VIRUSES

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES:
1. Holmes in 1948 proposed the classification of viruses. He placed all the viruses into a single order virales. Which is
further divided into three sub orders as under.
Order Virales

Sub order 1 Bus order 2 Sub order 3

Phagineae Phytophagineae Zoophagineae
(Bacterial virus) (Plant Virus) (Animal Virus) Discovered
Loeffler & Frosch by
2. Andre L Woff, Robert Horne and Paul tournier in 1962 proposed a new system of classification of viruses commonly
known as LHT system. This system of classification is mainly based on nucleic on nucleic acid, symmetry number of
capsomeres in a capsid, shape and size of virus etc.
Division - Monera
Class - Microtetobiotes
Order - Virales
Family - Deoxy – ribovira (Viruses with DNA)
Ribovira (Viruses with RNA)
HISTORY
 Virus : Latin word, which means “poison” or “venom” or “secretion” (According to Pasture).
 The first discovered virus  T.M.V. = “Tobacco Mosaic virus”
A disease is caused by this virus on tobacco plant, is called “Mosaic disease of tobacco”
The fist symptoms appears on the leaves of tobacco.
 Mayer described Tobacco mosaic disease and he named ‘infected sap disease’.
 Ivanowsky separates a micro organism from the sap of infected plant and named “TMV”. He reported that viruses are
smaller than bacteria and they can pass through the bacterial proof filters.
 Davis called them Vitamol.
 Beijerinck called them living fluid infectant or Contagium vivum fluidum. i.e. Living infectious fluid.
 Stanley crystallized TMV first time and obtains in the form of nucleoprotein. Nobel prize was awarded to him for this
discovery. He said that its protein part retain their infectivity.
 Bawden and Pirie first of all studied the chemical nature of viruses and said that these are nucleoproteins.
 Gierer and Schramn discovered infecting part of TMV is RNA.
 Franklin discovered the microscopic structure of TMV.
Note : (1) Virus : Akaryota group (2) Study of virus : Virology
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF VIRUSES
1. These are submicroscopic & acellular organisms generally smaller than 200 m /200nm.
2. They are obligate intracellular parasites.
3. They have either RNA or DNA.
4. They can pass through bacterial filters.
5. They have characteristic mode of multiplication, i.e. once a virus enters into the host cell, it takes control of whole
biochemical machinery of host cell and directs the metabolic machinery to synthesize their own (viral) components.

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Non-living characters of viruses :
1. Absence of protoplasm
2. Absence of enzyme system.
3. No respiration.
4. They can be crystallized like chemicals.
5. They do not grow in culture medium.
6. They are inert out side the host cells.
7. They are autocatalytics and lack functional autonomy.
Living characters of viruses :
1. They contain nucleic acid as a result of which they are capable of synthesizing proteins for their coat, although they use
ribosomes of the host for the purpose.
2. They can multiply inside living host cell.
3. They have antigentic properties and shows mutation and specifing to the particular host.
On the basis of above characters in can be said that viruses from a transitional group between living and non-living

MORPHLOGY AND STRUCUTREU FO VIRUSES

Size of Viruses :
 TMV - 300 m × 20 m  or 300 × 20 nm

 Smallest virus - F2 Bacteriophage/F2 - coliphage - 2 nm

 Longest plant virus - Citrus tristeza virus. (200 × 12 nm)

 Longest animals virus - LPT - Lymphogranuloma psittisis tranchoma virus size - 275 m  or 275 nm

 Smallest animal virus - Foot & mouth virus - 10 nm

 Largest animals virus - Smallpox virus (Variola virus) 400nm

SHAPE

Brick shaped - Small pox virus

Spherical - Influenza virus, Myxo, Polio, HIV
Rod shaped - TMV
Tadople like - Bacteriophages
Bullet shaped - Rabies virus
Chemical composition :
Chemical there are two components of viruses
(1) Nucleic acid - core
(2) Protein coat
1. Nucleic acid : Either RAN or DNA
Generally in plant viruses, RNA is present but in Cauliflower mosaic virus and Potato leaf roll virus DNA is present.
Generally in animal viruses, DNA is present but in following animal viruses, RNA is present
(i) Influenza virus, Single stranded RNA.
(ii) Rous sarcoma virus, Single stranded RNA.
(iii) AIDS virus : Single stranded RNA.
(iv) Polimyelitis virus : Single stranded RNA.
(v) Reovirus : Double stranded RNA.

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 Single stranded RNA viruses (e.g. AIDS virus) which carry few molecules of reverse transcriptase enzyme (which
copies RNA into DNA, i.e. reverse transcription), are called retroviruses.
Generally RNA is single stranded but in Reovirus, Wound tumour virus and Rice dwarf virus RNA is double
stranded.
2. Protein coat :
It is known as capsid and made up of structural units called capsomeres. (Number size and structure of
capsomeres are vary and these capsomeres are arranged in different manners to form different types of
symmetry)
Central core & capsid and collectively known as muleocapsid.
Note : An additional covering is also present in some viruses around the capids. It is composed of Lipo protein.
Such type of viruses are known as lipovirus.
Example : Myxo Virus and Herpes Virus.
Symmetry of viruses.
1. Helical symmetry : Capsomeres are arragned in helical manner in the capsid, e.g. TMV Influenza virus and
Mumps virus etc.
2. Cuboidal symmetry : Capsomeres are arranged on the surface to form a 20 sided cube, e.g. Turnip Mosaic
Virus, Herpes virus, Adeno virus, Polyoma virus, Tipula virus.
3. Complex symmetry : T2 - Bacteriophage & Pox virus.
TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus) :
 It is the most throughly studied virus and was discovered by the Russain
worker D. Ivanowsky (1892).
 It is rod shaped virus measuring 300 nm × 20 nm
 It is having helical symmetry.
 Having single stranded RNA which is 330 nm is length and having 7300
nucleotids.
 In a capsid number of capsomeres are 2130.
 5% RNA and 95% protein  present in TMV.
Influenza virus - Size 80 -120 nm
Spherical virus, infecting respiratory tract.
 Having helical symmetry, 10% RNA and 90% protein
 Having single stranded RNA, killed at 650C and active at low
temperature.
 Crryptogram of influenza virus : R/1 : 2-3/10S/E : V/E
Bacteriophage Virus :
Virus which infecting the bacteria
 Bacteriophage was discovered by F.W. Twort and Felix d’
Herelle
 Shell Singer explained that bacteriophage is made up of nucleoprotein (Nucleic Acid + protien)
 Hershy and Chase discovered heredity material - DNA in T2- bacteriophage through the radio tracer techniques.

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 Cyanophage : The virus which infects blue green algae are known as cyanophage. (Discovered by Safferman and
Moris). Cyanophages contain ds DNA. The structure of cyanophages is similar to the bacteriophages. (ex Lpp-1 called
so as it attacks Lyngbaya, Phormidium and Plectonema)
Sinsheimer : He discovered single stranded DNA in  × 174 bacteriophage.
NOTE :
 In bacteriophages, generally DNA is present but in MS2 F2 r - 17 bacteriophages ss RNA is present.

 Generally DNA is double stranded but in  × 174 bacteriophage and in S13. E.coli phage, DNA is single stranded
Types of bacteriophages :
Broadly of 2 types :
1. Prophages or non-virulent phages or non-infective phages : The phages which don’t cause lysis of bacteria are
called prophages. Such bacterial cells which are having prophages inside them are called Lysogenic bacteria.
2. Virulent phages or infective phages or, Lytic phase : The phages which cause lysis of bacterial cell are once are
called virulent phages.
Note :
Most studied series of bacteriophages is T-series, i.e. T 2, T4, T6 etc. (T-even phages are characterized by angular

head and long contractile tail).

In T3 and T7 bacteriophage head is hexagonal.

Structure of bacteriophages :
Having tadpole-like structure and differentiated into head & tail. Head is
prism like having length 950 Å and breadth 650Å Tail is also 950 Å in
length, joined to head by neck and collar. Tail is having hollow core of 80Å
and is surrounded by tail sheath. At the end of tail, end plate is present to
which 6 tail fibres are attached, each is 1500Å in length.
Function of tail fibres :
The tail fibres have two main functions : (i) They help in the adsorption of
phage particle on the surface of the bacterium (ii) The enzymes secreted
by these fibres are helpful in the lysis of bacterial cell wall.
NOTE :
1. The water of Ganga is not spoiled due the presence of bacteriophage.
2. The circular area of dead bacteria on agar plate, is called plaque.

LIFE CYCLE OF BACTERIOPHASE

The life cycle of bacteriophage is also known as infection cycle, which synthesizes many new phage particles thus,
also referred as reproduction (or replication). The pages reproduce usually by two means - (i) Lysis (ii) Lysogeny
(i) Lysis / Lytic Ccle :
In this process virus gets like enzyme atached to the cell wall of bacteria at a specific place known as receptor site. At
these receptor sites, Lysozyme synthesized by viruses react with bacterial cell wall. Consequently, a minute pore is
formed through which DNA of the phage enters into the host cell. The empty capsid and tail fibres left behind are called
ghost. After infection phage DNA assumes control of the cellular metabolism of bacterial cell and directs to synthesize
the phage DNA and proteins. Subsequently, these new DNA molecules and protein particles assembled to form new
bacteriophages which are liberated in the medium by the endolysis of host cell wall facilitated by the lysozyme like
enzyme.

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 (ii) Lysogeny/Lysogenic cycle :
 The initiator virus of this cycle is known as temperate phage/  - phage
 The host cell is not degenerating in this cycle. The DNA of bacteriophage joined with the genophore of bacterium
after the infection and replicates along with this. In this condition it is transmitted to progeny of bacteria. Such a
virus called as provirus or Prophage. Bacteria which carry a provirus are called lysogenic bacteria and virus
whose chromosomes becomes prophage are called lysogenic viruses.
 If, it separates from the genophore artificially then it becomes virulent and start the Lytic cycle.
NOTE :
1. It possible to induce lysogenic bacteria to lysis by irradiation with ultraviolet light or by exposure to some
chemical like H2O2

2. Due to show reproductive process sometimes, millions of viruses can live their hosts for long period without
any apparent indication of their presence. These are called latent or inapparent infections. [Multiplication of
viral DNA takes place in the latent phage of virus]

Transduction : When transfer of genetic material from one bacterium (Donor cell) to another bacterium (receptor
cell) takes place by bacteriophage, called as transduction.
Discovered by - Zinder & Lederberg 1952) in Salmonella typhimurium.
Type of tansduction :
1. Generalised transduction : In this type of process bacteriophages are capable to transform any gene of bacteria.
2. Specialized transduction : In this type of process bacteriophages are capable to transform special part of donor
genome.

APPLICATIONS OF PHASE PARTICLES

1. Phages are used in the diognosis of certain infections.

2. In space microbiology lysogenic cultures are used as radiation detector. They were used by Russians in the space
ship, Vostok-2
3. Phages are also helpful in the lysis of bacteria present in the polluted water. Hence, they can also be used as
scavengers.

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4. Temperate phages help in transduction of genetic material from on bacterial cell to another. They are also used
widely as models in genetic research.
5. Phages are often very harmful as they kill beneficial micro organisms by the Lysigenic activity during process of
munufacture of antibiotis and milk products.
Mycophages :
 Viruses, infecting fungi are called mycophages.
 Mycophages were first of all discovered by Sinden (1957) in Agaricus bisporus. These are having double
stranded RNA and are spherical or polyhedral in shape.
Viroids
 T.O. Diener (1971) discovered some new infectious agents, which are still smaller than viruses. These subviral
infectious agents are called viroids.
 Viroids contain only verylow mol. wt. RNA (ss RNA) and not protein coat.
 Viroids cause Potato spindle tuber disease (PSTV), Chrysanthemum stunt, Citrus exocortis, Cumumber
pale fruit etc.
 Viroids cause peristent infectioins, i.e. never recovered/
NOTE :
(i) Due to absence of protein coat viroids are also called as naked virus.
(ii) In virouds RNa, 246 to 388 nucleotides are present. They possesses the power of replication.
Virusoides :
Virusoides are like viroids, but are located inside the protein coat of a true virus, virusoid RNA can be either
circular or linear. Virusoids are infectious by themselves because they are replicated only in the presence of their
host.
Prions or Slow viruses :
1. In 1966, three British scientists T. Alper, D. Haig and M. Clarke discovered infectious agents which are even smaller
than viriod. They coined the term prion. But credit goes to professor Stanley B. Prusiner for the detailed study of
Prions. Nobel prize was awarded to profesdor Prusiner in 1997 for his significant contribution.
2. Prions lack their own genetic material (DNA or RNA). They are consisting of specific protein macro molecules which is
known as prion protein or Prep.
3. According to Prusiner, in most of the animals prion protein is generally associated with the chemical substance found in
the nerve cells of barin.
4. Prions are associated with Kuru (the laughing death) disease of man, Creutzfeldt jakob disease of humans and
animals. Scrapie disease of sheep and goats, mad cow disease.
5. Prion casue disease of mental disorder.
6. In 1976 D.G. Gujdusek was awarded noble prize to the research of prion bases disease.
Interferons
 G.M. Findely and McCallum (1937) reported a phenomenon called viral interference in which the cell infected with
one type virus becomes resistant to suerinfection by other viruses.
 Alliac Issacs and Lindeman (1957) gave the term interferons to the chemical substances responsible for viral
interference.
 Interferons are produced by cells in mammals, rodents, birds, etc. and provide resistance against viruses.
 Hilleman and A. Tydall (1963) isolated interferon’s from hen’s egg infected with influenza virus.
 Interferons are protein molecules or polypeptides of low molecular weight which prevent Viral Multiplication.

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DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES

Plant diseases
1. tobacco mosaic disease
2. Leaf curl of papaya
3. Yellow vein mosaic of lady finger.
4. Potato leaf roll.
5. Vein handing mosaic disease of potato.
6. Grassy shoot of sugar cane.
7. Buncy top of banana.
8. Tungro disease of rice.
9. Tomato leaf curl
Human diseases
(A) Pneumotropic diseases (Related to respiratory tract) e.g. Influenza, Adenovirus
infection, Rhinovirus infection.
(B) Dermotropic diseases (Related to skin) :
1. Chicken pox- Varicella virus : This virus also causes Herpes zoster disease in adults. Therefore this virus is also
known as v-z virus.
2. Smallpox-Variola virus.
3. Measles : Highly communicable infection in children. Caused by Rubeola virus (Rube  Red).
4. Mumps or epidemic parotitis.
5. Herpes simplex.
(C) Viscerotropic diseases (Related to blood and organs).
1. Rabies or Hydrophobia (Highest mortality rate) : This virus contains single stranded RNA
2. AID : (Acquired Immun Deficinecy Syndrome).
 First case of AIDS was reported in Atlanta (1981).
 Males are more susceptible to this disease than females. (92.5% in males, 65% in women and about 1% in children).
 This virus spreads through blood transfusion, sexual contact, etc.
 This AIDS virus is known by different names as :
(A) ARV : AIDS associated Retrovirus.
(B) LAV : Lymphoadenopathy Associated Virus.
(C) HLTV-III : Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus Type - III
(D) HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
 This virus contains single stranded RNA.
 AIDS virus likes T-lymphocytes which provide resistance to the organism through production of antibodies. This virus
infects and skill T-lymphocytes (T-helper cells) and hence resistance of host is collapsed. Thus man is infected with
different types of infections.
[This is also known as Death Warrant]
3. Yellow fever : Transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito.
4. Dengue fever : Transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Culex fatigans mosquito.
5. Polio : Transmitted through food, water and contact.
6. Hepatitis A : Transmitted through food, water and contact.
7. Hepatitis B : Transmitted through contact and body fluids

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VIRION :
 An infectious virus particle is called VIRION.
 Plant and animals viruses do not have their own infection power.
 Infection of plant virus with the help of a insect - Aphids.
 Infection of animal virus is depend upon Mosquitoes.
 Some of virus depend upon other virus for their infection. Such viruses are known as satellite virus.
 Tobacco staellite virus :
This virus is depend upon tobaccco necrosis virus (ss RNA present) for the infection.
Character of viral diseases in plant :
 Chlorophyll and other pigments changed into fluid (liquid) through the virus, so the pigments are not synthesized.
 Growth and life duration of the plants reduced.
Blisters appears on the leaves and flowers of host due to high growth rate of viruses. So shapes of these
becomes abnormal.
 Due the high metabolic activities, necrosis take place.

VIRUS : NOMENCLATURE

Binomila theory is not applicable on virus. According to Gibbs and Harrison (1968) name of virus of given by
Cryptogram
I pair - Types of Nucleic acid/No. of strand is Nucleic Acid
(D = DNA, R = RNA 1 = Single strands, 2 = Double strand)
II pair - Molecular weight of N. Acid in million/% of Nucleic Acid in virus
III pair - Shape of virus/shape of capsed
(S = Spherical, E = Elongated, X=complex)
IV pair - Types of infected host / Types of vector
(A = Actinomycetees, B = Bacterium, F = Fungus, I = Invertebrates, V = Vertebrates, S = Seed plant)
R 2 E S
Cryptogram of TMV - : : :
1 5 E *
R 23 S V
Influenza virus - : : :
1 10 E A
D 160 X V
Pox virus - : : : (Pox virus also known as VIP virus)
2 5  7 .5 * *
D 130 X B
T4 Bacteriophage - : : :
2 4 X *
R 2 .5 S V
Polio virus - : : :
1 30 s *
Important Point :
 Virus which infects yeast - Zymophage  Cauliflower mosaic virus - ds DNA
  -Phage - one tail fibre  PSTV - Protein coat is absent
  -Phage was discovered by Andre L.Woff.
Note : Cynophages LPP-1 and SM-1 are useful in controlling water blooms.

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 MYCOPLASMA
Systematic position :
Earlier they ware included among bacteria. However, in 1966, international committee of Nomenclature of
Bacteria recognized Mycoplasmas as different from bacteria and placed it under a separate class Mollicutes.
The systematic position of Mycoplasma is as below :
Class - Mollicutes
Order - Mycoplasmatales
Family - Mycoplasmataceae
Genus - Mycoplasma
Discovery :
 These organism were first discovered by Pasture while studding the causative agent of Bovine
pleuropneumonia in cattle. He could not isolate them in pure culture on standard nutrient media.
 In 1898, two Frech scientists E. Nocard and R.Roux while studying pleural fluids of cattle suffering from
pleuropneumonia disease, discoverd the organisms which re known as mycoplasmas and were designated as
PPLO (i.e. Pleuropneumonia like oragnism)
 Nowkak (1929) put these organism under the genus Mycoplasma and these organisms are now commonly called
mollicutes (i.e. soft skin).
 Borrel  Asterococcus mycoides.
 J. Elford in 1937, isolate these oragnisms by special type of filters as they could not be separate by bacterial
Mycoplasma.
 the Japaneese Doi et. al. (1967) first discovered that the “Aster yellow” diseases of plant are cuased by
Mycoplasma. Doi et. al. named these poemorphic organimises as mycoplasma like oranisms (MLO). According
to Doi, phloem cells (Sieve tube & phoem parenchyma) of plants re much affected by this diseases.
These organisms are variously designated as :
1. Cell wall less prokaryotes 2. Joker of the plant kingdom
3. Joker of the microbiology 4. Coat less bacteria
5. Photoplasma 6. Glaxoplasma
7. Auxaloplasma 8. Spheroplasma
9. Bedsonia
Diagnostic feature :
1. Mycoplasmas are non motile, unicellular, smallest ultra microscopic prokaryotic organisms. The smallest
prokaryotic organism is Mycoplasma llaidlawii, the diameter of cell varies from 0.1 m to 0.3 m .

2. Mycoplamas may be the simplest form of life capable of independent growth, reproduction and metabolism.
3. They are cell wasll less hence, they exhibit peomorphism and thus called as Joker of plant kingdom.
4. They can be cultured on cell free culture medium and their shapes depend upon the nature of culture medium
5. They require sterols for their growth.
6. They posses both DNA and RNA as genetic material.
7. They are resistant to antibiotics asd penicillin, ampicillin, cephaloridine and erythromycin etc. that act on cell
wall.
8. They are sensitive to streptomycin, tetracycline & chloramphenicol & erythromycin etc. that act on metabolic
activities.

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Structure :
 Mycoplamas are ultramicroscopic, unicellular cell wall less
organism.
 The outer most covering of cell is known as plasm membrane. It
is tri-layered & made up of lipoprotein (75Å - 110 Å thickness).
 In cytoplasm double membrane bound cell organelles re absent.
In cytoplasm ribosomes (70S type) are found in granular forms.
protein occur in soluble forms.
 In this middle of the cell occurs a incipient nucleus or nucleoid.
The nucleus of this type is devoid of nuclear membrane and nucleolus. The amount of double stranded DNA is 4
(mainly) to 6 percent of protoplasm while single stranded RNA is 8 (mainly) to 15 percent protoplasm.
 Mesosomes absent.
NOTE :
1. Three characteristic features of Mycoplams are :
 They are lacking cell wall
 Typical colonial appearance.
 Filterability through 450 nm bacterial filters (J. Elford - Mycoplasma proof filter)
2. Structurally, Mycoplas ma alike as L - form bacteria.
L - typical bacteria = ‘Lysozyme rated bacteria without cell wall’.
Their cell wall is destryoged by the action of Lysozyme enzyme.
Gram positive L-typical bacteria are called “Protoplast”.
Gram positive L-typical bacteria are called “spheroplast”
3. Important difference between L-form bacteria adn Mycoplasma is that under optimum nutritional conditions. L-form
bacteria will develop cell wall whereas mycoplasma will never develop cell wall.
 L-form bacteria was discovered by Klienberger noble in 1935.
 L- for -Lister institute (London), where these bacteria were reported.
NOTE :
 According to the some scientists polar bodies are present at the both side of mycoplasma gelisepticum which is
assumed as site for enzymatic reactions.
 Mycoplasma is anarobes (Obligae (few) or Facultative (usually). Normally, it is saprophyte but sometimes may be
paraiste.
 Mycoplasma laid lazali - obligate saprophyte.
 Osmotropic mode of nutrition is found in Mycoplasma.
 They required sterols for their growth in culture medium, because of their cell is unable to synthesize sterols. such
as - cholesterol ergestrerol. (Acholeplasma do not require sterols for their growths)
 Growht of mycoplams on solid culture medium - (eg. Agar plate), is like a “fried egg”.
 Growth of mycoplasma in liquid medium is annular (ring like).
 Mycoplasma is resistant to Penicillin.
 Mycoplasma mycoides - Filamentous
 Mycoplasma pneumoniae - Spherical
 They are gram-ve and sensitive to temp. pH (1-3, No growth) and super sonic waves.

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 REPRODUCTION IN MYCOPLASMA.

1. Binary fission : most common method of reproduction in Mycoplasma in binary fission.

2. Fragmentation : Specially in filamentous forms.
3. By primary structures or “Elementary bodies” : first of all, many spherical strucures are formed in mycoplasma.
They are called primary structures (0.1  ). They after the Mycoplasma cell degenerates and then each elementary
body grow into a new mycoplasma cell.
Symptoms of Plant diseases : Mycoplama caused chlorosis in plants. They destroyed chlorophyll.
Plants becomes dwarf in this disease. The infection of Mycoplasma develops excessive branching. Leaves becomes small.
Many branches develops from the same place due to the growth of axillary bunds. This disease is known as “witches
broom”
Transmission of disease -
(i) In plants the mycoplasmal diseases are usually transmitted by leaf hopper.
(ii) In addition, it is also transmitted by grafting.
(iii) In pea this disease in transmitted by aphids (Acrythospihom pisum).
(iv) By Cuscutta

(a) Plant disease

(i) Little leaf of Brijal.
(i) Bunchy top of papaya.
(ii) Witches broom of Ground nut Legume/Potato
(iii) Aster yellow disease of sunflower.
(iv) Stripe disease of sugar cane (v) Maize stunt, clover dawrf, mulberry dwarf.
(b) Animal disease : Mycoplasma infects the epithelium tissues in animal body.
(i) Penicillin resistant pneumonia : Example - M. gelisepticum.
(ii) Sterility/Genitals inflammation : M. hominis:
This Mycoplasma attacks on germinal epithelium of somniferous tubules of testis and caused -
(A) Oligospermia - Less production of sperms.
(B) Azospermia - formation of sperms inhibited.
(iii) Mycoplasma salivarium causes diseases of respiratory tract.
(iv) Mycoplasma pneumoniae causes primary atypical pneumonia (PAP).
(v) Mycoplasma mycoides causes bovie pleuropneummia.
Note :
Antibiotic proteins are formed in the host body by the infection of virus. These proteins are called “Interferons”
These interferons stops the infection of next virus.
In place of these ‘photo alexins’ are formed in plants which prevent the plants form the infection of viruses, bacteria and
fungi.

CULTURE OF MYCOPLASMA 

 These can be cultured in non-living medium, although they grow well in living medium containing chick tissue
 In non-living medium, they requires cholesterol, ergesterol or agar-agar (obtained from red algae), blood serum and pH
7.8.

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VIRUS EXERCISE
1. “Potato mosaic” disease is caused by : (1) Roots (2) Stem
(1) Fungi (2) Bacteria (3) Leaf (4) Apical meristem
(3) Virus (4) Mycoplasma 12. Infective unit of virus is called :
2. TMV contains : (1) Nucleoid (2) Virion
(1) Single stranded RNA (3) Nucleo protein (4) Capsid
(2) D.S. - RNA 13. Which bacteriophage have one tail fibers :
(3) D.S. – DNA (1) Coliphage
(4) S.S. - DNA (2)  × 174 Bacteriophage
3. Mumps are caused by : (3) Cyanophage
(1) Bacteria (2) Virus (4)  -phage
(3) Rhizopus (4) Animals 14. Bacteriophages are :
4. AIDS is due to : (1) Always useful
(1) Deficiency of T4 - lymphocytes (2) Always harmful
(2) High blood pressure (3) Both harmful and useful
(3) Deficiency of Riboflacin (4) Normally useful
(4) Bacterial infection 15. “Antibiotic” and proposed by :
5. Viroids have : (1) A. flamming
(1) Single stranded RNA not enclosed by protein (2) Waksma
coat (3) Brien
(2) D.S. DNA enclosed by protein coat (4) B.M.Duggar
(3) Double stranded RNA enclosed by protein coat 16. “Leaf roll” disease of potato it caused by :
(4) S.S. DNA not enclosed by protein coat (1) Bacteria (2) Virus
6. AIDS virus contains : (3) Mycoplasma (4) Fungi
(1) S.S. RNA with protein (2) D.S. RNA 17. Caulimi virus have :
(3) S.S. DNA (4) D.S. DNA (1) D.S. RNA
7. The rabies virus contain : (2) S.S. RNA
(1) S.S. RNA (2) D.S. RNA (3) S.S. DNA
(3) S.S. DNA (4) D.S. DNA (4) D.S. DNA
8. The protein coat of the virus is called : 18. “Dangue” fever is caused by :
(1) Capsule (2) Pellicle (1) Anaphelese
(3) Capsid (4) Prion (2) Plasmodium which spreads through female
9. The virus without nucleic acid is called - anaphelese
(1) Prion (2) Virion (3) Bacteria which spread through stangnat water
(3) Viroid (4) Venom (4) Virus which spread through Aedes insect
10. Which resistant proteins are formed in an 19. Influenza is caused by :
eukaryotic cell due to virus infection : (1) Bacillus haemophilus influenza
(1) Antigens (2) Antibodies (2) Pox virus
(3) Interferons (4) Auxin (3) Myxo virus
11. Which part of plant is not infected by virus : (4) Pneumanococcus

12
20. The literal meaning of virus is a: 30. Tailed bacteriophage are :
(1) Poison (2) Venome (1) Motile on the surface of bacteria
(3) Secretion (4) All (2) Actively motile in liquid water
21. Mycophage have : (3) Motile on the surface of its host
(1) S.S. RNA (2) D.S. RNA (4) None motile
(3) S.S. DNA (4) D.S. DNA 31. The smallest disease causing agent is :
22. Virus are placed in : (1) Virion (2) Viroid
(1) Prokaryota (2) Eukaryota (3) Prion (4) Mycoplasma
(3) Akaryota (4) thallophyta 32. “Scrapie” disease of cattle’s is caused by :
23. Which character favour nonliving nature of virus : (1) Bacterium (2) Virus
(1) Absence of RNA (3) Prion (4) Mycoplasma
(2) Absence of nucleous 33. Which part of a virus enters into its host :
(3) Abiotic state (1) envelope (2) Capsid
(4) Ability of reversible crystallization (3) Nucleic acid (4) All together
24. A phage that invades in a host cell but does not 34. A mixture of viruses, bacteria & mycoplasma are
destory it, is know as : boiled in a test tube at 100 C for some time which
(1) Temprate phage of these would survive :
(2) Sexduction (1) Virus (2) Bacteria
(3) Phycophage (3) Mycoplasma (4) All
(4) Virulent phage 35. Longest plant virus is :
25. Enzyme synthesis does not occur in : (1)  × 174 (2) TMV
(1) Fungi (2) Viruses (3) Cirtus tristeza (4) T1 phage
(3) Mycoplasma (4) Bacteria 36. Smallest plant virus is :
26. Which of the following characters justify the living (1) TMV
nature of viruses. (2) Citrus tristeza virus
(1) Multiplicity (3) Tobacco necrosis satellite virus
(2) Mutability (4) Smallpox virus
(3) Capability of capsid synthesis 37. The infective nature of tobacco mosaic disease
(4) All was discovered by :
27. Virus disease do not generally spread through : (1) Ivanowsky (2) Mayer
(1) Vegetative propagation (3) Beijerinck (4) Stanley
(2) Seeds 38. Stanley got the noble prize for :
(3) Grafting (1) Discovering virus
(4) Cutting (2) Crystallizing virus
28. Which of the following process is absent in virus : (3) Naming phages
(1) Mutation (2) Replication (4) Discovering antibiotic
(3) Production of energy (4) All 39. Cryptogram of TMV is :
29. Which of the following virus is devoid of protein (1) R/2 : 2/5 : E/E : X/S
coat and entirely composed of RNA only : (2) R/1 : 2/5 : E/E : S/A
(1) TMV (2) Pox - virus (3) R/1 : 1/8 : S/S : S/AP
(3) PSTV (4) Calimo virus (4) R/1 : 2/7 : E/E : S/A

13
40. The smallest viruses are : (1) Minerals (2) Antibiotics
(1) TMV (3) Algae (4) Phages
(2) Citrus tristeza virus 49. Bacteriophage is similar to a fungus & bacterium in
(3) Coliphage or F2 Bacteriophage having :

(4) Herpes virus (1) RNA as the genetic material

41. In which of the following DNA is not present : (2) DNA as the genetic material
(1) Bacteriophage (3) Cell wall

(2) Tobacco mosaic virus (4) Similar in reproduction

(3) Mitochondria 50. HIV is :

(4) Chloroplast (1) A single stranded DNA virus

42. Which of the following is correct for a virus : (2) A double stranded DNA virus

(1) They have only one type of nucleic acid (3) A single stranded RNA virus

(2) They replicate inside animal cell only (4) A double stranded RNA virus

(3) They are living 51. The site where the protein coat (capsid) is

(4) They are bigger from bacteria and they killed synthesized is :

them (1) Plasma membrane of the host

43. Which of the following is not a viral disease : (2) Mitochondria of the host

(1) Red Rot of sugarcane & citrus cancer (3) Ribosome of the host
(2) Leaf curl of papaya (4) RNA of the virus

(3) Potato leaf roll 52. Which of the following is true for a virus :

(4) Tobacco mosaic (1) That a virus does not possess D.S. DNA
44. Which one of the following pair is related to viral (2) That a virus does not possess membranes of

disease : lipoproteins

(1) Influenza, mumps, measles (3) That a virus does not synthesize enzyme

(2) Small pox & chicken pox (4) That a virus does not possess any enzyme

(3) Polio & hydrophobia 53. Nucleic acid in HIV : [CBSE-1998]

(4) All of the above (1) ss RNA (2) ds RNA

45. HIV attack : (3) ss DNA (4) ds DNA

(1) Epithelial cell 54. Transduction in bacteria carried out by :

(2) Sex cell germinal cells [CBSE-1998]

(3) B - lymphocytes (1) Bacterio phage (2) B.G.A.

(4) T4 - lymphocytes (3) Mycoplasma (4) Rickettssiae

55. During viral infection the protein formed in host
46. Chicken pox is caused by :
cells to resist is - [CBSE-2000]
(1) Bacteria (2) Bacteriophage
(1) Interferon (2) Antitoxin
(3) Varicella virus (4) Pox virus
(3) Antibody (4) Histone
47. Viral envelope (which is out side the protein coat)
56. Interferons are synthesized in response to
is composed of :
[CBSE-2001]
(1) Protein (2) Lipid
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Bacteria
(3) Lipo protein (4) Mucilage
(3) Viruses (4) Fungi
48. Ganga water0 does not undergo decay due to the
presence of :

14
57. Cauliflower mosaic virus contains - [CBSE-2001] [CBSE-2003]
(1) ss RNA (2) ds RNA (1) 300 × 10 nm (2) 300 × 5 nm
(3) ds DNA (4) ss DNA (3) 300 × 20 nm (4) 700 × 30 nm
58. Which statement is correct for bacterial 60. Which of the following statement is not true for
transduction : [CBSE-2002] retroviruses : [CBSE-2004]
(1) Transfer of some genes from one bacteria to (1) Retroviruses carry gene for RNA - dependent
another bacteria through virus DNA polymerase
(2) Transfer of genes from one bacteria to another (2) The genetic material in mature retroviruses is
bacteria by conjugation RNA
(3) Bacteria obtained its DNA directly (3) Retroviruses are causative agents for certain
(4) Bacteria obtained DNA from other external kinds of cancer in man
source (4) DNA is not present at any stage is the life cycle
59. Tobacco mosaic virus is a tubular filament of size ofretroviruses.

VIRUS ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 4 2 4 3 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 4 4 3 4 2 3 4 1 2 4 2 3 3 4
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 4 4
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 4 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 3 4

15
MYCOPLASMA EXERCISE
1. The cell wall less pleomorphic prokaryotic 13. Mycoplasma is resistant to :
organism are called : (1) Penicillin (2) Tetracyclins
(1) Bacteria (2) Virus (3) Spectinomycin (4) All
(3) Mycoplasma (4) Bacteriophage 14. Mycoplasma generally reproduced through :
2. Plant MLO was discovered by : (1) Vegetative method (2) Asexual method
(1) Nocard & Roux (2) Doi and Ishii (3) Sexual method (4) Prasexual cycle
(3) Ivanowsky (4) Hershy & Chase 15. Mycoplasma differs from virus in being sensitive
3. Mycoplasma are placed in : to:
(1) Eubacteria (2) Mollicutes (1) Sugar (2) Protein
(3) Spirochaeta (4) Mycota (3) Amino acids (4) Tetracyclins
4. Which of the following is essential for growth of 16. Little leaf disease of brinjal is caused by :
mycoplasma in culture media : (1) Virus (2) Fungus
(1) N2 (2) Nucleic acid (3) Mycoplasma (4) Algae

(3) Cholesterol (4) Lipid 17. Which of the following is not caused by
5. Function of elementary bodies in Mycoplasma is : mycoplasma :

(1) Respiration (2) Excretion (1) Little leaf of brinjal

(3) Reproduction (4) Foo synthesis (2) Stub born disease of citrus
6. Mycoplasma infect which tissue in animal body : (3) Citrus cancer

(1) Bone (2) Cartilage (4) Witches broom of potato

(3) Epitheliium (4) Muscles 18. Which mycoplasma cause sterlity in human being :

7. Mycoplasma like mollicutes which do not require (1) M. pneumonia (2) M. hominis

sterols in culture medium are called : (3) Spiroplasma (4) Thermoplasma

(1) PPLO (2) MLO 19. Mycoplasma differs from L-forms bacteria in :

(3) Acholeplasma (4) Spirochaetes (1) Size of genophre (2) growth

8. Which microbes is capable of growth and (3) Culture method (4) All of the above

reproduction itself : 20. In “Aster yellow” desease which tissue infected by

(1) Mycoplasma (2) Virus mycoplasma is :

(3) Viroid (4) Ribovirus (1) Trachied (2) scieve tube

9. Who discovereed mycoplasm : (3) Both (4) None

(1) Ivanowsky (2) Lederberg 21. Mycoplasma differ from viruses in :

(3) Nocard & Roux (4) Lister (1) In requires cholesterol

10. In liquid culture mycoplasma becomes : (2) In can be grown n a cell free medium

(1) Coccoid in shap (2) Filamentous (3) It is not always parasite

(3) Ring shaped (4) Plate like (4) None

11. Mycoplams is a : 22. Mycoplasma neither possess cell wall nor vacuole

(1) Walled prokaryote (2) Wall less eukaryote & plastid yet it is not included in animal kingdom

(3) Wall less prokaryote (4) L - form because it has :

12. Mycoplasma is : (1) Genophore (2) 70 S Ribosome

(1) Round (2) Pleomorphic (3) Osmotrophic mode of nutrition

(3) Rod shaped (4) None (4) Episome

16
23. Which is the smallest cellular free living organism : 25. Which is/are absent in Mycoplasma :
(1) Yeast (2) Virus (1) Cell wall (2) Chloroplast
(3) Mycoplsma (4) Bacteria (3) Mitochondria (4) All of the above
24. Which of the following is caused by mycoplasma : 26. The abbreviation PPLO stands for :
(1) Tuberculosis (1) Pale pneumonia like organism
(2) Chicken cholera (2) Pleuro plasma like organism
(3) Penicillin resistant pneumonia (3) Pleurisy pneumonia like organism
(4) Gangrene (4) Pleuro pneumonia like organism

MYCOPLASMA ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans. 3 3 2 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 4

17
 ULOTHRIX

Discovered by Knitzing
SYSTEMATIC POSITION :
Kingdom Plantae
Sub kingdom Thallophyta
Division Chlorphyta
Class Chlorophycease
Order Ulotrichales
Family Ulotrichaceae
Genus Ultohrix
HABIT AND HABITAT :
 Ulothrix mainly found in fresh water.
 The majoirty of species of Ulotharix occurs in cold slow moving streams. It is attached to the substratum like
stones in river, springes etc. with the help of hold fast.
 Some species are found in marine water e.g. Ulothrix flacca. (It is found in intertidal zone of sea and saline
marshes)
 Lithophyte species - Ulothrix implexa
 Fresh water species - Ulothrix zonata
 Ulothrix zonata is the main species of Ulothrix which is found in India.
STRUCTURE :

18
 The thallus of Ulothrix is multicellular, filamentous, unbranched and bright green in colour. Each filament is
made up of large number of cells joined to each other from end to end in a row.
 All the cells of the filament are similar but basal cell and apical cell are different. The length of each cell is less and
width is more. Except the apical cell and basal cell, all the cells are rectangular in shape. All cells present
between basal cell and apical cell are called intercalary cells.
 Shape of the cells are cylindrical but they look rectangular in external appearance.
 The upper most or apical cell is somewhat dome shaped and basal cell is elongated and narrow at the base.
 The filament attached to the substratum with its specialized cell which is called Holdfast or Rhizodial cell or
Hapteron. T the base of holdfast develops fine processes or fingers like structures are called Haptera.
 The Holdfast cell of the thallus is living and non green. Chloroplast absent in hold fast.
 The cell wall of the filament is double layered. The outer layer is made up of protopectin which is precursor of
pectin and partially soluble in water. The inner layer of cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 A large vacuole is present in the centre of the cell. Surrounding the vacuole, the cytoplasm present as a thin layer
and to form a primordial utricle.
 A large nucleus and a girdle shaped or collar like chloroplast (grana and integrana absent or less developed)
present in the primordial utricle.
 Chloroplast contains two or three pyrenoids. These pyrenoids are protein particles which are surrounded by
starch. These

Special point pyrenoids re

 concerned with
 The variation in the shape of chloroplast in Algae has significance in taxonomy. storage of starch.
 Centriols are present in Ulothrix.
 All the cells of Ulothrix have power of cell division except holt fast.
 Diffused growth found in Ulothrix.
 Al the cells of filament are join together through the middle lemalla.

REPRODUCTION :
Ulothrix reproduce by three methods -
(1) Vegetative reproduction
(2) Asexual reproduction
(3) Sexual reproduction
(1) Vegetative Reproduction :
 It takes place generally in favourable conditions.
 Vegetative reproduction occurs by the process of fragmentation.
 The filaments break up into two or more pieces. They are called fragments.
 Each fragment divides to form a new Ulothrix filament.
Fragmentation occurs due to -
* Incidental reasons
* Death of intervening cells or middle lamella
* Strong waves of water
* Change of pH or temperature

19
(2) Asexual Reproduction :
 It takes pacle in favourable and unfavourable conditions
(i) In favourable conditions : It takes place by
zoospores formation. Zoospore formation
commences generally near the apex and
progress towards the base of filament
(Basipetal order)
(a) By Zoospores :
 Any cell of the filament except hold fast can form
zoospores.
 A cell which produce zoospores is called
zoosporangium. A sporangium produce 8-32
zoospores.
 Zoospores are formed through the mitotic
division.
 A membrane is spread around the zoospores, is
called vesicle. This vesicle originates from the
innermost layer of cell wall. It means it is made up
of cellulose.
 A pore is formed in the lateral side of cell wall of
zoosporangium. Zoospores are liberated with
vesicle through this aperture. and Vesicle bursts
and zoospores become free in water.
 Zoospores are of two type -
(1) Micro zoospores (2) Macro zoospores
(1) Micro zoospores : They are oval shaped. They may be biflagellate or quadriflagellate. Eye spot lies at the
anterior lateral position.
Their swimming period is 2-6 days. Their number in mother cell varies form 8 to 32. Their germination begins
from the anterior end.
(2) Macro zoospores : They are spindle or pear shaped with a pointed posterior end. They are always
quadriflagellate. Eye spot lies at the anterior in middle region. Their swimming period is about 24 hours (1
day). The number of macro zoospores in sporangium fro m 4-8. Their germination begins from the posterior
end.
STRUCTURE OR ZOOSPORE :
 zoospores are naked. It means cell wall is absent in them. Cut
Shaped chloroplast is preset in which on pyrenoid is present.
 A contractile vacuole is present which is concerned with
osmoregulation.
 A red colour eyespot is found in zoospores for reception of light,
which is made up ot carotenoids (Hematochrome).
Note : Contracticle vacuole is absent in zoospore of Ulothrix flacca.

20
 Germination of zoospores 
 Zoospores, after the liberation from zoosporangium swim in
water for sometime.
 When they tired settle down on any soild object.
 Micro zoospore attached with their anterior end and macro
zoospore attached with the posterior end. the zoosporers
withdraws is flagella and secretes a wall around it. During this
period it elongates and divides.
 First of all transverse division takes place, it is asymmetrical
after the two cells are formed.
 The lower long cell transform into hold fast and upper cell
divides continuous transversely to from Ulothrix Fila ment.
(ii) Asexual Reproduction in Unfavourable conditions :
(A) By Aplanospore :
 When the unfavourable conditions returns slowly, they all the
cells of thallus except hood fast forms aplanospore. Divided
protoplast becomes round inside the cells of Ulothix and form
a cell wall around itself. Aplanospores are thin walled and
Non-flagellated structures.
 The thallus of Ulothrix degenerates in unfavourable conditions. Aplanospores passes unfavourable conditions
On the approach of favourable conditions the aplanospore may germinates by two different way :
(1) Direct germination :
Aplanospores germiantes direictly, when the availability of
water is less. Aplanospores absorb water and swells up
and their covering breaks and aplanospores become free
then transverse division takes place, Lower cell transform
into hold fast and upper cell produce Ulothrix filament
through continuous transeves division.
(2) Indirect germination :
It take place by formation of zoospores. When water is
available in more amount then zoospores are formed in
aplanospores. Each aplanospore act as a
zoosporangium and each Zoospore produce new Ulothrix
filament.

Aplanospre shows “in situ” germination

also.

(b) By Hypnospores :
 When highly adverse conditions are coming fast then the
protoplast of the Ulothrix cell shrinks and collects in the
centre.

21
 Shrinked protplast secretes a thick wall around itself. These thick walled non-motile structuresare called
Hypnospores. They are usuallyformed single in a cell.
 They are more resistant as compared to aplanospores. The are perennating bodies.
 On the approach of favourable conditions hypnospores also germinate directly or indirectly.

Example - U. fimbriata
(c) Akinetes :
 When adberse conditions come suddenly then vegetative cell transform into thick walled structure. In which food
has been accumulated.
(In which spore wall is joined with the wall of sporangium) These are called akinetes. They shows perennation.
When the favourable conditions come they may be germiante directly or indirectly.

Example : U. idiospora, U. zonata, U. subtilissima

(d) Palmella stage :
 this type reproduction takes place in those Ulothrix species, which lies at the bank of reservoirs. The water start
drying in the unfavourable conditions, Ulothrix faces dificiency of water step by step.
 Certain cells of the thallus divides in uncontrolled manner during such type of changes and to form group of a
large number of small daurghet cells. The cell wall of cells dissolves and to form a mucilagenous envelope. Later
it dries and form a protective covering.
 On the approach of favourable contidions mucilage layer dissolves and cells give rise to a new thallus through
direc or indirect germination.
Note : Above stage is identicle to an another algae-Palmella, Therefore it is known as palmella stage.
Note : In Ulothrix, colony formation occurs during palmella stage.

(3) Sexual reproduction :


 Sexual reproduction isogamous type. (Such type of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes are
morphologically and physiologically similar called as isogamous).

 Gametes are type zoogamete. They are motile. they appears like a biflagelalte microzoopores.
 Each cell can function as zoogametangium except the hold fast. The process of gamete formation and liberation
is similar to that of zoospores. 8 to 64 zoogametes are formed in a zoogametangium.

 the fusing gametes first unite by their anterior ends in lateral side and later on they get fusded completely and a
diploid, quadrilflagellated structure is formed which is called sykaryon. (When the cells of gametes fused
together then it is called Plamogamy and fusion of their nucleus is called Karyogamy. Resulting a dipolid zygote
is formed ).
* In the begining zygote is qudriflagelale and later losses its flagella. Zygote secretes a thick wall around it self. It is
known as zygospore.

Germination of zygospore : One zygosproe Germination : 4-16 Ulothrix filament


 Germination of zygospore is direct or indirect in favourable conditions and meiotic division takes place during
germination.

 A heterogenetic thallus is formed through the direct germination in which some of the cells cell of opposite
strains.

 During indirect germination of zygospores meiotic division takes place and four haploid spores are formed. They
are called meiospores. These meisopores are may be motile (meizoospore) r non motile (meio aplanospores).
The motile meiozoospores are quadriflagellate. A homogenetic thallus is formed through the indirect
germination of zoospore. It means ll the cells formed in thallus are identicle.

“PARTHENOGENESIS”
 Fusion of motile gamtes in a through of luck. When these gametes fail to fuse. They still down, withdraw their
flagella, round off and secretes a thick wall around itself. These are called as azygospores or parthenospores.
They germinate by direct or indirect methods. Their germination is through the mitotic cell division. Homogenetic
thallus is formed through the germination of azygospore.

22
 Special
 points

 Ulothrix is heterothallic. It means isogametes have different strains genetically.
 Sexual reproduction of Ulothrix geins after the growth period. (Vegetative season)
 Sprorophytic generatioin is represented only by the zygote. In the life cycle of Ulothix, Zygote is very
short in duration. Becuase of the formation of meiospores, the zygosproe of Ulothrix is called
incipient sprophyte.
 Gametes are formed in semi drying condition and released in the morning.
 In Ulothrix primary division of labour is found. The work of the holdfast is to make the filament stable on
the base. For food it depends on other cell, which does the work of food formation and reproduction.
 In Ulothrix gamtes units first by flagella then by opposite ends then laterally and proceeds towards
posterior end.
 Ininitial stage of zygote of Ulothrix. four flagella, two eye sports, two chloroplasts and one diploid
nucleus are present.
Resting :zygospore
 CYCLE
LIFE HAPLONTIC of Ulothrix zonata forms a rhizoid like structure, this is called “Codiolum stage”.
This rhizoid like structure meant for fixation.

23
 ULOTHRIX EXERCISE
1. A motle flagellate asexual cell is known as - (4) Naked protoplasm
(1) Zoospore (2) Zygospore 12. Which cell of Ulothrix does not divide
(3) Tetraspore (4) Zygote (1) Rhizoidal cell
2. Ulothrix is a green algae because - (2) Apical cell
(1) It has a cell – wall (3) Both the above
(2) Each cell ahs a single nucleus (4) None of the above
(3) Each cell has single chloroplast 13. In Ulothrix, colony formation occurs during -
(4) It has chl ‘a’, chl ‘b’,  -carotene & xanthophll (1) Formation of aplano spores
3. Ulothrix produces (2) Formation of zoospores
(1) Quadri flagellate macrozoopores (3) Plamell stage
(2) Biflagellate micro zoospers (4) All of the above
(3) Quadriflagellate micro zoospores 14. In Ulotrhix, eye spot does not occurs in
(4) All the three types of zoopores states above (1) Zoospores (2) Gamets
4. The organ by which Ulothrix is attached to its (3) Micro zoospores (4) None of the these
substratum is called a - 15. In Ulothrix gametes are released in
(1) rhizoid (2) Hold-fast (1) morning (2) After noon
(3) Trichome (4) Root (3) Evening (4) Night
5. The number of flagella in the gametes of Ulothrix 16. In Ulothrix, filaments produced from zygosproe are
is (1) All (+) type
(1) six (2) Four (3) One (4) None of the above (2) All (-) type
6. The non motile, greatly thickened asexual spores (3) Half (+) And Half (-)
are called - (4) 75% (+) and 25% (-)
(1) Hypnospores (2) macro zoospores 17. Resting zygospore of Ulothrix zonata forms a
(3) aplanospores (4) micro zoospores rhizoid like structure, this is called “Codiolum
7. The basal cell of Ulothix is devoid of stage”. Rhizoid like stage meant for
(1) Nucleus (2) Cytoplasm (1) Fixation (2) Perennatin
(3) Chloroplast (4) All of these (3) Photosynthesis (4) Respiration
8. In Ulothix reduction division occurs 18. Which types of spores fix to substratum by anterior
(1) In the gametes end at the time of germination
(2) In the zygospores (1) Macrozoosopres
(3) In the zoospores (2) Micro - zoospores
(4) In the somatic cell (3) Aplanospores
9. In Ulothrix maximum energy is utilized during (4) Hypno spores
(1) Movement (2) Chemical reaction 19. In Ulothrix is removed from water and placed in
(3) Mitosis (4) Xanthophyll synthesis dry soil then it will produce
11. The akinate formed during unfavourable conditions (1) Aplanospores
in the ulothrix life cycle is (2) Hypnospores
(1) Protoplasm + thin cell (3) Akinetes
(2) Protoplasm + cell wall (4) Palemlla stage
(3) Cell + thick wall

24
20. When single aplanospre in produce in a cell of Hint : In a colony cells mechanically held together
Ulothrix it is called generally in a gelatinous envelope. The cells in the
(1) Akinete (2) Hypnospore colony have little or no dependence upon one an
(3) Oidium (4) Torula other.
21. Which type of gametes re produced in Ulotrhix 29. Apical cell of thallus in Ulotrhix is
(1) Bilagellate zoogamets (1) Dome shaped (2) Cylindrical
(2) Bilagellate antherozoids (3) Rectangular (4) Club shaped
(3) Quadriflagellate 30. Vesicle of zoospores is derived from
(4) Non motke gametes (1) Propectin (2) Pectin
22. Ulothrix is (3) Cellulose (4) Cytoplasm
(1) Homothallic (2) Heterothallic 31. Chloroplast of Ulothrix is
(3) Protandrous (4) 2 & 3 both (1) Girdle shaped with grana & intergrana
23. Ulothrix in habits (2) Gridle shaped without or less developed grana
(1) Slow flowing warm water & intergrana
(2) Stagnant cool water (3) Discoidal with well developed grana
(3) Slow flowing cool water (4) Discoidal with poorly developed grana
(4) Any of the above 32. Hold-fast of Ulothrix is
24. Cells of Ulothrix are (1) Living & without chloroplast
(1) Rectangular (2) Spherical (2) Living & without nucleus
(3) Cylidrical (4) Ellipticle (3) Non-living & without chloroplast
25. Pyrenoids are composed of (4) Non-living & with nucleus
(1) Starch (2) Protein 33. Nucleus of Ulothrix is found in
(3) Starch & lipid (4) Starch & protein (1) Primordial utricle (2) Central vacuole
26. Ulothrix does not absorb excess of water from (3) Outside chloroplast (4) Periplasmic space
surrounding because 34. Red eye spot of zoospores of Ulothrix is made up
(1) Pectin in cell wall of
(2) Cellulose in cell .wall (1) Lycopene (2) Haematochrome
(3) Low o.p. of cytoplasm (3) Carotene (4) Leutine
(4) Low i.p. of cell sap 35. The name “Palmella Stage” is after the name of a
27. Zoospores of Ulothrix Flacca (1) Lady (2) Slime molds (3) Scientist (4) Algae
(1) Without Contractile vacuole 36. How many mating types occur in Ulothrix
(2) lack red eye spot (1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Many
(3) Always macro zoosproes 37. Vegetative reproduction in Ulothrix takes place by
(4) Have cell - wall (1) Parthenogenesis(2) Fragmentation
28. Why Ulothrix is not considered a linear colony of (3) Harmogonium 0(4) Aplanospore
cells 38. Lithophytic species of Ulothrix is
(1) BEcause all cell are in a common cell wall (1) U.implexa (2) U.flacca
(2) Because cells exhibit a division of labour (3) U.zonata (4) U.flaccida
(3) Because cells have plasmodesmatal 39. In Ulothrix food is stored in the form of
connections (1) Protein (2) Starch
(4) All the above (3) Pyrenoid (4) Lipid

25
40. Which type of sexual reproduction occurs in 50. The cause of polarity in Ulotrhix is due to
Ulothrix (1) Apical cell
(1) Isogamous (2) Anisogamous (2) Basal cell
(3) Oogamous (4) Conjugation (3) Intercalary cell
41. In Ulotrhix, Zygote in initially (4) Both apical & Basal cell together
(1) Uniflagellate (2) Biflagellate 51. Which of the following reproductive structure is
(3) Quadriflagellate (4) Aflagellate equivalent to a complete cells
42. One called sporophyte are found in (1) Aplanospore (2) Zoosproe
(1) Ulothrix (2) Riccia (3) Akinete (4) Hypnospore
(3) Moss (4) Fern 52. Ulotrhix is
43. The zoopores of Ulothrix exhibit a closer (1) A colonial algae
resemblance to the thallus of (2) An anchored & branched algae
(1) Ulothrix (2) Chlamydomonas (3) An attached filamentous algae
(3) Plamella (4) Chlorella (4) A free floating algae
44. Micro zoospores in Ulothrix are 53. Filaments of Ulothrix are
(1) Biflagellate (2) Quadri flagelalte (1) Brick Shaped (2) Branched
(3) Both (1) & (2) types (3) Girdle shaped (4) Unbranched
(4) Multiflagellate 54. How many thalli (filaments) are produced from the
45. How many zoospores re produced in a single cell germination of a zygospore of Ulothrix
of Ulothrix (1) 1-4 (2) 4-16 (3) 16-32 (4) 4-64
(1) 1-8 (2) 8 – 16 (3) 8 – 32 (4) 8 - 64 55. What type of nuclear division occurs at the time of
46. The type of zoospores not formed in Ulothrix are the germination of zoospores and zygospore
(1) Quadriflagelalted macro zoospores respectively ?
(2) Quadriflagelalted micro zoospores (1) Both mitotic (2) Mitotic and meiotic
(3) Biflagellated macro zoospores (3) Meiotic and mitotic (4) Both meiotic
(4) Biflagellated micro zoospores 56. If total 52 cells are present in a Ulothrix filament,
47. How many chloroplast occur in Ulothrix cell how many of them can divided to rpduce zoospore or
(1) One, Girdle shaped aplanospores
(2) Two star shaped (1) All the 52 (2) 51 only
(3) Three - Girdle shaped (3) 40 only (4) 1 only
(4) Many spiral shaped 57. Ulothrix cells have a double layered wall
48. The zoo gametangia and zoo sporangia of Ulothrix (1) The outer of cellulose and inner of pectin
re (2) Inner of cellulose and outer of protepectin
(1) Jacketed and unicellular (3) Both of Cellulose
(2) Non jacketed and unicellular (4) Both of pectin
(3) Jacketed and multi cellular 58. In Ulothrix the common mode of Asexual
(4) Non jacketed and multi cellular reproduction take pace by
49. Parthenogenesis in Ulotrhix forms a resting (1) Aplanospores
structure called (2) Macro - zoospores
(1) Zygospore (2) Azygospore (3) Micro zoospores
(3) Hypnospore (4) Zoospores (4) Macro & micro zoospores

26
59. In Ulothrix, Zygote is : [RPMT 2001] [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Quadriflagellate (2) Biflagellate (1) Ulothrix (2) Funaria
(3) Uniflagellate (4) Aflagellate (3) Selaginella (4) Pinus
60. Life cycle of “Ulothrix” is : [RPMT 2001] 65. Meiosis in Ulothrix take place during
(1) Isogamete (2) Oogamete [MP PMT 2002]
(3) Physiological anisogamete (1) zoospore formation
(4) Syngamous (2) gamete formation
62. Pigments present in chloroplast of Ulothrix (3) zygospore germination
[RPMT 2002] (4) zoospore germination
(1) Chlrophyll a, ch-b, fucoxanthin  -carotene Note :
(2) Ch - a, Ch-b, CH-C phycocyanin, C- Aplanospore :
phyceorythrin A non-motile and thin walled spore, in which spore
(3) Ch a, Ch - b,  - carotene and xanthophyll wall is not derived from wall of its parents cell.

(4) Ch-a, Ch-b r-phycocynanine r- phyceorythrin Hypnospore -

63. In Ulotrhix, zoospores are liberated by : A thick walled non motle spore of Ulothix, meant

[RPMT 2003] for perennation, called as hypnospore.

(1) Degeneration of lateral walls Akinete -

(2) Formation of pore in lateral wall A thick walled non motile resting spore formed by

(3) Gelatinisation of lateral wall the modification of vegetative cell in which food

(4) Gelatisistion of all cell wall has been accumulated.

64. Which of the following shows haplontic life cycle

ULOTHRIX ANSWER KEY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Que.
Ans. 1 4 4 2 4 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 4 1

Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ans. 3 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 4 4 1 3 1 3

Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Ans. 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 3

Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

Ans. 3 1 2 2 4 3 3 4 2 2 2 2 4 1 1

Que. 61 62 63 64 65

Ans. 3 3 2 1 3

27
 SPIROGYRA
SYSTEMATIC POSITION :
Kingdom Plantae
Sub kingdom Thallophyta
Division Chlorphyta
Class Chlorophycease
Order Conjugales/Zygnemales
Family Zygnemaceae/Zygnemataceae
Genus Spirogyra
Note : Spirogyra was discovered by Lin.
HABIT AND HABITAT
 It occurs in stagnant fresh water s free floating. It occurs in water of chaning temperature.
 Spirogyra adnata = Occurs in stream and river, “ Pon”
Common mane - “Pond Scum” “Pond Silk” or “Water Silk” or Mermaids’ tresses.
STRUCTURE:

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 Spirogyra is a multicellular, unbranched and filamentous algae. It is olive-green in colour.
 All the cells are similar in shape, size and structure. These are arranged in a linear row.
 Hold - fast is normally absent but S.fluvitatalis contains hold-fast.
 Cells are rectangular or cylindrical. Lenght is more as compared to width.
 Cell wall is double layered, outer layer is made up of pectose (which gets changed into pectin, which dissolves in
water to form a mucilagenous sheath) and inner layer is made up of cellulose.
Note : Filament is silky smooth due to presence of pectin in outer layer. Due to this reason epiphytes are not
attached with filament.
 Each cell contains a large central vacuole. Cytoplasm ocurs in the form of a thin layer around the vacoule. Thin
layer of cytoplasm is called “primordial utricle”.
 Cytoplasm contains a large nucleus and it is held by cytoplasmic fibres.
 Each cell contains spirally coiled or ribbon-shaped chloroplast, with a left handed twisteing (sinisral).
 Number of chloroplast varies from one to sixteen in each cell (according to species). (Single chloroplast was
recorded in S. Venkataramanii) and 16-chloroplsts in S-rectispora)
 Margins of chloroplast are smooth or serrate or saw shaped.
 Chloroplast have many Pyrenoids.
 Spirogyra grows in length by intercalary growth.
Note : Some species contains rhizoid like out growths.
e.g. S.affinis S.dubia S.rhizobrachialis
REPRODUCTION
(1) Vegetative reproduction -
 It takes place by fragmentation
Fragmentation takes place by -
(i) Accidental breakage
(ii) Dissolution of middle-lamella
(iii) By the formation of H-shaped segments -
E.g. Spirogyra colligate
 In some species cell-wall between two cells form H-shaped
thickening, called replicate wall / replicate septum
 Middle lamella of these cells dissolves and both cell remain connected
by replicate wall.
 Replicate wall facilitates fragmentation which dissolution of cells.
(2) Asexual reproduction : Normally asexual reproduction is absent in Spirogyra. It takes place only in some
species by the following methods -
(A) By aplanospore formation - e.g. S.aplanospora
(B) By akinete formation
 Under unfavourable conditions, the cells of a filament develop into thick walled structures. Such thick walled
structures are called as akinates.
 Thick cell-wall of akinete is made up cellulsoe and pectose. In akineetes, food has been accumulated.
 When favourable conditions return, akinete directly germinates to form a new thallus.
e.g. S-farlowii.

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(c) By Parthenospores or Azygospores -
 When gametes fail to fuse they form parthenospore. Sudden variation in environment leads to the formation of
parthenospores.
 “Kleb” artifically induces the formation of parthenospores in S.varians by placing it in sugar solution.
 In S. deadalea both the gametes from parthenospores in situ (at their original place)
Zoospores are totally absent in Spirogyra. It’s reproductive structure are non flagellated.
Note : In S.rhizoides parthenospores are developed from rhizoids.
(3) Sexual reproduction
 It takes place towards the end of growing season-usually in the late spring.
 It takes place by conjugation. Gametes are non-ciliated or non-flagellated and oval shape.
 Eye spot is absent in gametes.
 Gametes perform ameoboid movement during conjugation.
 Gameetes of Spirogyra are called aplanogametes (due to the absence of cilia or filagella).
 Physiological anisogamous type of sexual reproduction is found in Spirogyra.
Following conditions which favour the process are :
(i) Nitrogen deficiency
(ii) The change in pH of the aquatic medium an alkaline side.
Type of Conjugation
(i) Scalariform of Ladder like conjugation
(ii) Lateral conjugation
(i) Scalariform Conjugation :
 It is most common type of conjugation and occur in “heterothallic” species of Spirogyra.
 It mainly takes place during night.
 To filaments arrangement parallel to each other. After some time cells of two filaments opposite to each other form
cylindircal out growths which fuse to form a conjugation tube.
 Cell united by conjugation tube is called aplanogametangia. Ptoplast of gametangium constricts to form gamete.
In the cells of one filament, male gametes are formed and in the cells of another filament female gametes are
formed.
 Male gamete perform amoeboid movement and migrate to female gametangium through conjugation tube, it
fuses with female gamete to form a diploid zygote.
After this three layered wall is formed around the zygote, now it is called zygospore.

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
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 In scalrifom conjugation cells of one filament because empy and the other filament contains zygospore in its cells.
Note : Zygote is initially green but soon after chloroplast of male gamete degenerate followed by the degeneration
of chloroplast of female gamete. Due to this reason the filaments of Spirogyra do not remain green after fusion.
(ii) Lateral conjugation :
It takes place between adjacent cells of the
same filament. Laeral conjugation occurs in
homothallic species of
Spirogy0ra. lateral conjugation is of two types -
(a) Indirect lateral conjugation
(b) Direct lateral conjugation
(i) Indirect lateral conjugation/chain
conjugation
 Protoplast of cells contricts to form gametes.
 Male and female gameetes are formed in
adjacent cells of a filament.
 Each cell form tubular/papilla-like out growth
in their lateral wall.
 Out growths of two cells fuse to form
conjugation tube.
 Male gamete migrates through conjugation tube
and fuses with female gamete to form
zygospore. After the completion of conjugation
the filament contains empty and zygospore
containing cells in alternate manner.
Example : S . affinis.

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 (ii) Direction Internal conjugation
 this type of conjugation was studied by M.O.P. Iyengar (father of Indian phycology/Algology) in Spirogyra
jogensis.
 Male gamete migrates to adjacent cell through a conjugation pore in transverse wall between two cells.
 Male gates fuses with female gamete to form as diploid zygote.
Note :
Direct latera conjugation in the monoecious filament of this species usually takes place between two cells next to
the rhizoidal cell.

STRUCTURE OF ZYGOSPORE -
Wall of zygospore is three layered -
(i) Exosporium - Thin layer of cellulose (Mainly) and pectin.
(ii) Mesoporium - Brown, thick ornamented and cutinised.
(iii) Endosporium - Thin & made up of cellulose

GERMINATION OF ZYGOSPORE
 Germination takes place in favourable conditions. (Sometimes after rainy season)
 four haploid nuclei are formed inside the zygospore and a result of meiosis.
 three nuclei are degenerate and only one nucleus remains functional.
 Now functional nucleus of zygospore undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a haploid filament of Spirogyra.

Note : During germination of zygospore in spirogyra expsporium and mesosporium ruptures and endosporium
emerges in form of cylindircal tube.

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LIFE CYCLE
 Life cycle of spirogyra is “haplonit type”

33
SPIROGYRA EXERCISE

1. Replicate septum occurs in - (3) 2-4 zoospores (4) None of these

(1) Ulothrix (2) Spirogyra 12. The product of conjugation of Spirogyra is called
(3) Chlamydomonas (4) All the above (1) Zoospores (2) Akinete
2. On germination each zygospore of Spirogyra (3) Chlamydospore (4) Zygospore
gives rise to - 13. Flagellated stages are absent in -
(1) Four plants (2) Three plants (1) Ulothrix (2) Albugo
(3) Two plants (4) One plant (3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomnas
3. Filament of Spirogyra is - 14. Which is the common and advanced type of
(1) Branched and filamentous conjugation is Spirogyra
(2) Unbranched and filamentous (1) Direct lateral conjugation
(3) Highly branched (2) Indirect lateral conjugation
(4) All the above (3) Scalariform conjugation
4. Spriogyra also known as - (4) None of these
(1) Thred of wool (2) Water silk 15. No growth of Spirogyra can occur in -
(3) Pond silk (4) 2 and 3 both (1) River (2) Ponds
5. Gametes of Spirogyra are (3) Streams (4) Sea
(1) Biflagellated (2) Mltiflagellated 16. In Spirogyra, Meiosis occurs -
(3) Quadriflagellated (4) Nonflagellated (1) During conjugation
6. Spirogyra found in (2) During vegetative reproduction
(1) Stagnant fresh water (3) During formation of gametes
(2) Running salt water (4) As the zygospores germinates
(3) Stagnant salt water 17. Spirogyra belongs to
(4) Running fresh water (1) volvocales (2) Conjugales
7. Food is stored n Spirogyra in - (3) Ulothrichales (4) Siphonales
(1) Chloroplast (2) Pyrenoid 18. Which is not true for Spirogyra
(3) Vacuole (4) Cytoplasm (1) Spiral chloroplast
8. Scalariform conjugation occurs in - (2) Presence of pyrenoids
(1) Ulothrix (2) Oedogonium (3) Flagellated zoospores
(3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomonas (4) Presence of chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’
9. Which of the following produce non motile 19. Ribbon shaped chloroplast is found in -
gametes (1) Spirogyra (2) Ulotrhix
(1) Ulothrix (2) Spirogyra (3) Chlamydomonas (4) Nostoc
(3) Anabaena (4) Cladophora 20. How many chloroplast occur in a single cell of
10. The sexual reproduction in Spirogyra is Spirogyra
(1) Oogamous (1) One to four (2) One to eight
(2) Physiological Anisogamous (3) Four to eight (4) One to sixteen
(3) Cleistogamous (4) None 21. The outer cell-wall of Spirogyra is made up of
11. The zygospore of Spirogyra produces (1) Cellulose (2) Pectin/Pectose
(1) 2-zoospores (2) 4-zoopsores (3) Hemicellulose (4) Protein

34
22. Cell wall of Spirogyra is (3) Cytoplasm (4) Cell wall
(1) One layered (2) Two layered 28. Sexual reproduction in Spirogyra is an advanced
(3) Three layered (4) Four layered feature because it shows :
23. Spirogyra is more advanced than Ulothrix (1) Different sizes of motile sex organs
because it has - (2) same size of motile sex organs
(1) Internal fertilization (3) Morphologically different sex organs
(2) Multicellular thallus (4) Physiologically differentiated sex organs
(3) Absence of hold fast 29. The sexual reproduction in which cells of two
(4) Heterothallic thallus different spirogyra filaments conjugate is known as
24. Spirogyra appear ladder like during - -
(1) Lateral conjugation (1) Lateral conjugation
(2) Direct lateral conjugation (2) Scalariform conjugation
(3) Scalariform conjugation (3) Parthenospory
(4) Semidrying condition (4) Azygospory
25. In which of the following plant archegonium is 30. Spirogyra has a [MP PMT 1999]
absent - (1) Haplontic life cycle
(1) Spirogyra (2) Funaria (2) Hapolidiplontic life cycle
(3) Pteris (4) Cycas (3) Diplontic life cycle
26. At the time of germination of zygospore in (4) Diplohaplonitc life cycle
Spirogyra - Note :
(1) All haploid nuclei are functional According to Hodgetts terminal conjugation is
(2) Only one haploid nucleus is functional found n Spirogyra colligata. In this species,
(3) Diploid nucleus does not divide conjugation tubes are formed near common cell
(4) Diploid nucleus divides mitotically wall. It is also a type of lateral conjugation.
27. Pyrenoid is found in one of the following organs of
Spriogyra
(1) Nucleus (2) Chloroplast

SPIROGYRA EXERCISE
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 4 2 4 4 1 2 3 2 2 4 4 3 3 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 4 2 3 1 4 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 4 2 1

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 Albugo or Cystopus
Albugo name proposed by - De berry

SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Division Eumycophyta
Class Phycomycetes
Order Peronosporales
Family Alguginaceae
Genus Albugo or cytopus
Note : Albuginacease is a monotypic family. It includes only single genera Albugo.
 The most common species of Albugo is Albugo candida/Cystopus candidus. This species grows in
intercellular spaces of host tissue as an obligate parasite.
 It can not be grown culture medium. It causes “White-rust disease in the plants of family cruciferae or
brassicaceae.
 It shows specificity towards the host.
Etiology : Study of causes of disease in body is called etiology.
Characteristics of White-rust disease:
 White pustules/white blisters  They are usually present on lower surface of leaves which many also spread
on the supper surface of the leaves & stems.
The infected parte of the host become abnormal & the host become abnormal & the abnormality may be in the
form of hypertrophy, fleshyness or distortion.
Note : (1) The main reason of hypertrophy is formation of sex organs in intercellular spaces.
(2) Infected flowers are unable to develop in normal seeds.

Note

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:
  Albugo never infects the underground part of the plant such as roots Example - Radish. It is never

infected but only influenced.
 In infect only aerial parts of the plants.
 An excessive enlargement of diseased organ to an excessive elargement cell, called hypertrophy.
 Albugo is autoecisou fungus. It means it whole life cycle complete in a single host.
 Heteroecious - Such type of fungus which complete their life cycle in two different hosts.
Example - Puccinia, Primary hsot - Wheat, Secondary host - Berberis

STRUCTURE
 The albugo mycelium is branched aseptate, coenocytic. (Septa are
only formed in mycelium during reproduction). The hyphal wall is made
up of cellulose.
 Reserve food material is present in the form of glyocogen and oil
glubules.
Hphyal network is found in the inter cellular spaces of the host.
 Round, button shaped or knob like and stalked haustoria are found in
Albugo. These haustoria enter into the host cells. With the help of these
haustoria, it absorbs nutrients from the host cells.

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 In the apical region of haustoria dense cytoplasm mitochondira and ribosomes etc. are found but nuclei are
absent.
 The shape of haustoria have taxonomic importance.

SPECIAL POINT

 It’s mycelium is stained by cotton blue and mounted by lactophenon.

REPRODUCTION
 Holocarpic fungus : These re such type fungus in which their whole mycelium is utilized in the formation of
reproductive structurese.g. Chytrid.
 Eucarpic fungus : These are such type of fungus in which the whole mycelium is not utilized in the formation of
reproductive structures. Only few part of mycelium used for the formation of reproductive structures. Ex-ample -
Albugo, Rhizopus, Mucor
Reproduction takes place by two methods described as below -
(1) Asexual reproduction
(2) Sexual reproduction
(1) Asexual reproduction : It takes place by Cnidia formation. It is a type of sporangium or zoosporangium.
Conidium is a smooth colourless, spherical thin walled and multinucleated structure, in which 3-8, nuclei are
present. It diameter is 13-18  .
 The mycelium gives rise to erect brancihg. They are usually formed towards lover epidermis. They are called
conidiophore. Conifiophores are parallel to each other and at right angle to epidermis.
 Condiophore are club shaped strucutre. Their cell wall of the apical region is thin.
These thin walled apical region forms the chains of conidia by contriction techique.
 Conidia are developed in the form of chain, in basipetal sequence. It means newly formed conidia are present at
the base of chain and old large conidia are present at the end of the chain.
 A gelatinous disc is present in between the two conidia. It is called disjuctor.

37
 This disc helps, conidia to remain in a chain. The chain of conidia grows and press the lower epidermis.
 This causes epidemis to bulge out and appears in the form of blister. Due to more pressure, the epidermis burts,
and these conidia are spread in the form of white powder on the surface of leaf. (Due to chage o auxin amount in
infected diseased tissue, spots are converted into white powder form).

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DISPERSAL & GERMINATION :
 Conidia are dispersed by air
 Two different types of germination takes place in favourable conditions.
(i) Direction germiantion :
 It takes place at high temperature and low humidity in environemnt eg. Algubo bliti
 Conidium absorbs some water which is present on the surface of the leaf. A germ tube comes out from the
condidiu. This tube enters inside host tissues through stomata and form intercellular mycelium
 White rust disease spreads slowly in this condition. Spreading of disease is called secondary infectiion.
Note : Secondary infection  By wind
(ii) Indirect Germination : In the presence of lee temperature approximately 10-150C and high moisture in
atmosphere, conidium germinates by (After 2-3 hours of their dspiersal) zoospores formation.
 Conidium absorbs more water and swell up and form 3-8 zoospores. These zoospores are envolded by vesicle.
 These envveloped zoospores are ooze out. Vesicle dissolves then and zoospores become free.
 Free zoospores smim in water for few minute and finally they reaches on the surface of host, then after withdraw
their flagella and round off and secretes a wall around itself.
 Deflagellated zoospores with wall germinates through the germ tube. This germ tube enter into the host tissue
through stomata or through the treated epidermis and form mycelium.
STRUCTURE OR ZOOSPORES :
 Zoospores of Albugo are uninucleated, reniform or bean shaped and biflagelalted.
 Flagella are located on the lateral side of zoospore which unequal in length. Out of them small and hairy
flagellum is called Tinsel or Pantonematic or Filimmergersal. Another long and smooth flagellum is called
whiplash or Acronematic or peitgersal flagellum.
Note : In the presence of high availability of water secondary zoospores are also develop then many generation of
zoospores are fomred such as -
(i) Monoplanetic Gerneration : Only primary zoospores are formed.
(ii) Polyplanetic Generation : In which many generation of zoospores are formed, like primary secondary and
tertiary zoospores are formed.

 In the presence of less temperature are high moisture while rust disease speads vigorously.
 The study of spread of disease is called Epidemiology.

2. Sexual Reproduction :
 In Albugo sexual reproduction is oogamous type. Male and female sex organs are known as antheridium and
oogonium respectively.
 In A. candida the sex organs are generally formed towards the end of the growing season of the host.
Reproductive organs are endogenous. ?They develop in intercellular spaces, quite deep into the host tissues.
Their presence is externally indicated by hypertrophy and defromation of the organ.
(i) Anteridium : The antheridium is an elongated, club shaped and multinucleated structure. A transverse
septum is present in its basal region. It develop on male hypha which is paced very close to the oogoniuom.
There are many (6-12) nuclei present in a young antheridium but mature antheriudium has only one functional
nucleus.

39
 (ii) Oogonium :
 Oogonium is globular is shape. The cytoplasm of oogonium differented into two distinct regions
(i) Peripheral cytoplasm or Outer cytoplasm :
 It is vacuolated, spongy and diffused. It is called periplasm.
(ii) Centrral cytoplasm :
 It is dense. It is known as ooplasm.
 Both Ooplasm and periplasm are multinucleated in the beginning but only a single nucleus remains in the ooplasm
at maturity and rest of nuclei are transferred into the periplasm. However some workers believe that all nuclei in
the oooplasm except on disintegrate.
 A single nucleus present in the ooplasm is called female nucleus or oosphere.
The oogonium of A.blitti, A portulacae cotains many female nuclei or oospheres.
Note :
 Antheridium and oogonium develops very close in the mycelium. They are present on different hyphae lying close
together.
 Albugo is homothallic because fusing gametes are genetically similar.

40
FERTILIZATION
 A small protuberance develops from oogonium towards the antheridium. The wall of the antheridium and oogoium
becoem thin at the region of their contact.
 this out growth stimulate the antheridium for fertilization. The innver wall of stimulated antheridium produces
fertilization end of fertiliztion tube must and introduces a single nulceus along with some cytoplasm.
 The nucles fuses with the female nulceus and results in the formation of diploid nucleus. Now it is known as
zygote. Latter on antheridium dry up as well as the nuclei of periplasm are also disorganised. Priot to
fertilization a mass of protpoast is found in oooplasm. It is called concentrum. Which is formed by granular
cytoplasm. the single function egg nucleus of oogonium is attached with coenocentrum. After the fertilization it
is also degenerate.
 After there fertilization, zygote secretes a thick tri layered wall around it self and now it is called oospore (2N). In
oospore there orruce free nucler divisions and 32-nuclei are formed in oospore. (According to modern
mycologists) but according to old mycologitsts, the diploid nucleus of the oospore divide first by a meiotic
division, followed by several mitotic division resulting in the formation of about 32 nuclei in oospore.

 SPECIAL POINT
 
  According to Stevens all the structuresof Albugo are diploid except gamete.
  According to Sansome and Sansome meiosis division takes place at the time of gamete formation i.e.

gamentagial meiosis found in Albugo. In Albugo meiosis not takes place in oospore.



 Oospore with 32 nuclei is the resting stage of Albugo. In this stage it lives on dry branches in the abssence of
host. On returns of favourable conditions the 32 nuclei of oospore undergoes repeated divisions to from 100 or
more nuclei.
 100 or more zooposres are formed from these nuclie. The zoospores are releases/liberated with vesicle by the
repturing of outer thick wall of oosore (formed by inner wall of oospore)
 These zoospores are coming in contact with a suitable host (seedling plants) settile down on the host and infect
them.
 The initial stage o the disease during the growth period is called primary infection.
 Primary infection takes place through the soil.
CONTROL OF WHITE - RUST DISEASE
1. By crop rotation : Primary infection can be checked through the growing of crops one after another crops. This is
the best method to control the white - rust.
2. By removal of infected plants from the field. Through this it can be eradicated.
3. By application of fungicides - Such as - Bordeaux mixture. It is composed of
CuSO4 + Lime water

(1 : 1)
 Through the sulphur dust etc.
* In the absence of host Albugo grows on another plant (Cleome Viscosa). This plant grows as weeds.

41
Some Species of Albugo :
1. Albugo oxidental - Infects Spinach
2. A. impomoeae - Infects sweet potato
3. A. bliti - Infects Amaranthaceae family plants.
4. A. protulacae - Infects protulaca plant.
5. A. tregopogosis - Infects compositae family plants. eg. Eclipta alba
LIFE CYCLE -
Diplonitc type (accordind to modern mycologists)

42
ALBUGO EXERCISE
1. The diseases produced by Albuogo on the (3) Palmate (4) Pinnate
crucifers is 11. Which of the following species of albugo contain
(1) Rust (2) White-rust more than one oospherre in oogonium
(3) Red rust (4) Black rust (1) A.candida
2. The mycelium of the albugo is (2) A.bliti
(1) Inter cellular, septate (3) A.occidentale
(2) Intracellular aseptare (4) All the above
(3) Intra cellular, septate 12. Viruses re similar to albugo in
(4) Intercellular, aspetate (1) being obligate paraside
3. From one crop to next another ; the infection of (2) Having DNA as genetic material
Alubo reaches in the form of (3) Being Coenocytic
(1) Conidida (2) Mycelium (4) All the above
(3) Oospore (4) Zoospore 13. Resting oospore of A.candida contains
4. The male gamete in albugo reaches to the female (1) 100-nuclei (2) 64-nuclei
gamete by (3) 32-nuclei (4) One nucleus
(1) Flagella (2) Fertilization tube 14. Which of the following is the source of primary
(3) Swimming (4) Chemotaxis infection by Albugo cadida
5. Which of the following sets of conditions favour (1) Soil born oospores
rapid spread of white rust disease (2) Conidia born on Cleome viscosa
(1) High temperature + High humidity (3) Conidia born on crop host
(2) Low temperature + High Humidity (4) 1 and 2 both
(3) High temperature + Low humidity 15. Albugo is
(4) Low temperature + Low humidity (1) Intercellular, oligate parasite
6. Albugo bliti attacks on (2) Intracellular, obligate parasite
(1) Sonchus (2) Portulaca (3) Intercellular, facultative parasite
(3) Amaranthus (4) Sweet potato (4) Intercellular, facultative saprophyte
7. Haustoria of albugo are 16. Which stain and mouth are generally used for fungi
(1) Sessile (2) Stalked (1) Cotton blue and glycering
(3) Appendiculate (4) Biramous (2) Saffranine and glycerine
8. Sexual reproduction in Albugo produced which (3) Cotton blue and Lactophenol
type of symptoms on host plant (4) Eosine & Lactophenon
(1) Hypertrophy & deformation 17. Conidia of Albugo-candidia collected from
(2) Raised white spots mustard are not infective to radish leaves because
(3) Phylloidy (1) thick cuticle on radish leaves
(4) All the above (2) Radish leaves secrete antibiotics
9. After fertilization coenocentrum in albugo (3) Biological specialization in Algubo-candida
(1) Persists (2) Grows in size (4) Biological specialization in radish
(3) Grows in number (4) Disappears 18. Study of secondary infection is called
10. Haustoria of Albugo is (1) Etiology (2) Ecology
(1) Club shaped (2) Butoon shaped (3) Epidermiology (4) Pathology

43
19. Bordeaux mixture is first fungicide, is discovered (1) Sugar oil and mainitol
by (2) Starch and protein
(1) Millardet (2) De-berry (3) Protein and cellulsoe
(3) Mitchelli (4) Alexopolus (4) Glycogen and oils
20. How mnay nuclei is/are found in conidia of Albugo 30. Which structure of Albugo exhibits symptoms of
(1) 1 (2) 2-3 (3) 3-8 (4) Many white rust disease
21. At what stage septa are formed in Albugo (1) Mycelium (2) Conidia
(1) At the time vegetative growth (3) Gametangia (4) Oospore
(2) At the time of haustorial formation 31. Albugo mycelium can reproduce (a) Sexually (b)
(3) At the time of sexual & asexual reproduction Asexually (c) Vagetatively.
(4) Never Formed (1) ‘a’ and ‘b’ (2) ‘a’ and ‘c’
22. Albugo is found (3) ‘b’ and ‘c’ (4) ‘a’, ‘b’ & ‘c’
(1) In dung 32. The conidiophores of Albugo are
(2) In streams (1) Club shaped and branched
(3) In decaying organic matter (2) Club shaped and unbranched
(4) On the leaves of a living plant (3) Peltate and branched
23. Which part of the plant is not infected by Albugo (4) Peltate and unbranched
(1) Stem (2) Root 33. Secondary infection of white rust could be
(3) Leaf (4) Flowers controlled by
24. Most common methods asexual reproduction in (1) Crop rotation
Albugo, by (2) Use of bordeaux mixture
(1) Zoosporangia (2) Aplanospores (3) Soil fumigation
(3) Condiosporangia (4) Zygospore (4) Use D.D.T.
25. Albugo produces conidiosporangia 34. Female Gametangium of Albugo is called :
(1) In chain (2) In Clusters (1) Pisit (2)Archegonium
(3) Single (4) In Clumps (3) Ascogonium (4) Oogonium
26. The order of development of conidia in Albugo is 35. The gametes of Albugo are
(1) Acropetal (2) Basipetal (1) Non-flagellted
(3) Irregular (4) Radial (2) Flagellated and Motile
27. The flagella on the zoospores of Albugo are (3) Male flagellated & Female non flagellated
(1) Equal & Lateral (4) Female flagellated & Male non flagellated
(2) Equal and terminal 36. Meiosis in Albugo occurs at the time of
(3) Unequal and terminal (1) Gamete formation
(4) Unequal and Lateral (2) Conidia formation
28. Albugo draws nutrition form its host by (3) Zoospores formation
(1) Extra cellular phagocytosis (4) Oospore germination
(2) Club shaped conifiophores 37. Sexual reproduction (or fertilization) can occur with
(3) Tuberculate rhizoids out water in
(4) Globular or Button shaped hasutoria (1) Ulothrix (2) Albugo
29. In what form of the food is stored in the mycelium (3) Funaria (4) Fern
of Albugo

44
38. What is the most economic method of the control 46. Which of the following produced non-motile
of white rust disease of crucifers ? gamete-
(1) Soil fumigation (1) Ulothrix (2) Albugo
(2) crop rotation (3) Riccia (4) Pteridium
(3) Use of fungicides 47. Sexual reproduction in Algubo is
(4) Use of antibiotics (1) Isogamous
39. The secondry infectiion in Albugo is (2) Anisogamous
(1) Wind born (2) Soil born (3) Oogamous
(3) Water born (4) Seed born (4) None of these
40. Which stage in the life cycle of Albugo candida is 48. In which stage of Algubo the haploid number of
not coenocytic chromosome is found
(1) Vegetative mycelium (1) Conidia (2) Hypha
(2) Conidiosporangia (3) Gametes (4) Oospore
(3) Zoospores 49. What holds the conidia together into a chain in
(4) All of these cytopus (Albugo)
41. The flagella on the zoospore of Albugo are (1) Middle lamella
(1) Whisplash type (2) Cell-wall
(2) Tinsel type (3) Intercalary mucilagenous septum
(3) One whiplash and one tinsel type (4) Plasmodesmata
(4) Mixed type 50. A single mycelium of Albugo is capable of sexual
42. Hypertrophy of florat parts in a cruciferous plant is reproduction. Because it is
caused by (1) Dichogamous
(1) Conidia of cystopus (2) Monoecious
(2) Conidiophores of cystopus (3) Homothallic & self comptatible
(3) Accumulation of hyphae of cytopus for sexual (4) Homothallic & self imcomplatible
reproduction 51. Albugo belongs to
(4) All the above (1) Phycomycetes and zygomycetes
43. To cause infection, the germ tube enters through (2) Archaemycetes and Oomycetes
(1) Epidermal cell (2) Guard cell (3) Phycomycetes and Oomycetes
(3) Stomata (4) Lenticels (4) Zygomycetes and archaemycetes
44. An excessive elargement of a diseased organ due 52. A combined solution of copper sulphate and
to an increase in the number of its cells is called calcium hydroxide which is used as a fungicide is
(1) Hyperplasia (2) Damping off (1) Collins mixture (2) Bordeaux mixture
(3) Necrosis (4) Hypertrophy (3) Carminative mixture (4) Fehling’s solution
45. Which of the following is the symptom of white rust 53. Which is correct statement : [RPMT 2001]
disease of crucifers (1) Perithecium is fruiting body of Aspergillus
(1) Hypertrophy of floral axis (2) Sexual reproduction in Albugo is oogamous
(2) White blisters on the stem (3) Ascomycetes is known as club fungi.
(3) White blisters on the leaf (4) Sexualreproduction inHelminthosporium
(4) All the above is oogamous

45
54. Botanical name of species which cause white rust 56. Albugo candida which causes white rust o
of cruciferae : [RPMT 2002] cruciferae is : [RPMT 2003]
(1) Peronospora Parasitica (1) Saprophyte
(2) Puccinia graminis (2) Facultative parasite
(3) Pythium debarbanum (3) Obligate parasite
(4) Albugo candida (4) Obligate saprophyte
55. Branched, aseptate, coenocytic, mycelium present 57. White rust disease of crucifers is caused by :
in : [RPMT 2002] [RPMT 2005]
(1) Aspergillus\ (2) Albugo (1) Puccinia (2) Ustilago
(3) Pencillium (4) Erysiphe (3) Albugo candida (4)Aspergillus

ALBUGO ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 1 4 2 2 1 3 4 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 3 3 1 3 3 4 2 3 1 2 4 4 4 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 2 2 4 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 3 3 1 4
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57
Ans. 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 3

46
 MUCOR & RHIZOPUS

(Pin mold) (Common bread mold)

or
Black mold of bread
SYSTEMATIC POSITION :
Kingdom Plantae
Division Chlorphyta
Class phycomycetes
Sub. Class zygomyceetes
Order mucorales
Family mucoraceae
Genus Mucor/Rhizopus
HABIT AND HABITAT
 Rhizopus and Mucor and saprophytic fungi and in laboratory can be obtained on moist bread.
 Rhizopus and Mucor and also called as braed mold.
STRUCTURE OF MYCELIUM
 It is branched coenocytic, aseptate and vacuolated.
 The hyphal wall is made up of chitin. Besides, glucosamine, galactose, protein, lipid, Mg and Ca are also present
in the cell wall.
 In cytoplasm, storage food in present in the form of oil droplets and glycogen bodies.

REPRODUCTION
(i) Vegetative reproduction
(ii) Asexual reproduction
(iii) Sexual reproduction
(i) Vegetative reproduction - It takes place by
fragmentation.
(ii) Asexual reproduction -
(a) By aplanospore formation -
 Sporangia are aseptate and aerial. Sprorangium develops on sporangiosphores. Sporangiophores are branched
(Mucor mucedo) or unbranched (M. Jenevensis)
 Sporangiophores come out from mycelium and their distal ends swell up. The swollen apices accumulate
cytoplasm, nuclei and food. Now it is called sporangium (plural-sporangia).
 In this stage protoplast of sporangium is differentiated into a peripheral dense multinucleated region and central
region with small flattened vacuole. Nucleus are arranged in peripheral region. The peripheral region of
sporangium is fertile and central vacuolated region is sterile. It is hmispherical or club shaped which is called
columella.
At the stage of spore formation protoplast of peripheral region of sporgangium get divided into many
multinucleated segments (2-10 nuclei in each segment). Each segment secretes a wall around itself and form
aplanospores

47
 when they mature outer wall of sporangium raptures to release the spores in air. These spores germinate in
favourable conditions and form new mycelium.

(b) By Chlamydospores -
 Asexual reproduction also takes place by chlamydospores.
 When unfavourable condition comes, mycelium becomes septate.
Protoplast of each cell aggregates, to become spherical and secretes a
thick wall around itself.
Note : Chlamydospores are may be intercalary and terminal in origin.
 These are perennating structures which can survive in unfavourable
conditions.
 In favourable conditions these spores are germinate and form new
mycelium.

48
(c) Oidia -
 When mycelium grows in a liquid medium then it becomes
septated and thin-walled. These cells are formed, called oidia.
 Oidia are similar to buds of yeast.
 Fermentation takes place by oidia in sugar solution and alcohol is
formed and oidia are formed in a chain. This stage is called torula
stage.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION  Isogamous type
It takes place during the absence of nutrient substances. In this
process gametangial copulation tkes place between two
gametangia.
 Both homothallic and heterothallic species are occur in these fungi.
But most of the species are heterothallic.




















49
 In homothallic species fungal hyphae which participate in sexual reproduction are of same strains i.e. either (+) strains
or (-) strains.
 In heterothallic species fungal hyphyae which participate in sexual reproduction are of different strains. In heterothallic
species sexual reproduction always takes place between hyphae of different strains i.e. (+) and (-).
Mucor mucdo (Dung mold ) - heterothallic
M.hiemalis - homothallic
Rhizopus nigricans - heterothallic
R.sexualis - homothallic
R. stolonifer - heterothallic
 When two fungal hyphate which are respectively (+) and (-) strains come close to each other, then these fungal hyphae
produce some outgorwths. These outgrowths re called “progametangia”.
 Anterior parts of progametangia are filled with cytoplasm and nuclei. Now these progammetangia are (which are
different in strains) come in contact and as septum is formed just behing the contact place. Now the terminal part is
called gametangium & long basal part is called suspensor, which is vacuolated. The multinucleate undifferentiated
protoplast of each gametagium is termed as coenogamete or aplanogamete.
In mature gametangium at the place of contact, wall of gametangia are dissolved and fuse together and zygote is
foremd, then zygospore is formed. In zygospore diploid nuclei are formed. Haploid nuclei are degenerate. A black
coloured, thick and ornamented coat is found around the zygospore [Dormant stage approximately 6 months (In
Rhizopus)]
GERMINATION OF ZYGOSPORE
 During germiantion outer wall of zygospore get ruptured. A germ tube protruded out from this reptured place, it is called
“promycelium”. AT the apex of promycelium, a sporangium is foremd which is called “germsporangium” or
“zygosporangium”
 In Rhizopus, at the time of germination Meiotic division takes place in zygospore where as in Mucor meiotic divisioin
takes place in zygospore soon after karyogemy followed by mitotic division. Each nucleus is converted into spore. Only
one type of (+ or -) sproe are formed in the germsporangium in homothallic species as where in heterothallic spcies
both types of spores (+ & -) are formed. These spores germianate to form fungal hyphae.
HETEROTHALLISM
 “Blakeslee” discovered heterothallism first in Mucor mucedo.
 According to Blakeslee two types of species are found in order mucorales which are called respectively homothallic
and heterothalli species. When zygospore is formed by the fusioin of two hypae of same mycelium derived from single
type of sproe (+ or - strain) then such species are called homothallic e.g. M.hiemalis.
 In heterothallic species the sexual reproduction takes place between hyphae of genetically different strains i.e. (+)
and (-) strains. (In heterothallic species geneticallysimilar strain are inter-sterile e.g.)
M. mucedo and R. nigricans.
 According to Blakeslee in htereothallic species seperate (+) and (-) strains does not form zygospore, only sporangia
are formed. But in heterothellic species (+) and (-) strains grow together then fused and zygospore is formed.
According to some scientisits (+) and (-) strains fungal hyphe are morphologically similar but functionally dissimilar.
ECONOMOMIC IMPORTANCE
Rhizopus stolonifer - causes soft rot disease of vegetabel crops.
M.pusilus - infects genitalia of human beings
Rhizopus arrhizus - Causes fruit rot of apple.
R.artocarpi - fruit drop of Jack fruit.

50
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RHIZOPUS & MUCOR
Rhizopus Mucor
1. Mycelium is differentiated into three kinds of hyphae Mycelium is undifferentiatte, i.e. it has only one kind of
stolons, rhizoids and sporangiophores. hyphae.
2. Rhizoids present.
3. Food material is absorbed mainly by rhizoids. Rhizoid absent
4. Sporangiophores occur in tufts from the stolons Food is absorbed by the entire mycelial surface
opposite the rhizoids. Sporangiophores usually occur singly from any point on
5. Spores easily disseminated by wind. the mycelium
Spores remain adhered to columella and thus spores are
not easily disseminated.

51
MUCOR EXERCISE
1. Reproduction in Mucor takes place by (1) Mucoraceae (2) Mucorales
(1) Anisogametes (2) Isogametangia (3) Zygomycetes (4) Oomycetes
(3) Agametes (4) None 13. Dung - mold is -
2. The zygospore of Mucor thick walled and its colour (1) rhizopus stolonifer
is (2) Mucor mucedo
(1) Blue (2) White (3)Aspergillus flavus
(3) Green (4) Black (4) Clostridium tetani
3. Zygospore of Mucor germinates to form 14. In pure laboratory culture of Mucor, the formation
(1) Mycelium (2) Promycelium of zygospores does not occur, this due to the -
(3) Germ tube (4) Hyphae (1) Presence of (+) and (-) strains in its mycelium
4. In Mucor, heterothallism was discovered by - (2) Abssence of (+) and (-) strains in its mycelium
(1) Lederberg and Tatum (2) Debary (3) Deficiency of O2
(3) Pontecorvo (4) Blakeslee (4) Deficiency of water
5. Yeast like budding of oidia in Mucor is termed as 15. Which one of the following life cycles is associated
(1) Gongrosira stage (2) Torula stage with mucor
(3) Palmella stage (4) None (1) Hetermorphic (2) Haplonitc
6. Thick walled spore like structure formed in the (3) Diplontic (4) Isomorphic
mycelium of Mucor are named as - 16. Mucor is -
(1) Hypnospore (2) Akinetes (1) Heterothallic and heterotrophic
(3) Oidia (4) Chlamydospores (2) Heterotrophic and heteroecious
7. How many zones are present in the sporangia of (3) Heteroecious and heterosporous
Mucor which develops from a vegetative mycelium (4) Heterosporous and heterrothallic
- 17. Bread mold is the common name of -
(1) Two (2) Three (1) Batrachospermum (2) Rhizopus
(3) Four (4) Five (3) Agaricus (4) Bacillus
8. Zygospores are formed in - 18. In Mucor species, usually isogamy takes place
(1) Puccinia (2) Penicillium between -
(3) Alternaria (4) Mucor (1) Same strains (2) (+) and (-) strain
9. Coenogametes are formed in- (3) Zygospores (4) Microspores
(1) Mucor (2) Puccinia 19. In mucor, stored food is -
(3) Penicillium (4) Ustilago (1) Glyocogen and oil (2) Starch
10. Torula conditions occurs in (3) Leucosine and oil (4) Foridean strach
(1) Mucor (2) Rhizopus 20. Mucor is -
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) Puccinia (1) With chlorophyll (2) Without chlorophyll
11. Mucor mucedo is a - (3) With carotenes (4) None
(1) Homothallic fungus 21. Mycelium of mucor is [MP PMT 2000]
(2) Heterothallic fungus (1) Septate and unicellular
(3) Heteroecius fungus (2) Septate and multicellular
(4) None (3) Aseptate and Uninucleate
12. Mucor belongs to order - (4) Coenocytic

52
22. Sporangiospores of mucor I [MP PMT 2002] B. Temperature of a bout 50 C
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid C. Relative humidity of about 5%
(3) Triploid (4) Polyploid D. Relative humidity of about 95%
23. Mucor shows [MP PMT 2002] E. A shady place
(1) Isogamy (2) Anisogamy F. A brightly illuminated place
(3) Oogamy (4) none of the above (1) B,D, and E only
24. Which of the following environmental conditions (2) B, C and F only
are essential for optimum growth of Mycor on a (3) A, C and E only
piece of bread ? [CBSE 2006] (4) A, D and E only
0
A. Temperature of a bout 25 C

MUCOR ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 4 1 3 2 2 2 2 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Ans. 1 2 2 1 2 4 1 1 4

53
 LICHEN AND MYCORRHIZA
A - Lichen
 Lichens are composite thalloid structure containing algae and fungi.
 Algal component of lichen synthesize carbohydrates by photosynthesis and provides nutrition to fungi and
themselves while fungal component helps is water absorp0tion and water retention. Hence lichen is an example
symbiosis.
 Lichens are distinct group of plant having to components i.e. algal component called Phycobiont and fungal
component called Mycobiont.
 The term “Lichen” was first given by Theophrastus for superficial growth on barck of olea europea (olive) tree.
Study of lichen called as Lichenology.
 Erik Acharius - father of Lichenology.
 Morrison - called lichen as “Musco-fungus”.
 Initially linches were considered to be individual plants and were included in mosses but Schwendiner gave dual
hypothesis i.e. there are two components in lichen and defined as fungi parasitizing algae.
 Reininke - gave the term consortium (marriage) for this association i.e. mutual growth and interdependence.
 De Bary -gave this association the name Symbiosis.
 It Crombie - gabe the master slave hypothesis for this association (also called husband-wife relationship). It is
also called helotism (Most accepted association now a days).
 In this association, the fungal component shows predominance over algal component and the latter is a
suborinate partner. Such type of association is known as helotism.

HABIT & HABITAT

 The lichen are mostly perennial, aerial, slow growing and long lives plant.
 Lichen are cosmopolitan. Lichens grow even in areas which appear unsuitable for normal plant like bare hard
rock and cold arctic region.
 Lichens are most sensitive to air pollution specially SO 2-pollution
 In India lichen are most common in eastern Himalaya as compare to western Himalaya Lichens are absent in
planes.

On the basis of habitat, lichen are of following type :

1. Saxicolous - Lichens growing on rocks. eg. - Dermatocarpon , Pornia
2. Corticolous - Lichens growing on tree barck. e.g. - Parmelia, Usnea
3. Terricolous - Lichens growing on soil eg. Cladonia, Collema.
4. Lignicolous - Lichens growing on wodd eg. Chyphelium.

 The lichen may also occur in fresh water eg. - “Hymenelia lacustris”
 Few marine species eg. “Caloplaca marina”

CLASSIFICATION
 Major part of lichens thalli are composed of fungal component.

54
I. ON THE BASIS OF THEIR FUNGAL COMPONENT -
A. Ascolichen :
 In Ascolichen fungal partner is the member of ascomycetes
 Most of the lichens are Ascolichen
* Ascolichens are further divided into two types.
a. Gymnocarpae - Where fruiting body is apothecium type. Apothecium is a plate like fruiting body. These are
called discolichen eg. parmelia
b. Pyrenocarpae - Where fruiting body is peitheium type Flask shaped fruiting body is called perithecium.
These are called pyrenolichen eg. Dermatocarpon.
 In basidiolichen, fungal partner belongs to basidiomycetes. There are only three genera in this group.
 In basidiolichen, alogal partner is always a member of Myxophyceae (B.G.A.)
Note :
1. In 80% cases of lichen algal partner is member of green algae or clorophyceae and in 20% cases blue green
algae.
2. Important member of green algae in lichens is Trebo uxia [most common unicellular green alga], Pleurococcus,
Cladophora.
Blue green algae - Nostoc, Scytonema, Anabaena, Gloeocapsa, Rivularia etc.

II CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF TYPES OF THALLUS -

Lichens are of three types -
1. Crustose lichen - These lichen thallus are
flat. The thallus is closely adhered to the
substratum and provides a crust like
appearacne.
 These lichens are partially or com pletely
embedded in to substratum.
 These can’t be separated from the
substratum without breaking them.
 Fruiting bodies are visible above the surface
o the substratum.
e.g. - Rhizocarpon, Graphis, Lecanor,
Verrucaria Haemotomma
2. Folise Lichen - These lichens are flant, leaf
like and lobed. They are attached to the
substrum with the help of rhizoid like
rhizines. These hairy structuresare
developed from lower side of thallus
eg. Parmelia, Peltigera, physcia and
collema.

55
3. Fruticose lichen - These lichens are well developed, shurb like, cylindricl and brunched thallus. They grow erect
(Ex. Cladonia) or hang from substrum (Ex. Usnea). They are attached to the substratum by their basl
mucilagenous disc.
III CLASSIFICATIIN OF LICHEN ON THE BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION OF ALGAL COMPONENT IN THALLUS
a. Homoisomerous thalli -
 In this type of Lichan thallus algal and fungal partners are uniformly distributed throughout the lichen thallus.
These lichen thallum are rare. eg. Collema and Leptogium.
b. Heteromerous thalli -
 In this type of Lichen thallus algal cells are restricted to from a distinct layer generally on the upper side of
thallus.
 In these form, fungal component is dominant. The algal component usually a member of chlorophyceae eg.
Prmelia
 Most of the lichens are of these types

INTERNAL STRUCURES OF LICHEN -

 V.S. of foliose lichen -
a. Upper cortex - It is made up of compactly interwoven fungal hypae Intercellular spaces are absent. If present
then filled with gelatinous substance.
 In some lichens (Prmelia) breathing pores are present on upper cortex.
b. Algal layer - It occurs just below the upper cortex. This layer forms photosynthetic zone of thallus.
 In this layer algal cells are present and some fungal hyphae are randomly oriented. This layer also called
“gonidial layer”.
c. Medulla - Beneath the algal zone there occurs medulla. It is made up of llosely interwoven fungal hyphae with l
arge spaces between then which are randomly oriented.
d. Lowre cortex - it is made up of compactly interwoven fungal hyphae some of these hypae become specialized
and extend down ward from the lower surface of the cortex and helps in the attachment of thallus to the
substratum. These specialized hyphae are known as rhizines.
* Internal structure of crustose lichens is also more or less similar to foliose lichens. The lower cortex does not
occur in fruticose lichens due to their cylindrical structure and medulla forms the central part of the axis.

56
 Special points :

(i) Breathing pores : The upper surface of some lichen have loosely arranged areas called
breathing pores . They helps in gaseous exchange. e.g. Parmelia
(ii) Cyphellae - These are small, almost circular depression on the lower side of thallus (In foliose
lichen). they are meant for exchange of gases.
Cyphellae are analogous to stomata of higher plants.

REPRODUCTION :
I. VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
(a) Fragmentation : The main thallus breaks into small pieces and each piece grows to form new lichen thallus. Each
fragment develops into a new thallus, provided it contains both algal and fungal components.
(b) Soredium : Some small bud-like outgrowths known as soredia, develop on the surface of the thallus. A soredium
contains one or few algal cells closely envoloped by a weft of fungal hyphae. The soredia form a granular layer of
greyish-white colour on the surface of the thallus, They are detached from the thallus by the impact of wind o
rain. The soredia germiante on suitable subtratum and form new thalli.
(c) Isidium : Isidia are small, stalked, greyish-black coral like outgrowths which develop on the upper surface of the
thallus. The isidium h as an outer cortical layer enclosing the algal and fungal components. It is usually
constricted at the base and is easily detachable from the parent thallus. It germinates under favourable
conditions and forms new thallus.
 In addition to propagation insidia also help in increasing the photosynthetic surface of the thallus. They vary in
shape nd may be rod life (e.g. Parmelia), coral like (e.g. Pelitigera) scale-like (e.g. Collema) or cigar like (e.g.
Usnea).
Note : Cephalodium : These are small wart like structures formed on the surface or inside of the thallus. One of
the characteristic feature of the cephalodium is that its algal and fungal components differ from that of the thallus.
It is due to the fact that cephalodia develop on the younger parts of the thallus from soredia of some other
species. Hence, the cephalodium may be regarded as sterile thallus of some other lichen. They retain
moisture. In some species, the cephalodium contains the same fungal hyphae as in thallus but the algal
component is always different.

57
II ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION :
(a) Oidia : The fungal hyphae form small thin walled bodies called oidia. They form mycelium. On coming in contact
with suitable algal component they form new lichen thallus.
(b) Conidia : In several lichnes, the fungal component form conidia. conidia produced on conidiophores. They form
fungal mycelium and mycelium on coming in contact with suitable algal component form new lichen thallus.
(c) Pycnidiospores : These spores are formed in flask shaped structures, called Pycnidium. Pycnidiospores form
new fungal mycelium and Mycelium for m new lichen on coming in contact with suitable algal component.

III SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Sexual reproduction is the function of fungal
component. The fungal component of most
of the lichens belongs to the calss .
Carpogonium ascomycetes.
 Female sex organ is called
“Carpogonium”. Carpogonium
differentiated into two parts- lower coiled
part is called “ascogonium” and upper
straight is called “trichogyne”. The
ascogonium remains embedded with in the
algal layer of the thallus, whereas the
trichogyne projects over the surface of the
thalus
 Male sex organ is called
“Spermogonium”= (Pycnidium). It is flask
shaped. It open out side by ostiole. Inside
spermogonium non motile sperms of
spermatia are formed.
 The spermatia are ooze out through ostiole
in the form of slimy mass and attach with the
trichogyne and wall of two soon dissolves.
 Nucleus of spermatia reaches in
ascogonium. Many “Ascogenous hypae”
arises from the fertilized ascogonium. These
cells are uni or binucleated and the
terminal or penultimate (sub-terminal)
binucleaste cell of the ascogenous hyphe
develops into as ascus. In ascus both nuclei
fuse to form a diploid nucleus.

58
 In ascus one meiosis and one mitotic division take place and 8-ascospoores are formed in each ascus.
Ascicovered by paraphysis.
 Asci (Ascogenous hyphae, ascus motther, cells, ascospores) and some sterile hyphae form furiting body called
“apothecium eg. Parmelia or Perithecium eg. Dermatocarpon, Verrucaria.
 Ascospores are libereated from ascus and on coming in contact with suitable algae form new lichen thallus.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF LICHEN :

1. Ecological importance :
The lichens are pioneer of vegetation in a lithosere (succession on rocky surface).
Crustone being first followed by Foliose and finally fruticose.
 Lichen initiates biological weathering of rocks by forming acids like Carbonic acid, Oxalic acid.
 Biological weathering of rocks leads to the formation of soil ie. helpful in pedogenesis.
In Lithosere - sequence of different strage is -

Crustose lichen (Pioneer)  Foliose lichen  fruticose lichen  Moss stage

Tree(climax)  Shrub stage  Herb stage

2. As Food & Fooder :

 Cladonia rangiferina (reindeer moss) in tundra region.
 Umbillicaria is used as food in Japan
 Cetraria icelandica (iceland moss) used in iceland.
 Endocarpon miniatum is used as vegetable in Japan.
 Lecanora esculenta is used as delicious food is Israel
 Evernia used in bakery products by Egyptian.
 Species of parmelia are called “rock flower” and used as food in South India.
3. Lichen as a source of dye :
 Litmus (acid-base indicator) is obtained from Rocella montagnei, Lasallia pustulata and Roccella tinctoria
 An orchil (blue dye) is obtained from Rocella and Lecanora and Purified form of orchil is “orcein” and used as
biological stain (Histological studies)
4. LIchen as source of medicine :
 “Usnic acid” is important broad spectrum antibiotic and it is obtained from Usnea and Cladonia.
 Parmelia saxatilis is used against curing epilepsy.
 Peltigera canina is used against hydrophobia.
 Xanthoria parietia is used against jaundice.
 Loberia pulmonaria is used against lung infection
 Cetraria is used as Laxative
 The “protolichesterinic acid” obtained from some lichen. This acid have anticarcinogenic properties.

59
 5. Brewing and distillation :
 The lichen contains carbohydrate in the form of “lichenin”. So some lichen like Cetraria and Lecanora
are used for alcoholic fermentation.

6. In cosmetics and perfumes :

 Some lichens have aromaic substance like Evernia, Ramalina are used for manufacturing soap.

7. Poisonous lichen :
 Cetraria juniperina and Letharia vulpina (wolf moss) are used as poison.

8. Indicator of air pollution :

 Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 and die at higher level of SO2
 so lichens are not found in industrial areas where atmosphere is polluted by smoke (specially SO 2) So
lichens are biological indicator of air pollution.

9. Forest fire :
 Usnea, popularly known as “old man’s beard” is of inflammable nature. They are responsible for fires
in the forests during sumer season
     
        B-MYCORRHIZA

 Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic relationship between roots of higher plants and fungi. Mycorrhiza name was
given by “Frank” (1885).
 Mycorrhiza are of two types

(a) Ectomycorrhiza -
 In this type of mycorrhiza surface of root completely covered by pseudo parenchymatous sheath
formed by fungal hyphae.
 Fungal hypae enter intercellularly in cortical cell of root.
 Fungal hypae which arises from pseudo parenchymatous sheath limited up to outer cortical cell and
form a net called “Hrting net”.
 Ectomycorrhiza occurs in Pinus, Fagus, Abies, Oak, Eucalyptus etc.
 fungus mainly members of class basidiomycetes e.g. Clavatia, Amanita, etc.
 Root hair are absent on root.
 Fungus helpful in absorpiton of water and minerals. Due to presence of fungus absorptie surface of root
increases. In return fungus gets carbohydrates from the root.
Note : Amanita is found in Pinus roots where as Russula is found in Fagus roots.

(b) Endomycorrhiza :
 In this type of mycorrhiza fungus does not form pseudo parenchymatous sheath.
 Fungal haphae enter intracellulary in cortical cell of root.
 Intracellular fungal hyphae form branched structures in cells of roots called “arbuscule”. Due to same
reason endomycorrhiza is called Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM)
 VAM increases fertility of soil.
 VAM is important in phosphate nutrition of plant.
 Endomycorrhiza occurs in orchid.
 Fungus mainly member of class “zygomycetes”. Corticium Rhizoctonia etc.
 Mycorrhiza is an example of symbiosis. Fungus obtain food and shelter from root and it helps to root in
absorpition of water & minerals.
Note : The angiospermic saprophytes in which root systems are poorly developed, survive only
because of their mycorrhiza fungi (Armillaria fungi mainly found in orchid’s roots).
Special point : Ectomycorrhizal genera  Hebeloma, Laccaria, Pisolithus
Endomycorrhizal genera : Glomus, Gigaspora, Sclerocystis.

60
LICHEN & MYCORRHIZA EXERCISE
1. Lichen show 9. Lichen do not like to grow in cities because of
(1) Parasitic relation of fungi of algae the
(2) Mycorrhizal relation ship of algae & Fungi (1) Absence of the right type of algae and
(3) Symbiosis of algae & fungi fungi
(4) Commensalism (2) Lack of moisture
(3) SO2 pollution
2. Litmus is obtained from lichen (4) Absence of natural habitats
(1) Lecanora esculenta
(2) roccella tinctoria 10. Mycorrhiza is an association between roots of
(3) Clodonia rengiferina higher plant and fungus. It is an example of
(4) Cetraria islandica (1) Symbiosis
(2) Myremecophilly
3. A Semi parasite relationship between the (3) Helostim
algal and fungal components of a lichen is (4) Paraitism
termed as
(1) Helotism 11. “Old man’s beard” is the common name of
(2) Epiphytism (1) Funaria
(3) Parasitism (2) Cladonia
(4) Predation (3) Usnea
(4) Rocella tinctoria
4. In majority of lichens the algal and Fungal
partner belong to 12. Reindeer moss is common name of :
(1) Green algae and ascomycetes [RPMT 2001]
(2) Blue green algae and Basidiomycetes (1) Usnea comosa
(3) Green algae and any fungi (2) Cladonia rangiferina
(4) Green algae and duteromycetes (3) Funaria hygromerica
(4) Sphagnum aceutifolium
5. Lichen is a pioneer vegetation of
(1) Hydrosere 13. There exiss a close association between the
(2) Psammosere algae and the fungus within a lichen. The
(3) Lithosere fungus :
(4) Halosere [CBSE 2005]
(1) fixes the atmospheric nitrogen for the alga
6. When a group of algal cells are imprisoned in (2) release oxygen for the alga
fungal mycelium & whole of this group is then (3) provides protection, anchorange and
u sed for vegetative multiplication of a lichen, absorption for the alga
it is called - (4) provides food for the alga
(1) Isidium
(2) Soredium 14. Lichens are -
(3) Cephalodium (1) Slowest growing plants
(4) Helotism (2) Grow faster than their components
(3) Faster growing plants
7. Most common phycobiont in a lichen is (4) Grow with normal rate
(1) Microcystis
(2) Trebouxia 15. A lichen having much branched system of
(3) Ulothrix cylindrical or ribbon-like branches but a small
(4) Spirogyra thallus is called as
(1) Foliose lichen
8. Lichen are best indicator of (2) Fruiticose lichen
(1) Air pollution (3) Crsutaceous lichen
(2) Water pullution (4) hallose lichen
(3) Soil pollution
(4) All type of pollution

61
16. Lichens are ecologically important because - the roots of seed plants
(1) They are associted with mycorrhizal roots (2) Parasitic association between fungus and
(2) They are association of algae and fungi the roots of seed plans
(3) They are pioneers (earliest settlers on (3) Saprophytic association between fungus
barren rocks) and pass xeric conditions and roots of seed plants
successfully (4) All of these
(4) They can grow in greatly polluted area
18. Fungus which is found in Pinus roots -
17. Mycorrhiza is the - (1) Boletus (2) Armillaria
(1) Symbiotic association between fungus and (3) Fomes (4)Corticiu

LICHEN & MYCORRHIZA ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 1 2
Que. 16 17 18
Ans. 3 1 1

62
 STATE PMT EXAMS EXERCISE
1. Zygote of Sporogyra produces four haploid (2) Breaking of dormany
nuclei, in which : [UTTRANCHAL PMT 2004] (3) decrease in diseases
(1) One functional (2) Resolution (4) Retarding flowering
(3) Magnification (4) resolving power 11. Pigments present in chloroplast of Ulothrix :
[JHARKAND -2003]
2. Branched conidiophores are present in : (1) chl-a, chl-b and fuxoxanfhin
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2005] (2) chl-a, chl-b, chl- c-phycocyanin, c-
(1) Rhizopus (2) P enicillium phycoerythrin
(3) Ustilago (4) Aspergrillus (3) chl-am chl-b,  -carotene, xanthophyll
(4) chl-a, chl-b r-phcocyanine, r-phycoerythrin
3. Sexual reproduction is Spirogyra is
morphologically characterized by : 12. Which of the following algae shows
[C.G. PMT-2004] physiological anisogamy ?
(1) Oogamy [JHARKHAND-2002]
(2) Anisogamy (1) Spirogyra (2) Ulothrix
(3) Isogamy (3) Volvox (4) All of these
(4) Isogamy and oogamy both
13. Yeast is different from penicillium and
4. Zygospores are formed in ? [C.G. PMT 2004] Rhizopus in being [JHARKHAND 2002]
(1) Puccinia (2) Penicillium (1) acellular
(3) Alterneria (4) Mucor (2) Unicellular
(3) Having unseptate hyphae
5. Common bread mould is [C.G. PMT 2006] (4) multicellular
(1) Yeast (2) Mucor
(3) Bacteria (4) Virus 14. Which of the following is known as pond silk ?
[BIHAR 2006]
6. Mycorrhiza is a : [C.G. PMT 2006] (1) Spirogyra
(1) Parasitic relation between fungus and (2) Ulothrix
algae (3) Nostoc
(2) Symbiotic relation between fungus and (4) Anabaena
algae
(3) Symbiotic relation between fungus and 15. Chloroplasts of Spirogyra have :
roots [BIHAR 2006]
(4) Parasitic relations between fungus and (1) Spiral mairgin
roots. (2) Smooth or wavy margin
(3) Smooth margin
7. Earliest settelers on barrenland and rock are : (4) Nong of the above
[C.G. PMT 2006]
(1) Mosses (2) Lichcens 16. The symbtotic association of fungi and algae
(3) Fern (4) None is called [UP CPMT 2001]
(1) Lichen
8. In Ulothrix meiosis occurs in : (2) Mycorrhiza
[JHARKHAND 2005] (3) Rhizome
(1) Gamete (2) Zygospore (4) Endomycorrhiza
(3) Zoospore (4) Thallus
17. Zygote of Spirogyra produces four haploid
9. Lichens are : [JHARKHAND 2005] nuclei in which [UP CPMT 2001]
(1) Sporophyte (1) One is functional
(2) Parasite (2) Two are functional
(3) Symbionts (3)Three are functional
(4) Chloromycitin (4) All four are functional

10. VAM is useful for : [JHARKHAND 2004]

(1) Phosphate nutrition

63
18. A place was rocky and barren but now there is (1) One layered (2) Two-layered
a green forest, the sequence of origin is (3) Three-layered (4) Multi-layered
[UP CPMT 2002] 25. Sexual reproduction is spirogyra is :
(1) Lichen, moss, herbs, shurbs [MP PMT 2001]
(2) Moss, lichen, herbs, shurbs (1) Isogamous
(3) Lichen, moss, shrubs, herbs (2) Anisogamous
(4) Shurbs, herbs, moss lichen (3) Physiological anisogamous
19. Mycorrhiza helps in [UP CPMT 2003] (4) Oogamous
(1) Nutrition uptaking 26. Cell wall of Mucor is made up of :
(2) Food manufacturing [MP PMT 2001]
(3) Desease resistance (1) Chitin (2) Cellulose
(4) Disease prevention (3) Pectin (4) Mucilage
20. Mycorrhizia promotes plant growth by : 27. Which one of the following shows haplontic
[UP CPMT 2004] life cycle ? [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Absorbing inorganic ions form oil (1) Ulothrix (2) Funaria
(2) Helping the plant in utilizing atmospheric (3) Selaginella (4) Pinus
nitrogen 28. Sporangiospores of Mucor are :
(3) Protecting the plant from infection [MP PMT 2002]
(4) Serving as plant growth regulator (1) Haploid (2) Diploid
21. Lichens show [UP CPMT 2005] (3) Triploid (4) Polyploid
(1) Symbiosis (2) Commensalism 29. In Ulotrhix, meiosis takes place during :
(3) Parasitism (4) Cooperation [MP PMT 2002]
22. Mycorrhiza in higher plants helps in (1) Zoo spore formation
[UP CPMT 2006] (2) Gamete formation
(1) Absorption of phosphates and water from (3) Zygote germination
(2) N2 fixation (4) Zoospore germination
(3) Water supply 30. Mucor shows [MP PMT 2002]
(4) Resistance against disease (1) Isogamy (2) Anisogamy
23. In which ‘torula conditioin’ is found ? (3) Oogamy (4) None of the above
[MP PMT 2001] 31. The life cycle of Spirogyra is :
(1) Spirogyra (2) Mucor [MP PMT 2003]
(3) Riccia (4) Ulothrix (1) Haplontic (2) Diplo-haplontic
24. They zygospore in spirogyra is (3) Haplo-diplontic (4) Diplontic
[MP PMT 2001]

STATE PMT EXAMS EXERCISE ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 1 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1
Que. 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Ans. 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1

64
 RICCIA

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

Kingdom Plantae
Sub kingdom Embryophyta
Division Bryophyta
Class Hepaticopsida
Order Marchantiales
Family Ricciaceae
Genus

Riccia

Habit & Habitat :

 Riccia was discovered by F.F. Ricci.
 Riccia is generally found in moist and shadhy paces.
 The common Indian species are as follows :
i. Riccia discolor / R.himalayensis
Ii. R. glauca
iii. R.pathankotensis
iv. R.robusta
v. R.crystallina
 Riccia discolor found in Rajasthan
 Some speicies of Riccia are aquatic.
Such as - Riccia fluitans, R.abuensis etc.

 STRUCTURE


 The main plant of Riccia is gametophyte in the
form of thallus.
 It is green, flat, dorsivenrl and dichotomously
branched. It grows prostrate on the soil.
 At the growing point of thallus a notch is present, [Rosette form in terrestrial species] due to the presence of
at the apical end. It is known as Apical nothc. several dichotomies close to each other
 At the base of apical notch a apical cell is
present. It is pyramidal shape. The thallus grows
by the activity of this spical cell.
 Each lobe of the thallus is this in the middle and
thin at their margins.
 On the upper (dorsal) surface of each lobe vein
is present in the middle which extends from
anterior to posterior. It is known s longitudinal
median vein.
 A long groove is present in the region of median
vein, is called Median groove.
 In this groove, sex organs are developed in
cropetal order on the dorsal surface of thallus.
Note : The dorsal surface of the Marchantia
thallus (Liver shaped) bears gemma cups along
the mid rib.

65
 (a) Rhizoid : Rhizoids are found in the mid rib region on the ventral/Adaxial surface of the Riccia
thallus. (In scattered form)
 Rhizoids are univellular, unbranched,
colourless and tubular.
Two types of rhizoids and found in Riccia.
1. Smooth walled :
 Outer and inner walls of rhizoids are smooth &
straight.
2. Tuber culated :
Peg like ingrowths are present on the surface of
inenr wall.
 Tubercalated rhizoids are absent in Riccia
sanguinae.

Note : Smooth walled & tuberculated rhizoids are also found in Marchantia & Plagiochasma.
 Rhizoids are absent in the aquatic species of Riccia. Such as R.fluitns.

Function : The main function of the rhizoids is to fix the plant with the substratum and it absorbs some
amount of
water and minerals.
 The whole venral surface also absorbs water and minaerals.
(b) Scales : Trangular, multicellular and violet colour sles are present on the margin of ventral
surface of thallus
 Violet (Purple) colour of the scales is due to the presence of anthocyanin pigment in their cell sap.
 They are lingulte/ligulate. The slaces are single called thick. Maximum scales are found in apical
notch.
Note : In Marchantia sales are appendiculate & ligulate.
 In Riccia the half scales are found at the margin of the thallus. Complete scales are count in the apical
notch.

Function :
(1) The main function of the scales is the protection of growing points :
(2) Some amount of water also absorbed through the scales.
 Scales are formed by the activity of the apical cell and arranged in a single row, but as the thallus grows
had widen, each scale splits into two halves along the median line, so that two rows of scales are seen,
one row near each margin of the thallus.

Note : Scales are arranged in acropetal order.

 Scales are absent or less developed in aquatic species of Riccia. Plant growing moist terrestrial
habitats usually have small and ephameral scales, whereas those of dry habitats have large and
persistent scales
 In terrestrial species e.g. R.sanguinea, Riccia robusta etc. scales are completely absent.

Internal Structure :

Internally, the thallus is divided into two distinct zones or regions.

(i) Upper or dorsal : Photosynthetic or assimiltory region.
(ii) Lower or Ventral : Strorage region
(i) Assimilatory Region or Photosynthetic region :
 The cells of this region are loosely arranged and parenchymatous.
 Chloroplasts (Discoid type) are found in the cells of this region. So this region is able to carry the
process of photosynthesis. Therefore it is known as photosynthetic region.




66























 The chlorophyllous cells are arranged in vertical rows. A narrow, deep space is found in between
vertical rows, called air space or air canal. Upper cell of each vertical row is colourless, larger in size &
differentiated to form upper epidermis.
 Each air canal is surrounded by four vertical rows. Air canal opens at upper epidermis through the pore
called air pore. Air canals are schizogenous in origin. It means it is formed by the separation of cells.
 The presence of air canal or air chamber is the ancestral feature. They shows aquatic ancestral
Character.
 Food material synthesize in this region through the photosynthesis.

(ii) Storage Region :

 The cells of this region are colourless, compct, parenchymatous and without intercellular spaces.
 The starch is stored by the cells of this region as food.
 The lower most layer of cells are arranged systematically to form a lower epidermis.

REPRODUCTION :
It reproduces by two different ways.
I. Vegetative Reproduction. II. Sexual Reproduction
I. Vegetative Reproduction : It is responsible for the gregarious (Growing close together but not
matted)
(i) By progressive death and decay of older parts of thallus.
 It is normal method of vegetative reproduction. It takes place in favourable growth season (period).
 The older parts of the plant body gradually become aged, die and ultimately decay. When this process
of decay reaches up to dichotomous point, two branches get separated and each branch forms a new
thallus through the apical growth.
(ii) By Rhizoidal tips :
 It is has been reported by Fellener in R.glauca.
 During this reproduction at the tips of rhizoids, a multicellular mass of cells is formed by segmentation
& repeated divisions, which becomes green in colour and act as a bud. These buds separate from the
rhizoids and grow into a new plant.
(iii) By Adventitious branches :
 This method of reproduction is found in aquatic species of Riccia such as R.fluitans.
 Special adventitious branches arise from the ventral surface of the thallus in the mid rib region. These
branches are detached from the parent thallus and grow into a new plant.
(iv) By tuber formation :
 In many species like R.discolor, R. perennis growing regions having dry season.

67
 When the dry season starts, the apical cell divide to for, the multicellular mass of cells on the apex of
each branch. This mass of cells of the lobes becomes thick due to storage of food materials and
develop a thick protective layer around it after degeneration of marginal cells. This thick structure is
known as tuber.
 The thallus becomes dry and dead in dry season. The bubers remains dormant in dry season.On the
returns of favourable condition or moist season, each tuber resumes growth and give rise to new
thallus. Tubers shows “perennation”.
(v) By perisistent apices/By death of thallus in drougth condition except growing region.
This method found in regions having prolonged dry season as in Punjab and Rajasthan e.g.
R.discolor.
 In the begining of dry season entire body of the thallus becomes dry except the apies. The apices very
often grow down into the soil and becomes thick due to the storage of food materials. On the advent of
favourable condition (i.e. riny season) ll the spices grow and form a new plant.
II. Sexual Reproduction : The main plant of Riccia is gametophyte. It reproduced by gameete
formation.
III.
 It is oogamous type. Male sex organ clled as antheridium and female sex organ alled as archegonium
 The sex organs of Riccia are borne on dorsal surface of the thallus in the median groove.
 The sex organs are develop singly, usually depply in the tissue in acropetal order i.e. youngest sex
organs near the apex and oldest sex organ, low sun light and temperature is required.
 The species of Riccia are Monoecious and dioecious. But most of the species of Riccia are
monoecious.
(i) Monoecious species : Male and female sex organs lies on the same thallus. Such as R.robusta,
R. glauca, R.pathankotensis, R. crystallina R. gangetica etc.
(ii) Dioecious species : Male and female sex organs are present on separate thallus such as : R.
dicolour/R.himalayensis, R.bischoffii, Rcurtisis etc.
 Most of the species of Riccia as homothallic in nature, i.e. fertilization taken place in between
genetically identical gametes. But R.bischoffii and R.curtisis and ehterothallic, i.e. fertilization takes
place in genetically different gametes.
Note : Most of the species of Marchantia are dioecious r heterothallic.

[i] Antheridium :


 Each mature antheridium is some what elongated oval or
pear shaped and stalked strucutre. In most os species
antherdium is oval shaped.
 Each antheridium enclosed in a cavity or chamber, known
as antheridial-chamber.
 Each entheridium has a short, few called stalk by which it
is attached with the base of antheridial chamber.
 The jacket of the antheridium is made up of sterile cells.
 Jacket is single celled thick and multicellular. Antheridium
has large number of smaller cells, called Androgonnial
cells.
 An oblique of diagonal cell division takes place in each
androgonial cell. Resulting, two androcytes or
antherozoid mother cells (sperm mother cells) are
formed.
 Each androcytes convertes into a male gamete (elongated
nucleus present) or antherozoids by metamorphosis
 These antherozoids are motile male gametes.
 They are comma life or curve shave and beflagellate. (In
Marchntia-rod like & biflagellate)



68
 At the maturation of antheridium cell wall of the androcytes dissolves during the metamorphosis and
mucilage is formed.
 It is hygroscopic in nature. The apical cell of antheridial jacket absorbs water by imbibition from the
antheridial chamber resulting, a pressure increase on the apical region of antheridium and the Jacket
bursts at the apex the antherozoids comes out with mucilage. On coming in contact with water, the
antherozoids swim freely with the help of their flagella.
Dehisence of antheridium takes in the presence of high amount of water, is called Hydrochasy.

 [ii] Archegonium :


 A mature archegonium is flask shaped strcuture and
enclosed in archeogonial chamber. It is attached with
the base of archegonial chamber with the stalk
 The basal swollen portion of archegonium is called
Venter. The upper narrow tube like protion is termed
neck. The archegonium has a single layered jacket.
 The jacekt in the neck region is composed of six
vertical rows of cells. In each vertical row 6 to 9 (mina
ly 6) neck cells are present.
 The single layered Jacket in ventre region is
composed of many rows of cells.
 Venter region contains two cells. A large cell which is
termed egg or oosphere and above the oophere is a
small venter cnala cell.
 The neck region has 4-6 neck canal cells. (In
Marchanitia 4-8 N.C.C.) The axis of archegonium is
made up of 6-8 cell. The four terminal cells of jacket of
the neck of archegonium function as cover-cells

Fertilization :

 When archegonium is fully mature, the neck canal cells and venter canal cells of archegonium
degenerate. Only one cell remains which is called egg cell. Disintegration of the cells give rise to
mucilagenous substance.
 Mucilage is hygroscopic in nature. It absorbs water, results increase a pressure in archegonium and
concequently the cover cell of archegonium separate from each other and forming funnel shaped
opening and the mucilage oozes out. Inorganic potassium salts and Soluble protein are present in
mucilage which attracts the antherozoids.
 Antherozoids shows chemotactic movement. Due to this chemotactic response many antherozoids
enter into the neck of archegonium. But eventually only one antherozoid fuse with the egg cell and
other perish.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPOROPHYTE

Development of zygote takes place only inside the archegonium.

 Zygote is the first cell of sporophytic generation.
 A sprophytic structure is formed by the development of zygote, is called sporogonium or capsul. The
wall of the sporogonium is single celled thick and spore mother cells or sporocytes are filled inside
the capsule.
 The first division is transverse in zygote and second one is perpendicular to the first one while the third
division is vertical whicy give rise to 8-celled-embryo [octant]
 Subsequent divisions occur in all possible planes until a mass of 20-40 cells is formed. The superficial
cells of this mass now undergo periclinal divisions, resulting in an outer amphithecium layer and a
central mass of cells, the endothecium.

69
 The cells of amphitecium divides again and again antilinically to form the wall of sporogonium. It is
single layered.

Note : Endothecium acts as a archesporiumm.

 The cells of endothecium divided in all planes, resulting, a mass of cells (sporogenous tissue) is
formed. It has two types of cells
(i) Sporocytes or spore mother cells and
(ii) Nutritive cells or Nurse cells. (Nurse cells are called prestructure of elaters)
Note : In Marchantia nurse cells are transform into elaters (2N). These are hygrocscopic in nature
& help in dispersal of spores.
 The nurse cells provide nutrition to the
sporocytes. (In Riccia)
 One periclinal division takes place in
the ells of center region during th
edevelopment. Due to this bilayered
covering is formed around the
sporogonium. It is termed calyptra.
Calytra is haploid. Because it is
foremd by center region of
archegonium.
 The cell wall of sprogonium and
sporocytes or spore mother cells
are diploid.
 Now, meiotic cell division takes place
is spore mother cells, results, haploid
sporesare formed.
 Now wall of the sporogonium
disinitegrates, to provide nutrition to
the spores. Later inner most layer
(wall) of Calyptra also breaks down to
provide additional nourishment.
 In mature sprophyte spore tetrads lie
in a cavity enclosed by a single
layered calpytra.
 All the stucutre in capsule are haploid
(n) at the mature stage.

* The sporophyte of Riccia is simplest in Bryophate. It is made up of only capsule.

* The sprophyte is devoid of food and seta.

 In Marachantia sprophyte is differentitated into foot, seta and
capsul.
Dehiscence of Capsule/Dehiscence of spore sac : There is not special means of dehisence of
capsul of
Riccia. The liberration of the sporesis brouth about by the death and decay of capsule and thallus.

STRUCTURE OF SPORE : Spore is the first cell of the gametophytic genertion.


 The spores are aranged in tetraheddral tetrad.
 The sporesof Riccia are uninucleate, pyramidal, and rough. Thier diameter is 0.05 mm to 0.12 mm.
 The spore wall is tri-layered.

70
 (i) Outer layer or Exosproe or Exoporium : It is thick and spiny. It is made up of callose and cutin
and Tri-radiate ridges are present.
(ii) Middle layer or Mesospore or mesoporium - It is thick and solid. It is composed of Cutin.
(iii) Innermost layer of Endospore or Endosporium : It is thin and elastic.
It is composed of pecto-cellulose. These three are developed in centripetal order.

 Germination of spore and Formation of young Gametophyte


 The sporesgerminate when there is enough water is the soil. The exosporium and the mesosporium
ruputre at the tri radite ridge and the endosporium comes out is the form of a tubular outgrowth. It is
called as germ tube.
 The germ tubes filled with cytoplasm which contains oil globules and chloroplasts. It elongated
rapidly and forms a club-shaped strucutre. A transverse wall at the distal end of the tube forms a
small cell, which udergoes two vertical divisions at right angles to each other, followed by transverse
division. As a result undergoes two vertical divisioins at right angles to each other, followed by a
trnsverse division. As result two tiers of four cells each (i.e. total eight cells) are formed. One of the
four cells of the upper tier becomes apical cell which regularly cuts off cells on the dorsal and ventral
sides. These derivatives form a new thallus.
 Simultaneously, with the division
of the germ tube, a thin
filamentous rhizoid develops
from its base. This is known as
the first rhizoid. As the new
thallus grows at the tip of the
germ tube, a large num bar of
rhizoids develop from the
ventral/adaxial/lowr epidermis
of the thallus.
Note :
 Heplo-diplontic type alternation
of generation is found in Riccia.
 Sprophyte of Riccia is
completely parasite on
gametophyte i.e. sporophyte
depends upon gametophyte for
nutrition and shelter.
 In most species of Riccia the
haploid chromosome number in
8 (e.g. R crystallina, R.
discolor) or 9 (e.g. R
californica).
 R. gangetica is howerver, a
polyploid species (n = 24).
Note : [In haplo-diplontic alternation
of generation a doniannt
independend, Photosynthetic,
thalloid or erect phase is
represented by a hoapoloid
gamatophyte and it alternates
with the short. Lived multicellular
sporophyte which is totally or
partically depended on the
gamatophyte for its anchorage
and nutrition.]

71
RICCIA EXERCISE
1. Riccia is a liverwort due to its
(1) Use in liver disease 10. How many antherozoids are produced from as
(2) Liver like colour Androgonial cell in Riccia
(3) Shape (1) One (2) Two
(4) Cause of liver disease (3) Three (4) Four

2. How does the dehiscnece of sporogonium 11. What type of sexual reproduction occurs in
and dipersal of sporesoccur in Riccia Riccia
(1) By internal pressure of elaters (1) Isogamous (2) Anisogamous
(2) By death and decay of thallus and (3) Oogamous (4) Conjugation
sporogonium and external pressure on
calyptra 12. The gametephytic phase of Riccia ends with
(3) By peristome teeth and seta (1) Gatmate
(4) By strinking of annulus and dehiscence (2) Spore mother cells
of capsule (3) Spore
(4) Oospore
3. Scales on margins of Riccia are arranged in
(1) Basiptal order (2) Acropetal order 13. Aquatic Riccia are
(3) Scattered (4) Noned of the above (1) Free floatin (2) Submerged
(3) Amphibians (4) Suspnded
4. Which of the following type of scales are
found in Riccia - 14. Spores release from sporogonium in Riccia
(1) Multicelled and linulate/ligulate take place in
(2) Multicelled and appendiculate (1) Dry season (2) Wet-season
(3) Unicelled and appendicualte (3) High temperature (4) Low -temperature
(4) Unicelled and ligulate
15. Cell of clyptra and wall of sprogonium in
5. In which of the following, sporogonium is Riccia are respecitvely
having nurse cell (1) Diploid, Diploid (2) Haploid, Haploid
(1) Porella (2) Anthoceros (3) Triploid, Triploid (4) Haplooid, Diploid
(3) Riccia (4) Marchanita
16. Sex-organ in Riccia develop on
6. Rhizoids of Riccia are (1) Dorsal surface in acropetal order
(1) One type of acattered (2) Dorsal surface in basipetal order
(2) One type and arranged in rows (3) Ventral surface in acropetal order
(3) Two type and scattered (4) Ventral surface in basipetal order
(4) Two type and arranged in rows
17. Which sttatement/s is / are true
7. Vegetative propagatio is mot common in (1) In Riccia, sporophyte is made up of
(1) Fern sporophyte only capsule
(2) Fern gametophyte (2) In Riccia thallus rhizoids are present
(3) Riccia gametophyte on venral (adaxial) surface
(4) Riccia sporophyte (3) Six to eight cells are present in the axis of
archegonium of Riccia
8. Where do air chambers occur in Riccia - (4) All of these
(1) Storage region
(2) Assimiltory zone 18. Indry weather, Riccia survives in form of
(3) Both 1 & 2 (1) Tubers (2) Persistent apices
(4) Below the lower epidermis (3) Spores (4) All the above

9. Resette habit of Riccia is due to 19. At the time of fertilization, how many
(1) Dichotomous branching cell/cells/is are present in the axis of
(2) Sympodial branching archegonium of Riccia
(3) Monopodial branching (1) One (2) Two
(4) Asymmetrical branching (3) Three (4) Four

72
20. Given diagram related to which plant group 30. the cell wasll of mature spores in Riccia have
(1) Thallophyta (1) One layer (2) Two layer
(2) Pteriophyta (3) Three layer (4) None of these
(3) Brophyta
(4) Gymnosper 31. if ‘6’ chromosomes are present in each cell of
the spore tetrad of Riccia, how many
21. During formation of calyptra jacet cells divided chromosomes should be present in the cells
by of apical cell and calyptra, respectively
(1) Priclinal divison (2) Anticlinal division (1) 6 & 12 (2) 6 & 6
(3) Both 1 & 2 (4) Digonal division (3) 12 & 6 (4) 3 &6

22. In which of the following groups would you 32. Bryophtes grow in moist and shay
place a plan which produces spores and environments because
embryos but lacks seeds and vascular tissue (1) They cannot not grow on land
(1) Bryophytes (2) Pteridophytes (2) They requires water for fertilization
(3) Gymnosperms (4) Fungi (3) They lack vascular tissue
(4) They lack roots and stomata
23. In aquatic Riccia
(1) Rhizoids absent 33. What is the function of the Ventral scales of
(2) Scales poorly developed or absent Riccia
(3) Air canals more developed (1) Fixation
(4) All the above (2) Absorption & protection
(3) Protection
24. Which characteristic assgin Riccia to (4) Perennation & protection
Bryophyta
(1) Depended saprophyte 34. n Riccia, stomata are found on
(2) Plant body thallus (1) Dorsal assimilatory region
(3) Free gametophyte (2) Sprorangium
(4) Non vascular (3) Ventral scales
(4) No where on Riccia
25. In the life cycle of Riccia from 20 Androgonial
cells, how many antherozoids willb e formed 35. Violet colour of Scales of Riccia is due to
(1)10 (2) 20 (3) 40 (4) 80 (1) Presnece of anthocyanin pigment in
cytoplasm
26. Riccia is similar to Pteridium in (2) Present of nthocyaning pigment in cell-sap
(1) Structure of sporophyte (3) Presence of anthocyaning pigment in
(2) Free gametophyte chlroplast
(3) Prasitic sprophyte (4) None of these above
(4) Position of sex organ
36. In Riccia what is the first & last stage
27. Which structure protects apical meristem in ofgametophytic generation
Riccia (1) gamete and spore
(1) Apical notch (2) Scales (2) spore & gamete
(3) Primordial leaves (4) 1 and 2 both (3) spore mother cell & zygote
(4) sporocyte & gamete
28. Which species of Riccia reproduces by
Persistent apices 37. The gametangia of Riccia are present on
(1) R.glauca (2) R.curtisi (1) Dorsal side
(3) R.bischoffii (4) R.discolor (2) Ventral side
(3) Dorsal surface in median groove
29. Riccia assigned to Hapaticopsida because (4) Any where in the thallus
(1) Its sporophyte is semi parasite
(2) It is non vascular 38. In the life cycle of Riccia, the stage in which
(3) It has jacketed sex organ meosis occurs, is
(4) It is liver wort (1) Sporogonium (2) Oospore
(3) Spore mother cell (4) Gamete formation

73
39. Given a picture of Bryophyte. The correct sperm
poloidy levels of the indicated structures are (2) it has heteromorphic alternatioin of
generation
(3) It has multi celled sex organs with a jacekt
of sterile cells
(4) Sporophyte depends upon gametophyte.

48. The positive evidnece of aquatic ancestry of

Bryophyte is :
(1) Their green colour
(1) (a) ; 2N (b) ; N (c) ; N (2) Thread like protonema
(2) (a) ; N (b) ; N (c) ; N (3) Flagellated antherozoids
(3) (a) ; N (b) ; 2N (c) ; 2N (4) Some bryophytes are sill aquatic
(4) (a) ; 2N (b) ; N (c) ; 2N
49. What is the most common method of
40. Conducting tissue in Riccia is made up of vegetative reproduction in Riccia
(1) Parenchyma (1) Fragmentation
(2) Collenchyma (2) Formation of adventitious bud s
(3) Xylem & phloem (3) Progressive death and decay of older
(4) thick walled cells parts of the thallus
(4) Tuber formation
41. The nature of movement of antherozoids in
Riccia is 50. The assimilatory tissue of Riccia thallus is
(1) Phototactic (2) Chemotactic made up of
(3) Chemotrophic (4) Chemonostic (1) Assimilatory fimlaments
(2) Spongy mesophyll
42. The simplest sporophyte among bryophyte is (3) Palisade tissue
of (4) 2 & 3 both
(1) Riccia (2) Marchantia 51. Exchange of gases into assimilatory region
(3) Antheoceros (4) Moss occurs via
(1) Stomata (2) Air pores
43. In Ricca the shape of antheridium is (3) Lenticles (4) All
(1) Oval (2) Spherical 52. Which structures causes apical growth in
(3) Pear-shaped (4) Flask-shaped Riccia
(1) Promeristem
44. Riccia and other byryophytes differ from (2) Procambium
algae in (3) Transeverse row of apical cell
(1) Discoidal chloroplat and absence of (4) All of these
pyrenoids 53. The neck canal of Riccia archegonium is filled
(2) Jacketed gamatengia and absence of up with
pyrenoid (1) 2 – cells (2) 4-6 cells
(3) Mitotic development of Oopsore into (3) 6-12 cells (4) 24 cells
embryo 54. Sprophyte of Riccia possess
(4) All (1) Foot & Seta
(2) Foot and capsul
45. In Riccia what is first cell of gametophytic and (3) Foot, seta & capsule
first cell of a sprophytic generation (4) Capsule only
respectively 55. The sporophyte is completely depended on
(1) Gameete & spore (2) Spore & Oospore gametophyte in
(3) oospore & spore (4) Spore & Gamete (1) Riccia (2) pteris
(3) Cycas (4) Pinus
46. In Riccia reduction division take place in 56. Calyptra is a structure
(1) Archegonium (2) Antheridium (1) Formed by the venter archegonium
(3) Capusul (4) Rhizoids (2) Formed at the base of antheridium
47. Riccia is bryophyte because (3) Formed in the centre of the capsule
(1) In occurs mostly on land and have motile (4) Formed at the base of leaves

74
57. The rhizoids of Riccia are 65. Which type of rhizoids are present in Riccia
(1) Uniclelular and coloured [RPMT 2002]
(2) Unicellular and colouless (1) Unicellular and smooth
(3) Multicellular and Green (2) Multicellular and smooth
(4) Multicellular and brown (3) Unicellular, smooth & tuberculated
58. The shape of apical cell in Riccia is (4) Multicellular smooth & tuberculated
(1) Pyramidal (2) Tetrahedrdal 66. Antherozoids of Riccia are :[RPMT 2003]
(3) Trigonal (4) None (1) Long, curved and multiflagellate
59. Storage region in Riccia is made up of (2) Small and non-flagellate
(1) collenchyma (2) Parenchyma (3) Small, curved (comma shaped) and
(3) Sclerenchyma (4) All of these biflagellate
60. The spores from Riccia capsule are released (4) Rod shaped and biflagellate
(1) Through stomium & annulus 67. Sorophyte of Riccia is : [RPMT 2005]
(2) Trhough transverse slit (1) Saprophyte (2) Partial parasite
(3) Through vertical slit (3) Complete parasite (4) None
(4) on decay of thallus 68. A student came from U.P. to Rajasthan to
61. The jacket of antheridium in Riccia is made study on Riccia discolor a species of Riccia
up of found in dry habitat. When dry season
(1) One layer of three cells becomes staft the observed, a mass of
(2) One layer of many cells multicellular structure formed, due to fast
(3) Two layer of many cells division of apical cell of the apex of every
(4) Many layer of many cells branch, in which food materials stored and
62. Shape of chloroplast in asimilatory zone of develop a thick protective layer around it after
Riccia is degeneration of marginal cell. This
(1) Girdle shaped (2) Spiral perennating body called as
(3) Discodial (4) Cake like (1) Rhizoids (2) Tuber
63. Photoshynthetic filaments occur in : (3) Rhizom (4) Persistente apices
[RPMT 2000] 69. An order of development of structure
(1) Nostoc (2) Chlamydomonas successively towards the apex, the oldest at
(3) Phytopthora (4) Riccia the base and younget nearest the apex called
64. Which of the following is correct statement as
(1) No diploid structure is found in mature (1) Acropetal (2) Basipetal
sporogonium of Riccia (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) None of these
(2) Sporogonium of Riccia is differentiated in 70. An order of development of organs in which
foot seta and capsule the youngest structures are at the base and
(3) Sporogonium and spore mother cells of the oldest at the apex, called as
Riccia have chloroplast (1) Acropetal (2) Basipetal
(4) None (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these

RICCIA EXERCISE
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 2 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 4 4 1 3 1 1 4 1 3 2 2 4 4 3
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 2
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans. 2 3 4 1 3 3 3 2 1 2

75
 FUNARIA

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

Division Bryophyta
Class Bryopsida
Order Funariales
Family Funariaceae
Genus Funaria
Species Funaria hygrometrica
Note : Common name : Green moss or cord moss or rope moss

 DISTRIBUTION & HABITAT


 Funaria hygrometrica is a comoolitan speices.
 the plants (mosses) are found in damp and shady localities.
 Talelst moss is Dawsonia.
The adult plant body of mosses represents Gametophytic pahse.
(a) Protonem : (Prostrate, creeping filament & ephemeral) - [Juvenile stage]
(b) Gametophre : (Erect & foliose)
GAMETOPHYTIC PHASE :-

The gametophyte of moss is found in two forms :

(a) Protonema

 The spore, which is unit of gametophyte, on its
germination, produces a filament like structure called as
Protonema.
 It is prostrate, multicellular, filamentous algal like. its cells
have humerous chloroplat. It is branched and bering
rhizoids and bunds.

(b) Gametophore

 Gametophores arises from the bud of protonema
which give rise to leafy shoot.
 Gametophore is an actual gametophytic plant
which measures 1-3 cm and distinguished into
three parts
(i) Rhizoids (ii) Axis (iii)Leaves.

Rhizoids :
Rhizoids are brownish in colour, branched,
cylindrical, multicellular and oblique septate
structure.
Function :
They help to fix the plant and in absorption of water
and minerals.
Axis :
It is green in colour, erect, soft and branched
 their branches are extra axillary in origin. It means
branches are developed from below the leaves, not
form their axis. Stem (axis) and branches bears
bright green leaves.

76
 Leaves : Leaves are small, membranous, sessile and oval shaped and a distinct mid-rib is present.
  They are arranged (3/8 phyllotaxy) spirally on the axis. In leaves lateral vien are absent.
3/8 phyllotaxy ie., in three complete spirals there are eight leaves
Note : A pyramidal shape apical cell is responsible for growth of apex of axis.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE

1. Axis or stem : A transverse section of the

mature axis shows three distinct regioins.
(a) Epidermis : it is the outermost layer,
composed of tnagentitally elongated
chlorophyllous cells. It has no stomata and
cuticle.
(b) Cortex : It is multilayered parenchymatous
region. The cells of outer layers are thick walled
and the cells of inner layers are thin welled.
(c) Central Cylinder : it is composed of long.
colourless and thin walled cells. These cells are
dead and lack protoplasm. They help in the
conduction of water and nutrietns.
2. Leaf : In the V.S. of leaf lamina one
multilayered median vein is found and its both
side having singel layered wings. The
multilayered median vein the main part. The
central part of median vein formed by narrow
parenchymatous cells. Away form this area
thick layered cells are found. Wing region of
leaf lamina made up of thin layered cells in
which many cloroplasts are present. Stomata
are absent in the leaf.

REPRODUCTION :

Reproduction in gametophyte of Funaria is of two types :

(1) Vegetative (2) Sexual
(1) Vegetative Reproduction : It is responsible for gregraious habit. Vegetavie propagation in
Funaria takes place by the following methods :
1. Fragmentation of primary protonema : On germination the spore gives rise to a branched
filamentous structure, knows as primary protonema. Sometimes it breaks into small fragments. The
fragments bear bunds and each bud develops into an erect gametophore.
2. Secondary protonema : Under favourable conditions, secondary protonema may be formed by the
cells of injuted rhizoids, stems leaves or reproductive structures. Like primary protenema, it bears
buds which are capable of growing into erect gametophores.
3. Gemmae : During unfavourable period, the terminal cells of
the protonema form multicellular green bodies, called
gammea. Gemmae are body vertically and transversely
septate and has 10-30 cells. On return of favourable conditions,
it is detached from the parent plant and germinated to form an
erect gametophore. Under certain conditions, gemmae may
also develop on the leaf and on the axis of the gametophore.
4. Bulbils : They develop on rhizoid and devoid of choloroplasts. The bulbil grows into a new plant
when detached from the parent plant.

77
 (2) Sexual Reproduction :

 Sexual reproduction in Funari is oogamous type.

 Funaria is monoecious and autoicous plant.
 Male and female sex organs are called antheridia and archegonia respectively and are borne in
clusters at the tips of different branches. Antheridia develops at the apex of main branch of plant
where as archegoni develops at the apex of lateral branch.
 These are covered by involucral leaves.
[Note : Autoicous means when two different sex organs are borne of different head of the same plant]

 Antheridium:

 Antheridium of Funaria is club shaped
structure. Is has short multicellular stalk.
 It has single layer jacket. In Antheridium
many androcytes are present. Each
andocyte forms long, spirally coiled or
1
2 coiled, biflagellated antherozoids by
2
metamprphorsis.
 Chloroplast is present in jacket cells of
young antheridium due to which they are
green but orange colour of jacket of
mature antheridium is due to presence of
chromoplast.
 At the apex of jacekt one or two (mostly)
colourless cells are present called as
opercular cell or cap cells.
 In between the antheridia, paraphysis are
present which are green upright and
multicellular capitate hairs. Antheridia and
parahysis are surrounded by perigonial
leaves. (Red in colour)
 Function of paraphysis : Provide
protection to antheridia and water
secretion.

 Archegonium :

 Archegonium of Funaria develop from and
apical cell at the archegonial branch.
 A mature archegonium is flask shaped
structure. Paraphysis are also present
between archegonia which are not
captiate. They are surrounded by
perichaetail leaves.
Archegonium by perichaetial leaves.
Archegonium is distingushed inti stalk,
venter and neck. A swollen double
layered venter contain an egg and a
venter canal cell.
 Neck contan six or more [6-10] neck
canal cells. It is capped by two or four
(mainly) cover cells.
 Jacket of neck is single layered & made of six vertical rows of neck cells. In each vertical row 6 to 9
neck cells are present.

78
 Fertilization :

 Water medium is essential for fertilization and the apical cells of the antheridium Jacket which form
operculum absorbs water and bursts. The spirally coiled biflagellate antherozoids excape form the
antheridium.
 The neck canal cells and venter canal cell also degenerate to form a mucilagenous substance which
absorb water to exert a pressure so cover cells become separated from each other and to form a
passage for antheroxoids.
The antheroizoids are attracted towards the neck of the archegonium by some chemotactic
substance, possible sugar produced by archegonium. An antherozoid fused with egg of archegonium
to form a diploid zygote.
SPOROPHYTEIC PHASE :

 Diploid zygote divide to produce sprophyte of
Funaria.
 The mature sporophyte distinuguished into
three parts : foot seta and capsule.
(1) Foot : Foot is very small and formed by
parenchymatous cells. It absorbs water and
other essential food material form the
gametophyte.
(2) Seta : Seta is a thick and thread like
structure. Its upper end bears pear shaped
capsule and lower end attached with foot. It is
hygroscopic in nature.

Function :

(1) Conducts after and nutrients

(2) Helps in dispersal of spores.
(3) Capsule : the capsul is distinguished into
three regions. Development of capsule take
place by upper apical cell of embryo.

(i) Upper  Opercular region.

(ii) Middle  Threca region  Fertile

(iii) Lower  Apophyseal region.

(i) Opercular region : The opercular region comparises operculum which covers peristome. The
peristomial teeth are present in peristome. They are arranged in two whorld-outer and inner whorls.
Outer whords bears 16 teeth which are thick large and well developed & red through inner teeth are
also 16 in number but they are thin and delicate & colourless, total 32 peristomial teeth are present.
These teetch are help in dispersal of spores. The teeth are simply the strips of cuticle and they are
acellular.
Opercular region is separated by theca region, by two rings

(i) Rim or diaphragm (lower)

(ii) Annulus (upper)

(ii) Theca region : The middle theca regino of distinguisable into epidermis, hypodermis,
chlorenchymatous region (2-3 layered), filamentous trabeculae with large are spaces, two layered
spore sacs and central sterilie region is columella. It is conducting tisse. Elasters are absent in
spore sac

79
Function of columella : It provides water and food to devloping spores in spore sac.
Function of trabeculae : In connects the inner most layer of capsule wall to outer most layer of outer wall
of spore sac.
(iii) Apophyseal region : The apophyseal region i s the lower most part of the capsule which has
conducting strand and attached with seta. This is surrounded by chlorenchymtous cells with prominent
intercellular spaces. The epidermis has stomatal apertures which is guarded by two guard cells. In
mature stomata, stomatal aperture is surrounded by single ring like guard cells.
Note :
(1) the endothecium froms the central parenchymatous cells in the opercular region columella, inner
wall of sproe casca, archesporium in the fertilize region, central conducting strand in the
apophyseal region and central conducting strand in seta region. The rest of the tissues arises from
the amphithecium.
(2) Archesporial cells divide and redivide of form a mass of sporogenous tissue. sporogenous cells
behave lice spore mother cells. These cells are divided by meiosis and to form haploid tetrahedral
tetrad of spores.

DEHISCENCE OF CAPSULE & DISPERSAL OR SPORES :



 Funaria is a stegocarpous moss. Stegocarpous means the dehiscence of capsul always along a
predetermined line, As the capsul matures, the thin walled cell including columella dries up.

80
 The thin walled cells of annulus break away and thus operculum separated along the annulus and
xposing the peristome.
 The hygroscopic nature of outer peristomial teeth helps in dispersal of spores. The inner peristome
acts as sieve allowing only few spores escape a time. They reach at far places through the medium of
air. In moss capsule, spore dispersal takes place by censor mechanism.
Perisome teeth - They shows xerochasy.

Structure of spore and Germintion of spore :-



 Spore is the first cell of gametophytic generation. Spores of Funaria are spherical 12-20 m in
diameter and double layered. The outer wall exosporium is much thicker and inner wall
endosporium is thin. Spores have oil droplets and chloroplast.
 The spore germinates to form the primary protonema. Protenam grows in two directions. The green
prostrate branches growing on the surface called as chloronema or chloronemal branches and Colour
less branches grow into soil are called rhizoidsl branches. The chloronemal branches give rise to
many buds and each bud grows into an erect leafy gametophore,

81
 SPECIAL POINTS

 Funaria is a acrocarpous & protandrous moss.

 Internal structure of Sphagnum stem is differentiated into central medulla, cortex and epidermis.
Medulla had hadrome. Hadrome is water condicuting tssue and it is made up of parenchyama.

 Sphagnum has two types of cell, hyaline and chlorophyllous in leaves.

 Apogmy in mose results into hapllid sprophyte and apospory results into diploid gametophyte.

 when the egg in as archegonium develops into a sprophyte without fertilization this phenomenon is
called parthenogenesis.

 Formation of diploid gametophyte from diploid sprophyte in Funaria is termed apospory.

 In Anthoceros and Notothyllus, pyrenoids are present.

 The stem of moss is called cauloid and leaf is called phylloid.

 Stem of Sphagnum contain special type of water storage cells are called “retort cells”.

 Upper region of capsule is covered by membranous structure called calpytra. Clapytra is formed by
venter of archegonium. So it is gametophytic tissue.

 Bop and stehel (1957) concluded that in funaria water conduction is partly external and partly internal.
thus Funaria is a typical example of myxohydric moss.

 The sterile tissue of capsule can be divided into four regions - (i) The sterile cells constituting the
apophysis, (ii) the sterile cells forming thick capsule wall (iii) the sterile cells forming columelal (iv) The
sterile cells contituting the operculum and peristome.

 In Bryophytes type of development of embryo  Holoblastic & exoscopic.

 Polytrichum :

(i) Dioecious

(ii) Vegetative reproduction - by bulbils (which develop on rhizoids) and fragmentation of underground
rhizome.

(iii) Neck canal cells - Ten

(iv) Annulus absent

(v) In Polytrichum peristome tecth (32 or 64) are not hygroscopic.

(vi) Common name - Hair cap moss


 Sphagnum - Peat moss / Bog moss / Truf moss

 Andraea - Granite moss

82
FUNARIA EXERCISE
1. The two layers of teeth in the peristome of present on same branch
moss are (2) Male and female reproductive organ are
(1) Decorative parts functioning like sepals present on the different branches of same
and petals in a flower plant
(2) Parts which help in the discharge of (3) Male and female reproductive organs on
spores only when the capsule matures. different plant
After the operculum falls, they dry up and (4) None of these
open out
(3) Parts which help in the gradual dispersal 9. Antherozoids of Funaria are :
of spores. The upper teeth are [CPMT 1991]
hygroscopic and open out only in dry (1) Biflagellated and spirally coiled
weather. The lower ones check sudden (2) Biflagellated with no coiling
dispersal (3) Multi flagellated
(4) Parts which help in the dispersal of spores. (4) Aflagallated
They are not hygroscopic and allow the
discharge of spores by disintegration of 10. Which one of the following is not a part of
capsule wall moss gametophyte
(1) Calyptra (2) Spore
2. A bryophytes differs from Pteridophytes in : (3) Protonema (4) Columella
(1) Presence of archegonia
(2) Lack of vascular tissues 11. Why mosses are found in moist regions :
(3) Presence of swimming antherozoid (1) Because water is needed for fertilization
(4) Independent gametophyte (2) Because rate of transpiration is very high
(3) Because it is free floating hydrophyte
3. Funaria is included in Bryophtes because - (4) None of these
(1) Heteromorphic alternation of generation
(2) It lacks roots 12. Funaria is :
(3) Sporophtye is attached to gametophyte (1) Dioecious is Proicous
(4) It lacks xylem (2) Monoecious & Paroicous
(3) Monoecious & Autoicous
4. Rhizoid of Funaria are : (4) Dioecious & Autoicous
(1) Multicellular
(2) Unicellular 13. Cells in leaves of Funaria re :
(3) Multicellular, branched with oblique (1) Polyploid (2) Diploid
septum (3) Haploid (4) Haploid & Diploid
(4) Tuberculated
14. The number of cells in neck canal of
5. Conducing tissues in moss is made up of : archegonium of Moss is :
(1) Xylem (2) Parenchyma (1) 1. bi-nucleated
(3) Collenchyma (4) Xylem & Phloem (2) 2, uni-nucleated
(3) 4, uni-nucleated
6. In Moss. medulla has : (4) 6-10, uni-nucleated
(1) Piliferous layer (2) Endodermis
(3) Hadrome (4) Hypodermis 15. Embryo development in Funaria is :
(1) Meroblastic (2) Coeloblastic
7. Which of the following type of sex organs are (3) metablastic (4) Holoblastic
found in Funaria :
(1) Projecting and sessile 16. The sporophytic phase in Funaria is
(2) Projective and stalked composed of
(3) Embedded & sessile (1) Food and capsule
(4) Embedded & Stalked (2) Foot, seta and capsule
(3) Capsule only
8. Is Funanria : (4) Spore sac
(1) Male & Female reproductive organ are

83
17. Moss capsule represent : 26. The dehiscence of moss capsule take place
(1) Gametophyte by the rupture of the following :
(2) Sporophyte (1) Operculum (2) Annulus
(3) A part of protonema (3) Calyptra (4) None of these
(4) A part of sorus 27. In which part reduction division takes place
in moss plant :
18. Stomata are present in Funaria plant on the (1) Antheriudm (2) Archegonium
(1) Upper part of capsule (3) Set (4) Capsule
(2) Lower part of capsule
(3) Leaf 28. Dispersal of spores in Funaria :
(4) Stem (1) By bursting of the capsule
(2) Throgh peristome
19. Annulus of Moss capsule separates : (3) Death & decay of operculum
(1) Theca & columela (4) By bursting of operculum
(2) Columela from apophysis
(3) Operculum and columella 29. In the number of chromosomes of a spore
(4) Operculum from theca mother cell of Funaria is 18, Then what will be
the chromosome numbers of the following
20. When moss spores germiante, they form : structures
(1) Leafy gametophyte directly Perichaetial leaf Pronema Operculum
(2) Firt protonema, then form a bud and then Columella
a leafy gametophore (1) 9 9 18 18
(3) Capsule directly (2) 18 9 9 19
(4) Protonema which bears archegonia and (3) 9 18 9 18
antheridia (4) 18 18 9 18

21. The central middle part of the Funaria capsule 30. Spore of Funaria represents :
is sterile and is knownas : [Delhi PMT 1986]
(1) Clumella (2) Operculum (1) Gametes
(3) Apophysis (4) Spore sac (2) Beginning of gametophyte
(3) Beginning of sporophyte
22. The main conducting part inside the capsule (4) None
of Funaria is :
(1) Apophysis (2) Columella 31. The development of a sporophyte from moss
(3) Theca (4) None of these gametophyte without gametes formation is
called :
23. The peristome in Funaria is consists of : (1) Apospory (2) Prthenogenesius
(1) 8 teeth (2) 16 teeth (3) Apogamy (4) None
(3) 32 teeth (4) 64 teeth
32. Which of the following is not common in
24. In Funaria, the antherozoids swin water to Funaria and Selaginella :
reach upto the archegonium for the process of (1) Roots
fertilization. this type of movement is known (2) Archegonium
as : (3) Embryo
(1) Chemoropic (4) Motile antherozoids
(2) Chemotatctic
(3) Thermotatic 33. If the number of chromosomes in the cells of
(4) Phototctic spore sac of Funaria is 20, what will be the
number of chromosomes in the cells of its
25. The ari cativites in the capsule of moss are calyptra :
partitioned with delicate strands of cells These (1) 20 (2) 10
are called : (3) 40 (4) 30
(1) Partition (2) Cmpoartments
(3) Trabeculae (4) Septa 34. Chloroplast are present in the spore of :
(1) Rhizopus (2) Funaria
(3) Dryopteris (4) Penicillium

84
35. In the capsule of moss peristome teeth show : (2) It serves as a disinfectant
[RPMT 2000] (3) It is easily available
(1) Chemotropism (2) Chemotropism (4) It is hygroscopic
(3) Hydrotropism (4) Xerochasy
43. In a moss the sporophyte [AIPMT 2006]
36. What is formed by the germination of spores (1) arises from a spore produced from the
of moss : [RPMT 2000] gametophyte
(1) Leafy gametophyte (2) Stem (2) manufactures food for itself, as well as for
(3) Protonema (4) Rhizoids the gametophyte
(3) is partially parasitic on the gametophyte
37. Spore of which plant produces protonema (4) produces gametes that give rise to the
[RPMT 2001] gametophyte
(1) Riccia (2) Funaria
(3) Anthoceros (4) Pellia 44. The peristome in Funaria consists of at
maturity
38. In Funaria spore germinates to produce (1) One series of curved narrow triangular
[MP PMT 1999] teeth, 16 in number
(1) Protonema (2) Prothallus (2) One series of curved narrow triangular
(3) Proembryo (4) Embryo teeth,32 in number
(3) Two series of curved triangular teeth 8
39. In Funaria Plat stomata are present in teeth in each series
[MP PMT 2002] (4) Two series of curved, narrow triangular
(1) Foot (2) Seta teeth, 16 teeth in each series
(3) Capsule (4) Leaf
45. When antherozoid of Pteridium and Funaria
40. Which of the following is absent in moss are put together near the archegonia of
sporophyte [MP PMT 2002] Pteridium only the anterozoids of Pteridium
(1) Seta (2) Foot readily enter the archegonia and reach the
(3) Elater (4) Columella egg. The reason being that -
(1) Archegonia of Pteridium secrete as
41. the sporophyte of Funaria develop within substance which repels antherozoids of
[MP PMT 2002] Funria
(1) Antheridium (2) Archegonium (2) Arechegonia of Pteridium secrete a
(3) Capsul (4) Protonema chemical substance which attracts
antherozoids of pteridium
42. Moss peat is used as a packing material for (3) antherozoids of Funaria are less motile
sending flowers and live plants to distance (4) antherozoids of Funaria are killed when
places because. [AIPMT 2006] mixed with antherozoids of Pteridium
(1) In reduces transpiration

FUNARIA EXERCISE
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 4 1 3 3 4 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 2 2 4 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 1 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 3 1 2 2 4 3 2 1 3 3 2 4 3 4 2

85
 SELAGINELLA

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

Division Tracheophyta
Sub Division Ligulopsida
Class Lycopsida/Licopodineae
Order Selaginellales
Family Selaginellasceae
Genus Selaginella

Note : [Common Name - Litle club moss or spike moss]

HABITAT & HABIT

 Most species are found in tropical rain forest and temperate region.
 the common Indian species are Selaginella kraussiana, S. pallidissima and S.oregana etc.
 S.oregana occurs as on the tree trunk as epiphyte.
 S.pillifera, S.rupestris and S.lepidophylla are the common xerophytic species and are called
resurrection plant.
Note : Xerophytic species of selaginella show cepitose habit. They become ball like during dry season and
again become green and fresh when moisture is available. So these are called resurrection plants.

 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
 
 The selaginella is an evergreen delicae
generally perennial herb (annual species,
eg. S. pygamea).
Note : Climer : S. llligans (they posses
special discoid pad on their rhizophore
for climbing)

 Plant body is distinguished into three part -
Root, stem Leaves and Rhizophore also
present.
Root
 :
 Primary root are ephemeral (short lived) and
the adult plant has adventitious roots.

 These are branched with root hairs.

Stem
 :
 Stem is green and cylindrical. Stem is
prostrate and laterally branched or eret and
dichotomously branched.

 Adeventitious roots arises from the stem
and the covered by leaves.

 A structure arise form the dichotomous
[bifurcation] point of stem which is colourless
without cholorophyll, chlindirlca, rootcapless
and elongated is called Rhizophore.

86
 MORPHOLOGICAL NATURE OF RHIZOPHORE

 Rhizophore arises from the dichotomous point of stem. It is Non-chlorophyllous. colourless, long
cylindrical and thread like strucutre. Rhizophore term fistly given by Nageli.

 It grows towards the land and it is bifurcated. It provided spoort to the plant and helps in absorption of
water and minerals.

 Morphological nature of the Rhizophore of Saleginella is still in question. The following three views
about its possible nature are -

(a) Rhizophore is a Root capless root : According to Van Tieghem Harvey - Harvey-Gibson - “rhi
zophore is a rootcapless root” because -
(1) It is positively geotropic in nature
(2) It is leafless
(3) Rhizophore is mono steleic like root.

(b) Rhizophore is leafless shootPfeffer, Treub, Cusick and Bruchmann etc regards - rhizophore is
a leafless shoot because -
(1) Absence of root cap.
(2) Absence of root hair.
(3) It arises from bifurcation point of stem.
(4) It is exogenous in origin

(c) Rhizophore is a newly formed organ :

According to Goebel and Bower the rhizophore is neither shot nor a root but organ sui-generies.

 Leaves :

 The leaves of Selaginella are microphyllous, sessile and simple with distinct mid rib. Their shape
varies form ovate to lanceolate. The leaves are mostly Amphistomativ (Exception S.martenssi-
Hypostomatic)

 The vegetative leaf as well as
sporophyll has a small,
membranous projection on its
adaxil (upper) surface, close
to the base. This projection is
known as ligule.

 The basal part of the ligule has
a distinct hemispherical foot
like structure, called
glossopodium. The ligule is
embedded at the base of the
leaf in a pit like structure
known as ligular pit.

 Leaves are dimophic. The megaphylls develop from ventral/Adaxial/lower surface of the stem and
microphylls develop from dorsal/abaxial/upper surface of the stem
Function Ligule :

 According to some scientists ligules are associated with water absorpiton and secretion and thus
prevent desiccation of the shoot.

 Ligules are concerned with upward movement of inorganic solutes.

87
Special Point :

1. In Selaginella selaginoides stem, protostele (haplostele)

in present & mesarch condition is found in vascualr
bundles
2. In Selaginella stem the metaxylem tracheids show
slcalariform thickening and the protoxylem tracheids
have annular thickenings.
3. Trabecaulae are absent in the stem of xerophytic
species of Selaginella.
4. A distincitve feature of Saleginalle stem is the presence of
radially elongated endodermal cells, called trabeculae.
Between these cells large intercellular spaces are present.
5. In Selaginella stem, xylem is usually monarch and
exarch. (I polysteleic condition). In monosteliec condition
xylem is diarch and exarch.

REPRODUCTION

The sprophyte of Selaginella reproduces vegetatively and by spores formation.

(1) Vegetatively Reproduction :


 Vegetative propagation in Selaginella takes place by tubers,
bulbils, dormant buds and by fragmentation.

 In S.rupestris, prostrate branches produce roots during
favourable conditions. These root bearing prostrate branches
separate from the parent plant and grow into new sporophytes.

 Species like S.charyorhizos and S.chryosocaulos propagate
with the help of tubers and bulbils.

 Aerial brancehs of S.charysocaulos also bear some dormant
buds which grow into new plans during favourable condition.
(2) Reproduction by spores :

 Selaginella is a heterosporous Plant. It produces two types of spores - magaspores and
microspores.

(i) Strobilus or cone -


 In most of the species of Seleginells sporophylls are aggregated at the apex of the main stem or lateral
branch and forms compact or loose cones, called strobili (Singular - strobilus)

 The sporophylls are spirally arranged around a central axis.

 The sporangnia are borne singly in the axis of sporophylls. The sporophyll bearing micro-sporangium
is called microsporophyll and the one with megasporangium is known as megasporophyll.

 The sporangia bearing microspores are called microsporangia and those bearing megaspores are
called megasporangia. The sporangia are strictly dimorphic.

 There are many microspores in a microsporangium but a megasporangium usually has 4 megaspores.

 The magaspores from female gametophytes on germintion and the microspores give rise to male
gametophytes.

88
 (ii) Distribution of micro - and megasporangia in strobilus -
 In most of the species of Selaginella both micro-and megasporangia are found within the same
strobilus.

Development of sporngium : Eusporangiate type

(a) Microsporogenesis :

 Each microspore mother cell divided meiotically
to form haploid spores in large number. These
are arranged in tetrachedrdal terads.

(b) Megasporogenesis :

 All the cells of megasporangium are degenerate
except only one sporocyte.

 This functional cell is called megaspore mother
cell. This cell divide meiotically to form four
megaspores. these are arranged in tetraheadral
tetrads.

 In S. monospora & S. rupestris, in each
megasporangium only one megaspore is present

(I) MICROSPORES AND DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE :

1. Microspore :

 The Microspores are small spherical structures, ranging 0.015-
0.06 mm in diameter. A microspores is surrounded by a thick
ornamented exine and a relatively thin intine.
 The spore has a single haploid nucleus and granular
cytoplasm. rich in fatty substances (about 35%) and
chlorophyll absent.
2. Development of male gametophyte :
 The microspores germinate inside the micro sporangium (in
situ germination or precocious germination) and shed from
the microsporangium at 13-celled stage.

89
 The first division of the microspore is asymmetrical and s a result a small lenticular prothallial cell and
a large anthridial intial is established The prothallial cell does not divide further.

 The first division of the antheridial intiial is nearly at right angles to the prothallial cell. It result in the
formation of two antheridial cells of almost equal size. Both these cells divide by a veritcal wall (at
right angles to the first vertical division). Thus, at this stage the gametophyte consist of cells (four cells
derived from the antheridial initial and a prothallial cell). The two basal cells, derived from the
antheridial initial, do not divide further, whereas the upper to daughter cell divide repeatedly and form
ten cells. At this stage the gametophyte has 13 ells. Of these, four entral cell funsion as primary
androgonial cells and eight peripheral cells functionas jacketcells.

 The male gametophyte is shed from the microporangium at 13-called stage. (1 -prothallial cell, 4-
priamry androgonial cells (central cells) and - jacekt cells peripherel cells).

 The four central primary androgonail cells of the male gametophyte divide repeately forming a mass of
128-256 antherozoid mother cells or androcytes. Each androcyte by metamorphosis converts into a
spindle-shaped biflagellate ant herozoid.

 Which the fomation of antherozoids, the jacket cell decompose and form a mucilgenous substance.
the ntherozoids float in this substance. Until this stage the male gemetophyte is completely enclosed
within the wall of the microspore.
Note :
1. Unlike other pteridophytes, prothalli (singular - prothallus) are not formed in Selaginella.

2. The antherozoids of Selaginella are perhaps the smallest among the vascular plant.

 Megaspore and development of female gametophyte :

 

 Their diameter varies from 0.15 to 0.5 mm

 The wall of the megaspore is differentiated into three
distinct layers - the outer exospore, the midle
mesospore and the inner endospore. The megaspore
has a single haploid nucleus, surrounded by granula
cytoplasm rich in fatty substances (about 48%)

 The development of female gametophyte stars even
when the megaspore remain present in the
megasporangium, by repeated free nuclear division
followed by cell wall formation. Female gametophyte is
differentiated into upper region called female prothallus
and lower region is called storage region which are
separated by diaphragm. A functional cell of the female
prothallus acts as archegonial initial.
Note : The mature archegonium of Selaginella has
long neck (consisting of eight cells, in two tiers of four
cell each), a neck canal cell, a ventre canal cell and an
egg.

Fertilization :

Fertilization usually takes pale after the female gametophyte has fallen on the soil but in some species
(e.g. s. rupestris) it may occur while the female gametophyte is still with in megasporagium.

 Water medium is essential for fertilization. Just before the fertilization the neck and ventral canal cell
disorganise and to form a mucilage which contain some chemotactic substances.

90
 Many biflagullated antherozoids enter into the neck of achegonium by chemotactic movement and
one atherozoid fuse with the egg, resulting the formatin of zygote.

Note : In few species life s.rupestris archengonia are fertilized when closed in the megasporangium
which is attached with spinke and development of embryo takes place inside the megasporangium.
After the developmen of root and primary shoot of the new sprophyte. It is shed off from
 megasporangium hence approach towards the seed habit of Angiosperm.


 EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT :

 The dipolid zygote is the mother cell of the sprophytic generation. It divided tansversely, establishing an
epibasal (upper) suspensor cell and a hypobasal (lower) emryobnic cell. As deelopment proceeds,
the suspensor cell repeatedly divised to form a suspensor which pushes the developing embryo deep
into the female gametophyte.

 The rest of the embryo develops from the embryonic cell. It divides by two verticall walls at right
angles to each other and thus a four-celled embryo is formed. In these, one cell divides by an oblique
vertical wall and thus as apical cell with three cutting faces is established. This eventually functions
at the apical cell of the embryonic shoot.














 The remaining three cells of the 4-celled embryo and the sister cell of the apical cell divide
transversely to from two tiers of four cells each.

 The cells of both the tiers divide irregularly, forming a multicellular embryo. Usually the cells of the lower
tier divide more rapidly than the upper tier.

 The derivatives of the lower tier form the foot. The foot acts as a haustorial organ; its main function is
to obsorb nutrition for the developing sprophyte from the female gametophyte.

 The cells of upper tier acts as apical cell of cotyledons and forms two ligulated cotyledon.

 In early stages of development the young sprophyte is attached to the megaspore and dirives its
food form the female gametophyte with the help of its foot. But after the establishment of root and stem,
the sprophyte becomes independent.

Note :
1. Microphyllous pteridophytes : with simple leaves having a single vein, which do not form leaf gap in
the stem stetel.
eg. Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella. [These are eusprorangiate pteridophytes]
2. Stele of Rhozophore and root is monarch and exarch.
3. Distele is found in stem of S.christina.
4. meroblastic development takes pace in embryo of Selaginella.

91
5. Lycopodium is called “botanical snakes” or snakes of plant kingdom.
6. ‘Telome theor’ for origin of plant body in pteridophyte was proposed by Zimmerman.
7. The simple ultimate terminal portions of a dichotomoulsy branched axis is called telome. Two telomes
of a dichotomizing axis are united below the point of dichotomy to form a fused structure, called
mesome.
8. Development of sporangium of Selaginella is “euporangiate type”.
9. Xerophytic species of Selaginella (e.g. S.rupestris) called as “Birds” nest moss
10. When two different sex organs are borne in different groups but on the same head this condition is
called paroicous.
11. In S.selaginoides the parenchymatous cells of the cortex show mycorrhizal association.
12. In Rhizophore of S.kraussiana the xylem is centrifugal.
13. In leaves of Selaginella stomata are distributed mostly in the midrib region. A Mesophyll cell ahs 1-8
cup shaped chloroplast. Which have many spindle shaped pyrenoid- like bodies
14. Selaginella, Marsilea, Isoetes and Salvinia etc. are Heterosporous plant.

92
 SELAGINELLA EXERCISE
1. How many prothallial cell/s/is/ are found in (3) Many cotyledons
made gametophyte of Selaginella : (4) Cotyledon absent
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 3
11. Which types of leaf is found in Selaginella :
2. A evolutionary characteristic is found in (1) Aligulate and microphyllous
Selaginella (2) Ligulate and megaphyllous
(1) Presence of ligule (3) Ligulate and microphyllous
(2) Heterophilly habit (4) Aligulate and megaphyllous
(3) Sporangia present in cone
(4) Heterospory 12. Trabeculated endoermis found in :
(1) Funaria (2) Selaginella
3. The number of megaspore/megaspores in (3) Monocots (4) Dicots
each megasporangium of Selaginella
rupestris is /are 13. In which characters Selaginella is alike as
(1) One (2) Two Gynosperm :
(3) Three (4) Four (1) In heterospory (2) In vascular tissues
(3)Cone/Strobilus (4) All of the above
4. Which is the epiphytic species of Selaginella
: 14. A filament of cells forming a temporary organ
(1) S.lepidophylla (2) S.oregana in some pteridophytes and most
(3) S.kraussiana (4) S.rupestris spermatophytes, that forces the growing
embryo deep in the tissue of the female
5. The 13-called male gametophyte of gametophyte, called as :
Selaginella has : (1) Strobilus (2) Tapetum
(1) 10 cells of the antheridium +3 prothallial (3) Suspensor (4) Trabeculae
cells
(2) 12 cells of the antheridium +1 prothallial 15. Which structure is developed from microspore
cell of the Selaginella :
(3) 9 cell of the antheridium +4 prothallial cells (1) Male gametophyte
(4) 08 cells of the antheridium +5 prothallial (2) Female gametophyte
cells (3) Male sporophyte
(4) Female sprophyte
6. Which organ of the Selaginella is “Organ
suigeneris” : 16. In wchih plant, male and female sporongia are
(1) Root (2) Stem developed on same strobilus :
(3) Ligule (4) Rhizophore (1) Dropteris (2) Cycas
(3) Selaginella (4) Nephrolepis
7. Which type of stele is found in rhizophore of
Seleginella : 17. Selaginella s :
(1) Monarch (2) Diarch (1) Oogamous and homosporous plant
(3) Triarch (4) Polyarch (2) Oogamous and heterosporous plant
(3) Isogamous & heterosporous plant
8. Rihizophore is not a true root because it is : (4) Isogamous & homosporous plant
(1) Endogenous (2) Exogenous
(3) Intermediate (4) None of above 18. In which stage of the male gametophyte of
Selaginella, pollination take place :
9. Glossopodium is found in Selaginella : (1) 3-celled stage (2) 5-celled stage
(1) root (2) rhizophore (3) 13-celled stage (4) 2-celled stage
(3) stem (4) leaves
19. Selaginella belongs to which class :
10. How many cotyledons are present in embryo (1) Psilopsida (2) Coniferopsida
of Selaginella : (3) Lycopsida (4) Pteropsida
(1) Two cotyledons
(2) One cotyledon

93
20. How many prothallial (P) and antheridial cells (3) Food absorption (4) None of above
(A) are found in the male gametophyte of
selaginella 25. Which species of the Selaginella are known
(1) P4 A9 (2) P2 A11 as “Resurrection plants”
(3) P1 A12 (4) P8 A5 (1) Epiphytic species
(2) Aquatic species
(3) Mesophytic species
21. Is selaginella reduction division occurs :
(4) Xerophytic species
(1) During formation of microspores
(2) During formation of both microspores and
26. In Selaginella, male gametes are
megaspores
[MP PMT 2000]
(3) During formation of sperms
(1) Multi flagellate (2) Aflagellate
(4) Immeditelyafter fertilization
(3) Biflagellate (4) Mono flagelalte
22. Selaginella differs from Pteris in which of the
27. In Selaginella, trabeculae, represent
following character :
[MP PMT 2000]
(1) Heterosporous condition
(1) Heterophylly (2) Heterospory
(2) Absence of seed
(3) Homosprory (4) Ligulate leaf
(3) Absence of vessels in xylem
(4) Need of water for fertilization
29. Club mass is common name of
[RPMT 2001]
23. In which species of Selaginella vivipary is
(1) Lycopodium (2) Selaginella
found - (3) Funaria (4) Potamogeton
(1) S.rupestris (2) S.kraussiana
(3) S.Lepidophylla (4) S.oregana
30. Which one of the following is heterosporous ?
[AIPMT 2008]
24. What is the main function of foot of embryo in (1) Salvinia (2) Adiantum
Selaginella : (3) Equisetum (4) Dryopteris
(1) Fusion (2) Water absorption

Note: In Ephedra (Gymnosperm plant), pollination takes place at 5 – celled stage.

SELAGINELLA EXERCISE

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 4 1 2 2 4 1 2 4 1 3 2 4 3 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 4 3 1 3 1 1

94
 PTERIDIUM Monotypic genus

SYSTEMATIC POSITION :

Kingdom Plantae
Sub Division Embryophyta
Division Tracheophyta
Class Pteropsida
Sub Class Filicineae
Order Filicales
Family Polypodiaceae
Genus Pteridium
Species Pteridium aquailinum
Common name - “Sun Fern” or “Bracken fern

 HABITAT AND HABIT :


 Ferns are commonly grow in moist and shady places.
 They shows ‘gregarious’ habit. this habit is due to vegetative reproduction.
 It can be grow in the presence of less moisture and high light so it is called “Sun fern”

 External Morphology :

 The plant body of Pteridium is sporophytic and it is
differentiated into root stem and leaves. Root and stem
are underground and leaves are aerial. Plants are
perennial.

(i) ROOT :

 The primary root is short lived. It is soon replaced by
adventitious roots which develop from the stem in
Acropetal manner.
 the adventitious roots are thin, small, soft and less
branched.
 They are endogenous in origin.

(ii) STEM (Rhizome) :


 The stem of fern is underground rhizome.
 Rhizome grows horizontally in the soil. The main stem is
dichtomosly branched.
 The young rhizone particularly covered by multicellular
brown hairs called as ramenta.

(iii) LEAVES :

 Pteridium is a megaphyllous plant. It’s large leaf is known
as ‘frond’
 The leaves may be 2-12 feet long (height) and in each leaf,
the petiole and lamina are almost equal in lenght. They are
developed on rhizome in alternate manner.
 Leaf lamina is divided into number of leaflets. The leaves
are compound, bipinnate and impartipinnate.
 The young leaf shows typically open furcate venation. (The bifurcation of veinlets without
attachement, at the anterior end is called open furcated venation)

95
 In these leaves, The young leaves of Pteridium are curled. Circinate ptyxis is found. Each young leaf
open from the base to apex. Ramenta are also present on young leaves.

(I) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT :


 In the transverse section the root appears
approximately like a dicotyledons root.

 The outermost layer is called epiblema. It
possesses unicellular root hairs.

 Below the epiblema there is a broad cortex is
present which is differentiated into two zones -
(i) outer cortex which is made up of
parenchymatous cells.
(ii) Inner cortex which is composed of
sclerenchymatous cells.

 In the centre a stele is present which is
surrounded by single layered endodermis. Below
the endodermis pericycle is present which is one
of two layered and made-up of thin walled
arenchymatous cells.

 The stele is diarch with two xylem bundles
alternating with two phloem bundles.
The xylem is exarch in position. The xylem is
without vessels and phloem lacks companion
cells.

 Seconary growth is absent in ferns root :

(II) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF RHIZOME :-

In a transverse sectioin the rhizome of Pteridium

appears somewhat ablong being filattnaed
dorsiventrally.

 The outer layer is termed as epidermis. Inside
the epidermis, three-four layers of
sclerenchymatous hypodermis is present.
Whic is broken at two ends (Points). At these
points, the parenchyamatous cells of ground
tissues reaches directly up to the epidermis.

 Hypodermis is followed by parenchyamatous

ground tissues in which two rings of meristeles
are present. The stele is polycylic dictoyostele
or polystele or Dictyostele type.

 Both the rings of meristele are separated by two
plates of sclerenchyama in dorsiventral position.

 The meristeles of outer ring are smaller in size
and more in number, while there are two or three
large meristeles are present in inner ring.

96

 Meristele :

 Each meristele is surrounded by a single layered endodermis.
 Below the endodermis one or two layered parenchyamatous perichycle is present.
 Xylem forms the central core of the meristele, which is mesarch in position, ie. protoxylem is
surrounded by metaxylem.
 Vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent.
 In meristeles vascular bundles are concentric and amphicribral or hadrocentric type.
 Meristele is a complete stele because it has its own pericycle, endodermis, Xylem and phloem.
 Secondary growth in absent in rhizome due to absence of vascular cambium.

(III) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LFEAF :

It is differentiated into rachis and leaf let

(pinnules)

(a) Rachis : In a transverse section the young

rachis in hemispherical in shape.

 The outermost layer is epidermis.

 Below the epidermis a few layers of thick walled
cells forms the sclerenchymatous hypodermis.
 Many meristele are arranged in the mature rachis
of Pteridium in horse-shoe shaped.
 In each meristeles vascular bundles re
concentric, amphicribral and mesarch.

(b) Leaf lef/pinnules :

 Mesophyll is present between two epidermal

layers and mesophyll differentiated into palisade
and spongy tissue.
 the stomata are present on lower epidermis.
 The epidermal cells of leaf lets also bears
chloroplast and concentric vascular bundles
are present in Pteridium leaf lets.

Note :

1. In Dryopteris leaf, mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue.
2. In Dryopteris elaf, bicollateral vascular bundle are found in large veins where as in small veins
collateral vascular bundle are present.

 REPRODUCTION :

 Three different types of reproduction - Vegetative by spore formation and sexual are found in
Pteridium.
 The main plant body represent sprophytic phase and reproduced by vegetative and by spore
formation.
 Sexual reproduction only takes place in gametophytic phase i.e. in the prothallus.

(I) Vegetative Reproduction :

(a) By death and decay method :

 Vegetative reproduction takes place through underground rhizomes.

97
 The rhizome is dichotomously branched and grows indefinitely. When the death and decay of rhizome
reaches upto the point of dichotomy, both the branches are separate and each grows into a new plant.
 this method is responsible for the gregarisous habit of plant.
(b) By adventitious buds : Sometimes a bud is formed in the axis of persistent leaf base. These
buds separate and grow into a new plants.

(III) By spore formation :

 The main plant body of Pteridium is sporophytic and reproduces asexually by the formation of
sproes.
 The sporesof Pteridium are of one type and this condition is tamers as homospory.
 Leaf let/fronds at maturity bears small, rounded reniform brown or black coloured spots, called sori.
Sori bearing fronds are called as sprophyll. The sporophylls of Pteridium are photosynthetic in
nature.
 Each sorus consits of mnay biconvex stalked bodies called sporangia borne on parenchymatous
placenta.
 Each sorus is protected by a covering sheath called industium which may be true or false on the basis
of origin.
 A true indusium arise form the placenta, wherease a false indusium does not arise from the placenta
but it is formed by curved marign of the sporophyll.
 Each sorus bears large number of sporangia and each sporangium produce many spores.

Position and Form of sori :

98
 Each sporangium develop on the abaxial (Lower) sufrace of the leave
 the sprorangia srises in the groups i.e. in the form of sori.
 These sorus develops continuous, linerly arranged along an the margin of leaves is termed as
continous linear sorus or coenosorus
 These sorus lies on the maring of sporophylls teremed as “marginal sorus”
 Each sorus is covered by a bilooped indusium. The main function of indusium is the protection of sori.
Outer indusium is alarge and false. It is formed by curved margin of the sprophyll.
 Innter indusium is small and true and it is arises from the placentra.

Note: (1) First of all Bower studies the development of sorus.

(2) Pteridium is a Leptosporangiate type of fern. it means each sporogangium develops from a s
single initial cell.
(3) In Adiantum, Pteridium & Pteris sori are marginal but in Dryopteris and Nephrolepis, sori are
arranged in two rows, one of eitehr side of mid rib/vein.
(4) In Adiantum and Pteris False indusium is found whereas in Dryopteris and Nephrolepis, true
indusium is found.

Structure of Sporangium :

 A sporangium has a long narrow, slender multicellular
stalk usually composed of three vertical rows of cells
and a sporangial body of capsule.
 The capsule is oval or biconvex (mostly).
 Sporangium is surrounded by a single layered sterile
cell, called Jacket.
 The radial and inner walls of the cells of specialized
row of jacket becomes heavily thickened while their
under tangential wall remain thin.
 these ells constitute the “annulus”. Which starts from
the base of the capsule on one side, run upwards
curve on the other side and ceases almost ner the
middle.
 Annulus is covered about 3/4 part of the sporangium. Below this, the cells of marginal row are thin
walled and parenchymatous, constitute the stomium.
 The annulus and stomium together help in dispersal of spores and dehiscence of sporangium.
Sporangium break at the place of stomium during dehiscence of sporangium.
 The cavity of capsule contain 8 or 16 spore mother cells or sprocyte which is diploid.
 Spore mother cells divide meiotically to produce 32 or 64 haploid spores.

Dehiscence of sporangium:

 Dehiscence of sporangium takes place in dry season. When the sporangium mature, the indusium
dries and shrivels exposing the sporangia to dry air.
 In dry weather, the annulus Cells of the sporangial
wall loose moisture, diries up and shrink. The
radial and tangential wall of annulus re thick so they
do not shrink or bend easily. But outer wall of
annulus is mainly thin which curve inwards and
becomes concave. This carving inwards of the thin
walls exerts pulling force on annulus cells.
 Due to this pulling force (tension) thin cells of
stomium tear up. So that a fissure once started
from the region of stomium and ultimately reaches
up to the base of annulus on the opposite side of
stomium.

99
 Due to the pulling force the entire annulus turns into the back side Along the annulus most of the
spores are attached. The space is created by loose of water is filled by air and saturate. Because of
this pulling force suddenly released from the annulus and annulus immediately comes in original
position with a great force. The spores are attached on annulus, during this time are thrown away.
Dispersal of spores in Pteridium by “Catapult mechanism” (By annulus).

SPORES :

 The gametophytic pahge begins with the formation of spres which are tetrahedral.
 The spore wall or coat is sually to layered - The outer layer which is brown in colour called exspore or
exosporium or exine. It is thick and ornamented. The inner layer is thin and delicate. It is termed as
endospore or endosporium or intine.

 PROTHALLUS

 Under the favourable conditions of moisture
and temperature the spores germinates of
spore. Prothallus is a heart shaped structure
 The prothallus is thin, delicate flat, short lived
and dorsiventral structure.
 It is independedn and autotrophic. It is free
(independent) from the spprophytic generation.
Itis unvranched . Diameter of adult prothallus
is 3-8mm.
 It grows prostrate on the soil. The middle region
of the prothallus is thick and thin towards the
marginal side and in which a apical notch’s is
present at the anterior end.
 A apical cell is present in the apical notch by
which growth takes place in the prothallus. It is
nonvascular. Unicellular and unbranched
rhizoid are located on the ventral surface of the
prothallus.
 They fix the prothallus with the substratum
(soil). Sex- organs are developed on the ventral
su rfae of the prothallus. Prothallus is a
monoecious which bears both sex organs-
Antheridia and Archegonia.
 Archegonia borne of prothallus near the apical
notch, while the antheridia are developed in the
posterior region in between the rhizoids.
Main point
(i) Antheridia matures before the archegonia ie. prothallus is protandrous.

(ii) Always cross fertilization takes place in Pteridium.

(iii) Fertilization takes place between the genetically similar gametes in Pteridium.

 Antheridium :

 Antherdium of Pteridium is simpler than Riccia. The presence of antheriudium is the primitive
character.
 Antheridium of Pteridium is a small sessle spherical structure.
 The jacket of the antheridium is composed of three cells. The two cells of the jacket lying one above
and the other forming the base.

100
 The lowest and middle cells are called I-ring cell and II-
ring cell, respectively. The upper or apical cell is called
cap cell or operculum forming the top portion of the
jacket.
 Inside the antheridium there are 20-50 androcytes or
antherozoid mother cells are present which are
responsible to form spirally coiled multiflagellate
antherozoids.
 Dehiscence of antheridium takes place in the presence of
water.
 When the antheridium fully mature and water in available,
its mucilage which is present in the cavity of antheridium,
absorb moisture and swells up, resulting, the opening of
the lid like cell at the top.
 The antherozoids liberated and after coming in contact with
water, they swim freely.

 Archegonium :

 Archegonium is flas-shaped sessile structure. It swollen
venter embedded in the tissue of prothallus and short,
curved neck projecting above the prothallus. Jacket is only
found in neck region. Jacket of nexk region is made up of
four vertical rows of neck cells.
 The venter has a large ovum or egg and a small venter
canal cell.
 In the cavity of the neck there is a single long neck canal
cell which is usually binucleated and cover cells are
abets at the apex of neck.

FERTILIZATION :

 Fertilization takes place in the presence of water.

 Just before the fertilization the venter cnala cell and neck canal cell of the archegonium disintegrate
forming a mucilagenous substnace which absorbs moisture, resulting the opening of mouth of the neck.
 Some of the mucilage oozes out at the tip of the
archegonium and attracts the antherozoids on account of
certain organic substance like malic acid present in it.
 As a result of chemotactic response and lashing
movement of cilia, some of the antherozoids enter the
rchegonium and ultimately one of them fuse with the egg.
This fertilized egg is termed oospore or zygote.


 Embryo and its development :

 Zygote (oospore) is the first cell of the sprophytic
generation.
 The oospore first divide by a vertical disivion nearly
parallel to the long axis of the archegonium.
Which divide the oospore into two half an Anterior or
epibasal cell 9lying towards the notch of the prothallus)
and Posterior or Hypobasal cell (lying towards the
posterior end). Second division also vertical but at right
anle to first one so that four-celled. stage embryo is
formed.

101
 There are two epibasal or anterior cells and two hypobasal or posterior cells. This stage known as
quadrate stage.
 Third division is transverse and therefore eight cell are formed. This is known as octanct stage.
Therefore, two cells inferior hypobasal, two cells inferior epibasal, two cells superior epibasal, and
two cells superior hypobasal are formed. The superior epibasal cell superior hypobasal are formed.
The superior epibasal cells gives rise to apical bud of the stem.
 Both inferior epibasal cells give rise cotyledon. Both the superior hypobasal cells giving rise to the
foot. Foot is embedded in the prothallus and help in providing nourishment to the embryo. The young
sprophyte depends upn gametophyte. Both the inferior hypobasal cells gives rise to radicle. The
radicle grows firt and pierce into the soil and form the primry root. Firtly, the priamry root comes out
form the prothallus but it is short-lived, it soon dies and it is replaced by adventitious root developed
from the stem.
 The cotyledons and apical bud of stem comes out into the air from the lower surface of the
gametophyte. Plumule grows imediate to form a undergournd rhizome. Foot and prothallus dies later
on.

Note :
1. Lateral polarity is
exhibited by the
embryo of
Ptreridium.
2. The venter of the
archegonium
form a protective
covering, called
calyptra, around
the developing
embryo.,
 Primary leaves
are simple and
lives for one year
and later it dies
off. Later on
special leaves
arises form the
rhizome. New
leaves are
developed each
year.
 Old learves left
the leaf-base. If 1
leaf-bs are
present in
Dryopteris then
the age will be 11
years. Because in
first year plant
bears simple
leaves.

102
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION :
 Independent alternation of generation is found in Pteridium.
 Its life cycle has two independent phases are present. Out of them one is main plant which is sprophyte.
This reproduces spore formation. A haploid gametophyte plant body prothallus develops from the
germination of spore.
 Gametophytic generation begins from the spores till to the formation of the gametes.
 Sprophytic generation begins with zygote or oospore formation and pore mother cells are lst cell of
sporophytic generation.
 the life cycle of Pteridium is known as Diplo-haplontic type.
Note : [In Diplo-haplontic type of life cycle pattern the diploid sporophyte is represented by a dominant,
independent photosynthetic, vascular plant body. It alternate with multicellular independed but short
lived hapolid gametophyte.]
IMPORTANT POINTS :

1. Dryopterix filix - mas : male shield fern/Beech fern/Hay scented fern.

2. Sympodial branching found in Pteridium rhizome
Branches are three types :
Long shoots, Short shoots, Intermediate shoot.
Short shoots bear fronds
3. In Pteridium at the base of each leaf let a nectary is present.
4. Main features of ferns :
1. Presence of rementa on young leaf and rhizome
2. Circinate ptyxis of young leaf.
5. In Zygote/oospor of Pteridium and Dryopteris :
I & II vertical division (at right angle to each other) & III- Transverse
6. In Dryopteris & Pteridium roots are Diarch.
7. In Drypteris meristeles are arranged in one ring where as in Pteridium meristeles are arranged in two
rings.
8. Pteridium, Dryopteris, Psilotum & Equisetum re homosporous plant.
9. Hetermorphic alternation of generation is found in Pteridium, Funaria and Dryopteris etc.
10. Pteridium, Adiantum, Nephrolepis (Sword fern) & Dryopteris etc. are leptosporangiate fern.
11.

12. Megaphyllous pteridophytes - with large pinantified leaves having a complex series of vein : They
form prominent leaf gaps in the stem stele.
eg. Pteris, Pteridium and Dryopteris.

103
PTERIDIUM EXERCISE
1. Which of the following venation is (1) Protandry (2) Protogyny
characteristic of fern (3) Dicliny (4) Monocliny
(1) Parallel
(2) Reticulate 11. In Pteridium, antheridium and archegonium
(3) Open and furcated are respectively.
(4) Closed and dichotomous (1) Stalkless and stalked
(2) Stalked and stalkles
2. The most imporant characteristic of a fern (3) Both stalked
plant is (4) Both stalkless
(1) Circinate pinnules
(2) Photosynthetic sprophyll 12. Embryonal leaves of Pteridium are
(3) Compound leaves (1) Simple
(4) Spores in sprorangia (2) Bipinante-Peripinnate
(3) Bipinnate-Imperipinante
3. the stele of Pteridium root is : (4) Unipinnate
(1) Dirch, exarch (2) Diarch, endarch
(3) Polyarch, exarch (4) Polyarc, endarch 13. True and false indusua can be differentiated
on the basis of
4. Meristele of Pteridium is : (1) Origin (2) Function
(1) Collateral (3) Structure (4) All the above
(2) Concentric and leptocentric
(3) Bicollateral and leptocentric 14. Stem of Pteridium is
(4) Amphicribral and mesarch (1) Vertical in soil (2) Horizontal in soil
(3) Tuber like (4) Sub-aerial
5. Sori of Pteris and Pteridium are :
(1) Continous and linear 15. Dehiscence of sporangium in pteridium take
(2) Discontinous and circular place
(3) Discontinous and reniform (1) In dry season by water loss
(4) Discontinous and vermiform (2) In wet season by water absorption
(3) By mucilage formation
6. Protective structure of fern sorus is : (4) Any of above
(1) Ramenta (2) Indusium
(3) Tapetum (4) Stomium 16. In Fern stem xylem is
(1) Exarch (2) mesrch
7. The shape of tern sporangium is : (3) Endarch (4) Polyarch
(1) Bi-concave (2) Bi-convex
(3) Plano-convex (4) Plano-concave 17. Neck of the archegonium of fern is
(1) Long & straight
8. Which combination of characteristics is (2) Short and straight
correct for a fern sproangium - (3) Long and curved
(1) Sessile, Unicellular, non-jacketed (4) Short and curved
(2) Stalked, unicellular, non jacketed
(3) Sessile, multicellular, non jacketed 18. Leaf-gap in the vascular cylinder in fern is
(4) Stalked, multicellular, jacketed (1) Air space
(2) Parenchymatous zone
9. Which of the following statements is not (3) Collenchymatous zone
correct for Pteridium - (4) Area exclusively of phloem
(1) Young sprophyte is parasite of
gametophyte 19. The ferns are usually found in
(2) Free alternation of generation (1) Near marshy places
(3) Exhibits a step in evolution of seed habit (2) Marshy placed
(4) Gametophyte is parasite on sporophyte (3) Moist and shady places
(4) Dry climate
10. In Pteridium cross fertilization take place due
to

104
20. The sori bearing leaves of pteridium are (2) Near anterior notch on lower surface
known as (3) Distributed on whole surface
(1) Aphylls (2) Sporophylls (4) On posterior end of prothallus
(3) Tropophylls (4) Sclerophylls
30. The stele of Pteridium is a
21. The chief characteristic of fern leaf is that they (1) Dictyostele (2) Eustele
(1) Have remnta (3) Siphonostele (4) Protostele
(2) Are microphyllous
(3) Have rementa and circinate vernation 31. The sori of pteridium are covered by a thick
when young multicellular covering known as
(4) Are simple (1) Indusium (2) Ramenta
(3) stele (4) Sclerenchyma
22. In Pteridium the root are
(1) Tap root 32. The sori in pteridium are found on
(2) Adventitious roots (1) Lteral surface of sporophyll
(3) Rhizoids (2) Abaxial surface of sporophyll
(4) Coralloid (3) Adaxla surface of sporophyll
(4) On the margins of leaves
23. In Pteridium, main plant body represents
(1) Sprophytic generation 33. The capsule of sporogonium of fern contains
(2) Gametophytic generation (1) 32 or 64 spores
(3) None of the above (2) 8 spores
(4) May be sprophyte (3) 128 spores
24. The Prothallus of pteridium is (4) 16 spores
(1) Kideny - shaped
(2) Club-shaped 34. The capsul of fern spororangium brust at a
(3) Heart shaped place called
(4) Flask shaped (1) Annulus
(2) Stomium
25. The stem and petiole are covered with (3) Placenta
numerous brownish scale like structure which (4) Ramenta
are called
(1) Root hair (2) Hairs 35. Which of the following is not involved in the
(3) Ramenta (4) Scales fertilization of ferns
(1) Pollen tube
26. The Pteridium plant is (2) Water
(1) Homosporous (3) Archegonium
(2) Heterosporous (4) Flagellated antherozoids
(3) None of the above
(4) May be Heterosporous or Homosporous 36. Pteridium prothallus normally is
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid
27. the prothallus of Pteridium represents (3) Teraploid (4) Triploid
(1) Sporophytic generation
(2) Gametophytic generation 37. The major role in the dehiscence of a fern
(3) Both of the above sporangium is played by its
(4) Asexual stage (1) Indusium (2) Annulus
(3) Stomium (4) None
28. The sex organs that develop towards the
rhizoids of tern prothallus are called as - 38. Spores of Pteridium are
(1) Archegonia (1) Haploid (2) Diploid
(2) Antheridia (3) Tetraploid (4) Hexaploid
(3) None of above
(4) Sporangia 39. In the archegonium of Pteridium the number
of neck-canal cell is/are :
29. In Pteridium the archegonia are present (1) (2) 2
(1) Near rhizoid on lower surface (3) 3 (4) 1

105
40. Prothallus of pteridium bears (4) Not certain
(1) Sporangia
(2) Sex organ 50. The xylem of stele of Pteridium is made up of
(3) Both sporangia and sex organ (1)Vessels
(4) None of the above (2) Tracheids
(3) Tracheids and xylem parenchyma
41. Formation of sprophyte from a vegetative (4) None of the above
portion of prothallus is called
(1) Apocarpy (2) Apogamy 51. Fern plant are
(3) Apomixis (4) Apospory (1) Ornamental
(2) Of medical value
42. Sex organ in prothallus develop on (3) Of food value
(1) Dorsal surface (4) Of no particular value
(2) Lateral surface
(3) Ventral surface 52. Indusium of Pteridium is
(4) Dorsolateral surface (1) Outer false & inner true
(2) Outer true & inner false
43. The ferns in which the entire sporangium (3) Only true type
develops form a single superficial cell of the (4) Only false
sporophyll are known as
(1) Lepto sporangite 53. An indusium is said to be true if it originates
(2) Eusporangiate form
(3) Unisporangiate (1) Sorus region
(4) Mesosporangiate (2) Extra sorus region
(3) Stelar region
44. Distinct alternation of generation is found in (4) Rhizome
(1) Mucor (2) Riccia
(3) Pteridium (4) Ulothrix 54. In Pteridium the annulus is
(1) Transverse (2) Oblique
45. In Pteridium meiosis occurs when (3) Vertical (4) Horizontal
(1) Spores are formed
(2) Gametes are formed 55. Prothallus of fern is
(3) Prothallus is formed (1) Dioecisou (2) Protadrous
(4) Sex organ are formed (3) Gyanandrous (4) None of these

46. Structures that produce gametes in prothallus 56. Fern prothallus is

are (1) Heterothallic
(1) Anther and archegonia (2) Hetermorphic
(2) Ascogonium and anther (3) Heterotrophic
(3) Antheridia and archegonia (4) Homothallic
(4) None of these
57. The sex organs of Pteridium which develops
47. Young sprophyte of pterdium draws on ventral surface of prothalli & intermigled
nourishment from prothallus through with rhizoids are
(1) haustorium (2) foot (1) Antheridia (2) Archegonia
(3) root (4) rhizoids (3) Sorus (4) Sprorangia

48. Pteridium phloem lacks 58. Sexuallity in fern is

(1) Sieve cell (2) Companion cell (1) Isogamy (2) Anisogamy
(3) Phloem parenchyma (4) All of the above (3) Oogamy (4) Siphonogamy

49. The heart shaped prothallus of Pteridium 59. In Pterdium the flagella of antherozoids are
always attached to
(1) Monoecious (1) Body surface (2) Nucleus
(2) Dioecious (3) Blepheroplast (4) Ovum
(3) Both monoecious and dioecious

106
60. Antherozoid attractant in an archegonila ooze 69. Pteridium shows : [RPMT 2000]
in Pteridium (Fern) is (1) Only true indusium
(1) Sugar (2) Only false indusium
(2) Amino acid (3) Both (1) and (2)
(3) Malic acid (4) None of these above
(4) Mucilage
70. In which stage meiosis takes place in
61. How many cells from the jacket of fern Pteridium : [RPMT 2001]
antheridium (1) During the spore germination
(1) One (2) Two (2) During the spore formation
(3) Three (4) Four (3) During the gamete formation
(4) During the organ formation in prothallus
62. Development of Oospore in fern produces
(1) X-Gametophyte 71. In Fern, gametophyte is : [RPMT 2001]
(2) 2X-embryo & sporophyte (1) Main plant body
(3) Prothallus (2) Prothallus attached to the sporophyte
(4) Zoospores & Antherozoids (3) Prothallus free from sporophyte
(4) A structure attached to the rhizome
63. The dominant phase in fern plant is
(1) spore 72. In rhizome of Pteridium, stele which is
(2) Sporophyte composed of two or more than two concentric
(3) Gametophyte rings of vascular bundles is called :
(4) prothallus [RPMT 2002]
(1) Polycyclic
64. Which is the criteron used in the classification (2) Siphonostele
of ferns (3) Ectopholic siphonostele
(1) Sori (4) Cladosiphonostele
(2) Nature of indusium
(3) Nature of sporophyll & sprorangia 73. Archegonium of fern has :
(4) Nature of annulus [RPMT 2003]
(1) Four neck canal cells
65. A feature is common to gametophytes and (2) Binucleated one neck canal cell
sprophytes of Moss and Pteridium (3) Uni nucleated two neck canal cells
(1) Independent existence (4) Three neck canal cell
(2) Unbranched habit
(3) Dichotomous branching 74. Fern prothallus produces
(4) Autotrophy [RPMT 2005]
(1) Gametes
66. How does the spores of a fern plant behaves : (2) Spores
(1) Joins with another spore to form a (3) Both (1) and (2)
seedling (4) None
(2) Germinates in to a prothallus
(3) Germinates into a fern plant 75. The place of point where sporangium of a fern
(4) Act as a resting structure bursts is (or the place of dehiscence in the
sporangial wall of Dryoptersis is known as) :
67. The male gametes in Pteridium are (1) Annulus (2) Stomium
(1) Non motile (3) Ostiole (4) Operculum
(2) Motile, biflagellate
(3) Motile, multi flagellated 76. The annulus of sporangium of the fern
(4) Non-motile, multi nucleate assistas in the dispersal of spores by :
(1) Collapsing in the strong wind
68. What type of polarity is exhibited by the (2) Loosing the air of its cells
embryo of Pteridium (3) Loosing water from its cells
(1) Apical (2) Basal (4) Taking up water form air
(3) Lateral (4) Central

107
77. What may be the possible advantage (3) Young sporophyte depends upon
accrueing out of the presence of antheridia gametophyte
and archegonia on the underside of a fern (4) None of these
prothallus :
(1) They are proteted from direct rays of sun 79. If the aerial parts of a typical pteridophyte are
(2) Capillary water ccumalates on the de stroyed by fire which plant part helps to
underside of the prothallus between its regener ate :
lower surface and the soil surface. Sex (1) Root (2) Rhizome
organs projecting in this water can be (3) Leaf-tip (4) Pinnule
readily fertilize by the Flagelalted 80. Which of the following is not common in
antherozoids which are chemotactically Funaria & Pteridium : [RPMT 2006]
attracted by the archegonia (1) Root (2) Archegonia
(3) The sex organs are protected from the (3) Embryo (4) Motile sperms
wind
(4) Nutrients manufactured by the green 81. In the prothallus of a vascular cryptogam, the
prothallus can readily seep downwards to antherozoids and eggs mature at different
the sex organs due to the action of gravity times. As a result : [AIPMT 2007]
(1) there is no change is success rate of
78. Which statement is normally true for Pteridium fertilization
: (2) there is high degree of sterility
(1) Gametophyte depends upon Sporophyte (3) one can conclude that the plant is
(2) Mature sporophyte depends upon apomictic
gametophyte (4) Self fertilization is prevented

PTERIDIUM EXERCISE

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 2 1 4 1 2 2 4 4 1 4 1 1 2 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 2 1
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 3 1 3 1
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 2 4 1 3 3 3
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 3 2 2 3 4 2 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 2
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81
Ans. 3 2 3 2 1 4

108
 PINUS
SYSTEMATIC POSITION :

Division Coniferophyta
Class Conferopsida
Order Coniferales
Family Pinaceae/Abitaceae
Genus Pinus

SPECIES OF PINUS :

There are six species of Pinus commonly found in India

(i) Pinus gerardiana - (Chilgoza- Pine) :
(ii) Pinus wallichiana Syn. Pinus excelsa - (Blue - Pine/Kail):
(iii) Pinus roxburghii Syn. Pinus longifolia - (Chir.Pine)
(iv) Pinue merkusii [Teenasserium Pine] : Hegith-3 mt :
(v) Pinus insularis Syn. Pinus khasya - (Khashi Pine) :
(vi) Pinus armandi [Armandi’s Pine]
Pinus is a evergreen and perennial tree which is growing on the slopes of hills in temperature
climate. It is conical in shape due to excurrent growth of the plant i.e. both main axis and lateral
branches grow continuously to acquired cone like shape.

Note :
The ex current/conical habit of Pinus tree is caused by auxin effect on the growth of stem tip & axillary
branches

External morpholgy of pinus :

Main plant body of Pinus is sporophytic and which is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

1. Root :

 Well develoment tap root system is found in Pinus. Root hairs are poorly developed due to presence
of ectotrophic mycorrhiza.
 Basidiomycetes fungus like Clavatia, Scleroderma Amanita and Boletus etc. are present in
mycorrhiza in the form of symbiont in root of pinus.
2. Stem :
 Stem of the Pinus is erect/straght, cylindical, long, woody and branched.
 Branches are monopodial and developed from the axis of scaly leaves which re present on the stem.
Branching gives conival appearance to plant.
 Branches are Dimorphic.
Branches

Long shoot Dwarf Shoot

or branches of unlimited growth. or branches of limites growth of Brachyblast.

1. Long Shoot :

 These are developed in the axis of scaly leaves on stem after the growth of every year. In long shoots,
apical bud is found. These are responsible for unlimited growth.
 These branches bear only scaly leaves.

109
2. Dwarf Shoot/Branches of limited growth or Brachyblast :

 They develop in the axis of scaly leaves on the long shoot and bear both scaly and foliage leaves.
 They possess foliage leaves at their apex.
 These branches do not have apical bud and hence show only limited growth.
 A dwarf shoot with a group of needle like foliage leaves, called as foliar spur.

3. Leaves :

The leaves re Dimorphic.

1. Scaly leaves
2. Foliage leaves/Photosynthetic leaves
* Scaly leaves :

 The scaly leaves re dark brown, membranous, thin and small, and present on both long and dwarf
shoots.
 They do not help in photosynthesis
 Main function : protection of the young bunds.
 They do not help in photosynthesis
 Main function : protection of the young buds.
 They fall off as the branches are mature

The scaly leaves on the dwarf shoots have a distinct midrib and they are called cataphylls.
Foliage leaves : (or Photosynthetic leaves)
 They develop only on the dwarf shoot and present on their apex.
 The foliage leaves are green & needle like

Species of Pinus Number of needles Types of spur

1. Pinus monophylla 1 Monofoliar
2. P. merkusis and P.sylvestris 2 Bifoliar
3. Pinus gerardiana
Pinus insularis 3 Trifoliar
P. roxburghii syn. P longifolia
4. Pinus quadrifolia 4 Quadrifoliar
5. P. armandi 5 Pentafoliar
Pinus wallichiana syn. P. excelsa

Note :The foliage leaves are Photosnthetic and remain persistent for several years. The needle like
nature of the foliage leaves indicates xerophytic adaptation.

(A) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT :

Internal structure of primary root of Pinus is similar to dicot root.

(i) Epidermis/Epiblema/Pilliferous layer :

Outer most layer is known as epiblema. It is single layered. It gives out unicellular (Poorly developed)
root hairs.

(ii) Cortex :
The cortex is composed of 4-5 layers of parenchyamatous cells. Some of these cells are filled with
resinous substances.

110
(iii) Endodermis

The inner most layer of the cortex represent endodermis. The cells of this layer have typical thickening
bands on their radial walls. Suberin & Tannis are present in endodermis

(iv) Pericyle :
The endodermis is flowed by a multilayered zone
of parachymtous cells which forms pericycle.
Tannin & starch gain are present in pericycle

(v) Vascular Bundle :

Vascular Bundles are rarial exarch and commonly
diarch. The protoxylem bifurcates to form a ‘Y’
shaped structure and a resin canal lines in
between the two arms of protoxylem.
The xylem consists of only tracheids. Phloem strands are present in alternate positions to the xylem
strands. The phloem is composed of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma. Companion cells are
absent.
Pith : It is poorly developed or absent.

(B) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PINUS STEM.

The internal structure of Pinus stem is similar to that of a dicotyledon stem.
1. Epidermis : It is the outer msot layer and composed from compactly arranged and heavily cutinised
cells.

2. Cortex :
 Hypodermis :
The outer scelechymatous zome of the
cortex forms hypodermis.
 General cortex :
It is formed by several layers of
prenchymatous cells. Some cells of this
zone re filled with tannins. several resin
canals are also distributed irregularity in the
cortex. (In Cycas, mucilage canals are
present)
 Endodermis : The inner most layer of the
cortex represents endodermis. It is
indistigunishable from the cortical cells.
 Pericycle : 2-3 layered pericycle is present
which is indistinct and undifferentiated.

3. Vascular Bundles :
5-9 Primary Vascular Bundles are presents. They are arranged in a ring. The vascular bundles re
conjoint, collateral, Open & endarch. The protoxylem tracheids prosses spiral thickening where as
emtaxylem tracheids have reticulate thickening.
The phloem consists of sieve cells and phloem parenchyama.
Note : In Cycas, spiral thickening is found in protoxylem tracheids whereas saleriform thickening is
found in metaxylem tracheids.

4. Pith :
A parenchymatous pith is present in the centre of the stem, Some pith cells are filled with resinous
substances. Note : In tranverese section of the stem (long shoot) appears wavy or irregular in outlife
due to the presence of clos apprising scaly leaves and dwarf shoots.

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PINUS NEEDLE :

Leaf of the pinus is xeromorphic. Outlife of the T.S. section of Pinus leaf (Needle) depends upon
number of foliage leaves on foliar Spur :

Species Numer of foliar leaves Out life

P.monophylla 1 Circular
P.sylvestris 2 Half circular/semi circular
P.longifolia 3 Triangular

1. Epidermis :
The single layered epidermis consist of heavily cutinized thick walled cells. It has many sunken
stomata. Each stomaa conists of two guard cells and 6-9 subsidiary cells.

2. Hypodermis :
It is more than on layered and composed of sclerenchyamatous cells. Due to the presence of Sub
stomatal cavities hypodermis is discontinuous.
(In P. longifolia, the hypodermis is more developed at the corners).

3. Mesophyll : Mesophyll (3-5 layered) is made up of parenchyamatous cells. Uncounted long peg like
process are formed by infolding or internal cell well of mesophyll. So it is known as “armed
mesophyll”. It increases the photosynthetic area of lef.

4. Endoermis :
It is made up of barrel shaped cells. Casparian thickening are present on their radial wall.

5. Pericycle :
A multilayerd pricycle is present next to endodermis. It consist of the following types of cells.
(i) Parenchyamtous cell :
Most of the pericycle is composed of parenchymatous cells which are densely filled with starch
grains.
(ii) Albuminous cell :
The cells occur in close contact with the phloem cells. They are also parenchymatous cells which
are packed with proteins and starch grains. They do not possess pits and probably helps in
translocation of nutrients from mesophyll to phloem cells.
(iii) Tracheidial cells :
These are trachieds like cells which occur close to xylem cells. These cells possess pits & helps
in conduction of water & minerals from xylem to mesophyll cells.
Albuminous cells + Tracheidial cell  Tarnsfusion tissue
(D) “T” Shaped sclerenchymtous girdle

6. Vascular Bundle :
In the middle of the leaf two
vascular bundles are
Surrounded by bundle sheath.
vascular bundles are conjoint,
colateral, Open & endarch “T”
shaped girdle is found
between the both vascular
bundles. ‘T’ shaped girdle is
composed of
sclerenchymatous cells.

112

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
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
 The needle possesses basal maristem which helps in their elongation

 Pinus needle  Amphistomatic.
Stomata - Haplochielic type. i.e. subsidiary and guard cells are arises from separate cells.
Secondary Growth in Pinus root is similar to that of a dicot root
Secondary Growth in Pinus stem is similar to that of a dicot stem
 Linear uniseriate bordered pits are present in
tracheids whereas in Cycas multiseriate bordered
pits are present.
 Clear annual ring are found in Pinus.
 Resin canals are also found in secondary xylem.

IMPORTANT POINT :
 An important characteristics features of Pinus
wood is the presence of bars of Sanio. They occur
in the form of crescentic bars in between the
bordered pits. These bars are formed by the
deposition of cellulose & pectin on Tracheidial
walls.

 REPRODUCTION IN PINUS :

 Pinus is a Sporophytic & hereosporous plant. The plant body forms two types of spores i.e.,
microspors and megaspores. These spores are haploid which indicate the first cell of gametophytic
phase.
 The plants are monoecious and amel & female cones are formed on different branches of the same
plant. It means it is a autoicous plant. [Cycas is a dioecious plant]
 Male & female cones are monosporangiate.
 Exception : In Pinus roxburghii, P. montana and P. maritima the cones are biosporangiate. i.e.
cone possess two types of sporangia.
MALE CONE : Male cone are developed in the axis of scaly leaves on the branches of unlimited
growth in place of dwarf shoot. The male cones are considered as modified dwarf shot. They are
develop in groups, just behind the apical bud on the branches of unlimited growth. Thus main shoot
continues to grow further. The number of cones in a cluster varies from 15 (Pinus wallichiana) to 140
(pinus roxburghii).

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 STRUCTURE OF MALE CONE :
Each male cone is a small & oval shaped structure bout 2-4
cm long and 5-6 mm in diameter and 60-150 micro sporophylls are arranged spirally on the central
axis of each male cone. Each micro spprophyll is a membranous, stalked & roughly triangular
structure. (microsporophyll Compared with stamen of angiosperm)
 the apical sterile part of the micro sporophyll is known as apophysis. In bears two microsporangia at
the base of its abaxial side. Each micro sporangium has numerous microspore.
 Microsporophylls are arranged at right angle to the cone axis in such a manner that the apophysis of
the upper micro sporophyll is overlapped by the apophysis of the lower microsporophyll.

Development of microsporangium : Eusporangiate type.

STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORE :

(i) Exine : This layer is highly cutinized and it is found only at one side.
(ii) Exointine : Two wings are developed on laterer side of this layer of microspore. It is a part of
exine.
(iii) Intine : It is inner most layer of microspore.

114
 DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GEMETOPHYTE :

The microspore is the first cell of the male Gametophyte. The Germination of microspore starts in situ
i.e, they germinate while still inside the microsporangium.
The microspore are released from the microsporangium after partial development of male gametophyte.
The rest of the development of male gametophyte takes place in the pollen chamber of the ovule
after pollination.
(A) Development of male gametophyte with in microsporangium before pollination :

Microspore (n)
Asymmetrical Division

large cell/central cell/Apical cell Ist Prothallial cell or capsula (1)

Asymmetrical Division

Antheridial cell 2nd Prothallial cell (2)

Germ cell / Generative cell (4) Tube cell (3)

Pollination : Pollintion takes place through the air at 4-celled stage. In India dehiscence of
microsporangium takes place in warm & dry environmental conditions.
The microspores are released in such a large, quantity that pine forests appear yellow at the time of
dehiscence of microsporangium. this is called “shower of sulphur”
Note - In Cycas pollination takes place at 3-celled (1-prothallial cells + 1-Generative cells + 1 tube cell)
stage by air.

 DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE AFTER POLLINATIOIN :


 After pollination the 4-celeld male gametophyte reaches to the pollen chamber and there it remains
inactive for about 11 months. (The ovuliferous scale during this period have thickened and
closed the cone completely. The ovule is not yet ready for fertilization). Further development of
the male gemetophyte starts in the next spring.

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 Exointine breaks off from the middle of the wring and the tube cell comes out in the form of poolen
tube. Pollen tube reaches to archegonia through nucleolus.

 Pollen tube is rich with starch grains & it may be branched or unbranched. It acts as a sperm carrier.
Tube nucleus moves into the pollen tube while germ cell remains inside the poollen grain.

 The generative cell of the 4-celled gametophyte divide to form a body cell and a stalk cell. The
nucleus of the body cell divides to form two nuclei just before fertilization. The male nuclei function as
sperm which is microscopic, non flagellate & ephemeral structure.
(In Cyas male gametes are motile, multi flagellated or multi collated top shaped & measuring 180-210)

Generative cell

Body cell Stalk cell (4)

Male Gamete Male Gamete

(5) (6)

Thus mature male gametophyte of Pinus is 6 celled stage. (In Cycas mature male gametophyte is 5-
celled)

 FEMALE CONE :

 Female cones are developed on long shoot in place of dwarf shoot. Female cones are also called as
modiried dwarf shoot. (In Cycas megasporophylls do not form female cone).

 The female cone are formed in groups (1-4 in each group), in the axis of the scaly leaves towards the
tips of long shoots of the current year. The female cone with seed takes about three year to mature.

 The female cones re much larger than the male cones. They are usually 15-20 cm long.
[Pinus coultre = 25-35 cm & Pinus lambertiana = 60 cm]
STRUCTURE :

 The female cone is complicated structure. It has a central axis around Which many (80-90)
megasporophylls are arranged spirally.

 Some basal megasporophylls are small & sterile & the rest are fertile. The megasporophyll is a
compound structure, consisting of two types of scales :
 Bract scale  Ovuliferous scale

(A) Bract scale :

It is small membranous structure which is directly attached to the cone axis just below the ovuliferous
scale. At the maturity of the cone, the bract scale curve inwards so that the seeds are dispersed easily.
Each bract scale has a single vascular bundle with its xylem pointing upwards.

(B) Ovuliferous scale : It is a thick, large woody and brownish structure, attached to the dorsal surfaces of
the bract scale.

It is roughly triangular in shape and its upper broad and thick part is known as apophysis. Two ovules
are present at the base of the ovuliferous scale on its dorsal surface.
The microphyle of each ovule is directed towards the cone axis.

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 Development of megasporangium/Ovule : Eusporangiate type i.e. the megasporangium develops
from more than one superficial initial cells.

STRUCTURE OF OVULE : Ovule of pinus is

anatropous unitegmic & sessile. The following part
can be seen in a longitudinal section of the ovule.

(In Cycas : orthotroponus)

(i) Nucellus : It is the massive parenchymatous
region of the ovule.
(ii) Integument : It is the thick protective covering
around the nucleolus. It has a very narrow aperture
at the nucellus. It is known as micropyle.
The integument is differentiated into three layers.
(i) Outer fleshy layer
(ii) Middle stony layer
(iii) Inner fleshy layer.
(iii) Pollen chamber : A small furrow is present
opposite to the micropyle in the nucellus region
which is known as pollen chamber. Material
secreted by nucellus is found in this chamber during
pollinateion which is known as “Pollendrop”
 Endosperm & Archegonia are present in the centre of nucellus region.

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 MEGASPOROGENESIS :

 At the apex of nucellus (towards micropyle), a hypodermal is differentiated from other cells by its
larger size called as archesporial cell. Archesporial cell divides by periclinal divisioin to form a outer
primary parietnal cell & inner sporogenous cell. Sporogenous cell function as a megaspore mother
cell. Megaspore mother cell divide meioticall to form a linear tetras of megaspore. Out of four, three
megasproe degenerate which lies towards the micropyle. Onle one megaspore remain functional which
is present towards the chalazal end.
[DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE]

A. DEVELOPMENT OF ENDOSPERM :

 Functional megaspore first of all increases in size then after free nuclear division take place in
nucleus of functional megaspore resulting 2000-2500 nuclei are formed. All the nucleus moves towards
the periphery due to vacuole is formed in the centre.
 There is one characteristic feature of pinus, in which long multinucleated tube like cells are developed
radially in early storage. These are known as alveoli. Later on uninucleated cells are formed due to
formation of walls. The structure is known as endosperm.
 Endosperm is haploid structure because it is derived from the megaspore before fertilization.
 The nucellus cells surrounding the endosperm from a 2-3 layered nutritive layer. This layer is known as
spongy layer or endosperm jacket & it is equivalent to the tapetal layer.

B. ARCHEGONIA :

 2-5 archegonia (normally two) are formed towards the micropylar end in female gametophyte.
 Each archegonium at maturity consists of eight neck jecket cells arranged in to tiers of four each and
a venter having a small venter canal cell and large egg cell. neck canal cells are absent. The venter
canal cell disorganizes before fertilization.
 A nutritive layer is differentiated around the central cell & this layer is known as archegonial jacket.
The jacket helps in conduction of nutrients from the endosperm to the archegonium.
Note : P.roxburghii and P.wallichiana 4-4 neck cells & in Cycas archegonium 2-4 neck cells are
found in neck region.

FERTILIZATION :

 Fertilization in pinus first of all described by Gauroschenchin.

 Fertilization ins siphonogamous. The process of fertilization takes place after the 12-14 month of
pollintion (In Cycas after 3-4 months)

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 Pollen tube reaches up to the egg cell through the neck of the archegonium and its terminal end
degenerates. Both the male gametes become free, one male gamete fused with egg nucleus to form a
zygote or oospore and another male gametes degenerate. Many archegonia fertilized in a female
gametophyte but only one zygote is able to form a embryo successfully.

Embryo :

Embryo is formed from oospore, development of embryo meroblastic and endoscopic i.e. embryo is
formed by only a part of oospore are inside the megasporangium (toward chalaza)
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO :
The development of embryo can be studies in the following two steps.
(A) Development of pre-embryo (16-celled) from zygote
(B) Development of embryo from proembryo :

(A) Development of pre-embryo form zygote :

 Following fertilization the diploid nucleus of the zygote migrates towards its base and then divides by
two mitotic division to form four nuclei. These nuclei divide further and form eight nuclei which are
arranged in to tiers of four each. There fter wall formation takes place in such a way that four complete
cells are formed in the lower tier. (i.e. these cells possess a wall of all around) and four incomplete
cell0s in the upper tier (i.e. these cells have wall only on the lower side). The incomplete ells belonging
to the upper tier to not take active part in embryo formation. The cells of the lower tieir divide twice to
form three tiers of four cells each. At this stage the prembryo consist of 16 cells arranged in four tiers.
(i) Nutritive tier : The upper most tier consisting of incomplete cells in known as nutritive tier and it
provides nutrition.
(ii) Rosette tier : Function conduction of nutrient between embryo & suspensor.
(iii) Suspensor tier : The cells of the suspensor tier elongate to form suspensor. Its cells are long which
pushed the embryo into the endosperm.
(iv) Embryonal tier : The lower most tier is known as the embryonal tier; its cells divide to form embryo

(B) Development of embryo form proembryo :

 All the four ells of the suspensor tier elongate considerably and as a result the embryonal cells present
at their base are embedded in the endosperm.
 Due to the limitation of space in the endosperm, the primary suspensor cells become coiled to each
other.
 At this stage, the cells of the embryonal tier divide by transverse division and form another tier of
cells, known as embryonal tubes or secondary suspensor.
 The cells of the embryonal tier separate from each other and form four independent embryos. The
phenomenon of the formation of more then one embryo form zygote is known s polyembryony.
 In pinus, as the polyembryony occurs by the splitting of a
zygote. It is known as cleavage polyembryony.
 Another type of polyembryony found in pinus is simple
polyembryony (when more than one embryos are
developed as a result of fertilization of different
archegonia).

STRUCTURE OF EMBRYO :

(i) Cotyledons : Usually more than two (3 to 18) (In

Cyacas two cotyledons)
(ii) Plumule or Shoot apex : Present between the
cotyledons in the opposite direction of the microphyl.
(iii) Radicle : Directed towards the microphyle
(iv) Hypocotyl : Present in between the plumule & radicle.

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 Parts of Ovule Parts of seed
(1) Integument -
(i) Outer fleshy layer - Disappear
(ii) Inner fleshy layer - Tegmen in formed in the form of thin layer
(iii) Middle stony layer - It forms the outer most covering of the seed called testa.
(2) Nucellus - Present in the form of thin layer which in known as “perisperm”.
(3) Micropyle - On the apex of seed in the form of a pore.
(4) Thin layer of - Form wing of seed.
Adaxial surface
of ovuliferous Scale

The mture seed represents three generations -

(1) Old sporophyte - Testa, tegmen and nucellus
(2) Gametophyte - Endosperm (female gametophyte)
(3) New sprophyte - Embryo

Note : Three generations are also found in Cycas seed.

 Dormancy absent in Cycass seed Cycas seeds are Large, round & red or orange in colour.

Germination of seed :

“Epigeal” type of germination is found in seed of Pinus i.e. cotyledon come outside the soil surface by
elongation of the hypocotyl. (In Cycas hypogeal)

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 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PINUS


 The wood of P.roxburghii (Chir) and P.wallichiana (Kail) is an important timber. It is suitable for
making railway sleeper, packing cases, furniture , etc. Besides, it is also used for making match sticks.
 Pinus roxburghii, P.wallichiana, P.insularis and P.merkusii are the chief sources of turpentine in
India. Rosins, obtained s residue after the distillatio of pine resin, are used in paper sizing, varnish
making, enamels and in the preparation of plaster and ointments.
 The rostated seeds of P.gerardiana (Chilgoza pine), P.edulis and P.monophylla are edible.
 The oleo-resin obtained from P.roxburghii isdiuretic.
 The fossilized resin, obtained from a fossil species of Pinus (e.e., P.succcinifera), is known as
amber. It is widely used in ornaments and decoration work.
 The wood and female cones of Pinus are used use fuel.
IMPORTANT POINTS

1. Endosperm is formed before fertilization in gymsoperm whish is hapoloid.

2. Sequoia semapervirans is called “Red wood tree”
3. All the species of Cycas are “Dioecious”
4. The ovule sperm [Antherozoids] and egg cell of the cycas are largest in the plant kingdom which ban
be seen by nked eyes.
5. Winged pllen grains are found in Pinus. Wings are formed from exine of pollnes. These are
acellular.
6. In Vascular bundles of Cycas rachis and leaf let xylem is “diploxylic”. (It means centripetal &
centrofual xylem present) & V.B. are conjoint collateral & open
7. Pycnoxylic wood is compact, hard in which parenchyamatous tissues is less developed or absent
while Mnoxylic wood is soft and siwth well developed parachyma.
8. In Gymonosperms, gametes of Cycas and Ginkgo are motile and ciliated/Flagellated.
9. Ephedra is found in Rajasthan and Ephedra pollination takes place at 5-celled state.
10. Pllen grains of pinus release at four celled stage and pollens of cycas release at three celled stage.
11. Two cotyledons re present in embryo of Cycas and 3-18 cotyledons re present in embryo of Pinus.
12. Pinus longifolia is called “Red wood of China”
13. A tall conifer Auracaria from S.America clled “Monkey’s Puzzle”
14. The edible part of cholgoza seed is female gametophye.
15. The starch of stem pith and cortex of Cycas revoluta is uitlized for the production of sago & plant
appears like palm. So it is also called “Sagopalm”
16. Ginkgo biloba is commonly known as “Maiden hair tree” and it is living.
17. In Pinus : Pycoxylic wood, in Cycas - Manoxylic wood.
18. In Cycas, root are of two types :
1. Normal root/Tap roots -Diarch & geotropic
2. Coralloid root - Triarch & Apogeotropic
19. Nostoc punctiform, Anabaena cycadae and Oscillatoria species are found in coralloid roos of
Cycas.
20. The yound stem of Cycas is tuberous and sub terranean. In older plant, the stem becomes thick,
columnar & woody. It is covered with persistent and wooly leaf bases.
21. Cycas stem is usually unbanched
22. In Cycas leaves re dimorphic :
(a) Foliage or assimilatory leaves (b) Scaly leaves.
Foliage leaves : Pinnately compound, unipinnate & peripipnnate. In leaf lets single midrib is present.
Lateral veins are absent. Young rachis & pinnae show circinate ptyxis. They young leaves are
covered with ramenta.
23. In cycas  Young stem - Monoxylic  Woody stem - Polyxylic
24. In Cycas vegetative reproduction takes place by bulbils. They develop in the crevices between
persistent leaf bases from parenchymatous cells of the cortex.
25. In all seed bearing plants dipolintic life cycle is found. In this type of life cycle pattern the diploid
sprophyte is dominant. Photosynthetic independent phase of the plant. The gametophyte phase is
represented by the single to few-celled haploid gametophyte.
26.In Cycas rachis, vascular bundles are arranged in inverted omega shape.

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PINNUS EXERCISE
1. Which of the following is commonly known as 9. In pinus roxburghii, the common pine tree
“Blue pine” - Microsporophyll are having : [AMU]
(1) Pinus roxburghii (1) 2 microsporangia on adaxial side
(2) P.Strobus (White pine) (2) 4 microsporangia on adaxial side
(3) P.Wallichiana (3) 2 microsporangia on adaxial side
(4) P.Sylvestris (Scoth pine) (4) 4 microsporangia on adaxial side
10. Vascular bundles in leaves of Pinus needle
2. which is commonly known as “Khais pine” : are :
(1) Pinus stobus (1) Collateral & closed
(2) P.wallichiana (2) Collateral & open
(3) P.salvestris (3) Radial
(4) P.inslries (4) None of above

3. Why Pinus seeding do not grow on places 11. Foliar spur of Pinus sylvestris is called :
after fire. This is because the soil becomes (1) Unifoliar
(1) Hard (2) Bifoliar
(2) Devoid of bacteria (3) Trifoliar
(3) Dry (4) Pentafoliar
(4) Devoid of fungi
12. Vascular bundle in stem of Pinus is :
4. Foliage leaves of Pinus are borne on : (1) Conjoint, Collateral and Endarch
(1) Branches of unlimited growth (2) Conjoint, Collateral and Exarch
(2) Branches of limited growth (3) Radial and Diarch
(3) Both of above (4) Conjoint Bicollateral and Endadrch
(4) None of these
13. Pinus armandi is known as :
5. Which type of resin canal are found in cortex (1) Unifoliar (2) Bifoliar
and secondary xylem of the stem of Pinus : (3) Trifoliar (4) Penta foliar
(1) Schizogenous cavities
(2) Lysigenous cavities 14. Pinus is cold xerophyte, its adaptation is/are -
(3) Schizolysigenous cavities (1) Thick cuticle & sunken stomata
(4) None of these (2) Sclerenchymtous hypodermis in leaves
(3) Comapt mesophyll of armed parenchyma
6. Dimorphic branches and leaves are found in - (4) All the above
(1) Pea
(2) Cycas 15. Male cone of Pinus is modification of
(3) Pinus (1) Long shoot
(4) Fern (2) Dwarf shoot
(3) Megasporophylls
7. Sclerenchymtous hypodermis is Pinus needle (4) Vegetative leaves
helps in
(1) Mechanical support 16. What causes sulphur colouds in spring
(2) Checking transpiration season of temperate climate :
(3) Photosynthesis (1) Male gametophytes of pine
(4) Increasing the absorptive surface of the (2) Male gametes of Pine
cell (3) Volatine resin & turpentine
(4) Sulphur bacteria
8. The mesophyll tissue of Pinus needle is -
(1) Collenchyma 17. The male gametophyte of gymnosperms differ
(2) Spongy parenchyma from angiosperms in having -
(3) Armed parenchyma (1) One or more prothallial cells
(4) Transfusion tissue (2) No prothallial cells
(3) One male gamete
(4) One tube nucleus

122
18. Wings of Pinus pollen grains are - (1) Pericarp
(1) Multicellular (2) Cones
(2) Unicellular (3) Flowers
(3) Acellular (4) Ovary
(4) Coenocytic
27. Seed of Pinus contain several embryos with a
19. If the chromosome number of cells of nucellus compound suspensor. They are developed
of emgasporangium of Pinus is 16 (sixteen) through
what would be the chromosome number of (1) Adventive polyembryony
endosperm cells : (2) Normal polyembryony
(1) 32 (2) 16 (3) Cleavage polyembryony
(3) 48 (4) 08 (4) both 2 & 3

20. Female cone of Pinus is considered a 28. Which of the following is not applicable to
modified Pinus ?
(1) Flower (1) Sessile ovules
(2) Dwarf shoot (2) Motile sperm
(3) Long shoot (3) Embryo with many cotyledons
(4) Sporophyll (4) Resin ducts

21. The ovuliferous scale of Pinus is part of - 29. Which is true for Pinus -
(1) Microsporophyll (1) Haploid endosperm
(2) Ovule (2) Biflagellate sperms
(3) Dwarf shoot (3) Occurence of double fertilization
(4) Megasporophyll (4) Presence of antheridia

22. In Pinus the megaspore after germination 30. Ovule in gymnosperm is generally :
develops into - (1) Anatropous and bitegmic
(1) Endosperm with naked egg (2) Orthotropous and bitegmic
(2) Endosperm with embryo sac (3) Anatropous and unitegmic
(3) Endosperm with archegonia (4) Orthotropous and unitegmic
(4) Pollen tube with motile male gamates
31. In gymnosperm “pollen drop” is :
23. In Pinus oospore develops into (1) pollen dropped by wind
(1) Compound suspensor with a single (2) water drop
embryonal mass (3) Secretion of nucelles
(2) No suspensor but single embryo mass (4) Pollinium
(3) Compound coild suspensor with four
embryo masses formed by cleavage 32. Resin and trupentine are obtained form :
polyembryony (1) Cycas
(4) Simple suspensor with single embryo (2) Pinus
(3) Cedrus
24. What is the intermediate state in the (4) Gnetum
development of embryo of Pinus -
(1) Protonema 33. The germiantion of seed in pinus is :
(2) Polyembryony (1) Hypogeal
(3) Proembryo (2) Epigeal
(4) Protocorm (3) Both
(4) None
25. The development of embryo is Pinus is
(1) Discoblastic 34. If the haploid no. of chromosomes in
(2) Meroblastic gymnosperm is 12, what will be the no. of
(3) Periblatic chromosomes in its root and endosperm :
(4) Mesoblastic (1) 12, 12 (2) 12, 24
(3) 24, 12 (4) 24, 036
26. Gymnosperm produce seed in -

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35. ‘Naked seed’ of gymnosperm means (1) One (2) two
(1) Seed without seed coats (3) 3 - 18 (4) 3 - 10
(2) Seed without tegmen
(3) Seeds not enclosed in ovary wall 45. Wings in Pinus seeds develop from :
(4) All of the above (1) Bract scale
(2) Ovuliferous scale
36. In which plant “chilgoza” is the name of seed (3) Cone axis
of : (4) Seed coat
(1) P.longifolia
(2) P.gerardiana 46. In Pinus male and female reproductive
(3) Cycas circinalis structure occur :
(4) P.insularis (1) One same branch of plant
(2) On different plant
37. The charateristic of ovule of Pinus presence (3) On different branches of same plant
of : (4) None of above
(1) Integument
(2) Vascular supply 47. Pinus is a Gymnosperm because :
(3) Pollen chamber (1) It is a large tree
(4) Nucellus (2) It is pollinated by wind
(3) It has exposed naked ovule
38. Endosperm in Pinus is : (4) It produces seeds and it has narrow leaves
(1) Post fertilization tissue
(2) Pre and post fertilization tissue 48. In which of the following
(3) Pre fertilization tissue fertilization/reproduction is possible without
(4) None of the above water :
(1) Ulothrix
39. Pollination of Pinus is exclusively by : (2) Funaria
(1) Wind (2) Insect (3) Dryopteris
(3) Water (4) Birds (4) Pinus

40. Compact and hard wood of Pinus is known 49. Turpentine is obtained from :
as : (1) Angiosperm wood
(1) Porous (2) Angiospermic flowers
(2) Pycnoxylic (3) Gymnosperm wood
(3) Manoxylic (4) Fern
(4) Soft and loose
50. In microsporophylls of Pinus
41. Pinus differs from mango in having : microsporangium are present on :
(1) Presence of wood (1) Abaxial side
(2) Ovules not enclosed in ovary (2) Adaxial side
(3) Tree habit (3) Along the margins
(4) Green leaves (4) In the axils

42. Pinus has : 51. What is the habit of Pinus plant –

(1) Motile male gametes [BHU 84 Delhi PMT 85]
(2) Ciliated male gametes (1) Decurrent (2) Excurrent
(3) Non motile male gametes (3) Recurrent (4) Dichotomous
(4) All of the above
52. The excurrent/conical habit of Pinus tree is
43. The interval between pollination of fertilization caused by - [AIIMS 85 CPMT 85 EMCET 86]
in Pinus is : (1) Auxin effect on the growth of stem tip &
(1) One day (2) One week axilary branches
(3) One month (4) One year (2) Competition of neighbouring pine tree for
sun light
44. Number of the cotledons in embryo of Pinus (3) Mutual compoetition of branches
is: (4) Efficienty of water movement in plants

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53. The mycorrhizal relationship between fungi & (2) Adaxial
roots of Pinus plant is - [CPMT 73 BHU 82] (3) Abaxial
(1) Parasitic relationship (4) Lateral
(2) Sarphophytic relationship 63. Transverse section of Rachis of Cycas at
(3) Symbiotic relationship middle shows - [RPMT 2000]
(4) Epiphytic relationship (1) Endacrh Xylem
(2) Centripetal xylem
54. Pine wood comprise of [CPMT 85] (3) Centrifugal xylem
(1) Vessels only (4) Cetrifugal and centripetal xylem
(2) Tracheids only
(3) Both equally 64. Cycas have two cotyledons but it is not
(4) More vessels & less tracheids included in Angiosperms because of -
[AIPMT 01]
55. Male gametophyte of Pinus is - [AIPMT 90] (1) Naked ovule
(1) Male cone (2) Seems like monocot
(2) Microsporophyll (3) Circinate Ptyxis
(3) Pollen grain (4) Compound leaves
(4) Megasporophyll
65. Which of the following plants produces seeds
56. In Pinus the third distal tier of its pre-embryo but not flowers - [AIPMT 2002]
form below is - [Delhi PMT 82] (1) Maice
(1) Pinus (2) Mint
(2) Selaginella (3) Peepal
(3) Maize (4) Pinus
(4) Groundnut
66. Pinus is - [MP PMT 1999]
58. Winged seeds are found in - [BHU 1985] (1) Deciduous
(1) Fern (2) Dioecious
(2) Pinus (3) Monoecious
(3) China rose (4) None of these
(4) Cycas
67. The wood of pinus is - [MP PMT 2000]
59. In the number of chromosomes in the pollen (1) Pycnoxylic & Homoxylous
grains of Pinus is 12 i.e. e., n = 12, the (2) Pyconoxylic & Heteroxylous
number of chromosomes in its endosperm (3) Manoxylic & Homoxylous
cells should be (4) Manoxylic & Heteroxylous
[Delhi PMT 81, MPPMT 2000]
(1) 36 (2) 24 68. Winged pollen grains are formed in
(3) 12 (4) 6 [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Pinus
60. If the number of chromosome in the nucellus (2) Cycas
of Cycas or Pinus us 24 number in their (3) Triticum
endospoerm should be - CPMT 1989] (4) Solanum
(1) 12 (2) 24
(3) 36 (4) 48 69. Endosper : in pinus - [MP PMT 2002]
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid
61. The edible part of Pinus chilogoza seed in - (3) Priploid (4) Polyloid
[CPMT 1989]
(1) Pericarp 70. Conifers differ from grases in the
(2) Female gametophyte [AIPMT 2006]
(3) Diploid perisperm (1) absence of pollen tubes
(4) Triploid endosperm (2) formation of endosperm before feritilization
(3) productioin of seeds from ovules
62. Microsporangia of cyas are present on the (4) lackof xylem trachieds
leaves [RPMT 2000]
(1) Marginal

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71. If number of chromosomes in pollengrain of
any species of Pinus is 8, then after
fertilization what will be the number of
chromosomes in Endosperm : [RPMT 2006
(1) 24 (2) 16
(3) 08 (4) 32
72. Flagellated male gametes re present in all the
three of which one of the following sets ?
[AIPMT 2007]
(1) Anthoceros, Funaria and Spirogyra
(2) Zygnema, Saprolegnia and Hydrilla
(3) Fucus, Marsilea and Calotropis
(4) Riccia, Dryoptres and Cycas
73. In gymnosperms the pollen chamber
represents [AIPMT 2007]
(1) a cell in the pollen grain in which the
sperms are formed
(2) a cavity in the ovule in which pollen grains
are stored after pollination
(3) an opening in the megagametophyte
through which the pollen tube approaches
the egg.
(4) the microsporangium in which pollen
grains develop.
74. Select one of the following pairs of important
features distinguishing Gnetum from Cycas
and Pinus and showing affinities with
angiosperms : [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Presence of vessel elements and absence
of archegonia
(2) Perianth and two integuments
(3) Embryo development and apical meristem
(4) Absence of resin duct and leaf vention
75. I which one of the following, male and female
gametophytes do not have free living
independent existence ? [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Funaria (2) Polytrichum
(3) Cedrus (4) pteris

PINUS EXERCISE
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 4 4 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 4 4 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 1 3 4 2 4 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 4
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 4 3 2
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 4 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 3 1 2 3 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 2 3 4 1 4 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 2 1 3

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 STATE PMT EXAMS EXERCISE
1. Which of the following part of Funaria, repel Funaria sperms
sporophyte is involved in the dispersal of (4) Funaria sperms are killed when mixed with
spores ? [UTTRANCHAL PMT 2004] Dryopteris sperms
(1) Calyptra (2) Operculum
(3) Peristome (4) Annulus 9. The moss plant develops from :
[CG PMT 2004]
2. In Selaginella, the edaxial outgrowth, (1) Diploid spores (2) Protenema
develops from the base of leaf, is called (3) Oospores (4) Anthorozoids
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2004]
(1) ligule (2) velum 10. Fern plant is a : [CG PMT 2004]
(3) rhizophore (4) glassopodium (1) Haploid gametophyte
(2) Diploid gametophyte
3. In pinus, the third of embryonal cells from (3) Diploid sprophyte
below is known as : (4) Haploid sprophyte
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2004]
(1) rosette tier (2) suspensor tier 11. How must time is generally required/taken by
(3) embyonal tier (4) free-nuclear tier the pine plant from pollination to fertilization
[CG PMT 2004]
4. If a sporangium is derived from a single cell, it (1) Four months
is called : [UTTRANCHAL PMT 2004] (2) Twelve months
(1) leptosporangiate (3) Two years
(2) euporangiate (4) Four years
(3) heterosporangiate
(4) monosporangiate 12. In Pinus male and female reproductive
structure occur ? [CG PMT 2005]
5. Which is haploid in case of Cycas ? (1) On different branches of the same plant
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2005] (2) On different plants
(1) Stem (2) Root (3) On same branch
(3) Edosperm (4) All the above (4) None of these

6. In which of the following pairs of geneta 13. Stomata is Funaria are found in
sporocarps are present ? [CG PMT 2005]
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2006] (1) Capsule (2) Foot
(1) Marsilea and Salvinia (3) Seta (4) No where
(2) Marsilea and Isoetes
(3) Isoetes and Salvinia 14. Embryo is found in : [CG PMT 2006]
(4) Marsilea and Lycopodium (1) Ulothrix (2) Spirogyra
(3) Funaria (4) Chlorella
7. In Euistem stem the cavity formed by
dissolution of protoxylem is known as : 15. In which of the following protenema stage is
[UTTRANCHAL PMT 2006] found [CG PMT 2006]
(1) callicular canal (1) Riccia (2) Funaria
(2) vascular canal (3) Selaginella (4) Pinus
(3) cranial canal
(4) resin canal 16. Haploid structure of Funaria is
[JHARKHAND 2006]
8. Sperms of both Funaria and Dryopteris were (1) protonema (2) calyptra
placed near the archegonia of Dryopteris. (3) apophysis (4) operculum
Only sperms of Dryopteris entered the
archagonia and reached the egg because of : 17. Sperm of Cycas is :
[WEST BENGAL JEE 2007] [JHARKHAND 2006]
(1) less motility of Funaria sperms which (1) multiflagellated and very large
(2) Dryopteris archegonia secrete chemicals (2) small and biflagellated
attracts dryopteris sperms only (3) multiflagellated and small
(3) Dryopteris archegonia secrete chemical to (4) large and biflagellated

127
18. Ferm gametophyte bears : 28. In Funaria, stomata are present on the :
[JHARKHAND 2005] [UP CPMT 2001]
(1) archegonia (2) antheridia (1) stem (2) leaves
(3) sporangia (4) both (1) and (2) (3) capsule (4) archegonia

19. Spore of Funaria on germination give rise to 29. Which of the following statement in true
[JHARKHAND 2005] regarding the archegonium of ferm :
(1) protonema (2) embryo [UP CPMT 2001]
(3) antheridia (4) archengonia (1) there are four neck canal cells
(2) there are three neck canal cells
20. The number of prothallial cell in male (3) there is one neck canal cell with one
gametophyte of Selaginella is : nucleus
[JHARKHAND 2002] (4) there is one neck canal cell with two nuclei
(1) one (2) two 30. Cycas revolute is popularly known as :
(3) twelve (4) numerous [UP CPMT 2002]
(1) date palm (2) sago palm
21. In Funaria, the number of peristomial teeth is : (3) sea palm (4) royal palm
[JHARKHAND 2002]
(1) 8 (2) 16 31. Protenema stage is found in
(3) 32 (4) 64 [UP CPMT 2005]
(1) fern (2) mosses
22. Number of peristomial teeth in moss is : (3) liverworts (4) fungi
[BIHAR 2005]
(1) 16 + 16 (2) 16 + 32 32. Funaria is attached to substratum by :
(3) 8 + 16 (4) 32 + 32 [UP CPMT 2006]
(1) roots (2) rhizoids
23. Turpentine oil is obtained from : (3) haustoria (4) stem
[BIHAR 2006]
(1) Pinus longifolia (2) Azadirachata 33. Which of the following are formed due to
(3) Eucalyptus (4) All of these germination of spores in ferns
[UP CPMT 2006]
24. The sclerenchyma of the hypodermis in the (1) protonema (2) prothallus
Pinus needle helps in : [BIHAR 2006] (3) thallus (4) gametophore
(1) increasing the absorptive surface of
the cell 34. Funaria is not : [UP CPMT 2006]
(2) checking transpiration (1) acrocarpous (2) cleistogamous
(3) mechanical support (3) monoecious (4) autoicous
(4) photosynthesis
35. In which of the following feature, Cycas
25. In Cycas, the vascular bundles are arranged resembles with angiosperms ?
in the shape of inverted omega in : [UP CPMT 2007]
[UP CPMT 2001] (1) presence of vessels
(1) Stem (2) rachis (2) circinate vernation
(3) Leaflet (4) Ephedra (3) dichotomously branched leaves
(4) pollen tube is the carrier of male gametes
26. Cleavage polymbryony is found in
[UP CPMT 2001] 36. The number of prothallial cells in male
(1) Cycas (2) Pinus gametophyte of Pinus is : [UP CPMT 2007]
(3) Funaria (4) Ephedra (1) 2 (2) 1
(3) 3 (4) 0
27. The rhizoids in Funria are
[UP CPMT 2001] 37. The plant of Funaria is : [MP PMT 2001]
(1) tuberculated (1) Monoecious (2) Dioecious
(2) unicellular and simple (3) Heterocious (4) none of these
(3) distinct, branched and coenocytic
(4) multicellular and oblique septate

128
 38. The sprophyte of Funaria always begins (3) triploid (4) polypoid
development within the : [MP PMT 2002] 43. Ferm prothallus is developed from :
(1) Antheridium (2) Archegonium [MP PMT 2003]
(3) Capsule (4) Protonema (1) elaters
(2) spore mother cells
39. Trabaculae is the transformation of : (3) spore
[MP PMT 2003] (4) zygote
(1) pericycle (2) endodermis
(3) xylem (4) phloem 44. The development of Funaria gametophyte
always initiated from : [MP PMT 2003]
40. Meiosis in pteridophytes takes place at the (1) Heterothallic
time of : [MP PMT 2003] (2) Dioecious
(1) spore formation (3) Monoecious
(2) sexual organ formation (4) Monoecious and dioecious
(3) germination of spores
(4) gamete formation 46. Winged pollen grains are found in which of the
following : [MP PMT 2002, 04]
41. Pinus seed is orginated in : (1) Pinus (2) Selaginella
[MP PMT 2002, 03] (3) Pteris (4) Cycas
(1) Capsul (2) microsporophyll
(3) microsporangia (4) megasporophyll 47. Calyptra of Funaria arises from :
[MP PMT 2007]
42. The endosperm of Pinus is : (1) capsule (2) antheridium
[MP PMT 2003] (3) columella (4) archegonium
(1) haploid (2) diploid

STATE PMT EXAMES EXERCISE ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 3 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 3 2 2 4 3 4 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 2 2 2 2 4 1 1 2 2 1 4 1 3 2 3
Que. 46 47
Ans. 1 4

129