pres-
sure and temperature. This creates a lot of potential energy used for an efficient combustion during the next
phase.

B Centrifugal compressor
The centrifugal compressor (figure 2.4) consists of a single or two stage unit, using an impeller to accelerate the
air, and a diffuser to compress the air. When the impeller (1) is rotating at high speeds, air is sucked into the
compressor and whirled round by vanes on the impeller disc (Appendix XII). The centripetal acceleration will
force the flow (2) acting radial outwards along the vane to the impeller tip which accelerates the air. The static
pressure of the air thereby increases from the center of the compressor to the tip of the impeller. When the air
leaves the impeller it passes into the diffuser (3), where the remainder of the static pressure rise is obtained.
The diffuser consists of diverging passages which convert the kinetic energy of the air into pressure energy.
Also the very high velocity of the air leaving the impeller tip is reduced in this section, for an efficiently igniting
process later on.
1. Impeller
2. Airflow
2 3. Diffuser

Figure 2.4 The centrifugal compressor

C Axial compressor
An axial compressor consists of alternate rows of rotating rotor blades and stationary stator vanes. The airflow
is accelerated by the rotor blades and decelerated by the stator blades where the kinetic energy is converted to
static pressure. Also the airflow is directed in a straight line. There are single spool compressors and multi spool
compressors, but the twin spool design is most used in common modern civil aircraft (Appendix XIII). This
because, twin spool compressors are driven each with their optimum speed which provide higher pressure
ratios.

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A twin spool compressor (figure 2.5) consists of a Low Pressure (LP) compressor (1) and a High Pressure (HP)
compressor (2). The LP compressor, and also the fan, is driven by the LP turbine (3) on the first spool and the
HP compressor by the HP turbine (4) on the second spool. The speeds of the two spools are mechanically inde-
pendent.

1. Low pressure compressor

1 2. High pressure compressor
3. Low pressure turbine
2 4. High pressure turbine
3
4

Figure 2.5 Turbofan with axial compressor system

D Materials
For the casing in the compressor, the design needs to be a light but rigid construction to enable accurate and
efficient blade tip clearances. Therefore, aluminium is used at the front of the compression system. When the
temperature is increasing during compression, alloy steels are installed. At the final stages, where the tempera-
ture requirements exceed the best steel, alloys of nickel are used.
High fatigue strength material, like steel of nickel based alloys, is used for stator vanes. In the low pressure area
titanium may be used, but it is not usable at later high pressure areas where also the temperature of the flow is
increased.
The rotor blades are normally produced from titanium. The highest ratio of strength to density is required dur-
ing the centrifugal forces acting on the blades. For the same reason, also the impellers in the centrifugal com-
pressor are made of titanium.
The rotor blades are mechanically fixed and secured to the rotor discs (Appendix XIV). The aim is to design a
securing method with the lightest possible load on the discs.

2.2.3 Combustion chamber

The combustion chamber is the next step in the gas turbine process to add energy to the air (A).
There are in general three types of combustion chambers, but they are all based on the same operation (B). All
these three types need to withstand the same stresses which are created during the combustion process,
therefore materials with the right properties must be used (C).

A Goal of the combustion chamber

The combustion chamber is situated between the compressor and the turbine. It adds a huge amount of heat
energy to the air by mixing it with fuel and then ignite it for a short period of time. The second, maybe contra-
dictive, goal of the combustion chamber is to cool the air before it reaches the turbine.

B Operation of the combustion chamber

Most combustion chambers have a similar kind of operation but a different set-up. In general a combustion
chamber (figure 2.6) consists of two zones, the primary zone and the dilution zone.

8
7 1. snout
3 2. inner flame tube
2 3. air casing
4. perforated flare
4
5. swirl vanes
1 6. fuel spray nozzle
6 7. secondary air holes
5 8. dilution air holes

Figure 2.6 General combustion chamber

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Before the air enters the primary zone in the combustion chamber where the air is mixed and ignited, it needs
to be decelerated as it has a flow speed which is too high for combustion. Therefore 20% of the airflow is di-
rected into the snout (1), the other 80% flows between the inner flame tube (2) and air casing (3). This diffu-
sion raises the static pressure and thus decreases the flow speed. However the flow speed is still too high for
the flame, for this the air in the snout is diffused again. 8% of the total airflow flows through the perforated
flare (4) and the remaining 12% of the total airflow flows through the swirl vanes (5). This, now swirling, airflow
enters the primary zone of the combustion chamber. In this zone the fuel spray nozzle (6) mixes fuel with the
air and the actual combustion takes place. Another 20% of the total airflow enters the primary zone through
the secondary air holes (7). This flow creates, together with the swirling airflow, a toroidal vortex. Only now,
combustion can take place because the flame will not be extinguished.
The combusted air is around 1800 to 2000°C, this is far too hot for the turbine. To cool the air, 20% of the total
airflow is added through the dilution air holes (8) in the dilution zone and mixed with the hot expanding gasses
that flow from the primary zone. This cools the total airflow to about 850 to 1700°C. The remaining 40% of the
total air flow is used for cooling (Appendix XV), which prevents overheating of the air casing and the rest of
the engine.
Nowadays there are, in general, three types of combustion chambers that are based on this operation:

1. Multiple chamber
2. Tubo-annular chamber
3. Annular chamber

Ad 1. Multiple chamber
This kind of combustion chamber consists of multiple chambers, with their own inner flame tube and air casing
mounted around the engine axle (Appendix XVI). The multiple chambers are supplied individually by the
compressor but are interconnected so that they all operate on the same pressure. This type of combustion
chamber is mostly used on engines with a centrifugal compressor.

Ad 2. Tubo-annular chamber
This is some sort of mix between the multiple chamber and the annular chamber. It consists, like the multiple
chamber type, of multiple combustion chambers, but they share the same big air casing which is annular (Ap-
pendix XVII). This combustion chamber is mostly used on axial compressor engines.

Ad 3. Annular chamber
This chamber consist of one big inner flame tube and air casing which are completely annular and is mounted
around the engine axle (Appendix XVIII). For the same effect as the two previously mentioned chambers, the
length just need to be 25% of the length of the other two. It also needs 15% less air for cooling, which mean it
can use more air for combustion. This chamber is mostly used on axial compressor engines.

C Materials
Combustion chambers have to withstand the very high temperatures of the gasses, but also creep and corro-
sion (from the gas particles). Therefore materials with high temperature resistance must be used. Nowadays,
mostly nickel based alloys are used; however an upcoming trend is the use of ceramic composite materials.

2.2.4 Turbine
The turbine is the fourth stage in the gas turbine before the gas leaves the engine (A). As with the compressor,
there are two basic types of turbine: axial flow and radial (Appendix XIX). The axial flow turbine is the vast
majority of gas turbines (B). Each part in the turbine has its own limiting factors which affects the useful life of
the component. For these factors the right materials have to be chosen and must meet the requirements (C).

A Goal of the turbine

The turbine provides the power to drive the compressor and the fan by using energy from the hot gasses re-
leased from the combustion chamber and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. This energy
extraction results in a radial movement of the turbine and thereby, via the spool, drive the compressor and the
fan.

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B Operation of the turbine

The turbine consists of several stages, each employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of
moving turbine blades. The power required from the gas flow, rotational speed and the permitted diameter of
the turbine determine the number of stages. The number of turbines varies with the type of engine (Appendix
XX). A twin spool system consists of a LP turbine on a LP shaft, and a HP turbine on a HP turbine shaft.
When the gas is expanded from the combustion chamber, it flows into the nozzles of the turbine where it will
be accelerated. This is because of the convergent shape of the nozzles. Also the flow is given a radial move-
ment in the direction of the turbine blades. By hitting the blades energy is absorbed, causing the turbine to
rotate at high speed and thereby drives the turbine shaft. The design of the vanes and blades is based on aero-
dynamic considerations and to obtain an optimal efficiency. The different types of turbine are then based on
the design of these vanes and blades (figure 2.7):

1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine
3. Impulse-reaction turbine

Ad 1 Impulse turbine
In the impulse type the convergent shape of the nozzle guide vanes increase the velocity of the flow and re-
duces the pressure. The directed flow creates an impulse onto the turbine blades, followed by a radial move-
ment.

Ad 2 Reaction turbine
In the reaction turbine the fixed nozzle guide vanes are so designed that they will not change the pressure
while directing the flow to the turbine blades. The converging blade passages will get a reaction force of the
accelerating and expanding flow.

Ad 3 Impulse-reaction turbine
A combination of the two turbines above, the impulse-reaction turbine, is mostly used in a gas turbine engine.
Hereby the turbine blades also have a convergent design, which results in a more accelerating airflow.

Figure 2.7 The impulse turbine (left) compared to the impulse-reaction turbine (right)

C Materials
The construction of the turbine has to withstand very high pressures and temperatures. The nozzle guide vanes
do not endure the same rotational stresses as the turbine blades, because of their static position. Heat resis-
tance is thereby the major requirement. On the other hand, the turbine blades have to withstand great cen-
trifugal forces, high temperatures, high bending forces and thermal shocks. Furthermore it has to be fatigue,
corrosion and oxidation resistant.
To meet these requirements, cast nickel base alloys are commonly used. Small high turbine engines which have
very high turbine entry temperature can also use ceramic blades. The turbine discs, where the turbine blades
are attached, has to deal with great rotational stresses. Nickel with adding alloying elements increase the life
limits of the disc by increasing fatigue resistance.

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The stress in the disc around the fixing of the blade is important because it is limiting the speed. The ‘fir-tree’
fixing is now the major method of blade attachment in gas turbine engines (Appendix XXI). It consists of ser-
rations whereby the blade is free when the turbine is stationary and is rigid by centrifugal loading.

2.2.5 Exhaust system

The exhaust system is the final stage in a gas turbine engine and here the propulsion force is created (A).
Although there are some small variations in exhaust systems, they all work the same way and have the same
kind of design (B).Like the rest of the engine, the exhaust system must endure very high temperatures during
operation which requires heat resistant materials and construction methods (C).

A Goal of the exhaust system

The exhaust system is the propelling part of the gas turbine engine. The gas flow is released to the atmosphere,
this creates a propulsive reaction force.

B Operation of the exhaust system

A plain low by-pass ratio exhaust (figure 2.8) consists of turbine rear support struts (1), an exhaust cone (2), by-
pass ducts (3), mixer chutes (4) and the propelling nozzle (5).
1. Turbine rear support struts
2. Exhaust cone
3 3. By-pass ducts
4 4. Mixer chutes
5. Propelling nozzle
1
2

Figure 2.8 General low by-pass ratio exhaust system

When the airflow enters the exhaust system, it is still swirling from the turbine which causes more friction.
Therefore rear support struts of the turbine are installed in such a way that the airflow is straightened out.
Another factor which causes high friction losses is the speed of the airflow, which is upon entry 230 to 370 m/s.
This speed is reduced to about 0,5 mach because the area between the cone and the outer wall of the exhaust
is divergent. When a low by-pass ratio is used, the by-pass air coming from the by-pass ducts is mixed with the
hot air coming from the turbine by using the mixer chutes. After this mixing, the air leaves the engines through
the propelling nozzle which is convergent and thus increases the air speed again. This action gives a reaction
which propels the aircraft. Most of the time the airflow speed at exit is sonic, this means that the velocity can
only be increased by raising the temperature. Because of this, the engine gets choked which results in a total
pressure increase, which means a static pressure increase above the atmospheric pressure in this situation.
This pressure gives an extra pressure thrust which, combined with the right sort of nozzle, can be used for extra
thrust (Appendix XXII).
In case of a high by-pass ratio engine, there are two types of mixing that can be used (Appendix XXIII). The
two flows could be externally mixed; this means each flow has its own exhaust in the same direction. However
a better performance is gained when the two flows are partially internally mixed. This is called an integrated
nozzle which is similar to the low by-pass ratio exhaust.

C Noise suppression
On pure jet engines and low by-pass engines, the biggest source of noise is the exhaust (Appendix XXIV). This
noise is caused by the very turbulent mixing of the exhaust gasses with the atmosphere which is influenced by
the relative speed between the exhaust gasses and the atmosphere. The noise level increases even more when
the gasses reach the velocity of sound, this creates a shock pattern. So to reduce the exhaust noise, the mixing
rate of the gasses with the atmosphere must be accelerated (Appendix XV) or the relative speed between the
gasses and the atmosphere must be reduced. The last option is the main reason why high by-pass engines are

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much quieter than pure or low by-pass engines (Appendix XXVI), because of the reduction of the exhaust
flow speed compared to the pure and low by-pass engines. On the high by-pass engine the noise could be even
further reduced by using the earlier described integrated nozzle which mixes the gasses and air partially inter-
nally. For this, the suppression nozzles used by pure and low by-pass engine which could have a negative influ-
ence on the overall performance, are not needed on high by-pass engines.
In the high by-pass engine, the engine core, especially the fan or the compressor in case of a low by-pass en-
gine and turbine, is the predominant source of noise (Appendix XXVII). These noises could be reduced by
minimizing the turbulence in the airflow and reducing the strength of the interactions between the rotors and
stationary vanes which can be regulated through the spacing between these two. Furthermore noise absorbing
linings are used throughout the engine (Appendix XXVIII).

D Materials
Because of the high gas temperatures the exhaust must endure, it is normally made out of nickel or titanium.
And because of these high temperature variations, the whole exhaust system must be joined is such a way that
it can expand and contract a certain amount. Therefore most exhaust systems are made out of nickel or high
temperature titanium based alloys. Furthermore the surrounding aircraft structure is protected against the
heat by ventilating air, or an insulating blanket which has a fibre like insulating core surrounded by stainless
steel to protect it. This blanket could also contain sound damping materials. The mixer units, in case of by-pass
engines, are made using a hexagonal structure of heat resistance material which offers high strength and rela-
tive low weight.

2.3 Gas Turbine related system

The gas turbine subsystems support the main components or aircraft systems. Accessory units provide power
to most systems on the aircraft, such as hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical power (2.3.1). To provide power,
the engine needs fuel to ignite; this fuel is supplied by a fuel system which transports fuel from the tank to the
engine (2.3.2). When the engine is provided with fuel, it can be started. This is done by a starting system. This
system makes the compressor and turbine turn at a certain speed (2.3.3). When the engine is running, some
parts become hot and need to be cooled, this is done by the internal air system. This system uses air from the
compressor to cool for example the turbine blades (2.3.4). All the turning parts such as the turbine and com-
pressor need lubrication. The parts are lubricated to prevent excessive wear (2.3.5). In the case a fire breaks
out, the rest of the aircraft needs to be protected against heat and flames. This is done by a heat shield and fire
extinguishers (2.3.6). To stop an aircraft after touch-down, the pilot uses thrust reversal next to the normal
wheel brakes and spoilers. The thrust reversers redirect the air to the front, creating a force to the back (2.3.7).
Next to fire, it is also dangerous to have vibrations in the engine. These vibrations can cause massive damage to
the engine and perhaps a total loss of power (2.3.8). Just like the internal air system, the bleed air system also
uses air from the compressor to fulfil its function, namely: heating cold parts of the aircraft and providing air to
the system which pressurizes the cabin (2.3.9).

2.3.1 Power supply

During operation, the aircraft needs three types of power. This power is generated with the accessory units.
These units provide electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic power (A) and are driven by gears and shafts. The rota-
tion of the engine shaft is used to drive the generators and pumps (B).

A Goal of power supply

The aircraft uses power during its operation on ground and in the air. The accessory units provide power for
the electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic systems in the aircraft. Examples of the systems are the landing gear,
flight instruments and flight controls. The internal gearbox is normally moved by the movement of the engine
and transported to the external gear box. The external gear box drives the pumps and various control systems.

B Operation of power supply

As described in paragraph 2.2, the rotation of the turbine provides a movement to the fan and axis of the com-
pressor through the engine shaft. To transport this motion, the internal gear box is coupled to the engine shaft
(figure 2.9). During operation, temperatures in the engine are constantly varying. This makes the engine shaft
expanding and shrinking during flight. A direct connection (1) between the two gears will result in a disconnec-
tion (2&3). Therefore, stub shaft drives (4) and/or idler gear drives are used. Using a stub shaft drive, the en-

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gine shaft is able to increase and shrink without losing connection between the gears. The engine shaft consists
of an inner- and outer shaft (5). During expansion, the inner shaft is able to slide out of the outer shaft. The
gear, which is mounted on the outer shaft, stays in place and does not disconnect with the gear of the radial
drive shaft.

2 1. Direct shaft connection

2. Radial shaft
3. Internal gear
1 4. Stub drive shaft
5. Splined drive

Figure 2.9 Direct drive and Stub shaft drive

The radial drive shaft transmits the drive from the internal gearbox to the external gear box. The radial shaft is
from the engine shaft to the external gearbox at the outside of the engine. This means that the shaft has to
gross the compressor duct and by-pass area. To minimize the disturbance of the airflow, the radial gear shaft is
housed in the support structure of the engine.
In the external gearbox, drives of the accessories can be found like hydraulic pumps, fuel pump, and electrical
generators. All these subcomponents are wrapped around the engine to reduce drag and for easier mainte-
nance. If one of the pumps or generators is blocked, the shear neck tears which enables the gears to rotate
freely.

2.3.2 Fuel system

A mixture of fuel and air is ignited in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the temperature and pressure rises
(A). The fuel is transported from the fuel tanks to the combustion chamber via pumps and filters (B).

A Goal of the fuel system

In the combustion chamber, air and fuel are mixed for ignition. The fuel system provides fuel suitable for com-
bustion and controls the required fuel quantity. The systems transport the fuel to the nozzles, which injects the
fuel in form of an atomized spray. With increasing altitude, the air density decreases and the air that the engine
consumes drops. Therefore, less fuel is added for an optimal ratio between air and fuel.

B Operation of the fuel system

The thrust levers in the cockpit provide the input for the fuel system. The levers in idle position mean that less
fuel is added into the combustion chamber. When maximum fuel is added, the levers are in their full power
position. Increasing the fuel flow has the effect of increasing gas temperature, which increases the acceleration
through the engine. Fuel is transported to the combustion chamber through pumps. In some fuel system de-
signs the pumping stage is divided into two stages. Namely, in the Low Pressure (LP) pump and the High Pres-
sure (HP) pump. First the fuel from the tanks goes through the LP pump. After that the fuel is filtered for con-
tamination. In some aircraft designs, the fuel is heated with bleed air to prevent ice crystals in the fuel system.
Fuel is transported from the LP pump to the HP pump. The HP pump pressurizes the fuel to its pressure which
is used in the combustion chamber. The nozzles must spray a perfect mist of fuel into the combustion chamber.
This minimizes the emissions and causes a rapid, powerful and complete combustion.

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2.3.3 Starting system

When the engine is off, the turbines and therefore the compressors are not rotating. To start compression for
the combustion chamber, the compressor must be set in motion (A). The start is done by the starter motor
which is found in the external gear box (B).

A Goal of the starting system

When the aircraft is on ground and the engines are off, no air is flowing through the engine so there is no rota-
tion of the turbine blades and therefore the fuel pumps will not operate. The compressor and turbine must
rotate at a certain speed to suck air and mix it with fuel for ignition.

B Operation of the starting system

Every type of aircraft has its own way of starting. Nowadays, almost all modern aircraft use a starter motor
which is found in the external gearbox (figure 2.10). The starter motor in the external gear box is easy to reach
and thus makes maintaining it easier. When the starter button in the cockpit is selected, the ‘control and pres-
sure reducing valve’ is opened in the starter motor. Air is going into the starter motor via the air inlet (1). This
air is originated from a ground air supply unit, another running engine or the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). The
flow turns the starter turbine (2). The speed of the turbine is controlled by the ‘control and pressure reducing
valve’, which increases or decreases the air inlet. The starter turbine transmits its rotation to the engine shaft.
Fuel is added in the combustion chamber by moving the fuel levers. The mix off compressed air and fuel is
ignited, this causes the air to expand and the engine is started.

1. Air inlet
2. Starter turbine
3. Gear connection
3

Figure 2.10 Starter motor

When the HP shaft has a certain defined rotation speed, the control and pressure reducing valve are closed and
the clutch of the starter motor is automatically disengaged. The rotation of the starter motor will then come to
a hold.

2.3.4 Internal air system

The internal air system is used for cooling different engine components and controlling the bearing load (A). Air
is taken from the compression area and transported to the designated locations in the engine (B).

A Goal of the internal air system

The internal air system all the air which does not directly contributes to the engine thrust includes to this. The
main functions of the internal air system are: cooling, sealing prevention and the control of bearing load. Up to
one fifth of the total mass airflow is used for this function.

B Operation of the internal air system

During engine operation, some engine components must absorb heat and extend. Due the high temperatures,
without sufficient cooling the components will melt. To ensure that this does not happen, these components
need to be cooled. Cool air is taken from the engine just before the HP compressor. Temperature is related to
the engine efficiency. When the compression blades are too cold, they shrink. Air is able to stream around the
blades and form a cooling film. When the blades get too hot, they could get stuck.

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The turbine blades are designed with small holes in it (Appendix XXIX). A cool air flow is sprayed out of these
holes, this cools the turbine. Because of the increasing and shrinking engine shaft, a pressure balance seal is
placed in the engine. Internal air is pushed against this seal to ensure that the shaft does not shrink too much

2.3.5 Lubrication
All the moving parts of a gas turbine engine have to be lubricated; otherwise the parts will wear down too fast.
Reducing friction between materials is not the only reason for lubrication, the moving parts are also lubricated
to cool the parts and to protect non corrosion resistant parts of the engine. There are two types of lubrication
system: one method is a system which uses the oil over and over again (A), another system spills the used oil
overboard (B).

A Recirculation system
A recirculatory system is a closed system where the oil is pumped around. There is an oil reservoir where the
oil is directed to the oil pump pack. The pressure in the pump outlet is controlled by pressure relieve valves.
After the pressure is used by the actuators, the oil is directed through an oil cooler back to the oil reservoir. The
oil is cooled by an air-cooled system or a fuel-cooled system. An air-cooled system uses the cold surrounding
air, a fuel-cooled system uses the large amount of cold fuel to cool the oil.

B Expandable system
An expandable system (Appendix XXX) does not re-use the oil. After the oil is pressurized, the parts will be
lubricated and the oil drops in a collector tray where it is mixed with air and ejected in the exhaust gas stream
of the main engine. This system has as great advantage that there are no heavy oil coolers and filters neces-
sary. But because the oil is spilled, this system is not recommended for long periods.

2.3.6 Fire protection

An engine fire is dangerous because there are large amounts of fuel in the aircraft and relative near the fire. So
it is from great importance to extinguish the fire as quick as possible, an extinguishing system is installed (A),
the way the fire is extinguished must be reliable (B) and fire-proof materials are used in an extinguishing sys-
tem (C).

A Goal of fire protection

The goal of fire protection is to protect the engine and the rest of the aircraft from fire. When the aircraft
would catch fire, it is very likely that extensive damage or even a crash is the result.

B Operation of the fire protection system

The fire protection consists of two parts. The first part makes sure the fire cannot leave hot zones (parts of the
engine where the risk of fire is high because of the temperature such, as most fuel stocks and oil pipes are
located in the cold zone. Only the fuel nozzles of the fuel system are located in the hot zone. To keep the fire
out of the cold zones, fire resistant barriers are placed (Appendix XXXI).
The other part of fire protection is to extinguish the fire. This is done by mounting a sensor system. This can be
electrical sensors or gas filled sensors. In the case of electrical sensors, the heat would change the resistance of
the wire. In case of gas filled sensors, the heat will make the gas expanding: the higher pressure is noticed by
another sensor.
In the case the pilot gets a fire signal, he will shut down the engine first. This is done to stop the addition of fuel
and to stop the fast passing air from blowing away the extinguish material. After the engine has come to a
complete stop, the pilot will relieve the Freon extinguish material. Mostly, this is done two times for each en-
gine.

C Materials
Some parts of the engine are made of aluminium. When the aircraft is in flight, the air stream in the engine will
cool the aluminium enough to withstand the heat. In parts of the engine where there is no constant airflow,
the fireproof materials are made of steel or titanium.

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2.3.7 Thrust reversers

In order to reduce the runway length needed during a landing (A), there is a second braking system (next to the
normal brakes) fitted on the aircraft: the thrust reverser (B). The thrust reverser must be made of material
which can withstand the forces and temperatures (C).

A Goal of thrust reverser

The purpose of thrust reversal is to slow the aircraft down. The thrust reversers are the most efficient braking
system after the normal wheel brakes. Especially in wet runway conditions, when the tires do not have much
traction, the thrust reversers are important.

B Operation of the thrust reverser

The thrust reversers can be divided into three types:

1. Clamshell
2. Bucket doors
3. Cold stream reversers

Ad 1 Clamshell
The clamshell thrust reversers redirects the hot air upwards and a component forwards. These doors are lo-
cated just before the end of the exhaust (Appendix XXXII). Because this reverser redirects the hot air, these
reversers are most effective with low bypass ratios because in that case there is relative more hot air.

Ad 2 Bucket doors
Like the Clamshell reversers, also the Bucket doors redirect the hot air. But these doors are located at the far
end of the exhaust (Appendix XXXIII). This type is currently mounted on the F100. Because this reverser
redirects the hot air, these reversers are most effective with low bypass ratios because in that case there is
relative more hot air.

Ad 3 Cold stream reversers

These reversers redirect only the bypass air upwards (and forwards, just like the clamshell type), the doors are
located before the exhaust (Appendix XXXIV). Because this reverser redirects the cold air, these reversers
are most effective with high bypass ratios because in that case there is relative more cold air.

C Materials
The parts from the clamshell and bucket doors must withstand very high exhaust gas temperatures. This is why
they are made of heat resistant material like titanium. The cold stream reversers are not subjected to such a
high temperatures, so the parts can be manufactured out of aluminium.

2.3.8 Vibrations
In a jet engine vibrations occur (A). At high speeds, these vibrations can build up very quick in magnitude. This
can be a hazardous situation and needs to be prevented (B).

A Preventing vibrations
Vibrations can occur in all the rotors in an engine. In the compressor, two types of vibration can occur, stall and
surge. When stall occurs, the airflow has a too large (positive incidence stall) or too small (negative incidence
stall) angle with the blades. The blades stall and vibrate intensely and break eventually. Surge is a phenomenon
that happens when the combustion chamber needs higher pressurized air than the compressor can deliver. The
compressor blades are not able to withstand these forces and the pressurized air in the combustion chamber is
expanding through the compressor in the forward direction. Total loss of power is the result.

B Operation of vibration prevention

Surge and stall can be prevented by mounting variable stator vanes (Appendix XXXV). These vanes redirect
the air in the correct direction. When the speed is lower than its original design speed, the vanes move to a
closer position, this ensures a correct airflow to the next phase rotors.

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Furthermore, vibrations can be prevented by a good design and production process of the engine. All the turn-
ing components must be aligned precisely. An example from a P&WC PT-6 engine: an unbalance of four grams
in a first stage turbine created an dynamic load of 6.7 kN. The engine will also be unbalanced when a bird strike
occurs, in some cases the engine needs to be shut off.
The second factor in engine vibration is the speed. When turning too fast, flutter will occur. Flutter is a vibra-
tion which is a self-feeding resonance. The speed limits needs to be determined and tested.

2.3.9 Bleed air system

Bleed air from the jet engine is necessary for systems in the aircraft (A). The air is taken from the compressor
section of the engine (B).

A Goal of bleed air

Bleed air is taken from the engine to be used in other systems. The temperature of bleed air is approximately
between 200 and 300 degrees Celsius. This hot air is used for de-icing and anti-icing of the wings, empennage
and engine inlet. The second goal of the bleed air system is to deliver cold air for pressurizing the cabin and the
air-conditioning system.

B Operation of the bleed air system

The bleed air is taken from the engine through bleed ports (Appendix XXXVI). This air has a temperature
between 200 and 300 degrees Celsius and a pressure between 35 and 45 PSI. When the air is used for de-icing,
it is sent directly through a pipeline to the front section of the wings. When the air is used for pressurizing the
cabin, the air is cooled and sent to the environmental control system. This cooling is done by an air-to-air heat
exchanger.

2.4 Function research

The main function of the gas turbine is to accelerate air. The engine realizes this through five stages or engine
functions:

1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Combustion
4. Power supply
5. Exhaust

Ad 1 Intake
During the intake stage, the airflow is straightened out and the speed is decreased in small amounts. This is to
build up some pressure before the compression stage.

Ad 2 Compression
During the compression stage, pressure energy is added to the air by compressing it. This air then flows to the
combustion stage.

Ad 3 Combustion
During the combustion stage, heat energy is added to the air by mixing it with fuel and is ignited. This increases
the temperature dramatically in a split second and the air starts expanding and flows to the power supply
stage.

Ad 4 Power supply
During this stage, some of the energy of the air is used to drive the engines and supply power to the related
aircraft systems. After this stage the air flows to the exhaust stage.

Ad 5 Exhaust
This is the final stage in the engine. Here the expanding air is accelerated even more and is then released into
the atmosphere. This creates the propulsive force that drives the aircraft forward.

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3. Core Power Concepts

All components discussed in the previous chapter could be used to design an engine. Therefore a selection of
possible components for the new concept engines is made by creating a morphologic overview (3.1). Using the
morphologic overview, three concepts are chosen and described (3.2). This is because each kind of design has
its own specific pros and cons. To be able to come with the best possible choice, the three concepts are com-
pared with one another (3.3). Out of this comparison one concept is chosen which suits the requirements in
the best way (3.4).

3.1 Morphologic overview

System components can be used to design a new aircraft gas turbine engine. Every component has its own
function, pros and cons. To visualize the possible options, a morphologic overview is made (appendix XXXVI).
Materials and constructions are predetermined for some of these functions (3.1.1). The diameter of the intake
estimates the by-pass ratio. A high by-pass is good for sound suppression and very efficient during low speeds.
Saving weight and flying subsonic, a low by-pass is more efficient (3.1.2). A simple compressor is less heavy
than a complex one. But the complex one is more expensive during maintenance and installation. The best
compressor is a compromise of these two (3.1.3). For the components in the combustion chamber is a consid-
eration of efficiency and complexity must be made (3.1.4). Detailed shape of the turbine blades and the types
connection between the engine- and radial shaft are implement for the power supply (3.1.5). The mixing of air
and the sound suppression are employed on the exhaust (3.16).

3.1.1 Pre-design
A pre-selection is made as two earlier described components are not useful for an engine with the required
specifications which were determined in 2.1 (A). Furthermore, three specifications are predetermined for all
three concepts (B).

A Pre-selection of components
The following components are not being considered in any of the core power concepts:
1. Centrifugal compressor
2. Convergent-divergent exhaust nozzle

Ad 1 Centrifugal compressor
Although a centrifugal compressor is relatively simple so very easy to install and maintain, it is not capable of
handling the large mass flows which are needed to fly with high speeds. Another disadvantage is that this kind
of compressor is larger in diameter then the axial compressor type which could result in extra drag. Therefore
only axial compressors are used in the three concepts.

Ad 2 Convergent-divergent exhaust nozzle

Using a convergent-divergent nozzle, pressure thrust is gain. However, this kind of nozzle is only effective when
the exhaust is choked and when there is a very high static pressure. In other words, it is only effective when
flying faster than the speed of sound. All three concepts are for sub- or transonic flying. This means the overall
pressure thrust that is gained by using this kind of nozzle is not in such a quantity that it weighs up against the
added weight and drag. Therefore convergent-divergent nozzles are not being considered in any of the three
concepts and only convergent exhaust nozzles are used.

B Predetermined specifications
For the following specifications values have been predetermined:
1. By-pass ratios
2. Compressor stages
3. Turbine stages
4. Intake materials and construction
5. Compressor materials
6. Combustion chamber materials
7. Power supply materials
8. Exhaust materials

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Ad 1 By-pass ratios
The by-pass ratios are chosen for two reasons. The low by-pass ratio is determined by looking to the old engine
which has a similar ratio; by this a better comparison can be made between the new concept and the old en-
gine. The medium and high by-pass ratios are in the lower limit of their class as higher by-pass ratios require a
larger diameter and this has to be limited as the F100 cannot be equipped with very large engines.

Ad 2 Compressor stages
The compressor stages are determined for each concept separately as size and composition of the engine have
a great influence. Therefore, the amount of stages is determined after choosing three concepts and is calcu-
lated during performance calculations.

Ad 3 Turbine stages
The amount of turbine stages is determined afterwards for the same reasons as previously mentioned (ad 2).

Ad 4 Intake materials and construction

The intake will be made out of aluminum and stainless steel for good heat conduction. On all concepts which
are equipped with a fan, sweep back carbon fiber reinforced epoxy fan blades are used. This is because the
great aerodynamic performance and the reduced weight compared to older types of fan blades, therefore
maximum fan efficiency is realized.

Ad 5 Compressor materials
The compressor casing will, for all three concepts, be made out of titanium, and the back and most hottest part
of the compressor casing will be made out of a nickel based alloy. For the stator vanes, rotor discs and rotor
blades, high temperature resistant titanium alloys will be used. As noticed, many titanium is used. This is to
reduce the weight significantly and increases the strength and durability.

Ad 6 Combustion chamber materials

The combustion chambers will be made out of ceramic composite materials because of the high temperatures
it must endure. These materials are chosen over nickel based alloys because it is lighter and more heat resis-
tant.

Ad 7 Power supply materials

Stator vanes will be made out of nickel based alloys with ceramic coatings because of the high temperatures.
The same goes for the turbine blades, they will be made out of single crystal cast nickel alloys with ceramic
coatings to withstand the high temperatures, creep and fatigue. The turbine discs will be made out of nickel
based alloys. Furthermore, fir-tree fixing is used to withstand the high stresses.
The gears for power supply will be made of non-corrosion resistant steels. This will be done for strength and
toughness.

Ad 8 Exhaust materials
Stainless steel insulating blankets are used to prevent heat spreading to the surrounding structure. Further-
more, the exhaust will be out of high temperature titanium alloys to resist the high temperatures and to keep
the weight down.

3.1.2 Intake
For the component intake, there is not much to choose. But the diameter and structure of the intake are de-
pendent on the kind of engine, there are four kinds to choose from:

1. Low by-pass ratio

2. Medium by-pass ratio
3. High by-pass ratio
4. Straight jet

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Ad 1 Low by-pass ratio

Low by-pass engines have a smaller intake and exhaust diameter than other by-pass engines which can save
considerably on drag. However, these kind of engines are less efficient when flying subsonic speeds then the
other two but still more efficient then a straight jet. The low by-pass ratio is determined as 3.5:1.

Ad 2 Medium by-pass ratio

This is a compromise between a low and high by-pass engine. It is less efficient then a high by-pass engine, but
has a smaller diameter so it has less drag and weight. Furthermore it produces less noise then a low by-pass
engine, because the higher the by-pass ratio the less noise there is produced. The medium by-pass ratio is de-
termined as 5:1.

Ad 3 High by-pass ratio

This is the most efficient kind of engine for subsonic speeds, however it has the largest diameter and thus drag
and weight of all four. The high by-pass ratio is determined as 7:1.

Ad 4 Straight jet
Gets more and more efficient when flying faster, but is the least efficient compared to the other three during
cruise. It is however the smallest type of engine, thus reducing drag and weight.

3.1.3 Compression
Compressors are available in all different kinds. All with their own properties for pressure ratio, weight and
complex ability. The most common compressors used in the world of aviation are:

1. Single spool
2. Twin spool
3. Triple spool

Ad 1 Single spool
The single spool compressor is the most effortless compressor of the three, because this spool consists out of
less parts and all the blades are rotating with the same speed. This can save time and money during installation
and maintenance. Disadvantages are the relative low mass flow and the low pressure ratio.

Ad 2 Twin spool
A more complex system is the twin spool compressor. The spools, divided in a low- and high pressure compres-
sor, are rotating at different speeds. This increases the pressure ratio and the maximum mass flow through the
engine. Therefore, fewer stages are needed for ideal pressure in the combustion chamber. This can save weight
and reduces the TSFC. Unfortunately, maintenance and installation are more complex which results in more
costs.

Ad 3 Triple spool
The triple spool is the most complicated compressor in the morphologic overview. This is because the three
axis which are rotating all with a different speed. This system is ideal for maximum mass flow and maximum
compression. But the complexity makes this system relative expensive and time-consuming during mainte-
nance.

3.1.4 Combustion
For the combustion stage, two choices have to be made; the type of combustion chamber (A) and the type of
cooling used between the inner flame tube and the air casing (B).

A Type of chamber
The chamber depends on the kind of compressor that is chosen. There are three options:

1. Multiple chambers
2. Tubo-annular
3. Annular

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Ad 1 Multiple chambers
Multiple chambers are very easy to install and maintain because it is a very simple system. However this kind of
chamber is the largest compared to the other two for the same effect so much heavier. Beside this, it is the
most inefficient compared to the other two as it needs more cooling air because each chamber has its own
inner flame tube and air casing. This chamber is mostly used with centrifugal compressors.

Ad 2 Tubo-annular
Tubo-annular combustion chambers are also easy to install and maintain, however not as easy as multiple
chambers. The main advantage of this type of chamber is that it is smaller, compared to the multiple type,
because there is one big annular air casing for all the separate flame tubes. This requires less cooling air and
thus it is more efficient, so it can be smaller.

Ad 3 Annular
The annular type of chamber is the most efficient chamber and thus the smallest type of chamber. It is 25%
smaller then the tubo-annular type because it uses one big annular flame tube and one annular air casing.
Another advantage is that there are no combustion propagation problems anymore as there is only one big
flame tube instead of multiple interconnected flame tubes. It also requires 15% less cooling air than the tubo-
annular type because it is smaller; this reduces air pollution as efficiency increases. However, a big disadvan-
tage is that it is not so easy to maintain as the other two types because it consists of several big parts instead of
smaller parts. This means that when, for example, the inner flame tube is damaged, the whole chamber must
be replaced instead of just one smaller chamber.

B Type of cooling
There are two types of cooling that can be implemented between the inner flame tube and the air casing:

1. Normal methods
2. Network passages methods

Ad 1 Normal methods
The normal method components are defined in this report as components that are made using non-
complicated production methods which create an insulating film of air. This means it is relative cheap and easy
to maintain and install but requires much more cooling air compared to the other method.

Ad 2 Network passages methods

The network passages methods usually are made out of laminated plates in which a network of passages is
made. First the cooling air goes through the network after which the insulating film is created. Using this
method requires 50% less cooling air as the air is used twice for cooling (first network then insulating film)
which means the other 50% of air can be used for combustion and thus increasing the efficiency. But as these
components are more difficult to produce they are more expensive compared to the normal methods and,
because of the complexity, also more difficult to maintain.

3.1.5 Power Supply

The aircraft needs electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic power. The engine is the primary power source. First, the
turbine is set in motion by hot air from the combustion chamber (A). And finally the accessory drives will set
the pumps and generators in motion (B).

A Type of turbine
The turbine provides a rotating movement for the fan and compressors. It also provides a rotating movement
for the accessory drives. There are three types of turbines which can be chosen for a possible concept choice:

1. Impulse
2. Reaction
3. Impulse-reaction

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Ad 1 Impulse
In this type, the gas flow is accelerated by the convergent shape of the nozzle to provide the movement of the
blades. The pressure of the gas flow changes when it passes the different stages of the stationary blades. A
pressure casement is not necessary in this type of turbine. The impulse turbine will create a higher velocity of
the gas flow then the reaction turbine.

Ad 2 Reaction
In the contrary of the impulse turbine, the reaction turbine does need a pressure casement. The reaction tur-
bine increases the velocity of the gas flow without changing the pressure. The velocity of the gas flow will be a
little lower because of the pressure which slowly changes.

Ad 3 Impulse-reaction
This is a combination of the two above which tries to take the advantages of the impulse and reaction turbines.
Mostly the proportion impulse and reaction is around 50% each, but this can be changed according the desired
configuration.

B Type of accessory drives

To minimize unwanted movement between the compressor shaft and the driveshaft, the transportation of
movement is done by three types of drive:

1. Direct drive
2. Stub shaft drive
3. Idler gear drive

Ad 1 Direct drive
The direct drive is the simplest manner to connect the compressor shaft with the driveshaft. This is used when
the compressor shaft is close to the driveshaft. The temperature changes during the process so the engine
shaft expands and shrinks. This can lead to a disconnection. So, this drive has a low reliability.

Ad 2 Stub shaft drive

To increase the reliability of the connection between the shaft and the gear, a stub shaft drive is used. This stub
shaft drive has an extra bearing location so there is no disconnection possible. This system is a little more com-
plex. Therefore, more time is needed during maintenance.

Ad 3 Idler gear drive

This is the most complex drive manner. This system is developed early on the first engines to prevent gear
engagement problems at high speeds. The idle gear drive has extra components. The complexity of this part
causes more maintenance.

3.1.6 Exhaust
The exhaust is the final section of the gas turbine engine. There are two main functions. These are mixing the
streams from the by-pass duct and the core (A) and suppression sound as much as possible (B).

A Types of mixing
The two streams from the hot and cold section will be mixed and then exhausted, or mixed in the atmosphere.
This can be done by the following methods:

1. External mixing
2. Partial internally mixing

Ad 1 External mixing
An efficient way of injecting for a high by-pass duct is the external mixing exhaust. The cold and the hot stream
are exhausted separately. Because of this simple system, maintenance and installation costs are low. Unfortu-
nately this system is less efficient for a low or medium by-pass ratio.

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Ad 2 Partial internally mixing

Using an integrated exhaust nozzle, the stream from the cold and hot section comes together in the partially
mixing area. Doing this, the efficiency of the exhaust system increases. The integrated exhaust nozzle adds
extra mass to the total engines weight and maintenance becomes more complex.

B Types of sound suppression

The by-pass ratio is an important factor in sound suppression. A high by-pass ratio reduces the noise more than
a low by-pass ratio. To support the reduction of sound to following methods can be used:

1. Corrugated internal mixer

2. Lobe-type nozzle
3. Sound absorbing linings

Ad 1 Corrugated internal mixer

The corrugated internal mixer increases the contact area of the atmosphere with the exhaust gas stream. By
enlarging the mixing area, the low frequencies from the engine reduces. On the other hand the high frequen-
cies can increase, but these frequencies will be absorbed into the atmosphere relative quick. The total weight
will increase but less noise in created.

Ad 2 Lobe-type nozzle
The Lobe type nozzle separates the exhaust gas stream into small streams. This makes it more easy to mix the
hot gasses with the atmosphere. This reduces turbulent mixing and reduces therefore the noise. Disadvantages
are the extra weight and drag which results in a higher SFC.

Ad 3 Sound absorbing linings

Another option is to fit a sound absorbing lining around the engine. This layers converts the acoustic energy
into heat. This reduces the sounds from the components in the engine, but not the turbulent mixing behind.
This layers costs slightly extra weight and decreases the aerodynamic properties.

3.2 Concept designs

Previously, three concept designs are made with the morphologic overview. The first design is a very large
engine, but very simple and is efficient because of its high by-pass ratio. This engine is called the CP-700AS
(3.2.1). The CP-800AS is just as efficient as the CP-700AS but smaller and more complex (3.2.2). Finally, the CP-
900AS is the modern equivalent of the RR Tay650 with more thrust and slightly better efficiency (3.2.3). A
closer look is made in this paragraph to various design aspects, like the TSFC, range and emissions.

3.2.1 CP-700AS
The use of various components causes advantages and disadvantages in each design (A). Also the thrust, TSFC
and range are different in the designs (B). Finally, the environmental aspects are from great importance due to
the choice for the final design (C).

A Detailed design
The CP-700AS is a triple spool high by-pass engine concept. It has a by-pass ratio of 7:1 and a triple spool axial
compressor. Furthermore it uses multiple combustion chambers with normal cooling methods. The power is
supplied by a reaction turbine with direct drive and the exhaust gasses and by-pass flow are externally mixed.
Sound is suppressed by sound absorbing linings, no other sound suppression is required as this is a high by-pass
engine which already produces less sound.
However the CP-700AS is large which adds weight and drag compared to the original RR Tay 650. Therefore the
engine suspension must be modified before equipping the old F100 with this engine. The F100NG must be
designed so that it can be equipped with this engine. Because of the size and weight, the horizontal stabilizer
must be made smaller or the setting angle must be set more positively. If this is not modified, the aircraft will
have nose up pitching moment around the center of gravity.
The CP-700AS is relatively not expensive to buy as it does not use very complex components. This means main-
tenance will also be relatively easy which reduces the maintenance costs. But the extra modifications that are
required do have a significant impact on this overall cost reduction.

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To describe the engine in one sentence: The CP-700AS is a large but relatively simple engine and is efficient
because of the high by-pass ratio.

B Performance
The performance of CP-700AS is calculated (Appendix XXXVIII) using calculation sheet.1. With this sheet,
four different results are calculated: Thrust during take-off at 0 ft elevation, thrust during take-off at 9000 feet
elevation, the TSFC during cruise and the range which is 1500 nm.

The first step of calculating is determining the stationing of the triple spool engine design (figure 3.1). There are
3 compressors which need 3 turbines so there are 11 stages needed in the stationing of the CP-700AS. Stage 11
is the cold and stage 10 the hot thrust. Together they will determine the total amount of thrust of engine.

Figure 3.1 Stationing of the CP-700AS

This engine design has a high BPR of 7. With the diameter of the fan of 2.0 m a corresponding cone of 0.4 m is
determined for this concept. There are now three compressor stages. The pressure ratio of the first compressor
is set on 3, the pressure ratio of the second compressor is set on 8 and the total pressure ratio over the com-
pressor is set on 21. The compressor stages can be determined by a certain factor (formula 3.1). This means
that there will be a total of 16 stages in the compressor. The turbine stages are determined by using the pres-
sure ratios between each turbine. The amount of turbine stages will be 18.

X
1.21 = Pressure ratio X = The amount of stages to reach the pressure ratio

Formula 3.1: Pressure ratio

Using the calculation sheet and these variables, these are the results for the CP-700AS (table 3.1).

Thrust at take-off at 0 feet elevation 150.9 kN

Thrust at take-off at 9000 feet elevation 114.5 kN
TSFC 0.05627 kg/N.hr
Range 1963 Nm
Table 3.1 Calculation results CP-700AS

C Environmental aspects
One of the most important aspects designing an aircraft engine are the environmental aspects. This is divided
into sound pollution and emissions. It is difficult to determine the sound pollution is this pre-design stage.
When an engine is build, the noise will be measured at noise measured points during literal full power, a fly-
over and an approach. In this stage it is not possible to give exact values. Core Power will give noise pollution
and emission indication by the use of different components. The CP-700AS is a high by-pass engine with exter-

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nal mixing. The use of high by-pass reduces the sound in large amount. Unfortunately, the external mixing
increases the noise. This results in a medium sound pollution.
In the combustion chamber, hydrocarbon (CxHy) fuel is burned with oxygen (O2). An incomplete combustion can
result in small amounts of Carbon monoxide (CO) and other gasses. But in this situation, only complete com-
bustion is taken into account. In a reaction between CxHy and O2, water and Carbon dioxide are produced (for-
mula 3.2).

a=x
CxHy + nO2 → aCO2 + bH2O b = (y/2)
n = x + (y/4)
Formula 3.2 Reaction of burning fuel

It can be said: the higher use of a hydrocarbon fuel will result in a higher amount of Carbon dioxide. Of course
components have influence on the emission of CO2, but this is such detailed that this will not be taken into
account. The CP-700AS has a TSFC of 0,05683 kg/Nhr, which is good for a gas turbine engine.

3.2.2 CP-800AS
The use of various components causes advantages and disadvantages in each design (A). Also the thrust, TSFC
and range are different in the designs (B). Finally, the environmental aspects are from great importance due
the choose for the final design (C).

A Detailed design
The CP-800AS is a twin spool medium by-pass engine concept with a by-pass ratio of 5:1 and a twin spool axial
compressor. Combustion is realized in the annular combustion chamber cooled by network passages from
which the gasses flow through the impulse-reaction turbine. The accessory gearbox is connected to the turbine
by a stub shaft drive. After the gas flow passed the turbine, it is partially internal mixed with the by-pass flow in
the exhaust. Sound is suppressed by sound absorbing linings. No other sound suppression is required as it has a
med by-pass ration which produces less sound compared to low by-pass engines. The CP-800AS is a compro-
mise between size and efficiency. It is significantly smaller than a high by-pass engine but it has the same sort
of efficiency. This is because modern very efficient, but complex, components are used. Because of these com-
plex components, the acquisition and maintenance costs are relatively high but the fuel costs are much lower.
As the size is reduced and is comparable to the RR Tay 650 engine, it requires very little or even no modifica-
tions to the suspension and horizontal stabilizer. This engine can be described as followed: The CP-800AS is just
as efficient as the CP-700AS but smaller and more complex.

B Performance
The performance of CP-800AS is calculated using calculation sheet 2. With this sheet, the same four different
results are calculated as in 3.2.1B. In this concept design, there is a different stationing needed because of the
twin spool (figure 3.2). A low and high compressor requires also a low and high turbine so there will be 2 more
stages required. The stages 8 (hot thrust) and 9 (cold thrust) combined are the total thrust of the CP-800AS.

Figure 3.2 Stationing of the CP-800AS

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The CP-800AS has a slightly greater BPR of 5. This means the diameter of the fan needs to increase in order to
prevent a too small cone of the engine. The fan diameter is set on 1,50 meter so the cone is 0,30 m. There is
now a low and high compressor stage; this means there will be two pressure ratio’s. The low compressor pres-
sure ratio is set on 2,5 and the total pressure compressor ratio is set on 15. Using formula X (See 3.2.1B) the
compressor stages can be determined. The low pressure compressor will have 5 stages and the high pressure
compressor will have 10 stages. This comes to a total of 15 stages in the compressor.
Using the calculation sheet and these variables, these are the results for the CP-800AS (table 3.2)

Thrust at take-off at 0 feet elevation 95.2 kN

Thrust at take-off at 9000 feet elevation 75.3 kN
TSFC 0.05831 kg/N.hr
Range 1894 Nm
Table 3.2 Calculation results CP-800AS

C Environmental aspects
The CP-800AS is equipped with a medium by-pass ratio. The medium by-pass shall produce more noise that the
CP-700AS (high by-pass). Therefore, the mixing is done internal. This reduces the noise is such way that the
sound pollution is almost the same as the noise from the CP-700AS. The TSFC of the CP-800AS is 0,05831
kg/Nhr, which is slightly higher than the TSFC of the previous engine design.

3.2.3 CP-900AS
The use of various components causes advantages and disadvantages in each design (A). Also the thrust, TSFC
and range are different in the designs (B). Finally, the environmental aspects are from great importance due
the choose for the final design (C).

A Detailed design
The CP-900AS is a single spool low by-pass engine concept. The by-pass ratio of this engine is 3.5:1 and it util-
izes a single spool axial compressor. Furthermore the combustion chambers are of the tubo-annular type and
are cooled using network passages. It uses a impulse turbine with idler gear drive as power supply and the by-
pass flow is internally mixed with the exhaust gasses. Sound is suppressed by using a corrugated exhaust and
sound absorbing linings. It is comparable to the RR Tay 650 however it produces the new required thrust and is
more efficient. It requires no modifications to the aircraft as it has almost the same size and weight as the Tay
650. Also, because this engine has a low by-pass ratio, a sound suppressing nozzle is used which creates more
drag. Therefore the engine gets even less efficient compared to previous designs. However the simplicity and
to some extent the uniformity with the old engine could considerably reduce maintenance costs. This engine
could be described as followed: The CP-900AS is the modern equivalent of the RR Tay650 with more thrust and
slightly better efficiency, however not as efficient as other CP series.

B Performance
The performance of CP-900AS is calculated using calculation sheet 3. With this sheet, the same four different
results are calculated as in 3.2.1B. The stationing of this single spool engine design (figure 3.3) is again different
than the triple as well as the twin spool. There is only one compressor and thereby one turbine. In this case,
there will be 7 stages where stage 6 (cold thrust) and 7 (hot thrust) will determine the total amount of thrust of
the CP-900AS.

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Figure 3.3 Stationing of the CP-900AS

The CP-900AS is the engine with a low bypass ratio of 3.5:1, so the diameter of the fan is set on 1.3 m which is
similar to the diameter of the current RR Tay-650 on the F100. The corresponding cone of the CP-900AS is set
on 0.30 m. The total pressure ratio over the compressor is set on 5.0. This means that there are 8 stages in the
compressor. The turbine has 5 stages.

Using the calculation sheet and these variables, these are the results (table 3.3).

Thrust at take-off at 0 feet elevation 79. kN

Thrust at take-off at 9000 feet elevation 61.1 kN
TSFC 0.06864 kg/N.hr
Range 1609 Nm
Table 3.3 Calculation results CP-900AS

C Environmental aspects
The last engine has a very low by-pass ratio. To reduce sound, the air is mixed internally and a corrugated ex-
haust is installed. This reduces the sound in such way that it is equal the previous two engines.
Unfortunately, the TSFC is the single spool engine is very high. This engine is less efficient than the other Core
Power designs.

3.3 Pros and Cons

Five criteria are determined to review the concepts of which one must be chosen (3.3.1). In order to make a
choice, the concepts are compared using these five criteria’s (3.3.2).

3.3.1 Concept criteria’s

All three concepts suffice to the demands of Fokker Aircraft and the law, however one does better than the
other on different aspects. Therefore five criteria’s are determined to review the concepts:

1. Performance
2. Modification
3. Emissions
4. Sound production
5. Complexity

Ad 1 Performance
The four performance aspects that are reviewed are thrust, TSFC, range and overall efficiency as these have
great influence on profitability and overall performance of the aircraft. All three concepts have the required
range of 1500nm and the ability to take-off at 9000ft.

Ad 2 Modification
As the dimensions, thrust and weight increase, modifications to the old F100 aircraft are required. The two
most radical modifications are those to the engine suspension and the horizontal stabilizer. This adds a lot of
costs, because it requires a lot of time and recertification, so the less modifications required the better. There-
fore engine suspension and horizontal stabilizer modifications are reviewed for each concept.

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Ad 3 Emissions
As seen in 3.2c the TFSC has a significant influence on the emissions of the engine. The less emissions the en-
gine produces the better as it is better for the global environment and good for the image towards the general
public. Furthermore in the near future, money must be paid for the amount of emissions the engine produces
thus the less emission the less costs are involved. Therefore for all three concepts the emissions are reviewed.

Ad 4 Sound production
All three concepts produce less sound than allowed by the law. More quiet engines are better as it saves costs
and improves the image toward the general public. It saves costs as the landing and take-off fees at airports are
higher for aircraft with engines that produce more sound, therefore the less sound the engines produce the
lower the fees are.

Ad 5 Complexity
The complexity has a significant influence on the investment and maintenance costs. A very simple engine
requires less complex parts which are cheaper and is easier to maintain operational. Therefore the complexity
of the engine is directly related to the overall costs of the engine and are reviewed for all three concepts.

For each criteria, the concept can get a maximum amount of 3 points also some weigh factors are introduced
(table 3.4).

Criteria Max points Weighing factor

Performance 12 X2
• Range 3
• TSFC 3
• Thrust 3
• Overall efficiency 3
Modifications 6 X2
• Horizontal stabilizers 3
• Engine suspension 3
Emissions 3 X1
Sound production 3 X1
Complexity 3 X2
Table 3.4 Point structure

3.3.2 Concept comparison

All three concepts are reviewed and compared by using the previously determined criteria (Appendix
XXXIX):

1. Performance
2. Modification
3. Emissions
4. Sound production
5. Complexity

Ad 1 Performance
The CP-900AS has the worst performance of the three concepts and therefore gets one point per sub criteria.
From the performance calculation in 3.2b the CP-700AS appears to be the best in performance on all sub crite-
ria, however the CP-800AS uses network passages cooling for the combustion chamber which requires 50% less
cooling air then the CP-700AS and thus allows the other 50% of (cooling) air to flow through the combustion
chamber and turbine. This has not been taken into account during calculations, but this increases the range,
overall efficiency and TSFC of the CP-800AS which now has better performance on these three points than the
CP-700AS. Therefore the CP-800AS gets three points for range, TSFC and overall efficiency, the CP-700AS gets
two points on these criteria but three points for thrust as it has the highest thrust.

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Ad 2 Modification
The CP-900AS scores best at the modification as little or no modification is required. It has a comparable size
and weight to the old RR Tay 650 however it has more thrust so the only modification that could be required is
to make the engine suspension stronger. The CP-900AS gets three points at each sub criteria. The CP-800AS is
larger and has even more thrust, so some modification will probably be required however not as much as the
CP-700AS which is very large compared and very powerful compared to the other concepts. Therefore the CP-
800AS scores two points at each sub criteria and the CP-700AS one.

Ad 3 Emissions
The CP-900AS has the highest TSFC and thus the highest emission compared to produced thrust, therefore it
gets only one point. The CP-800AS has the lowest TSFC and therefore the lowest emission compared to pro-
duced thrust and gets three points. The CP-700AS is in the middle and gets two points.

Ad 4 Sound production
All three concepts produce more or less the same amount of sound. As the higher by-pass engine are in general
more quiet (-700AS and -800AS), but the CP-700AS uses external mixing which produces more sound and the
CP-800AS uses internal mixing these have more or less the same sound level. The CP-900AS is a low by-pass
engine but uses internal mixing and a suppression nozzle so it has also the same sort of sound level. Therefore
all three engines receive three points.

Ad 5 Complexity
The CP-700AS scores the highest on complexity with three points despite of the three spool design as it uses
non-complex components. The CP-900AS follows with two points as it uses some complex parts but has a single
spool design. The CP-800AS is the most complex concept because this was necessary to make it the most effi-
cient. Therefore it gets only one point for this criteria point.

3.4 Concept choice

The engine which is chosen is the CP-800AS. This is done by using the five criteria points. This twin spool en-
gine is the best when it comes to applying it on the F100. The CP-900AS also has a lot of points for perform-
ance, but the engine is not easy applicable on the F100. The CP-800AS is almost the same size in diameter of
the fan and core, so this is better applicable on the F100. One other big advantage of the CP-800AS, is the net-
work passage cooling for the combustion chamber which requires 50% less cooling air, which increases the
overall performance of the CP-800AS. Now that the concept choice is done, there need to be looked at the
certification of a new engine concept and the financial costs and benefits.

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4. CP-800AS

The CP-800AS is considered the best concept engine for Fokker Aircraft. To use the engine, maintenance re-
quirements have to be determined first (4.1). This is one of the required steps in the certification process (4.2).
This process is a very costly one, this in addition to the costs which must be made for the engine components
and production itself. However, the CP-800AS is designed so that its operational costs are lower than the old
engine (4.3). All arguments summed up, the CP-800AS is an ideal engine for the purposes of Fokker Aircraft
(4.4).

4.1 Maintenance
The engine maintenance compromises inspection, modification and repairs. These proceedings are done both
on (4.1.1) or off the wings (4.1.2). The on wing schedule is to work on the engine while it is on the wing, the off
wing schedule is for more serious damage or if the cycle limits are reached.

4.1.1 On wing
Maintenance done on the engine while on the wing is divided into two different kinds of maintenance:

1. Scheduled
2. Unscheduled

Ad 1 Scheduled
Scheduled engine maintenance is carried out using the so called “not-exceed-limit” maintenance schedules.
These are checks which are progressively carried out for certain components. These are mainly visual checks
and require little to no physical labor. The schedules are made by the engine designer and range from transit
checks to flight hour specific checks. CP has presented an example of such a schedule for the CP-800AS to Fok-
ker Aircraft (Appendix XL).

Ad 2 Unscheduled
Unscheduled maintenance is needed when unexpected damage happens to the engine. This could be due to a
bird strike, lighting strike, heavy landing, crash or another serious malfunction. It can also be needed in less
serious cases such as a manufacturer’s specific recommendation.

4.1.2 Off wing

The engine needs an off wing maintenance when there is serious damage or when the engine exceeds its cycle
limits. It is recommended to perform a major inspection every 25,000 flight hours or 10,000 flight cycles. The
duration of such an overhaul is around one week. During overhaul the engine is disassembled, cleaned, in-
spected, repaired and balanced. After the engine is assembled again it is tested in a ’sea-level’ test cell to test
the performance.
Another kind of scheduled overhaul is called “on condition”. Several parts of the engine are given a life span,
when reached the parts are replaced and the engine is operational again. The remaining components are over-
hauled ‘on condition’. When making a schedule, the engine is divided in a cold and hot area to ensure a profit-
able maintenance schedule. The cold area is considered to be from the intake to the last compressor, the hot
area starts from the combustion chamber and ends at the exhaust. The hot area needs more maintenance
because the components within this area are exposed to much higher temperatures and therefore failures
arise faster than in the cold area. For this, CP determined life cycles for fifteen components in the CP-800AS
engine (Appendix XLI).

4.2 Certification
When a new engine is designed it needs to be certified before installation on an aircraft. For European prod-
ucts, the company who designs and manufactures the engine needs to be an approved Part 21 Design Organi-
zation. CP has a Part 21 Design Organisation Approval (DOA) legal Part 21 organization. The first step is to cer-
tify the engine according the latest version of CS-E from EASA (4.2.1). After the EASA certification of the engine,
it can be integrated in the aircraft. Depending on the impact of the changed engine and its influence to the

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existing aircraft a change needs to be done to the Type Certificate of the aircraft. The AMC and the GM of Part
21 gives guidelines and examples how to decide what kind of change needs to be submitted (4.2.2).

4.2.1 CP-800AS certification

The new designed engine has to be certified. The authority which is responsible for the Type Certificate (TC) of
European products is the EASA. CP has elected to show compliance with EASA’s CS-E to certify the CP-800AS.
This certification process consists of four steps:

1. Technical acquaintance and Type Certificate Basis

2. Acceptance of the certification program
3. Showing of compliance with CS-E
4. Final conclusion and Type Certificate

Ad 1 Technical acquaintance and Type Certificate Basis

The first step of the certification process is to inform EASA that a new design is planned to be certified. EASA
appoints a team of investigators with a team-chef: the Project Certification Manager (PCM). The applicant (CP)
will introduce the new design to the EASA team and discuss the high level certification program. Then the team
will define the Type Certificate Basis (TSB). The TSB is a document where the goal is described. In other words:
what does the applicant want and what do they have to do to meet the corresponding requirements. The TSB
can change during the whole certification process. The initial TSB and all the changes made have to be ap-
proved by the Certification Manager (CM). All the information gathered will be kept by the PCM in the Certifi-
cation Review Item (CRI).

Ad 2 Acceptance of the certification program

When the TSB is defined and approved, the applicant plans the certification program together with the EASA
team. In this program it is described how the applicant will show compliance to the relevant requirements. The
program includes the timeline, methods of showing compliance (i.e. flight test, bench test, analyse), and which
tests needs to be witnessed by the EASA team. A good planning improves the capability of the EASA team to
respect the deadlines of the applicant.

Ad 3 Showing of c Compliance with CS-E

In this part of the certification the applicant will show the compliance to the requirements. Therefore, CP uses
a Type Investigation Program (TIP), which consists of Compliance checklists and Compliance sheets.
• Each Compliance checklist includes one paragraph of the CS-E. In the checklist is described step-by-
step how to meet the requirements and which tests have to be performed. This can be done by calcu-
lations and analyses, or by performing engine tests on a test bed in a laboratory.
• The compliance sheets are organized by a copy of the concerning CS-E paragraph, followed by the
method CP planned to use for the showing compliance. Discussions, questions and comments from
the applicant and the EASA team will be documented, and alternative means of compliance will be ex-
plained and justified. This conversation consists of the questions raised by EASA and the answers from
CP. Also the current status of the tests can be found in the Compliance sheets.
Part of the certification process is the delivery of instructions for the continuing airworthiness, and information
to the engine installer on the aircraft. Therefore, a maintenance, overhaul and installation manual and an op-
erating instruction manual need to be produced. Also an approved list of the engine limitations is part of the
certification for implementation in the aircraft flight manual.

Ad 4 Final conclusion and Type Certificate

When all the steps in the previous phases are completed, CP provides a document in where they declare that
the design meets all the requirements of CS-E. After reviewing all certification reports, The PCM will organize a
meeting with all the team members to receive their confirmation about each discipline. When the PCM has the
confirmation all team members are satisfied with their reviewed parts, he will conclude that the new design
can be approved. The PCM makes a final report and provide it to the CM for approval. After approval of the
CM, a TC is be made. The TC includes a Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) (Appendix XLII).

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4.2.2 Fokker 100 Certification

When a new engine is mounted on an existing aircraft, it is possible that because of the impact to the aircraft a
new TCB needs to be used. The applicant needs to justify why that their change is not significant and the origi-
nal Type Certification Basis is still valid. The Guidance material and AMC to part 21 (Appendix XLIII) gives
examples and guidelines how to define which changes are significant.

The Guideline Material gives an example that an increase of thrust less than 10 percent is not a significant
change. When a change is significant, a new TSB needs to be used (i.e. because the assumptions used for certi-
fication are not valid anymore). In case a new TSB needs to used, the costs for the manufacturer can become
very high, because the original design needs to be upgraded to the latest (more stringent) requirements. In
most cases new tests needs to be performed. In this case the STC process needs to be followed. If possible,
most aircraft manufacturers will try to avoid this situation. For example: the manufacturer will limit the engine
till there is no more than 10 percent of thrust increase, than certify the aircraft with its new engine. When this
is done, a major change is submitted for a thrust increase. The increase of thrust of the CP-800AS is approxi-
mately 33 percent. This means, according to the AMC to Part 21, the change is significant and a new TSB has to
be used. To avoid unnecessary cost this is a nice example where a good analysis of the changes, and the origi-
nal assumptions can be discussed with EASA if a new TCB is really necessary. If the applicants can justify the
impact on the aircraft is not significant, a CRI will be defined with the justification of the application and the
acceptance of the EASA team. Further, the process of certifying is equivalent to the process from the engine.

4.3 Financials
The development has different stages that all bring costs. These are the direct and indirect cost (4.3.1). The
new engine has advantages against the old engine. These benefits are in the reduction of the fuel and mainte-
nance (4.3.2). The costs of the new engine can be funded with the benefits that the engine brings. At a point in
time the costs and benefits will be equal. From that point on, the engine is profitable compared to the old RR
Tay 650 (4.3.3).

4.3.1 Costs
The direct costs are the investments needed to develop the CP-800AS engine (A). The indirect costs are main-
tenance cost when the CP-800AS is in operation (B).

D Direct costs
The direct cost can be divided into:
1. Research costs
2. Production costs
3. Certification costs

Ad 1 Research costs
A team of eight engineers are being appointed by Core power to design an engine. This research will take one
year. An engineer works 2054 hour (hr) per year and the loan costs of an engineer is € 100 per hr; this means
the loan costs of eight engineers per year are € 1,643,200-. To test the CP-800AS a test bench is needed, which
will cost €3,000,000. The test of the CP-800AS takes two hour; with the TSFC of 0.0589 kg/Nhr the fuel con-
sumption during this test is 11,102 kg. The kerosene price per kg is € 0.63, so the fuel costs are about € 6,994.
The total costs during the research are € 4,649,790 (table 4.1).

Price [€]
Loan cost engineers 1,643,200.-
Test bench 3,000,000
Fuel cost 6,994.-
Total 4,650,194.-
Table 4.1 Research cost

Ad 2 Production costs
The costs of the production are separated in the different stages of the engine (table 4.2). The price of the fan
is based on the materials and by the complex swept back fan blades. The next stage is the compression, the
compressor has 15 stages. The compressor price is based on the amount of stages and sorts of materials which

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are used, in this case titanium and nickel alloys. The next stage is the combustion chamber. The annular com-
bustion is a complex combustion chamber and hard to produce because it must be made in one piece. Through
the heat, the combustion chamber exists out of titanium and titanium alloys. Like the combustion chamber, the
turbine needs to withstand high temperatures and tensions. Therefore, heat resistant materials and strong
alloys are required. The costs of the exhaust are because of the partial internal exhaust, which is a complex and
heavy part. The total price for the production of the engine is € 8,250,000.

Price [€]
Fan 780,000
Compressor 1,200,000
Combustion chamber 2,200,000
Turbine 3,750,000
Exhaust 820,000
Total 8,250,000
Table 4.2 Production costs

Ad 3 Certification costs
The time that it takes to certify the engine is a large factor for the costs of the certification. The time for the
certification affects the loans of the personnel (table 4.3). These are the PCM, CM and the team that supports
the PCM and CM. The loan costs of the PCM are € 100 per hr. The PCM works 37 hr per week for the certifica-
tion. The CM has loan costs of € 120 per hr and works 37 hr. Furthermore, there is a certification team that
helps the PCM and CM. This team exists of eight members that cost € 80 per hr and work for 37 hrs. The total
time span that the certification will take is six to twelve months. The total of the wages at the certification is €
577,200. The total direct costs will come to € 12,900,194.

Loan [€] Work hr per week [Hr] Total in twelve months [€]
PCM 100 37 192.400
CM 120 37 230,880
Certification team 80 37 153,920
Total 577,200
Table 4.3 Certification costs

E Indirect costs
The maintenance costs of an engine or an aircraft component are divided in one quart labour costs and third
quart material costs. To overhaul the CP-800AS, it takes 168 labour hours (one week). Therefore, six mechanics
per hour are needed to do the overhaul. The loan costs of a mechanic are € 80 per hour. The total loan costs
for the overhaul are € 80,640. Before the engine is sent to overhaul, the engine has be removed from the air-
craft. After the overhaul is complete, the engine needs to be installed back. The installation and the removing
takes 24 hours, therefore four mechanics are needed to do this task. The loan cost of this task is € 7,680. The
total maintenance costs of an overhaul is € 372,480 .The maintenance costs consists of material costs and la-
bour costs (table 4.4). Like said before, the material costs are third quarter of the total maintenance costs. The
material costs are estimated at about € 279,360. The total indirect costs are about € 330,240.

Price [€]
Labour cost for Overhaul 80,640
Installation and removing cost 7,680
Material cost for overhaul 241,920
Total 330,240
Table 4.4 Maintenance cost

4.3.2 Benefits
The engine does not only have costs, there are also benefits. There are three aspects viewed for the benefits:
1. Fuel consumption
2. Environmental aspects
3. Maintenance reduction

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Ad 1 Fuel consumption
The TSFC of the RR Tay 650 is 0.0703 kg/N.hr. With this TSFC, the RR Tay 650 consumes 5374 kg fuel for the
required range of 1500 Nm. The price of one kg kerosene is € 0.63 and the fuel costs of the RR 650-TAY for
1500 Nm are € 3,385. This means the new concept is profitable compared to the old engine. The benefit for this
consumption is that the aircraft can fly a greater distance with the same amount of fuel or a reduced fuel use
on the same flight distance (table 4.5). With the new engine CP-800AS the benefits per flight cycle are € 482.
The aircraft can fly three flight cycles a day and this means the benefit per day is € 1446. An aircraft needs two
days maintenance a year. This means that the aircraft is 363 days operational a year. Annually the total bene-
fits for the fuel consumption are € 524,898.

Fuel consumption (for 1500 Nm) Fuel cost (€0.63 per kg)
RR 650-TAY 5,374 kg € 3,385
CP-800AS 4,608 kg € 2903
Benefits per cycle € 482
Table 4.5 Fuel consumption benefits

Ad 2 Environmental aspects
The new engine has a reduction in emissions. This is because the engine uses less fuel. This means that less fuel
will combust. When there is less kerosene in the combustion, there is a reduction in the harmful exhaust gasses
which are produced with the combustion. This makes the engine a cleaner engine and more environmental
friendly. This is an advantage for the new regulations where aircraft pay milieu taxes for the pollution from the
emissions.

Ad 3 Maintenance reduction
The new engine uses a twin spool as well as the conventional F100. The overhaul costs for the RR Tay 650 are
€561,160 (table 4.6). The overhaul costs of the CP-800AS engine are lower. The overhaul costs are €330,240.
The CP-800AS engine will need less maintenance because of the lifetime and the Fokker aircraft can economize
€ 230,920 for the overhaul costs. The overhaul takes place once in the nine years this means that the overhaul
costs of the CP-800AS per year will be about € 36,693.The RR Tay 650 engine has a long service time. Therefore,
the parts of the engine must be maintained earlier than when the new engine is applied. For the new engine,
this is without flight hrs and flight cycles. The total benefits will be about € 755,818.

Overhaul costs [€] Overhaul costs per year [€]

RR Tay 650 561,160 62,351
CP-800AS 330,240 36,693
Benefits 230,920 25,658
Table 4.6 Maintenance benefits

4.3.3 Break-even point

The break-even point is a point in diagram where the costs-line and the benefits line cross (diagram 4.1). The
break-even point is interesting to know for Fokker Aircraft because they can see when the engine is earned
back and will start to be profitable. The new CP800-AS will be profitable due the reduction of fuel consumption
and the reduction of maintenance costs. The 200 existing F100’s will be equipped with the new engines. The
expectation is that 200 F100 NG aircraft will be build, which also will be equipped with the CP-800AS. This will
result in 800 engines that will be produced. The break-even point can be found through a calculation (formula
4.). The break-even point is determined at 12 years.

€ 𝟒𝟒, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔, 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 y = years

� + 𝟖𝟖, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎� = (𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕, 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝒚𝒚)
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

Formula 4.1 break-even per engine

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10

5 cost

4 benefit

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Diagram 4.1 break-even point

4.4 Recommendation
The new engine concept design, called the CP-800AS, is operational described and the following conclusions
can be drawn:

• The CP-800AS is an engine with more power than the conventional Rolls Royce Tay-650. It can take-off
at an elevation of 9000 ft with an OAT of 300.2 K. It has a lower fuel consumption which will be better
for the environment and the costs of the operation of the engines. It meets all the requirements set by
the aviation organizations and Fokker Aircraft.
• When the new engine will be applied on the F100, it is needed to create new manuals for mainte-
nance. There are two kinds of maintenance which are applied on the F100; on wing and off wing main-
tenance. The on wing maintenance is divided in scheduled and unscheduled maintenance. A concept
maintenance schedule for the CP-800AS is created by the engineering team of Core Power.
• The organization EASA is in charge of the certifying and a team will create a Type Certificate Basis if
the engine will be applied on the F100 fleet. This is the document which describes the goal of the new
part and a certification program can be made together with the applicant, in this case Fokker Aircraft.
This program will check if the new design meets the requirements which are demanded by the docu-
ment CS-E and CS-25 (subpart E). When all steps of the program are done, the Type Certificate will be
given by EASA and the engine is ready for application.
• The engine proofs to be a financial good investment. The research costs can be split over the total of
800 expected engines to be produced. This amount, plus the production costs, can give the break-even
point. The break-even point is determined at twelve years, which is good when looking to the 20 years
life time of the CP-800AS.

All these points considered, CP gives a positive recommendation to apply the CP-800AS on the current F100
fleet and the F100 NG’s.

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Abbreviationlist

AMC Acceptable Means of Compliance

AOM aircraft operation manual
APU Auxiliary Power Unit

BPR By-pass Ratio

CS Certification Specifications
CM Certification Manager
CO carbon monoxide
CP Core Power
CRI Certification Review Item

DOA Design Organisation Approval

E Oswald efficiency factor

EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
EPNdB Effective Perceived Noise level decibel

HC Hydrocarbons
HP High Pressure

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

LP Low Pressure
LTO landing and take-off cycle

MLM Maximum Landing Mass

MTOM Maximum Take-off Mass
MTOW maximum take-off weight
MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

NOx oxides of nitrogen

OAT Outside Air Temperature

PCM Project Certification Manager

SN smoke number

TCB Type Certificate Basis

TIP Type Investigation Program
TSFC thrust specific fuel consumption
TC Type Certificate
TCDS Type Certificate Data Sheet

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Bibliography

Cohen, H., G.F.C. Rogers, H.I.H. Saravanamutoo

Gas Turbine Technology
4th edition Harlow, 1996
Houtman, C.J.

European Aviation Safety Agency

Decision on Certification Procedure for Product
Bruxelles,2004

European Aviation Safety Agency

CS-E
Amendment 1
Bruxelles,2007

European Aviation Safety Agency

CS-25
Amendment 5
Bruxelles,2008

General Electric
Aircraft Gas turbine Guide

ICAO
Annex 16 ,Chapter 3 and 4
5th edition
Montreal, july 2008

KLM Cityhopper
AOM vol 1
Amsterdam,2007

Rolls Royce
The Jet engine
5th edition
Derby, 1996

Siers F.J.
Methodisch ontwerpen: volgens H.H. van den Kroonenberg
3rd edition
Groningen, 2004

Scholder, Robert H.G.

Vliegtuiggasturbines Amsterdam, 2005
Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Domein Techniek

Wentzel, Tilly
Het projectgroepsverslag
Amsterdam, 2008
Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Domein Techniek

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