ESE GS APTITUDE Volume 2 1 PDF

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GENERAL STUDIES &

ENGINEERING APTITUDE
Theory Booklet
‣ Design
‣ Safety
‣ Engineering Drawing
‣ Material Science
‣ Quality Practices
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ESE General Studies Video Lecture Theory Booklet
When Adapala Academy (IES GS) started video lectures for the ESE General
Studies and Engineering Aptitude, we realised the necessity of the theory
booklets in consonance with the lectures. These booklets contain the topics,
that are covered in the video lectures in detailed and lucid manner, with
appropriate examples. We believe in quality, rather than the quantity of the
materials that are flooding the market irrespective of the exam requirement.
Chandra Sekhar Adapala (IISc, IES)
Topics covered in these books are apt and are oriented for the exam
preparation.
These books are divided into two volumes, together covering seven out of ten topics of the ESE prelims
(Environment and Energy, Information and Communication Technologies, Engineering Ethics, Project
Management, Quality Practice, Design, Drawing and Safety, Engineering Drawing). Separate Practice question
booklet (consisting of 5000+ questions) by Adapala Academy will give enough practice for the theory covered
in these materials.
Subjects covered in this (Booklet-2) are
1. Engineering Materials Science
2. Engineering Design, Drawing and Safety
3. Quality Practices
For the current affairs, download the monthly and yearly Hyperloops from www.iesgeneralstudies.com and
follow the Academy for the video lectures on the same.
The efforts of Anueeja S and other faculty members, to make this book possible, are appreciated.
“Success is no accident. It is hard work, perseverance, learning, studying, sacrifice and most of
all, love of what you are doing or learning to do”. – Pele
Wishing you Happy Learning,

Chandra Sekhar Adapala
Adapala Academy
www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 2
2. Types of Deformation .................................................... 42

Table of Contents 3. Concepts of Stress and Strain ..................................... 42
4. Stress - Strain Curves for Tension ............................ 43
5. Important Properties ..................................................... 45
MATERIAL SCIENCE ................................................ 8 6. Fatigue .................................................................................. 46
7. Creep ..................................................................................... 47
1. Chemical Bonding and Atomic Structure .... 9 8. Stress - Strain for Different Materials ..................... 47
1. Classification of Metals .................................................... 9 9. Elastic Constants .............................................................. 48
2. Advanced Materials .......................................................... 9
3. Atomic Structure ............................................................. 10 7. Electrical Properties ........................................ 49
4. Behavior of Electron: .................................................... 10 1. Electrical Conduction ..................................................... 49
5. Periodic Table .................................................................. 11 2. Energy Band Structures ................................................ 49
6. Rare Earth Metals ........................................................... 12 3. Classification of Materials ............................................ 49
7. Chemical Bonds ............................................................... 13 4. Semiconductors ............................................................... 50
8. Primary Bonds ................................................................. 13 5. Hall Effect ............................................................................ 51
9. Secondary Bonding or Vander Waals Bonding .. 15 6. Dielectrics ........................................................................... 51
10. Water (Volume Expansion Upon Freezing) ...... 16 7. Ferro, Pyro and Piezoelectric Materials ................ 52
2. Crystalline Solids ............................................... 17 8. Magnetic Property ............................................ 54

1. Different Crystal Structure ......................................... 17 1. Basic Concepts .................................................................. 54
2. Different Crystal Types Based on Lattice 2. Types of Magnetism ....................................................... 54
Parameters ............................................................................. 19 3. Magnetization ................................................................... 55
3. Miller Indices: ................................................................... 21 4. Soft, Hard and Semi - Hard Magnets ....................... 56
4. Linear and Planar Densities: ...................................... 22 5. Effect of Temperature on Magnetism ..................... 57
5. Density Computations .................................................. 23 6. Superconductivity ........................................................... 57
6. Close Packed Crystal Structures ............................... 23 7. Meissner Effect ................................................................. 57
7. Polymorphism and Allotropy .................................... 24 9. Optical Property ............................................... 59
8. Radius Ratios .................................................................... 24 1. Light Interactions with Solids .................................... 59
3. Imperfections in Solids ................................... 26 2. Optical Properties of Metals ....................................... 60
1. Point Defects ..................................................................... 26 3. Optical Properties of Nonmetals ............................... 60
2. Dislocations: ..................................................................... 27 4. Applications of Optical Phenomena ........................ 60
3. Surface Defects: ............................................................... 28 10. Ferrous Materials .......................................... 62
4. Bulk or Volume Defects: .............................................. 29 1. What are Ferrous Metals? ............................................ 62
4. Phase Diagrams ................................................. 30 2. Processing of Iron Ore ................................................... 63
1. Basic Terms ....................................................................... 30 3. Classification of Ferrous Metal .................................. 63
2. Chemical and Physical Properties: .......................... 30 4. Steels ..................................................................................... 63
3. Gibbs Phase Rule: ........................................................... 31 5. Effects of Alloying Elements on Steels ................... 64
4. Unary Phase Diagram: .................................................. 31 6. Special Alloy Steels ......................................................... 65
5. Binary Phase Diagrams: ............................................... 31 7. Cast Iron .............................................................................. 66
6. Invariant Reactions: ...................................................... 33 11. Non-Ferrous Metals ....................................... 69
7. Iron - Carbon Diagram: or (Fe - Fe3c) .................. 33 1. Aluminium .......................................................................... 69
8. Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast Iron: ............... 34 2. Alloys of Aluminium ....................................................... 69
9. TTT Diagrams: ................................................................. 35 3. Alloys of Copper ............................................................... 70
10. Precipitation Strengthening: ................................... 35 4. Gun Metal ............................................................................ 71
5. Processing and Fabrication of Metals ........ 37 5. Bell Metal ............................................................................ 72
1. Mechanical Fabrication ................................................ 37 6. Other Metals ...................................................................... 72
2. Powder Metallurgy ........................................................ 38 7. Bearing Materials ............................................................ 73
3 Annealing Processes ....................................................... 39 12. Polymers ........................................................... 75
4. Quenching .......................................................................... 39 1. Basic Terminology .......................................................... 75
5 Tempering .......................................................................... 39 2. Hydrocarbons: .................................................................. 75
6. Case Hardening ................................................................ 40 3. The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules ..................... 76
7. Nitriding ............................................................................. 40 4. Molecular Structure of Polymers .............................. 77
6. Mechanical Properties .................................... 42 5. Polymers Classification ................................................. 77
1. Effect of Force on the Body ........................................ 42 6. Plastic Recycling .............................................................. 78
7. Addition Polymerization ............................................. 79 1. Basic Definitions ........................................................... 105

8. Condensation Polymerization ................................... 79 2. Laws of Mechanics: ...................................................... 105
9. Vulcanization .................................................................... 79 3. Laws of Transmissibility of Forces: ...................... 105
10. Mechanical Behaviour of Plastics ......................... 80
5. System of Forces ............................................. 106
11. Properties of Polymers .............................................. 80
1. Coplanar and Concurrent Forces ........................... 106
12. Compounding Materials ............................................ 80
2. Free Body Diagram and Lami’s Theorem .......... 106
13. Characteristics and Applications of Plastic
3. Coplanar and Non-concurrent Forces, Moment
Materials .................................................................................. 81
and Couple ............................................................................ 107
14. Reinforcement of Polymers ..................................... 82
4. Types of Supports ........................................................ 109
15. Other Important Materials ....................................... 82
16. Kevlar and its Uses ...................................................... 83 6. Friction ............................................................... 110
1. Normal Reaction ........................................................... 110
13. Ceramics ............................................................ 84
2. Laws of Friction: ........................................................... 110
1. What are Ceramics? ....................................................... 84
3. Rope Friction .................................................................. 111
2. Classification of Ceramics ........................................... 84
3. Silicates ............................................................................... 84 7. Centroids and Moment of Inertia .............. 112
4. Carbon ................................................................................. 84 1. Centroid and Center of Gravity ............................... 112
5. Other Important Ceramic Materials ....................... 86 2. Centroid of Different Shapes ................................... 112
6. Processing of Ceramic Materials .............................. 86 3. Centroid of Composite Shape .................................. 113
4. Moment of Inertia ........................................................ 114
14. Composite ......................................................... 88
5. Parallel Axis Theorem ............................................... 114
1. What are Composites? .................................................. 88
6. Perpendicular Axis of Theorem ............................. 115
2. Composites Properties ................................................. 88
7. Moment of Inertia Formulas for Various
3. Comparison with Metals .............................................. 88
Important Planar Shapes ............................................... 115
4. Particle Reinforced Composites ............................... 89
5. Fibre-Reinforced Composites ................................... 90 8. Dynamics ........................................................... 117
6. Structural Composites .................................................. 91 1. Important Formulas in Translation ...................... 117
7. Metal Matrix Composite ............................................... 91 2. Equivalent Formulas in Rotation ........................... 117
8. Ceramic Matrix Composites ....................................... 92
9. Polymer Matrix Composites ....................................... 92
9. Simple Stresses ................................................ 121
10. Other Important Composites .................................. 93 1. Stress ................................................................................. 121
2. Kinds of Stresses ........................................................... 122
15. Corrosion and Degradation ........................ 94 3. Examples on Tensile, Shear Stress, Strain ......... 122
1. Corrosion of Metals: ...................................................... 94 4. Principle of Superimposition .................................. 123
2. Electrochemical cell: ..................................................... 94 5. Tapering Bars ................................................................. 124
3. Corrosion Environments ............................................. 95 6. Compound Bars ............................................................. 125
4. Corrosion Prevention ................................................... 96 7. Temperature Stress ..................................................... 126
5. Oxidation ............................................................................ 97 8. Statically Indeterminate Problems ....................... 128
6. Corrosion of Ceramics .................................................. 97 9. Hoop stress: .................................................................... 129
7. Degradation of Polymers ............................................. 97
10. Stresses on Oblique Section ..................... 131
DESIGN ..................................................................... 99 1. Oblique stresses due to Normal Force ................ 131
2. Oblique Stress due to Shear ..................................... 131
1. Introduction to Design ................................. 100
3. Mohr’s Circle ................................................................... 131
1. Different Stages in Design Process ........................ 100
11. Elastics Constants ........................................ 133
2. Aesthetic Design ............................................. 101
1. What are Elastic Constants? .................................... 133
1. Appearance Influencing Factors ............................ 101
2. Volumetric Strain: ........................................................ 133
2. Golden Section/Golden Ratio .................................. 101
3. Relation Between E and K ........................................ 134
3. Colors ................................................................................. 102
4. Relation Between E and N ........................................ 134
4. Texture and Finish ....................................................... 102
5. Complementary Shear Stress: ................................. 134
3. Engineering Ergonomics ............................. 103
12. Bending Stress .............................................. 137
1. Domain of Ergonomics ............................................... 103
1. Design Against Static Loading: ............................... 137
2. Anthropometry .............................................................. 103
2. Factor of Safety: ............................................................ 137
3. Visual Display Instruments: ..................................... 104
3. Stress Due to Bending Moment: ............................. 137
4. Controls: ........................................................................... 104
13. Torsional Stresses ....................................... 140
4. Statics ................................................................. 105
1. Stresses Due to Torsional Moment: ..................... 140
2. Stress Distribution: ...................................................... 140 SAFETY ................................................................... 165

14. Fluctuating Load .......................................... 142 1. Safety Introduction and Safety Sign Boards
1. Stress Concentration (Kt) .......................................... 142 ................................................................................... 166
2. Fluctuating Stresses .................................................... 143 1. Different Terms ............................................................. 166
3. Endurance Limit: .......................................................... 143 2. Safety Sign Boards ....................................................... 166
4. Soderberg and Goodman Lines .............................. 144 3. Design of Safety Sign Boards ................................... 167
15. Strain Energy ................................................ 145 2. Electrical Safety ............................................... 170
1. Proof Resilience: ........................................................... 145 1. Electric Circuit Basic Concepts ............................... 170
2. Inelastic Strain ............................................................... 145 2. Classification of Shocks .............................................. 170
3. Stresses Due to Various of Axial Loads ............... 145 3. Safety Measures ............................................................ 171
4. Strain Energy in Terms of Principal Stresses: .. 147 4. Safety Classification ..................................................... 172
16. Design of Electrical Systems .................... 148 5. General Safety Provisions ......................................... 172
1. Introduction to Current, Voltage, Sources of 3. Fire Safety ......................................................... 174
Potential Difference .......................................................... 148 1. Fire Prevention .............................................................. 174
2. Electrical Generators .................................................. 148 2. Safety Data Sheets ........................................................ 175
3. Transformers .................................................................. 148 3. Gas Cylinder Safety ...................................................... 175
4. Resistance ........................................................................ 148 4. IBCs (Intermediate Bulk Containers) .................. 176
5. Resistance in Series and Parallel Connection ... 149 5. Non-Automatic Fire Fighting Equipment Features
6. Introduction to Kirchhoff’s Law: ............................ 150 ................................................................................................... 176
7. Measuring Devices and Common Terms Used in 6. Smoke Detectors ........................................................... 177
Electricity .............................................................................. 150 7. Visual Alerts ................................................................... 177
17. Columns .......................................................... 151 8. Emergency Escape ....................................................... 177
1. Buckling or Crushing or Critical Load: ................ 151 9. Fire Fighting ................................................................... 178
2. Buckling Failures for Different Cases: ................. 151 10. Stair Cases: ................................................................... 180
3. Effective Length of a Column: .................................. 151 11. Types of Fire: ............................................................... 181
18. Clutches ........................................................... 153 4. Safety in Construction ................................... 182

1. Types of Clutches .......................................................... 153 1. Duties of Different Parties Involved in
2. Uniform Pressure Theory ......................................... 153 Construction Activity ....................................................... 182
3. Uniform Wear Theory ............................................... 153 2. Operational Safety ........................................................ 183
4. Multi- Disk Clutch ......................................................... 154 3. Site Operations: ............................................................. 183
5. Theory of Cone Clutch ................................................ 154 5. Road Safety ....................................................... 187
6. Centrifugal Clutch ......................................................... 154 1. Safety During Road Construction/Repair Work
19. Springs ............................................................ 156 ................................................................................................... 187
1. Spring Stiffness .............................................................. 156 2. Traffic Control Devices .............................................. 187
2. Strain Energy in the Spring ...................................... 156 3. Flagman: ........................................................................... 188
3. Springs in Series & Parallel: ..................................... 156 4. Ensuring Safety on Roads ......................................... 189
4. Torsional Spring: .......................................................... 156 5. Forgiving Roadside ...................................................... 189
5. Closed – Coiled Helical Spring: Axial Pull ........... 157 6. Different Crossings: ..................................................... 191
7. Key Elements of Safe Road Infrastructure Design
20. Brakes ............................................................. 159 (UN report) .......................................................................... 191
1. Block or Shoe Brake: ................................................... 159 8. Government Initiatives to Ensure Safety ........... 192
2. Band Brake ...................................................................... 160 9. IT Enabled Safety Measure ....................................... 193
21. Belt Drives ..................................................... 162 10. Pollution Related Safety .......................................... 193
1. Velocity Ratio ................................................................. 162 6. Mobile Equipment .......................................... 195
2. Advantages of Flexible Belt Drives ....................... 162 1. Scaffolds ........................................................................... 195
3. Slip and Creep ................................................................ 162 2. Ladders ............................................................................. 195
4. Open Belt Drive ............................................................. 163 3. Mobile Work Platforms .............................................. 197
5. Cross- Belt Drive ........................................................... 163 4. Mobile Lifting Equipment ......................................... 197
22. Miscellaneous Topics ................................. 164 7. Safety Regulations in India .......................... 199
1. Flywheels: ........................................................................ 164 1. Legislations ..................................................................... 199
2. Governors: ....................................................................... 164 2. Policies and Programmes ......................................... 200
3. Safety Awards ................................................................ 201
QUALITY PRACTICES ........................................ 202 1. Facility Layout (Plant layout) .................................. 232
2 Line Balancing: ............................................................... 232
1. Total Quality Management ......................... 203 3. Lean Manufacturing System .................................... 233
1. Introduction to TQM ................................................... 203 4. Flexible Manufacturing system .............................. 234
2. Dimensions of Quality ................................................ 203 5. Agile Manufacturing System .................................... 234
3. Customer Requirements ............................................ 203
4. Quality Gurus .................................................................. 204 8. Quality in Construction ................................ 235
5. TQM Process ................................................................... 205 1. Introduction .................................................................... 235
6. Cost of Quality ................................................................ 206 2. Quality of Materials ..................................................... 235
7. Seven Basic Quality Control Tools ......................... 206 9. Inspection and Auditing ............................... 237
8. Quality Circles ................................................................ 208 1. Introduction to Inspection ....................................... 237
9. ISO Quality ....................................................................... 209 2. Inspection at Different Stages ................................. 237
2. Statistical Quality Control ........................... 211 3. Pre - Production Inspection ..................................... 238
1. Process Control ............................................................. 211 4. In - Process Inspection ............................................... 238
2. Control Charts ................................................................ 211 5. Pre - Shipment Inspection ........................................ 238
3. Investigating the Charts ............................................. 214 6. Auditing ............................................................................ 238
4. Acceptance Plan: (Procedure of Inspection) .... 214 7. Internal and External Auditing ............................... 239
5. OC Curves ......................................................................... 216 8. Phases of an Audit ........................................................ 239
3. Six Sigma ........................................................... 218 ENGINEERING DRAWING ................................. 240

1. Introduction to Six Sigma .......................................... 218
1. Geometrical Constructions .......................... 241
2. Normal Distribution and Standard Deviation .. 218
1. Primitive Geometric Forms ...................................... 241
3. Three Sigma and Six Sigma ...................................... 218
2. Circle .................................................................................. 241
4. Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) ....... 219
3. Triangles .......................................................................... 243
5. When to Apply Six Sigma? ........................................ 219
4. Polygons ........................................................................... 244
6. Methodologies of Six Sigma ...................................... 219
5. Solids: ................................................................................ 244
7. Key Roles of People to Implement Six Sigma ... 220
6. Different Lines and Their Applications ............... 245
8. Comparison of TQM and Six Sigma ....................... 221
2. Scales .................................................................. 246
4. Inventory Control .......................................... 222
1. Scale: .................................................................................. 246
1. Introduction .................................................................... 222
2. Representative Factor ................................................ 246
2. Inventory stages ............................................................ 222
3. Plain Scales ...................................................................... 246
3. Different Costs in Inventory Control .................... 222
4. Diagonal Scale ................................................................ 247
4. Introduction to Deterministic Inventory Models
5. Vernier Scale: ................................................................. 247
................................................................................................... 223
6. Comparative Scales: .................................................... 248
5. EOQ: Uniform Demand Rate and Infinity
Production Rate ................................................................. 223 3. Engineering Curves ........................................ 249
6. EOQ: Gradual Replacement ...................................... 224 1. Conic Sections ................................................................ 249
7. EOQ: When Shortages in Inventory Allowed .... 225 2. Conic Curves ................................................................... 250
8. EOQ: Discount on Procurements ........................... 225 3. Spirals ................................................................................ 251
9. Selective Inventory Control ..................................... 225 4. Cycloids: ........................................................................... 252
5. Trochoids: ........................................................................ 252
5. Just in Time ...................................................... 227
6. Involutes ........................................................................... 253
1. Introduction to Just in Time ..................................... 227
7. Helix ................................................................................... 253
2. What Does JIT do? ........................................................ 227
3. Push vs Pull System ..................................................... 227 4. Orthographic Projections of Points and
4. Types and Working of Kanbans ............................. 227 Lines ........................................................................ 254
5. Effectiveness of JIT ....................................................... 228 1. Basic Terminology ....................................................... 254
2. Difference between First and Third Angle of
6. Reliability ......................................................... 229
Projections ........................................................................... 255
1. Introduction .................................................................... 229
3. Projection of Points: .................................................... 255
2. Measure of Reliability ................................................. 229
4. Projection of Lines ....................................................... 256
3. Bathtub Curve ................................................................ 230
5. When the Line Inclined to Both the Planes ....... 257
4. Reliability in Series system ...................................... 230
6. Traces of a Line ............................................................. 258
5. Reliability in Parallel system ................................... 231
6. Maintainability ............................................................... 231 5. Projection of Planes ....................................... 259
1. Plane Surface: ................................................................. 259
7. Quality in Manufacturing ............................ 232
2. Plane is Perpendicular to the HP and Parallel to

the VP ...................................................................................... 259
3. Plane Perpendicular to One Plane and Inclined to
Other Two Planes .............................................................. 259
4. Plane is Inclined to Both HP and VP ..................... 259
5. Traces of the Plane: ...................................................... 260
6. Projection of Solids ........................................ 261

1. Regular Polyhedron ..................................................... 261
2. Solids of Revolution ..................................................... 261
3. Truncated and Frustums of Solids ........................ 262
4. Axis of the Solid Perpendicular to HP .................. 262
5. Axis of the Solid Inclined to HP and Parallel to VP
................................................................................................... 262
6. Solid with Axis Inclined to Both the RPs ............ 263
7. Development of Surfaces ............................. 264

1. True Development: ...................................................... 264
2. Approximate Development: ..................................... 264
3. Parallel line Development: ....................................... 264
4. Radial-Line Development ......................................... 265
5. Triangulation Developments: ................................. 265
6. Approximate Developments .................................... 265
7. Development of Transition Pieces ........................ 266
8. Miscellaneous Topics .................................... 267

1. Axonometric Projection ............................................. 267
2. Isometric Projection & Drawing ............................ 267
3. Isometric Views of Standard Shapes .................... 268
MATERIAL SCIENCE
Chapters
1. Chemical Bonding
2. Crystal Solids
3. Imperfection in Solids
4. Phase Diagram
5. Processing of Metals
6. Mechanical Properties
7. Electrical Properties
8. Magnetic Properties
9. Optical Properties
10. Ferrous Metals
11. Non-Ferrous Metals
12. Polymers
13. Ceramics
14. Composites
15. Corrosion and Degradation
Reference Books and Materials

1. Material Science and Engineering by William D Callister
2. Material Science NPTEL lectures by Satish Kailash
Practice Questions: Adapala’s Practice Questions Booklet
Current Affairs: Hyperloop (www:iesgeneralstudies.com/downloads/)
2. Crystalline Solids
Crystalline materials: have periodic arrangement of • Entire crystal can be formed by translating the unit
atoms with definite repetitive pattern over a large cell symmetrical along all the edges
atomic distance. • It is the basic structural unit or building block
• Materials that do not crystallize are called non- • Parallelepiped corners coincide with centers of the
crystalline or amorphous. hard sphere atoms.
Polycrystalline materials: • Sometimes more than a single unit cell may be
• Collection of many small crystals or grains chosen to obtain a particular crystal structure.
• Crystallographic orientation varies from grain to • General crystalline structures are FCC, BCC,
grain Hexagonal close packed
Anisotropy: Measure of properties are depended on z
a
the direction of measurement
• If independent - isotropic
c β
Single crystals: α y
• When the periodic and repeated arrangement of 4
atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entity x b
without interruption, result is single crystal X
Coordination Number (CN)
Applications
For the metals, each atom has same number of nearest
• Single crystal turbine blades (high temp
neighbor or touching atoms.
deformation or creep resistance )
• Higher value of the coordination number means
• Silicon single crystals for semiconductors
the crystal is denser.
Amorphous: Random arrangement of atom. E.g:
Atomic packing factor (APF):
silicate glass, polymers &'(. '* +,'-. /0 + 10/, 23((
E.g.: Bulk metallic glass (BMG) APF =
,',+( 10/, 23(( &'(1-3
• It is transformed from metallic to amorphous, to
• It indicates how closely atoms are packed in a unit
decrease the chance of recrystallization (allow less
cell
time to crystallization or rapid solidification
1. Different Crystal Structure
Applications:
We will consider mainly metallic materials whose
• Golf heads: Transfer 99% of impact energy as bonding is non - directional in nature. These are
compared to steel • Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal
• Thin but yet strong electronic casing of mp3 player, • Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal
mobile phone etc. • Hexagonal Close Packed Crystal
• Prosthetic implants (Biomaterials) a). Face - Centered Cubic Crystal structure
1. Crystalline Material: In which atoms are arranged in
It has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with atoms located
a repeating or periodic array over large atomic
at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube
distances
faces.
E.g.: All metals, many ceramics and certain polymers.
• If the material is not crystalline, then it may be non-
crystalline and amorphous materials.
• Atoms are considered as solid spheres having
undefined diameters in the crystals for
representation purpose. It is called as atomic hard
sphere model.
• Generally, assumed that the spheres touch with Below diagram represents the one of the six faces of a
neighbors FCC crystal.
Lattice: Three - dimensional array of points coinciding Relation between ‘a’ and ‘r’
with atom positions or sphere centers
Unit cells: Small group of atoms form a repetitive
pattern, which can produce entire crystalline solid by a 4r
multiplying this cell in different directions. a
• For most of the crystals, unit cell is taken as r
a
parallelepiped or a prism.
a = side of the unit cell
r = sphere radius of the atom :

(4J): = +: + Q√2+R = 3 +:
From the triangle, (4r)2 = 2a2
L
a = 2 √2r Þ+= J
√D
Coordination Number and total atoms Coordination Number and total atoms
• Each face atom: Shared between two cells • One body atom, completely inside the cell
• Each corner atoms: Shared between “8” unit cells • Each corner atom is divided between 8 - unit cells
Therefore, one-eighth of each of the eight corner equally.
atoms and one-half of each of the six face atoms, or a Coordination number = 12
total of four whole atoms, may be assigned to a given Total no. of atoms = body atom + corner atoms
unit cell. =1×1+8×==2
9
Coordination number = 12
Total no. of atoms = Face atoms + corner atoms Calculation of atomic packing factor
9 9 BF
=6×:+8×==4 ?@A =
BU
Calculation of Atomic Packing Factor 4M D
We have 4 full atoms (spheres) BF = 0 × V J W
3
&'(1-3 '* +,'-.
?@A = Xℎ3J3 0 = 0'. '* 2'-H(3,3 .Hℎ3J3(+,'-.) = 2
&'(1-3 '* 10/, 23((
Y Y
:× [\ Z :× ×[\ Z √D [
D
BC = + ; BF = 4 × (&'(. '* .Hℎ3J3) ?@A = Z
= Z
Z = = 0.68
FZ Y
] \^ =
L √Z
= 4 × (M J D ) E.g.: Chromium, Iron(_), Tungsten, molybdenum
D
9N c). Hexagonal Close - Packed Crystal:
= MJ D (Where a = 2√2r)
D • The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of
16 D six atoms that form regular hexagons and surround
MJ 16M
?@A = 3 D = = 0.74 a single atom in the center.
Q2√2 JR 3 × 8 × 2√2 • Another plane that provides three additional
atoms to the unit cell is situated between the top
• This is maximum possible packing factor
and bottom planes
• Metals have large APF to maximize the shielding
provided by the free electron cloud.
E.g.: Copper, aluminum, silver, gold, Nickel, platinum,
lead
b). Body Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
It has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight
c
corners and a single atom at the cube center
E F
C D
a
H Coordination Number and Total Atoms
G • The atoms in this midplane have as nearest
A B neighbors’ atoms in both of the adjacent two
planes.
Below plane passing through the middle atom center
• The equivalent of six atoms is contained in each
of the cube and also four other corners.
unit cell
• One - sixth of each of the 12 top and bottom face
D a F corner atoms.
D
r • One - half of each of the 2 center face atoms, and
√2+ a√2 a all 3 midplane interior atoms.
a Total no. of atoms
A r A a B 9 9
a H = 12 +, 2'J03J × N + 2 +, *+23 × : + 3 /0,3J/'J
Relation between ‘a’ and ‘r’: = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6 Atoms
In AHFD plane, consider the triangle ADH
Calculation of Atomic Packing Factor • Both Al (FCC), Mg (HCP) are ductile because there
BF are more slip planes in the crystals having high
?@A = packing factor.
BU
Example 1: Copper has an atomic radius of 0.125 nm.
Find the side of the unit cell
G
Answer: Copper has FCC crystal structure. The relation
a a between the atomic radius and the lattice side in FCC
G 600 60o crystal is
A
60o B + = 2√2 J
a
A
a
B + = 2√2 J = 2 × √2 × 0.125
= 0.3535 mm
Example 2: What is the unit cell dimension ‘a’ in case
1 √3 : of Tungsten with atomic radius of 0.125 nm?
+J3+ '* ℎ3a+b'0 ? = ×+×ℎ = +
2 4 Answer: Tungsten has BCC crystal structure. The
√D relation between the atomic radius and the lattice side
BU = 6 × ? × 2 = 6 × ] L +: ^ × 2
in BCC crystal is
D√D
= :
+: 2 L L
+ = J = × 0.125
√D √D
Consider any side of the hexagon = 0.2887 nm
Example 3: What is the diameter of the largest sphere
in terms of lattice parameter a, which will fill the void
r
at the center of the cube edge of a BCC crystal?
Answer:
D
In BCC crystal, + = J = 2.3098J > 2J
√L
a = 2r
That means there is a gap between the two atoms
(atoms are not touching each other)
and c = 1.633 a
L L C
BF = 0 × D MJ D = 6 × D MJ D D
D C
Y
N× [\ Z
?@A = √Z
Z
D ×9.NDD×(:\)Z A B r
c
= 0.74 A R Br
• As in the FCC crystal, here also there is maximum
packing factor and it is closely packed. Let ‘R’ is the radius of the void between two atoms,
E.g.: Cadmium, Cobalt, Zinc, Mg then from the above figure
General Observations F F √D
• Both FCC and HCP crystal structures have highly g = :−J = :− L +
packed efficiency 74%, which is called as closed - = 0.06698 a.
packed atomic planes Diameter D = 0.1339 a = 0.134 a
2. Different Crystal Types Based on Lattice Parameters
Crystal Name Lattice parameters Representation Example

Cubic a=b=c Gold (Au), Si,
_ = i = 4 = 90j Al, Cu, Ag, Fe,
NaCl
v
Tetragonal +=k≠2 In, TiO2
v
_ = i = 4 = 90j
Orthorhombic: +≠k≠2 Ga
_ = i = 4 = 90j
Monoclinic + ≠ k ≠ 2,
_ = J = 90j ≠ i
v
Rhombohedral: a=b=c Hg, As, Bi,
v
_ = i = 4 ≠ 90j CaCo3
v
v
v
v
v
v
Triclinic + ≠ k ≠ 2
_ ≠ i ≠ 4 ≠ 90j
Hexagonal + = k ≠ 2 Zn, Co, Cd, Mg,

_ = i = 90j , 4 = 120n Zr
Summary of different unit cells: • Let ‘O’ is the origin with x, y, z coordinate axes, and
a, b, c are the edges of the cell
Unit Cell CN a/r APF n (no. of • Any point in the unit cell will be represented as
atom) fractional length of these edges.
• Point P (r, s, t) is represented in terms of fractional
Simple cube 6 4/√4 0.52 1 lengths of (a, b, c) -which is also called as intercepts
BCC 8 4/√2 0.68 2 Let (a, b, c) = (1, 1, 1)
FCC 12 4/√2 0.74 4 E.g.: Let P (0.3, 0.4, 0.5) and to reach this point, one
Hexagonal 12 1 0.74 6 need to travel 0.3 along x, 0.4 along y and 0.5 along z
axis to reach the intended position.
Representation of a point: Example 4: write down the position of body centered
z atom in BCC, by choosing origin at one of the corner’s
and length of each side as unity
Answer: The position of the geometrical center is at
the middle of the body.
P + k 2 1 1 1
c/2 y H( , , ) = ( , , )
O 2 2 2 2 2 2
a/2
b/2 Directions in Cube
Crystallographic directions in the crystal is represented
x with a line between two points, or with a vector
• The line generally starts from origin
• Negative values are represented with bar over the Example 6: Find miller indices of following planes for
number the given figure
E.g.: I. Plane passing through ‘ABTP’
z II. Passing through AST
III. Passing through CBOT
[1, 1, 1] z
T P
O y
[0, 1, 0] D C
[1, 1, 0] y
x
O S
• These numbers are multiplied or divided by a x A B
common factor to reduce them to smallest integer E
values Answer:
Hexagonal Directions: I. (r, s, t) = (1, ∞ , 1); (h, k, l) = (1/1, 1/∞, 1/1)
• Three axes are not enough to represent HCP = (1, 0, 1)
9 9 9
direction, hexagonal axes symmetry is required to II. (J, ., ,) = (1, 1, 1); (ℎ, p, () = (9 , 9 , 9)
represent the same = (1, 1, 1)
9 9 9
a4 III. (J, ., ,) = (0, 0, ∞); (ℎ, p, () = ] , , ^
j j r
= (∞, ∞, 0)
Example 7: If the miller indices of a plane are (3, 4, 6),
find intercepts on coordinate axes
Answer:
a3 Given that (h, k, l) = (3, 4, 6)
Intercepts are reciprocal of the miller indices
a2 (r, s, t) = (1/3, ¼, 1/5)
Crystallographic Planes:
a1 • Specified by miller indices as (h, k, l)
• Parallel planes have identical miller indices
(r, s, t) is represented as (u v w z) where
Procedure:
u = ⅓(2r-s)
v = ⅓(2s-r) • Find intercepts by planes on the axes (r, s, t)
w = - (u+v) • Reciprocals of these, miller indices (1/r, 1/s, 1/t)
z=t 1 1 1
(ℎ, p, () = ( , , )
• Here four axes are used J . ,
Example 5: Convert [0 1 0] direction to the hexagonal If plane is
system • Parallel to an axis then intercept is ′∞′
Answer: • If plane passes through ‘origin’ then another
u = ⅓ (2 × 0 -1) = -⅓ parallel plane constructed within unit cell by
v = ⅓ (2 × 1 - 0) = ⅔ translating the original plane
w = - (⅔ - ⅓) = -⅓ • New origin must be established at the corner of
z=3 another unit cell
(u, v, w, z) = (-⅓, ⅔, ⅓, 0) = (1, 2, 1, 0) • All these numbers are changed to the set of
smallest integers and - ve sign represented by ‘bar’
3. Miller Indices:
• Miller indices of a plane indicated by (h, k, l) are
reciprocal of the intercepts of that plane on the z (100)
three coordinate axes Plane (100)
1 1 1
ℎ = ;p = ,( =
J . ,
Where (r, s, t) are intercepts of a plane on x, y, z axes O
respectively
E.g.: If a plane is parallel to yz and cuts x-axis at 0.5 then
9 9 9 9
ℎ = \ = j.q = 2; p = r = 0 ( = r = 0
(h, k, l) = (2, 0, 0)
How these planes useful:
Atomic arrangement can be known from these
• A family of planes contains all those planes that are = (1+ 2 times half diameter of the both atoms)
crystallographically equivalent having the same n=2
atomic packing designated as (h, k, l) : 9
~ = L\ = :\ (0-)Ä9
Note:
:
• Line (u, v, w) will be normal to plane with miller = (0-)Ä9
√DF
indices (h, k, l) if u = h, v = k, w = l Planar Density
E.g.: line [110] perpendicular to plane (110) @(+0+J 30./,Å
• line [u, v, w] parallel to the plane (h, k, l) (30./,Å '* +,'-/2 H+2p/0b '0 + H+J,/21(+J H(+03)
if h u + k v + l w = 0 =
Ç'. '* +,'-. '0 + H(+03 'J +J3+ '* H(+03
• If two planes with miller indices (h1, k1, l1) & (h2,, k2, Ç'. '* +,'-. 230,3J3x '0 ,ℎ3 H(+03
l2) are normal to each other if @ =
?J3+ '* ,ℎ3 H(+03
h1 h2+k1k2+l1l2 =0 E.g.: Above plane AOFC in BCC crystal
• Angle between two planes is In the above figure,
ℎ9 ℎ: + p9 p: + (9 (: No. of atoms = 1+ 4 × ¼
2'. u = = (one complete area + quarter
vℎ! : + p9 : + (9 : vℎ: : + p: : + (: : of 4 other areas)
• Inter planar distance between family of planes (h, =2
k, l) Area = √2 +:
F
x = c c c or : √:
√y z{ z| PD = = Fc (0-)Ä9
√:F c
1 1 Close -packed crystal structure:
= (ℎ: + p : + ( : ) − *'J 21k3
x: +: • Planes having a maximum atoms or sphere packing
9 9 9
= Fc (ℎ: + p : ) + U c ( : for tetragonal density
}c Example 9: Calculate the linear density of [110]
Slip planes: direction in a Cu crystal where a = 0.361nm
• Plastic deformation in metals occurs by the process Answer: Cu has FCC crystal structure
called slip Line [1 1 0] corresponding to the line ‘OB’
• In this process, sliding of crystal plane happens
over one another O G
• Slip occurs on most densely packed planes in E F r
closely packed directions lying on that plane 2r
D
• Densely packed planes also have greatest inter O C r
plane distance G
A
E.g.: In case of BCC there is no closed packed plane, so A
E B B
there is no significant deformation before fracture
4. Linear and Planar Densities: n=2
Linear Density length of OB = 4r but a =
L
J
√:
0'. '* +,'-. 230,3J3x '0 x/J32,/'0 &32,'J
~ = É : 9 9 √:
~30b,ℎ '* x/J32,/'0 &32,'J ~ = |
= L\ = :\ = Ñ = F
:×
Example 8: Find the linear density of the line OC of the c√c
given BCC crystal √:

~ = j.DN9 = 3.917(0-)Ä9
z
F LD along [111]; take plane AOFC
E
C O F
D n=2×½=1 r
o
y
o ( = ÖÜ = √3+ a
B É 9 l r
A ~ = | =
x √DF
9
Answer: OC = [1, 1, 1] ~ = A
√2a C
√D×j.DN9
Take plane AOFC r
L 2r = 1.599 (nm)-1
+= J a a
√D r Example 10: Which of the below planes are densely
No. of atoms on the line packed in a Gold crystal
9 √2a
=1+2×: A. (1 1 0) B. (1 1 1)
C. (1 0 0) D. All
Answer: 1. Take any face in FCC crystal

Gold has FCC crystal structure as below
E F r
2r
D a
C r
a
O G
Relation + = 4/√2 J
A B L LZ
B = +D = ( J)D = :√: = 16√2 J
√:
Option A: Take plane (1 1 0) equivalent to AGFC
2. In case of BCC crystal
D F
+ = 4/√3 g
a \ D
B = +D = ]4 ^ = 64 J D /3√3
√D
G
3. In case of Hexagon
A √2a a = 2r, c/a =1.633
√D :
volume = Hexagon Area × c = L
+ ×2
n=2×½+4×¼ =2
√D √D
Area = √2+: &= × 1.6333 × +D = × 1.633 × (2J)D
L L
É
PD = =
:
=
9.L9L & = 19.596√3 J D
| √:F c Fc
Option B: Plane (1 1 1) is equivalent to AGE 5. Density Computations
E A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid
permits computation of its theoretical density á
√2a through the relationship
√2a h 0?
á=
G BC Çà
A
Where
√2a n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
9
0 = 3 × : + 3 × N = 2
9 A = atomic weight
V c = volume of the unit cell
+J3+ =
√D
× Q√2+R =
: √D :
+ NA = Avogadro’s number (6.023 × 10:D +,'-./ -'()
L : Example 12:
2 4 2.309 Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC
@ = = = crystal structure, and an atomic weight of 63.5 g/mol.
√3 : √3 +: +:
2 + Compute its theoretical density and compare the
Option C: Take plane (1 0 0) equivalent to ABCD answer with its measured density
Answer:
A B Since the crystal structure is FCC,
The number of atoms per unit cell, n = 4.
a Atomic weight ACu = 63.5 g/mol.
VC = 16gD √2,
C D Where R = 0.128 nm.
a 0 ?Câ 0?Câ
á= =
A = a2; n = 1 + 4 × ¼ = 2 BU Çà Q16 gD √2RÇà
PD = 2/a2 (4 +,'-./ 10/, 23(() (63.5b/-'()
=
Answer: B [16√2 (1.28 × 10Ä= 2-)D /10/, 23((] (6.023 × 10:D +,'-./-'()
Example 11: Find out the volumes of following unit = 8.89 b/2-D
cells in terms of its atomic radius ‘r’
1. FCC 6. Close Packed Crystal Structures
2. BCC • Both face-centered cubic and hexagonal close-
3. Hexagonal packed crystal structures have atomic packing
Answer: factors of 0.74, which is the most efficient packing
• These two crystal structures may be described in Ceramic Crystal Structures

terms of close- packed planes of atom (i.e., plane • Most ceramics are compounds between metallic
having a maximum atom or sphere- packing and non-metallic elements for which the
density) interatomic bonds are either totally ionic or
• Both crystal structures may be generated by the predominantly ionic but having some covalent
stacking of these close packed planes on top of one character.
another; the difference between the two • The atomic bonding in these materials ranges from
structures lies in the stacking sequence. purely ionic to totally covalent
• Many ceramics exhibit a combination of these two
bonding types, the degree of ionic character being
dependent on the electro negativities of the
atoms.
8. Radius Ratios
Considered the ceramic material with ionic bond
• The metallic ions, or cations, are positively
• Let the centers of all the atoms in one close- charged, because they have given up their valence
packed plane be labelled A electrons to the nonmetallic ions, or anions, which
• Associated with this plane are two sets of are negatively charged.
equivalent triangular depression formed by three • The crystal structure is influenced by
adjacent atoms, into which the next close- packed o The magnitude of the electrical charge on each
plane of atoms at rest. of the component ions, and
• Those having the triangle vertex pointing up are o The relative sizes of the cations and anions.
arbitrarily designated as B positions, while the The second criterion involves the sizes or ionic radii of
remaining depression are those with the down the cations and anions, rc and ra respectively.
vertices, which are marked C in Figure • Because the metallic elements give up electrons
The real distinction between FCC and HCP lies in where when ionized, cations are ordinarily smaller than
the third close-packed layer is positioned. anions
• For HCP, the centers of this layer are aligned • Consequently, the ratio rc/ra is less than unity.
directly above the original A positions. • Each cation prefers to have as many nearest-
• This stacking sequence, ABABAB . . ., is repeated neighbor anions as possible. The anions also desire
over and over. Of course, the ACACAC . . . a maximum number of cations nearest neighbors
arrangement would be equivalent.
• These close-packed planes for HCP are (0001)-type
planes
• For the face-centered crystal structure, the centers
of the third plane are situated over the C sites of
the first plane.
• This yields an ABCABCABC . . . stacking sequence;
that is, the atomic alignment repeats every third Stable ceramic crystal structures form when those
plane. anions surrounding a cation are all in contact with
• These planes are of the (111) type that cation
7. Polymorphism and Allotropy
The coordination number (i.e., number of anion
• Some metals, as well as non-metals, may have
nearest neighbors for a cation) is related to the cation–
more than one crystal structure, a phenomenon
anion radius ratio.
known as polymorphism.
• When found in elemental solids, the condition is
often termed allotropy.
• The prevailing crystal structure depends on both
the temperature and the external pressure.
E.g.: Carbon: graphite is the stable polymorph at
ambient conditions, whereas diamond is formed at
extremely high pressures.
Also, pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room
temperature, which changes to FCC iron at 9120C
(16740F).
• So here 5th %le of women should be considered • Displays indicating quantitative measurements
then it will automatically in the reach of everyone (E.g.: Speedometer, voltmeter etc.)
(men). • Displays indicating state of affairs (like signals)
• Displays indicating predetermined settings (lever
Compromise Dimension:
type indications used for setting purpose)
• If choosing the 95th %le is inconvenient to 5th %le Making scale or dial-type instruments used for
user then the designer will choose a dimension in
quantitative measurements
between these two.
• This is called as 50th %le. Ergonomic consideration for display designs:
E.g.: Mirror mounted above the washbasin is 50th %le. • Scale should be in numerical progression
• So finally, while selecting the anthropometric data • No. of subdivisions between divisions should be
• It should accommodate as many people as possible less
• Design should cover range of users, but not for the • The size of letter (or numbers) on the indicator
\£F}ÆÉØ }Æß¢FÉU£
average Height of the of better ≥ :jj
Example 3: Seating arrangement before a computer • The pointer should be knife-edge with a mirror in
Following dimensions should be considered while the dial to minimize parallax error
designing the chair 4. Controls:
Answer: Different controls are as below
For large force: levers and hand wheels are used
D For light force: Push button or knobs are preferred
Ergonomics considerations for controls:
E
• Control should be easily accessible and logically
positioned. It should involve minimum motion to
avoid awkward movements
B A • Should be in conformity with anatomy of human
hands
• Seat height ‘A’: suit to the work level
• Proper colors based on the usage and red buttons
• Seat depth ‘B’: to provide clearance
for the switches that require some attention
• Seat angle ‘C’: should be horizontal or sloping back
• Seat bank and angle ‘D’: should support the natural
curve of the spine
• Backrest ‘E’: should adjustable and also allow free
movement of the shoulders
• Chair seat should be padded unless it is for
temporary use
E.g.: Design of a ‘Hand grip’
• Design depends on the use of the hand grip
(application)
• To lift a heavy weight:
o Grip should allow user to wrap their fingers
fully round the grip
• Handles:
o Tool handles or door handles should have a
diameter of between 18 mm and 50 mm
o Best design allows maximum contact between
hand and the handle
• Handle designing points:
o Textured surface improves grip
o Guards and good handle shapes to prevent
slipping of hands
3. Visual Display Instruments:
• Basic objective behind the design and displays is to
minimize fatigue to the operator
Visual display instruments are three types

4. Statics
Introduction masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
• There are two types of bodies which are distance between their centers
o Deformable F F
o Non- deformable
• Non- Deformable bodies again classified as m1
m2
o Rigid (which are considered for discussion) d
o Flexible -9 -:
A=‚ ;
• Mechanics broadly consists of two parts x:
o Static: Deals with bodies at rest G = Gravitational Const. = 6.67 × 10Ä99 Ç-: pbÄ:
o Dynamics: Deals with bodies in motion 3. Laws of Transmissibility of Forces:
o Motion without force is kinematics The principle of transmissibility states that the point of
o Motion with force is called kinetics application of a force can be moved anywhere along its
1. Basic Definitions line of action without changing the external
Mass: The quality possessed by body is called mass (M) reaction forces on a rigid body.
Time: Time is the measurement of succession of events
F
Bosons: Body has mass due to Boson particles A
Length: Concept of measuring linear distances
Displacement: The shortest distance between two B
F
points
Velocity: The displacement covered per unit time Characteristics of forces:
}Æß±|FU£∞£É¢ }ß • Magnitude of the force
&= ¢Æ∞£
= }¢ -/.
• Print of application
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with time
}› ∞/ß }›
• Line of action represents the direction of force
+= }¢
ß
= }¢
-. Ä: • Colinear force: Forces along the same line of action
Momentum: • Coplanar forces: forces on same plane
-'-30,1- = -+.. × &3('2/,Å
⟹“ =-×&
2. Laws of Mechanics: • Coplanar concurrent: Forces on the same plane
Newton’s 1st law: It states that an object will remain at
and meeting at one point
rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force.
It talks about inertia concept. • Non- coplanar forces: Forces acting on different
F1
According to this law, at F2 planes
equilibrium
∑A = 0
Afl = A9 + A: + ⋯ F1 + F2
nd
Newton’s 2 law: It states that the rate of change of
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
impressed force and it takes place in the direction of
the applied force.
}· }›
Þ A ∝ “ and }¢
∝ - }¢
Þ A = - +
Newton’s 3nd law: Every action has equal and opposite
reaction.
It gives the normal reaction for the exerted force.
Newton’s law of gravitation: states that every particle
attracts every other particle in the universe with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their
5. System of Forces
1. Coplanar and Concurrent Forces
Two vectors with some angle between them
y1 F1
30o
D F2 x1
C x2
F1 y2 45o F2
R F1
θ θ
E
At equilibrium
A F2 ∑A = 0; *'J 2: ∑A∂ = 0 & ∑Aµ = 0
B
Þ a9 = A9 cos 30j +0x Å9 = A9 sin 30j
ÂÕ
cos u = ⇒ ÂÕ = ÂÜ cos u a: = A: sin 45j +0x Å: = A: cos 45j
ÂÜ
= A9 cos u 2. Free Body Diagram and Lami’s Theorem
Similarly ÜÕ = A: sin u Force Diagram Free Body Diagram
In ∆?ÜÕ
g = ?Ü = Ë(?Õ): + (ÜÕ): w
w
= Ë(A: + A9 2'.u): + (A9 ./0u):

N
g= ËA:: + A9: cos : u + 2A9 A: 2'.u + A9 sin: u T
Resultant g = + ËA9: A::
+ 2A9 A: 2'.u
Different cases: R
i. When two vectors are colinear w w
Èπ Èc
a) When (u = 0n ) i.e., Ÿ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯¤- - -Ÿ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯¤
RBX
g = Ë(A9 + A: ): B W
W
g = A9 + A: RBY
Èπ Èc
b) ∫ℎ30 u = 180n /. 3. ,Í⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯Î − − − Ÿ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯¤
RAX
A
g = vA9: + A:: − 2A9 A:
RAY
g = A9 − A:
Lami’s theorem
ii. Closing side of the polygon gives the resultant Three concurrent forces in a plane F3
F1
force with angles between them are related
α
as below
F4 4 β
Èπ Èc ÈZ
F3
= =
R ßÆÉ∑ ßÆÉ∝ ó÷† Ì F2
F4 F3
F2
F1 F2
Example 1: Find the tension in the rope(T), and normal
F1 reaction on the wall exerted by the ball of weight
W=100 N, hanged with a rope as in the figure
iii. Force resolution in 2-D
Two forces F1 and F2 can be resolved along x and y- 15o
axis as below
Answer: The free body diagram for the given figure is

as below

Ôπ Ôc :qj
T T ⇒ = =
Äòó(Dj) Ä òó Lq ó÷†(Óq)
15o
Ôπ Ôc
= í√Z
= íπ = 250
R 90o
c √c
75o
R ø9 = 224.1Ç
W O
W ø: = 183Ç
By applying Lami’s theorem Now consider the free body diagram at the joint B
fl ° Ô
⇒ ó÷†(ëjzÓq) = ó÷†(ëjz9q) = ó÷† ëj
30o T3
fl 9jj Ô 30o
⇒ òó(Óq) = ó÷†(9jq) = 9 T4 30o
60o
òó Óq
⇒ g = 100 ó÷†(9jq) = 26.8 Ç 200 N T2
sin 90
ø = 100 = 103.53 Ç
sin(105) ∑Aµ = 0 ⇒ ø: cos 60j + 200 − øD cos 30j = 0
Force resolving method
200 + 183 cos 60n
Tj = T cos15
øD = = 336.595 Ç
T cos(30n )
15o ∑A∂ = 0 ⇒ ø: sin 60j + øD sin 30j − øL = 0
R
ø sin 15 øL = 183 ./060n + 336.595 sin 30n = 326.78 Ç
W
3. Coplanar and Non-concurrent Forces, Moment
° and Couple
∑Aµ = 0, ø cos 15 = ∫, ø = Moment: Produced at the point O
òó(9q)
∑A∂ = 0, g = ø sin 15 due to applied force F at any
distance ‘d’ as in the figure is A
Example 2: Find the unknown tensions in the below “ =x×A o d
figure
F
Here moment direction is
perpendicular to the plane of ‘F’ and ‘d’, passing
30 T3 through the point O
T4 B
T1 Couple: is produced by equal F
A and opposite forces acting
60o B
45o
T2 parallel and in the same plane A
D
200 N (coplanar) F
Moment: Due to couple
250
N O
F
Answer: O
d1 d2 ⇒ d1 d2
Consider the free body diagram at the joint D
B
A B A
T2 T1 d
F
30o 45o
“ = x9 A + x: A
250 N
= *(x9 + x: ) = * × ¨¨¨¨¨⃗
?Â
By Lami’s theorem: = * × x (Where; d = distance between the couple)
Ôπ
=
Ôc
=
:qjè Moment about the new origin O1 is given as
ó÷†(ëjzDj) ó÷†(ëjzLq) ó÷†(9=jÄÓq)
“9 = AQ?Ö¨¨¨¨¨¨¨⃗9 + ¨¨¨¨¨¨¨⃗
Ö9 ÂR, Â? = ?Ö9 + Ö9 Â
“9 = A × x

Example 2: Centroid of a hollow sections y

Find the centroid of the given figure b
y dy
d
120 mm
y
A1
G1 O x
120 mm
A2 dx
G2
m
m
x
90
Answer:
O
Taking axis of rotation as x-axis
240 mm area dA = b. d y
}
¬∂ = ∫j Å : kxÅ
Answer: 0µ Z
}
0} Z
In the given structure center of gravity of solid =: D
: = D
j
trapezium (G1) and circular region (G2) lies on y - axis
0} Z
For trapezium section ¬∂ = D
Fz0 :Ljz9:j
?9 = ] ^×ℎ =] × 120^ 0 0 }0 Z
: : ¬µ = ∫j a : x ?
= ∫j a : x. xa = D
= 21600 --: The moment of inertia is of order of 4
y 0z:F 9:j :Ljz(:×9:j) 5. Parallel Axis Theorem
Å9 = D 0zF
= D
] :Lj×9:j
^ = 53.33 --
a9 = 0 S
For semicircular (hollow region) G A

MJ : M 90:
?: = − =− = −12723.45025 --:
2 2 d
S
L fl L ×ëj
Å: = D[ = D[ = 38.197
x2 = 0
¬ßß = ¬; + x: × ?
Now for combined structure, center of gravity is
Å =
àπ µπ zàc µc
=
:9Njj×qD.DDz(D=.:)(Ä9:Ó:D.q) (But ¬; = ¬ßß + x: × ? -- is wrong)
àπ z9c (:9NjjÄ9:Ó:D.q)
Moment of inertia a of rectangular plate about
Å = 75.02 --
Centroidal axis
a = 0
Thus (a, Å) = (0, 75.02 --)
y
4. Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia in the rotational motion is k x
V , W
equivalent to the mass of the body in the translational G 2 2
x
motion. x
2
y x
dA
¬∂∂ = ¬;∂ + ( : ?
y
} :
¬;∂ = ¬∂∂ − ]:^ ?
x
0} Z } c .(0})
Moment of inertia is calculated about an axis = D
− L
¬∂ = ∫ Å : x ? (about x-axis) 0} Z 0} Z
¬∂ = ∫ a : x ? (about y-axis) = D
− L
Example.3: 0} Z
Find the moment of inertia of the rectangle about the ¬;∂ = 9:
given axes
xkD
¬;µ =
12

To find out moment inertia about any axis following M M

¬∂∂ = J9L − J:L
steps should be followed 4 4
[
I) Find first the centroid of the given body = L (J9 − J:L )
L
II) Then find the moment of inertia passing through

the centroid 5) Semi circle
6. Perpendicular Axis of Theorem
[
(also called polar moment of inertia) ¬à! = = J L X X
4J
G 3M
¬∂µ = 0.11 J L
y A y B
6) Quarter circle y
G [
¬à! = 9N J L
Lfl L\
¬∂∂ = 0.0055 J L X , X
D[ D[
x
O
¬à! = ¬∂∂ + x: ?
¬j< = ¬j∂ + ¬jµ = ¬;< + x9: ?
B
¬< = ¬˙ + ¬µ x
All should pass through one point Example.4: Problem on T- section
Moment of inertia of any point ‘A’ perpendicular to Find the moment of inertia of the below section about
the plane is the centroid and about the base AB
¬=à = ¬=; + x:: ? y
10
7. Moment of Inertia Formulas for Various
Important Planar Shapes A1
140 mm
1) Rectangle y (0, 75)
D C
0} Z }0 Z X x
¬à! = ; ¬à˘ = d G(0, y)
D D x
0} Z }0 Z G
¬∂∂ = 9:
; ¬µµ = 9:
Rectangle A2 (0, 5) 10
A B
A 200 mm
X
2) Hollow rectangle B
0} Z 9
¬∂∂ = 9:
− 9: +2 D Answer:
∑àµ
Å= ∑à
D C (9qj ×9j) × Óqz9ëj × 9j × q
Å= 9qj × 9j z 9ëj ×9j
c Å = 35.88 --
d
G Now,
9 9
A b
a
B ¬à! = D × 10 × 150D + D × 190 × 10D
3) Triangle ¬à! = 1125000 + 633333.333
9
¬à! = kℎD X G X = 11313333.33 = 1131.3 × 10L --L
9: h Triangle
9 h/3
¬∂∂ = D U kℎD Moment of inertia of the section about centroid,
A b B parallel to the base
¬à! = ¬∂∂ + Å : × ?
4) Solid and Hollow circles
area of the section
y ? = 200 × 10 + 140 × 10 = 3400 --:
y
y = 35.88 mm
X X r1 x ¬∂∂ = 1131.3 × 10L − 3400 × 35.88:
r2
= 693.6 × 10L --L
y y
[ [
¬∂∂ = ¬µµ = J L , ¬< = J L
L :
For hollow circle

Example.5: Moment of inertia of planar body with a) Along AC at a height of 3 cm from DC

hollow circle as in the figure b) Along BD at a height of 3cm from DC
y c) Along the line joining the mid. Point of AB to the
0.25 a
midpoint of DC, at a height of 2.8 cm from DC
d) At the interaction point of AC and DB
Answer:
G2
1.5a f 8 cm
x G1 3a A B
x
G 6 cm
1.25 a 1 cm C
D 12 cm
A B x
2a y 0z:F
Å = D ] 0zF ^
Find ¬à! , ¬∂∂ ; take a = 1 mm
9:z:×= N 9:z9N :=
Answer: Here it is given, =] ^ = D] ^ = 2 × :j
9:z= :j
For the rectangle(A1), ‚9 = (0, 1.5+) N :L D0
For the circle with 1.5a diameter(A2), ‚: = (0, 2 +) = D ]9N^ = D
= 2.8 2- *J'- ./x3 Ü
?9 = 6 +: Only one option is matching with the answer
[
?: = − L (1.5+): = −1.767 +: Answer: (C)
?9 Å9 + ?: Å:
∵Å=
?9 + ?:
NF c ×9.qFÄ9.ÓNÓF c ×:F
= NF c Ä9.ÓNÓë F c
Å = 1.2913+
Now,
9
¬à! = D k ℎD − [¬à: + ?: × (2+): ]
1 M
= (2+)(3+)D − [ (0.75 +)L + ?: × (2+): ]
3 4
1 M
= (2+)(3+)D − > × (0.75+)L
3 4
+ M(0.75+): × (2+): ?
¬à! = 10.683 +L
¬à! = ¬; + ? × (x/.,+023 '* 230,J'/x *J'- k+.3):
¬; = ¬à! − ? × (1.2913+): ; ? = 6+: − 1.767+:
= 10.683+L − 4.233+: × (1,2913+):
¬∂∂ = 3.6279 +L
Here key points:
1) First find the centroid
2) Negative should be kept for hollow section area as
it is a magnitude
3) Don’t put negative for length as it a position, i.e
coordinate
ESE 2018 Problem: Consider a trapezoidal lamina
ABCD, with AB parallel to DC, 6 cm a part, AB is 8 cm,
CD is 12 cm CD extends outwards by 1 cm from the foot
of the ⊥ 3J from B on DC. The center of gravity of the
lamina will be

15. Strain Energy

• It is the internal work done in the body by the Example 1:
action of externally applied load (forces) Find the strain energy for the following cases
• When the body loaded, it would undergo
deformation. Resisting force develops internally to (i) (ii) (iii)
resist this deformation and it is called as the stress
intensity A
3d 3L/8 3d 7L/16
• When load (P) is applied then the resistance (R) is d
set up in the bar, and this is stored in the form of B
d L/4 d L/8
strain energy
A C
• Within the elastic limit, the body should be able to 3L/8 L7/16
withstand this strain for the applied load. D
• The body will absorb the energy or work done by F F
the force ‘F’ to produce ′≠′ deformation or strain. F
This is called strain energy
The strain energy under the graph is Answer:
S 9 Wc 9 Èc Èc§
â = ∫ = Q A ≠Ã Case 1: â9 = : × ¸
× B = : × àc ¸ × ~ × B = :à¸
j
Case 2: By using principle of superimposition, strain
energy can be calculated for the individual sections
Elastic point
F 1 A : 3~/8 1 A : ~/4 1 A : 3 ~/8
E U: = + +
2 9 ?Õ 2 ?Õ 2 9 ?Õ
F1 9 È c §/L D Èc§
=: à¸
[ë + 1] = Nà¸
¶π
A â: =
Δ ≠ D
:×È c (Óå/9N) È c (§/=)
Case 3: âD = +
Strain energy within the elastic limit can be written as : ëà¸ :×à¸
1 1 Ã 1 ~
â = ∫ = AÃ = œ ?. ( = œ × 3 × B A : ]8^ 7 2 A : ~
2 2 ~ 2 = ( + 1) =
2 ?Õ 9 9 2?Õ
â = stress × strain × volume
2 â9
1 œ: 1 âD =
â= × B 'J = × 3 : Õ B 9
2 Õ 2
1. Proof Resilience: 2. Inelastic Strain
Resilience: It is strain energy / unit volume F A
â 1 Inelastic strain
1 = = œ3 E
B 2 energy
• It is also called strain energy density ((/p3 -/& = elastic strain
á)
energy
• It represents ability of the material to absorb
energy within elastic limit
Proof resilience: It is strain energy per volume when
œ = œproof
Wc O B C Δ
1± = :¸ä
• Deformation disappears on removal of F
• Also called as modulus of resilience
• But when loaded beyond elastic point ‘E’, on
Proof stress:
removal it will follow the path AB
• Proof stress is the amount of stress that a material, OB represents permanent set
usually metal or plastic, undergoes a level of Only Δ?ÂÜ recovered, so this portion is elastic and
deformation remaining not recovered, so it is inelastic region.
• Equivalent to yield stress in materials which has no
3. Stresses Due to Various of Axial Loads
clearly defined yield point
a. Gradually applied load:
SAFETY
Chapters:
1. Safety Introduction and Safety Sign boards
2. Electrical Safety
3. Fire Safety
4. Safety in Construction
5. Road Safety
6. Mobile Equipment
7. Safety Regulations in India

1. Internet
2. International Labour Organisastion

Neutral wire: wire connected to earth • Current passes through that wire(least resistance)
Live wire: wire which is not connected to earth instead of the human
c. Isolation Transformer
• If there is no earthling at transformer, then there
Live wire Computer
will not be any electric shock.
• To avoid damage to household equipment, can we
put transformer in the indoors? - Not possible
because of high voltages.
• But interred able transformer can be placed in
between the house and the power house.
Neutral wire
• As shown in the figure, there is no completed
circuit after the isolation transformer so that shock
Earth will not happen.
Why Earthing required?
• Earthing is generally done near the transformer to Isolation transformer
avoid the possibility of damage due to lightning Computer
striking.
Earth No complete circuit here, so no shock
As in the figure, when a person standing on the earth

touches the circuit then some of the current passes 2. High Current Stopping Devices:
through the human body and through the earth
• Fuse
forming circuit so that the current shock happens.
• Circuit breaker
3. Safety Measures Fuse:
1. Insulation: • Consists of a short length of wire that can be easily
a. Insulation on wire melt on heating
On the current carrying conductor • Fuse will melts when excessive current passing
• Plastic material generally used as insulating through the circuit because of the heat generation.
materials • It is of single use (Not so expensive)
• Plastic is having good heat dissipation properties
and inexpensive compared to other materials like
wood and glass
b. Insulation on equipment:
Fuse
Circuit breakers (Trip switches)

Double insulation (class-2 safety)
• Providing insulation around the equipment like

washing machine or tea kettle
• Sometimes double insulation also needed.
• Insulation shoes
• Wire from equipment to the earth
• With high voltage, connecting material will be bent

• Because of this bending, the contact between the o Sealed form water & dust
two conductors will be lost. Protective equipment (rubber gloves etc.) is important
• No need to change the controlling material every and should not consider that these are enough to
time as in the case of a fuse. protect from shocks
Unequal current stopper (Residual Current Device) Identification:
• This can even stop small shock currents also, but • All electrical appliances outlet are marked with
whereas the above two devices protect only from their purpose and voltage.
relatively large currents • Lines of power and telecommunication system
• Principle: what goes out must come back. should not be on same support
Protection against direct, indirect and contacts
• Enclosures, insulations, extra low voltage isolating
transformers
• No bare conductor lines(current carrying lines)
If I = io should be permitted without adequate
then ON precautions (E.g.: Aparichitudu movie)
else OFF • Enclosure covers should be incombustible
materials, with adequate mechanical strength.
io • Enclosures should be open able only with special
Laptop
tools
Disconnecting devices
4. Safety Classification • Cut off devices should be provided for
Two classifications o All active conductors
• Classification 1 : Three classes o In all consumer appliances
• Classification 2: Three types • Installations should be controlled by an appliance
• These two are different classification. that automatically cuts off the current when there
• Sometimes equipment can have both categories is a defect in the insulation.
same time Lamps:
Classification 1 • General lighting should be provided whose height
is not be less than 2.5 m (8 ft.) above ground
Class I Class II Class III
• Lamps should be covered with strong cover glass
• Lamps should be made water proof
Tunnels:
• Cables should be protected carefully
• Switches should be of the enclosed safety type
• Class III does not mean that it is entirely safe • Lamps fitted with a strong transparent protective
• It may directly causes heart problem cover
Classification 2 • Will be provided with a guard to withstand the
impact
Type CF (cardiac
• When the installation is supplied from a trolley
Type B Type B (body
floating) wire (catenary wire), lighting only limited to
floating)
roadways and immediate vicinity and in that case
o Protected by a fuse
o Insulated
o Earthed properly
Floodlights in tunnels:
Allows very • Should be installed at least 3m(10 ft.) high from the
Allows large amounts of shock little shock ground
current current • Shine through frosted glass (Translucent)
This symbol means Underground lighting:
Current shock when faulty defibrillation pads • All places should be adequately lit
connection • In addition, emergency lighting, to enable the
workers to reach the surface safely
5. General Safety Provisions
• Moving parts should be lit properly
All electric installations should be of
Transformers:
• Adequate size and characteristics
• Outdoor oil filled transforms should be at a place
o Strength
free from combustible materials
• On poles, should be placed at a height of 4.5 m (15

ft.) above the ground
• If it is less than 4.5 m, above the ground, should be
adequately enclosed by fencing or by other means.
Isolators:
• Circuit breakers: They shouldn’t be opened or
closed inadvertently by gravity or by mechanical
impact
• Fuses and circuit breakers should be marked
clearly with rated currents.
Connections:
• At points where conductors are joined, branched
or leading into apparatus, they should be
a) Mechanically protected (means screwing,
riveting etc.)
b) Properly and durably insulated
Handheld and portable apparatus:
• Supply to these should not exceed 250V
• Should be equipped with built in switch
• This switch should break the circuit automatically
when the tool is released by the hands
Electric trolley haulage:
Locomotives:
• Current collectors could be safety lowered and
locked from the locomotive driver cab
• Disconnecting device between the current
collector the rest of electrical equipment should be
provided
• Should be equipped with fire extinguishers of A
type which is safe for use on live conductors parts
Trolley lines and tracks:
• Conductors (wire) should not break
• Height = workers height + articles they many have
to carry
• In traffic places it should be above the vehicle
height
• Protected by automatic circuit- breaker
• Sectionalizing switches to make trolley wires dead
at suitable places
Inspection and Maintenance:
• At beginning of every shift, careful external
examination should be done.
• Before repair, conductors should not be live. And
they should not be switched on unless confirmed
by the repairing personnel.
• Conductors and equipment should be earthed and
short - circuited
• Electricians should be equipped with sufficient
tools
• All conductors and equipment should be
considered as live unless there is definite proof of
the contrary

6. Mobile Equipment
1. Scaffolds • Scaffolding may be assembled, dismantled or
Some scaffolds are designed to be moved. For example significantly altered only under the supervision of a
– tower scaffold competent person
Tower Scaffold 2. Ladders
It can be moved, dismantled and erected as required A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of rungs
or steps. The parts of a ladder are
1. Hand grip 5. Step
2. Extension 6. Rung
3. Platform 7. Step
4. Anti-splay device 8. Stile
Safety precautions The ladders can be rigid ladders, step ladders or rope
• ladders should preferably be slanting or, if vertical, ladders. The types of ladders most frequently used are
fitted with hoops stepladders and extension ladders. The type of ladder
• Access hatches to different levels should be offset should be chosen after a risk assessment taking into
• The scaffolding is moved without any workers on account factors such as:
the boards 1. The height and circumstances in which the work is
• The ground travelled is free of obstacles or to be performed;
irregularities 2. The working load to be allowed for;
• The wheels can be properly locked during work 3. Ergonomic constraints during use;
• The scaffolding is always well away from overhead 4. The presence of electric power lines or other
power lines or other installations installations liable to cause risks of electrocution
• Guard rails are never used to raise the work floor Safety Guidelines
• The method used to supply work materials to a • Suspended ladders must be attached in a secure
tower scaffold must not risk destabilising the manner
scaffold. • Portable ladders must rest on a stable, strong,
General scaffold safety guidelines suitably-sized, immobile footing so that the rungs
• Strength and stability calculations must be carried remain horizontal.
out unless the scaffolding is assembled in • The feet of portable ladders must be prevented
conformity with a generally recognised standard from slipping during use by securing the stiles at
configuration. or near their upper or lower ends, by any anti-slip
• The bearing components of scaffolding must be device or by any other arrangement of equivalent
prevented from slipping effectiveness.
• The load-bearing surface must have a sufficient • Ladders used for access must be long enough to
capacity. protrude sufficiently beyond the access platform
• It must be ensured that the scaffolding is stable. • Interlocking ladders and extension ladders must be
• There must be no dangerous gap between the deck used so that the different sections are prevented
components and the vertical collective safeguards from moving relative to one another.
to prevent falls • The ladder must never rest on a single stile.
7. Safety Regulations in India

Occupational health and safety (OH&S) for workers 4. The Building and Other Construction Workers
Union list - The regulation of labour and safety in mines (Regulation of Employment & Conditions of Service)
and oil fields Act, 1996
Concurrent list - Welfare of labour including conditions
• An Act to regulate the Employment and conditions
of work
of service of building and other construction
The Ministry of Labour, Government of India and
workers
Labour Departments of the States and Union
• Safe means of access to, and safety of any working
Territories are responsible for safety and health of
place, including the provision of suitable and
workers.
sufficient scaffolding at various stages
1. Legislations • Precautions to be taken in connection with the
The statutes relating to OH&S are broadly divided into demolition of the whole or any substantial part of
three:- a building or other structure
• Statutes for safety at workplaces • Handling or use of explosive
• Statutes for safety of substances • Erection, installation, use and maintenance of
• Statutes for safety of activities transporting equipment
At present, safety and health statutes for regulating • Erection, installation, use and maintenance of
OH&S of persons at work exist only in four sectors:- hoists, lifting appliances and lifting gear including
• Mining periodical testing and examination and heat
• Factories treatment, where necessary, precautions to be
• Ports taken while raising or lowering loads, restrictions
• Construction on carriage of persons
The 4 major legislations are:- • Adequate and suitable lighting
1. The Factories Act, 1948 • Precautions to be taken to prevent inhalation of
• It regulates health, safety, welfare and other dust, fumes, gases or vapours; adequate
working conditions of workers in factories. ventilation
• It is enforced by the State Governments through • Measures to be taken during stacking or
their factory inspectorates. unshackling, stowing or un-stowing of materials or
What is a factory? goods
Factory means any premises in which 20 or more • Safeguarding of machinery
workers are working and a manufacturing process is • Handling of tools and equipment operated by
carried on with the aid of power; any premises in which compressed air
40 or more workers are working and a manufacturing • Precautions to be taken in case of fire
process is carried on without the aid of power • Steps to be taken to prevent danger to workers
• Provisions Relating to Hazardous Processes are from live electric wires or apparatus including
added after the Bhopal tragedy electrical machinery and tools and from overhead
2. Mines Act, 1952 wires
• Safety and welfare of workers in the coal, • Keeping of safety nets, safety sheets and safety
metaliferous and oil mines. belts
• Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) • Standards to be complied with regard to
conducts inspections and inquiries, issues scaffolding, ladders and stairs, lifting appliances,
competency tests for the purpose of appointment ropes, chains and accessories, earth moving
to various posts in the mines. equipment and floating operational equipment
3. Dock Workers (Safety, Health & Welfare) Act, 1986 • Precautions to be taken with regard to pile driving,
• Health, safety and welfare of workers working in concrete work, work with hot asphalt, tar or other
ports/docks. similar things, insulation work, demolition
• It is administered by Director General Factory operations, excavation, underground construction
Advice Service and Labour Institutes(DGFASLI) and handling materials
• Lifting Appliances and Gear, Transport Equipment • Information to be furnished to the Bureau of Indian
and Operations, Handling of Cargo, Handling of Standards established under the Bureau of Indian
Dangerous Goods, Freight Container Terminals Standards Act, 1986 (63 of 1986), regarding the use
of any article or process covered under that Act

QUALITY PRACTICES
Chapters:
1. Total Quality Management
2. Statistical Quality Control
3. Six Sigma
4. Inventory Control
5. Just in Time
6. Reliability
7. Quality in Manufacturing
8. Quality in Construction
9. Inspection and Auditing

1. Industrial Engineering and Management by Dr. Ravi Shankar
2. NPTEL Lectures

1. Total Quality Management

1. Introduction to TQM 2.Features These are special features
Total quality management (TQM) is a very popular (secondary)which appeals to customers
term which goes with the culture of many Example : design of seats in car, color
manufacturing and service sectors. Many organizations of refrigerator, etc.
are trying to adopt (TQM) as a way of life
What does ‘total’ stand for? 3.Durability It is the time duration or amount of use
It means involvement of all aspects of the organization before being replaced or repaired
is satisfying the customer. For example, in a car
company , there are various departments and
4.Reliability Likelihood of breakdown, repair or
components.
expected time of fault – free operation
5.Serviceability Convenience and cost of repair and

maintenance and is related to case in
resolving the customer complaints
6.Appearance Look, taste, smell, sound or any other

effect which is felt by human sciences.
Example: noise of refrigerator
1. Partnership at every stage 7.Uniformity Limited variations among different

• Within organisation products of same type.
o within bounds of organisation
• Outside of organisation 8.Consistency Conformance with standard, matching
o Customer and with documentation, being on time,
o Supplier/vender conformance etc.
Outside organisation: 9.Safety Harmless from health and environment
For successful customer- supplier relations point of view
1. Mutual trust 10.Time Waiting time, completion time for
2. Supplier requirements service
3. Customer satisfaction 11.Customer After sales service, treatment received
What does ‘Quality’ means? service during or before sales
Quality is what customer wants. It is the customer's
perception about the degree to which the product or 12.Compatibility Compatibility of products/services with
service meets his/her exceptions. Therefore quality is existing or standard interfaces,
defined by customer needs and exception. Like beauty, peripherals or other attachments,
quality lies in the eyes of the beholder. power source, etc.
Who will decide Quality? Quality generally signifies “excellence “of a
Customer or end user will decide quality. The customer product or service. Example of product is the item
evaluation depends on those factors marketplace and which a customer use such as car, house etc.
competition in market Services are like hospital, bank, post office etc.
2. Dimensions of Quality 3. Customer Requirements
Some dimensions of quality are given in the table In the context of TQM customer are of two types
Dimension Description 1) Internal customer
1.Performance It is the primary operating 2) External customer
characteristics which determines how Internal customer - Inside the business system, one
well the product or service performs employee uses the output of other employee. In
the intended function assembly line, as assembly moves it changes hands.
Example: Durability of batteries, Fuel One department may also be internal customer of
economy of cars, BHP of Engine etc. another.
The linkages of internal and external customers from
the quality chain is shown in figure.
2. Statistical Quality Control

Quality is what customer wants o Poor raw material supplied by new supplier
• So industrial engineer and operations manager • These variations are sporadic (uncommon),
tries to meet customer needs both in product and uncontrollable, assignable and specific
services • In such case, the process is called ‘out of control’
• SQC is one of the seven QC tools in the TQM Chance variations causes about 85% of the problems in
Statistical Quality Control mainly deals with the the process and assignable variations account about
processing section. The SQC concept is given by Walter 15% of the problems
Shewhart in Bell labs How to reduce them:
Chance variables:
• Reduced by changing the process, can be done
through management efforts
o E.g.: Better procurement of materials
Product process
o Better training to operators
o controlled environment to arrest any
environmental changes
Assignable variables:
In this SQC, we mainly deals with 3 sections • Controlling the process with proper identification
• Process control & rectification of causes
• Quality assurance /Acceptance plan • Workers responsibility - because they work close to
• Operating Characteristic (OC) Curve the machines and can understand the problems
1. Process Control Control charts will be used to identify the assignable
Process control is implemented during the processing variations
of any product in the industry. This deals with the 2. Control Charts
possible variation that will be occurred during the i). For variables
process. • X chart
What is a process? • R chart
Variation is deviation from the standard procedure • Or S Chart
that have been already established in the ii). For attributes
manufacturing. • P chart
There are two types of variations in the process • Np chart
i) Chance variations • C chart
ii) Variations due to assignable causes • U chart
Chance variations: Variable data: measured value of the product
They occur in random manner characteristics
• We can do only very little to control them • E.g.: length, weight, diameter, temperature etc.
• Due to aggregation of many relatively small factors • Also called as continuous data
in small degrees Attribute data: (quality or feature) or property (like
• E.g.: good/bad)
o Quality of raw materials → we can have E.g.: Proportion or fraction of defective (or deviations)
control, but sometimes bad materials may be type
supplied • P chart: fraction defective or good/ bad type
o performance of operators • C chart: number of defectives per unit
o Minor changes in environment etc. (single defects not significant but the bulk)
• These are chance governed and random E.g.: Want to cut big steel rod into small steel rods
• If the process shows these variations, they can be length 10 cm. We take some samples to see whether
called statistical “in- control” these dimensions are under the required length limits
(ii) Variations due to assignable causes If the cutting lengths are under limiting values, then we
• Responsibility can be pinpointed and so can be can say that process is under control
rectified Variable control charts
• Not random and are relatively large variations • The parameters used are mean, range, standard
• E.g.: deviation (distribution of values from the mean)
o Poor surface finish due to worn-cut tool • Factors for computing the controlling limits
4. Inventory Control
1. Introduction 2. Inventory stages
Inventory control(IC) is nothing but reduction of the
back end wastages for manufacturing.
Inventory: Any resource that contain value and can be
used in later time (when needed).
a. Stock of goods Supplie Plant Warehouse Customer
• Raw materials e.g.:- steel for car company r
Conflicting Goals of inventory:
• Semi-finished goods eg:- tyre, rim, etc 1.a) Purchasing Department:
• Finished goods, e.g.:- cars, vehicles for exporting • They do bulk purchase which increases inventories
b. Manpower 1.b) Finance Department:
• Recruitment in service industries • They oppose bulk purchases to reduce inventories
Role of IC in quality control • They try to reduce expenditure
Inventory is needed 2.a) Production department:
• Not only in manufacturing but also in the other • They want few steps or maximum production at
fields like services. E.g.: Software company one go that results in more inventory
recruiting more people anticipating more projects; 2.b) Control Department:-
House wife keeping stock of food items. • They want less WIP (work in progress) which
• To meet anticipated demand. Because customers reduces inventory
behaviour is not predictable and inventory serve as 3.a) Sales Department:
a buffer to the anticipated demand. • They want to meet demand
• To guard against stock-out situation • More inventory is needed to meet customer
• To ensure smooth flow of production. Because satisfaction
customer satisfaction depends on timely 3.b) Warehouse Department:
availability of the product. • They opposes more production to decrease
Why to control inventory? inventory
Poor management plan result in more expense due to Diagrammatically these all conflicts can be illustrated
costs of as:-
• Warehouse, land
• Employees
• Maintenance like corrosion etc
Due to above, inventories increase cost of
manufacturing and our main aim is to achieve zero
inventory. So inventory should be controlled.
• Any form of inventory is a sign of inefficiency
• It speaks about failure of the planning or
mismanagement
• Inventory control is a direct saving in operational
cost
E.g.: maintaining facilities (stocking facilities)
The level of inventory may be reduced by 3. Different Costs in Inventory Control
• Better planning and control Inventory costs depends on
• Continuous monitoring of stock • Time
• Reliable venders • Quantity of procurement
• Just-in time concepts 1) Unit cost of inventory
Cost incurred in inventory are • Price paid to supplier for procuring one unit of the
• Cost incurred in periodic checking inventory
• Depreciation of the materials • But this is irrelevant as it is neither dependent on
• Chances of theft and losses in store time nor quantity of order
• But if the discount on bulk purchase is available,
unit cost of inventory reduces
2) Ordering cost(Co) or Set up cost
• Cost associated with placement of an order for
acquisition of inventories
9. Inspection and Auditing

1. Introduction to Inspection 2. Inspection at Different Stages
Why quality control? In any industry the stages can be divided into three
Manufacturing process is a stages – Input, Conversion Process and Outputs.
• Repetitive process INPUTS CONVERSION OUTPUTS
• The defects will be inevitable depending on both RAW MATERIAL, PRODUCTION PRODUCT AND
o Controllable and PARTS AND PROCESSESS SERVICES
SUPPLIES
o Non - controllable factors.
This produces deviation in the quality of the product.
QC is the process of
• Verification or correction of the quality of the CONTROL CHARTS CONTROL CONTROL
AND ACCEPTANCE CHARTS CHARTS AND
product, when deviations are found to be more PLANS ACCEPTANCE
than expected. PLANS
What is Quality Inspection? QUALITY OF QUALITY OF PARTIALLY QUALITY OF
The ISO 2859 standard defines inspection as an INPUTS PROCESSED PRODUCTS OUTPUTS
“activity such as measuring, examining, testing or
gauging one or more characteristics of a product or
service, and comparing the results with specified Inspection at different stages
requirements in order to establish whether conformity a) Pre - production inspection
is achieved for each characteristic”. b) In - process stage
c) Pre - shipment stage
Effect of Inspection at different stages
Stage Prevent Check and correct Cost(1:10 Cost Time consequences

errors errors :100) consequences
Design/ Good and x1 Best option Best option
Development standard
design
Early review of x1 Very low cost May cause slight delay
design and
technical issues
Production/ Quality x10 More expensive Good option
Implementati assurance &
on Good
production
Quality control x10 Expenditure can Delays if repair is
after production balloon necessary
Delivery to Replace bad x100 Very high cost
customer products
Bad product with x100 loss of future
customer business
The sooner we eliminate errors, the better • It means each error will cost 10 times more (in
The 1:10:100 ration rupees and in time) in production than it would to
• Many studies across all industries have x in development and 100 times more if the error
demonstrated that there is a cost and time ratio for actually reaches the customer.
Development: Production: Delivery of 1:10:100: That’s why checking quality at the starting itself is the
best option.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Chapters
1. Geometrical Construction
2. Scales
3. Engineering Curves
4. Orthographic Projections of Lines and Points
5. Projection of Planes
6. Projection of Solids
7. Development of Surfaces
8. Miscellaneous Topics

1. NPTEL Lectures
2. Engineering Drawing by N D Bhatt

= g. A × 'J/b/0+( (30b,ℎ '* ,ℎ3 'k~32, • Divide the first part A0 into 10 equal divisions.
1 • At A draw a perpendicular and step-off along it 10
= × 5 × 10
4 equal divisions, ending at D.
= 12.5 2-
• Draw a scale length of 12,5 cm and divide it into 5 Complete the rectangle ABCD.
equal parts. • Draw perpendiculars at meter-divisions i.e. 1, 2, 3,
• Again, subdivide the first part into 10 parts and and 4.
each part represents 1 cm • Draw horizontal lines through the division points
Marking 3.4 dm on AD. Join D with the end of the first division along
3.4 x- = 3 x- + 0.4 x-
A0 (i.e. 9).
= 3 x- + 4 2-
• Through the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6,…draw
3.4 dm
lines parallel to D9.
Marking of 3.65 meters
3.65 m = 3 m + 0.6 m + 0.05 m
1 2 3 4 = 3 m + 6 dm + 5 cm
0
cm • select 3 marking on the main scale divisions.
• Select 6th division on the dm scale
dm
• select 5th line on the cm scale, and mark the
4. Diagonal Scale intersection point of dm and cm scale division
• Through Diagonal scale, measurements can be up lines.
to second decimal.
• Diagonal scales are used to measure distances in a
unit and its immediate two subdivisions; e.g. dm,
cm & mm, or yard, foot & inch.
• Diagonal scale can measure more accurately than P
3.65 Q
the plain scale.
cm
5. Vernier Scale:
1 2 3 4
dm m • Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for
measuring up to second decimal.
Division of diagonal line into equal parts
• Since the triangles are similar; 1’1 = 0.1 AB, 2’2 = • A Vernier scale consists of
o (i) a primary scale and
0.2AB, …. 9’9 = 0.9AB.
• Gives divisions of a given short line AB in multiples o (ii) a Vernier.
of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc. • The primary scale is a plain scale fully divided in to
minor divisions.
• The graduations on the Vernier are derived from
those on the Least count (LC) is the minimum
distance that can be measured.
Forward Vernier Scale:
MSD>VSD; LC = MSD-VSD
Backward Vernier scale:
VSD>MSD; LC = VSD – MSD
VSD = Vernier scale division
Example 4: R.F = 3:200. Show meters, decimeters and MSD = main scale reading
centimeters on the diagonal scale which can measure Construction of Vernier scale:
maximum length of 6m. Represent 3.65 on the scale
Answer:
Length of the scale = (3/200) x 6 m = 9 cm
• Draw a line AB = 9 cm. Divide it in to 6 equal parts.
3. Engineering Curves
1. Conic Sections circumference of the cone base Ü = 2MJ = . ----(2)
• By cutting a cone at any cutting plane, we get where r = radius of the cone base
different conic curves from eqs (1) and (2); u =
:[\

|
\
Conic sections Vertex = | × 2M in radians
\ 9=j
Generator = | × 2M × [
s J
⇒ u = × 360n
Base circle (
Right circular cone here q = angle in the sector
l = slant length of the cone
E.g. Parabola, hyperbola and ellipse r = radius of the cone base
• Right circular cone is a cone that has a circular base example:
and the axis is inclined at 900 to the base and If the development of the lateral surface of a cone is a
passes through the center of the base. semicircle then,
• Conic sections are always "smooth". More 1. The slant height of cone < diameter of the base of
precisely, they never contain any inflection points. cone
• This is important for many applications, such as 2. The slant height of cone > diameter of the base of
aerodynamics, civil engg., mechanical engg, etc. cone
How to create a cone? 3. The slant height of cone = diameter of the base of
cone
a. By rotating a right-angled triangle about the fixed
4. The slant height of cone = radius of the base of
side cone.
Answer:
Fixed Axis
θ l
L
Rotation about S
fixed side sector Cone
b. By folding a sector which form a cone. J

u = × 360n
(
But given that q =180 o
J
θ l ⇒ 180n = × 360n
l (
⇒ ( = 2J = x
Option (3)
S
Example 2: If a thread is wound around a cone, starting
Cone
sector from a point on the base, and brought back to the same
from the sector, sector length point, then the shortest possible length of the thread is
. = (u ---- (1) equal to the
+0b(3 /0 ,ℎ3 .32,'J u =
ß A. diameter of the base of the cone
| B. Slant height of the cone
From the cone C. Largest chord of the development sector
D. Sector length

• When a prism is placed on HP with its axis inclined Suspended solids:

to it, then it will lie either on one of its base edges The line joining the point of hanging(attachment to the
or on one of its corners on HP. support) and the centroid of that solid is always
• When a pyramid is placed on HP with its axis vertical.
inclined to HP, then we will have one of its base So its advisable to remember the centroids of some of
edges on HP or one of its base corners on HP or one the common solids
of its slant edges on HP or one of its triangular faces
on HP or an apex on HP.
6. Solid with Axis Inclined to Both the RPs
Methods of drawing the projections of solids
Two methods
1. Change of position method - the solids are placed
first in the simple position and then tilted successively
in two or three stages to obtain the final position.
2. Auxiliary plane method (Change of reference-line
method) – the solids are placed initially in the simple
position and then one or two auxiliary planes are setup
to obtain the views in the required position.
Example 1:
A cube of 30 mm side rests with one of its edges on HP
such that one of the square faces containing that edge
is inclined at 30o to HP and the edge on which it rests
being inclined to 60o to VP. Draw its projections.
Answer:
step 1: first keep the cube in such a way that its axis is
perpendicular to the horizontal plane and one of its
side is parallel to the hinge line
step 2: rotate the front view such a way that one of its
side make an angle 30o with the horizontal plane. Draw
the corresponding projections in both front and top
views
step 3: Now rotate the top view of the projection until
the axis makes an angle 60o with the vertical plane
Now draw the final projections in both front and top
views that represents the final position of the cube.
a1(d’) a d
a'(d’) b1(c1 b'(c’)
c’
b
30
a1(d1) d
a
VP 30o
X H Y
a1(d1) b 1(d1)
1
b'(c’) b c' 60o
Y
d1
(c1)
d(d1) c(c1) d c d
d (c’)
1
a
30
' a c
a a (b1)
a(a1) b(b1) (b1) b
1
b

8. Miscellaneous Topics
1. Axonometric Projection • For the long axis isometric, the viewpoint is looking
• The axonometric projection is produced by from the right or from the left of the object, and
multiple parallel lines of sight perpendicular to the one axis is drawn at 60° to the horizontal.
plane of projection, with the observer at infinity
and the object rotated about an axis to produce a
2. Isometric Projection & Drawing
• Isometric drawings are almost always preferred
pictorial view
over isometric projection for engineering
• Axonometric projection - is a parallel projection
drawings, because they are easier to produce.
technique used to create a pictorial drawing of an
object by rotating the object on an axis relative to
a projection or picture plane.
• The differences between a multiview drawing and
an axonometric drawing are that,
o in a multiview, only two dimensions of an
Isometric projection Full scale Isometric
object are visible in each view and more
82% of ful scale drawing
than one view is required to define the
object; whereas,
• The forward tilt of the cube causes the edges and
o in an axonometric drawing, the object is
planes of the cube to become shortened as it is
rotated about an axis to display all three
projected onto the picture plane.
dimensions, and only one view is required.
Isometric projection
Y
4
X
_
i 300 300
Isometric drawing
approximately 20%
larger
Z
Isometric view is as below • The lengths of the projected lines are equal to the
X cosine of 35o 16’, or 0.81647 times the true length.
In other words, the projected lengths are
1200
Y
approximately 82% of the true lengths.
o A drawing produced using a scale of 0.816
1200
1200 is called as isometric projection and is a
true representation of the object.
o However, if the drawing is produced using
full scale, it is called an isometric drawing,
Z which is the same proportion as an
Isometric Views isometric projection, but is larger by a
Isometric axes can be positioned in a number of ways factor of 1.23 to 1.
• Isometric scale is produced by positioning a regular
to create different views of the same object.
scale at 45 ° to the horizontal and projecting lines
• In a regular isometric, the axes at 30! to the
vertically to a 30o line.
horizontal are drawn upward from the horizontal.
• For the reversed axis isometric, the viewpoint is
looking up on the bottom of the object, and the 30!
Axes are drawn downward from the horizontal.
C1 rectangle. A–B–1 represents the isometric view of

the triangle.
C
C
300 45
0
1
A B 1
D C
D
B
D
D1
60 0
E G
45 0
B 300
A 30
300 300 A
X X Triangle (a)
F
C
¬.'-3,J/2 ~30b,ℎ 2'. 45n D
¬.'-3,J/2 .2+(3 = = 1 1
øJ13 ~30b,ℎ 2'.30n D
9 √D √: C B
= ÷ = = 0.8165 = 82% +HHJ'a/-+,3(Å A
√: : √D
30 0
300
300
¬.'-3,/2 ~30b,ℎ = 0.82 × øJ13 ~30b,ℎ (b) A
B
3. Isometric Views of Standard Shapes
(c)
a) Square
• Consider a square ABCD with a 30 mm side shown
in Fig. If the square lies in the vertical plane, it will
appear as a rhombus with a 30 mm side in
isometric view as shown in Fig, depending on its
orientation, i.e., right-hand vertical face or left-
hand vertical face. If the square lies in the
horizontal plane (like the top face of a cube), it will
appear as in Fig.(c). The sides AB and AD, both, are
inclined to the horizontal reference line at 30°.
D C C
D
B
300
A B
30 A
Square (a)
C C
B D
B
300
D
300
30 0
A A
(b) (c)
b) Triangle
• First enclose the triangle in rectangle ABCD. Obtain
parallelogram ABCD for the rectangle as shown in
Fig. (a) or (b) or (c). T
• hen locate point 1 in the parallelogram such that
C–1 in the parallelogram is equal to C–1 in the


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2. Types of Deformation .................................................... 42

2. Crystalline Solids ............................................... 17 8. Magnetic Property ............................................ 54

7. Addition Polymerization ............................................. 79 1. Basic Definitions ........................................................... 105

2. Stress Distribution: ...................................................... 140 SAFETY ................................................................... 165

18. Clutches ........................................................... 153 4. Safety in Construction ................................... 182

3. Six Sigma ........................................................... 218 ENGINEERING DRAWING ................................. 240

2. Plane is Perpendicular to the HP and Parallel to

6. Projection of Solids ........................................ 261

7. Development of Surfaces ............................. 264

8. Miscellaneous Topics .................................... 267

Reference Books and Materials

Practice Questions: Adapala’s Practice Questions Booklet

Current Affairs: Hyperloop (www:iesgeneralstudies.com/downloads/)

r = sphere radius of the atom :

2. Different Crystal Types Based on Lattice Parameters

Crystal Name Lattice parameters Representation Example

Hexagonal + = k ≠ 2 Zn, Co, Cd, Mg,

given BCC crystal √:

Answer: 1. Take any face in FCC crystal

• These two crystal structures may be described in Ceramic Crystal Structures

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 104

= Ë(A: + A9 2'.u): + (A9 ./0u):

Answer: The free body diagram for the given figure is

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 106

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 107

Example 2: Centroid of a hollow sections y

For semicircular (hollow region) G A

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 114

To find out moment inertia about any axis following M M

II) Then find the moment of inertia passing through

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 115

Example.5: Moment of inertia of planar body with a) Along AC at a height of 3 cm from DC

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 116

15. Strain Energy

Reference Books and Materials

Practice Questions: Adapala’s Practice Questions Booklet

Current Affairs: Hyperloop (www:iesgeneralstudies.com/downloads/)

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 165

Earth No complete circuit here, so no shock

As in the figure, when a person standing on the earth

Circuit breakers (Trip switches)

• Providing insulation around the equipment like

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 171

• On poles, should be placed at a height of 4.5 m (15

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7. Safety Regulations in India

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Reference Books and Materials

Practice Questions: Adapala’s Practice Questions Booklet

Current Affairs: Hyperloop (www:iesgeneralstudies.com/downloads/)

www.adapala-academy.com wwww.iesgeneralstudies.com 202

1. Total Quality Management

5.Serviceability Convenience and cost of repair and

6.Appearance Look, taste, smell, sound or any other

1. Partnership at every stage 7.Uniformity Limited variations among different

2. Statistical Quality Control

9. Inspection and Auditing

Effect of Inspection at different stages