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Hodiedah University

Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

1. Petroleum Engineering
Engineering is the profession in which knowledge of mathematical and
natural sciences gained by study, experience and practice applied with
judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and
forces of nature for the benefit of mankind. Engineers are persons, who,
due to their special knowledge and the use of mathematical, physical and
engineering sciences and the principles and methods of engineering
analysis and design, acquired by education and experience, are qualified
to practice engineering.

However, the most useful approach is to simply regard the engineer as a


doer, a problem solver, who applies science and technology to solve the
problems and meet the needs of society. The engineer is an innovator and
creator of new products and processes aimed at solving problems in a
practical and economic fashion.

The engineer’s role is to bridge the gap between an idea and its physical
reality by solving problems that exist between the two extremes, very
often with little to guide him except intuition. This we have called the
“creativity gap”. The tools of engineer are the scientific principles that
have formulated about the behavior of universe and its contents. Laws of
motion, thermodynamics and matter are among the tools that permit
engineer to fashion a workable solution to a problem.

Petroleum Engineers combine chemistry, physics and geology with


engineering methods in the development, recovery and field processing
of petroleum. They are concerned with finding deposits of oil and gas in
quantities suitable for commercial use and with the economic extraction
of these materials from the ground. The petroleum engineer will design
methods for transporting oil and gas to suitable processing plants or to
places where they will be used.

The petroleum engineer must be able to make dependable estimates of


the initial hydrocarbons in place in a reservoir and predict the future
reservoir performance and the ultimate hydrocarbon recovery from the
reservoir.

Dr. A. A. Kadi 1 Introductory Remark and Definitions


Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

The function of petroleum engineering is to provide a basis for the design


and implementation of techniques to recover commercial quantities of
natural petroleum. It is of necessity to broadly based technology drawing
upon the foundations of engineering, geology, mathematics, physics,
chemistry, economics and geo-statistics.

2. History of Petroleum
Petroleum, in various forms, is not a recent discovery. It is not known
exactly when humankind first used petroleum. It is known, however, that
ancient peoples worshipped sacred fires that were fuelled by natural gas
seeping to the surface through pores and cracks. More than four
thousand years ago, bitumen from natural seepages was employed in the
construction of the walls and towers of Babylon. Ancient writings tablets
indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in various societies.

In terms of recovery, the earliest known wells was drilled in China in 347
BC to depths of 800 feet (240 meters) and were drilled using bits attached
to bamboo poles. Asphalt, also used as an embalming age for mummies
and in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids around 3,000 BC.
Petroleum's usefulness, so it seems, recognized from the very beginnings
of civilization.

Petroleum's importance to humankind took a giant leap in the late 1800's


when it replaced coal as the primary fuel for the machines of the
industrial revolution. In today's industrialized society, petroleum means
power. It provides the mechanical power to run machines and industries
and the political power that comes from being able to shut down the
machines and industries of those who depend on you for their oil supply.

The use of petroleum in the Middle East was established by the 8th
century, when the streets of the newly constructed Baghdad were paved
with the nonvolatile residue derived from accessible petroleum and
seepages (particularly Hit) in the region. In the 9th century, petroleum
was distilled at Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha, which formed the
basis of the incendiary Greek fire.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

The earliest mention of American petroleum occurs in Sir Walter


Raleigh’s documentation of the Trinidad Asphalt Lake (also called the
Trinidad Pitch Lake) in 1595.

In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a science professor at Yale University in New


Haven, Connecticut, followed some of the work by Arabic alchemists and
fractionated petroleum by distillation. Discoveries such as this rapidly
spread around the world, and the first Russian refinery was built in the
then-mature oil fields at Baku in 1861; at the time, about 90% of the
world’s oil was produced at Baku.

The first commercial oil well drilled in North America was in Oil Springs,
Ontario, Canada, in 1858 by James Miller Williams. The U.S. petroleum
industry began with Edwin Drake’s drilling of a 69-foot (21-meter) oil
well in 1859 at Oil Creek, near Titusville, Pennsylvania, for the Seneca Oil
Company. The well originally yielded 25 barrels per day, and by the end
of the first year, output was at the rate of 15 barrels per day.

The industry grew through the 1800s, driven by the demand for kerosene
and for oil lamps. Petroleum refining became even more popular,
perhaps essential, in the early part of the 20th century with the
introduction of the internal combustion engine, which provided a
demand that has largely sustained the industry during the past 100 years.

By 1910, significant oil fields had discovered and developed at an


industrial level in Canada, the Dutch East Indies (1885, in Sumatra), Iran,
(1908, in Masjid Suleiman), Venezuela, and Mexico. Until the mid-1950s,
coal was still the world’s foremost fuel, but oil quickly took over.

The 1973 and 1979 energy crises brought to light the concern that oil is a
limited resource that will diminish, at least as an economically viable
energy source. At the time, the most common and popular predictions
were spectacularly dire.

Petroleum’s uses as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast


majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals make it
one of the world’s most important commodities. Access to it was a major

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

factor in several military conflicts, including World War II and the more
recent wars in the Persian Gulf.
Approximately 80% of the world’s readily accessible reserves of
conventional petroleum are located in the Middle East, with the majority
in Saudi Arabia.

With oil prices of 50 dollars per barrel or more, ((in spite of oil at a high of
$147 per barrel during the summer of 2008) since some of the most
prolific basins (e.g., Mexico’s Cantrell oil field) have begun to experience
reduced production rates and are reaching or have reached maturity. At
the same time, the world’s demand for oil continues to grow every year,
fueled in part by the rapidly growing economies of China and India. The
declining availability of conventional oil combined with rising demand
has driven up oil prices and put more pressure on the search for alternate
energy sources.

Venezuela and Canada have substantial reserves of heavy oil and tar
sand bitumen that are sufficient to shift the balance of petroleum reserves
from the Middle East to the Americas. Synthetic diesel (syndiesel) from
natural gas and biological sources (biodiesel, ethanol) has also become
commercially viable. These sources may eventually more than triple the
potential reserves of hydrocarbon fuels.

With the price of oil reaching new highs, investments in these more
challenging reservoirs are rapidly accelerating. The worldwide
importance of heavy oils will continue to emerge as the price of oil
remains high and the demand for it remains strong.

Today oil and gas is produced in almost every part of the world, from
small 100 barrel a day small private wells, to large bore 4000 barrel a day
wells; In shallow 20 meters deep reservoirs to 3000 meter deep wells in
more than 2000 meters water depth; In 10.000 dollar onshore wells to 10
billion dollar offshore developments.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

3 Classification of Crude Oil


3.1 Classification as a hydrocarbon resource
Petroleum is refer to generically as a fossil energy resource and is further
classified as a hydrocarbon resource and, for illustrative (or comparative)
purposes in this text, coal and oil shale kerogen have also been included
in this classification. However, the inclusion of coal and oil shale under
the bro ad classification of hydrocarbon resources has required
(incorrectly) that the term hydrocarbon be expanded to include the
macromolecular non hydrocarbon hetero atomic specie s that constitute
coal and oil shale kerogen. Use of the term organic sediment s would be
more correct (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Subdivision of the earth’s organic sediments.

The inclusion of coal and oil shale kerogen in the category hydrocarbon
resources is because these two natural resources (coal and oil shale
kerogen) will produce hydrocarbons on high-temperature processing.
Therefore, if coal and oil shale kerogen are to be included in the term
hydrocarbon resources, it is more appropriate that they be classed as
hydrocarbon-producing resources under the general classification of
organic sediments (Figure 1.2).

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

FIGURE 1.2 Classification of the earth’s organic sediments according to hydrocarbon


occurrence and production.

Thus, fossil energy resources divide into two classes: (1) naturally
occurring hydrocarbons (petroleum, natural gas, and natural waxes), and
(2) hydrocarbon sources (oil shale and coal) which may be made to
generate hydrocarbons by the application of conversion processes.
The mineral waxes, such as ozocerite, can also be shown on this scheme
(Figure 1.2), but because of their character (solid), fall at the lower end of
the scale.
In summary, the classification of petroleum and natural gas as naturally
occurring mixtures of hydrocarbons occurs by virtue of the fact that they
can separated into their original hydrocarbon constituents that not have
altered by any applied process. The hydrocarbon constituents, separated
from petroleum and natural gas, are the hydrocarbon constituents that
existed in the reservoir. Naturally, occurring hydrocarbons are major
contributors to the composition of petroleum and natural gas. Coal and
kerogen do not enjoy this means of separation and methods of thermal
decomposition must applied before hydrocarbons are produced. In
addition, these hydrocarbon products, generated by the thermal process,
are not naturally occurring hydrocarbons.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

3.2 Classification by Chemical Composition


Composition refers to the specific mixture of chemical compounds that
constitute petroleum. The composition of these materials is related to the
nature and mix of the organic material that generated the hydrocarbons.
Composition is also subject to the influence of natural processes such as
migration (movement of oil from source rock to reservoir rock),
biodegradation (alteration by the action of microbes), and water washing
(effect of contact with water flowing in the subsurface) upon that
composition. Thus, petroleum is the result of the metamorphosis of
natural products as a result of chemical and physical changes imparted
by the prevailing conditions at a particular locale.

In general, all chemical compounds found in nature are classified as


either organic or inorganic. Organic compounds are those that contain
carbon; and one condition in this classification is that the carbon atoms
must be covalently bonded to some of the other atoms in the molecule.
An important group within the organic family of compounds is the
hydrocarbons, which are compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen
only. Hydrocarbon molecules range in size and complexity from simple
methane (CH4) to asphaltene containing hundreds of carbon atoms.

Petroleum is a general term for all naturally occurring hydrocarbons,


whether gaseous, liquid, or solid. It is both simple and complex and is
composed almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen. Impurities like,
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen play a somewhat important role in the
formation of hydrocarbon molecules. A hydrocarbon molecule is a chain
of one or more carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms chemically bonded to
them. At room temperature and pressure, molecules with up to four
carbon atoms occur as gases; molecules having five to fifteen carbon
atoms are liquids; and the heavier molecules with more than fifteen
carbon atoms occur as solids. A thick black asphalt and yellow light crude
are examples of two varieties of petroleum with different molecular
weights.

Some petroleum contains hydrocarbon molecules with up to sixty or


seventy carbon atoms. The molecular structure of hydrocarbons can vary

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

from simple straight chains to more complex branched chains or closed-


ring structures. When the chain is between 5 and 9 carbons, the
hydrocarbon is gasoline. About a dozen carbons and it is diesel. Around
20 carbons is motor oil. A chain of hundreds to thousands of carbon and
hydrogen make plastic. This particular plastic is polyethylene.

Crude oils obtained from different oil reservoirs have widely different
characteristics. Some are black, heavy, and thick like tar, and others are
brown or nearly clear with low viscosity and low specific gravity. The
hydrocarbons found in subsurface formations are made up of five
important elements and can be found in different states.

Element % by wt. Element Oil Asphalt Kerogen


Carbon 84 - 87 Carbon 84.5 84 79
Hydrogen 11 - 14 Hydrogen 13 10 6
Sulphur 0.06 – 2.0 Sulphur 1.5 3 5
Nitrogen 0.1 – 2.0 Nitrogen 0.5 1 2
Oxygen 0.1 – 2.0 Oxygen 0.5 2 8
Table 1-1 Elemental Analysis Table 1-2: Elemental Composition of Oil,
of Typical Crude Oils Asphalt and Kerogen

Table 1.3 Hydrocarbons


Specific
Carbons

Formula

Point ºC
Boiling

Point ºC
Melting

State
Normal

Gravity0
API
Compound Gravity
(Density)

Methane C1 CH4 -161 -182.5 Gas


Ethane C2 C2H6 -88 -183.3 Gas
Propane C3 C3H8 -46 -189.7 Gas 0.51 146
Butane C4 C4H10 -1 -138.4 Liquid 0.58 112
Pentane C5 C5H12 36.1 129.7 Liquid 0.626 95
Hexane C6 C6H14 68.7 -95.3 Liquid 0.658 84
Heptane C7 C7H16 98.4 -90.6 Liquid 0.682 76
Octane C8 C8H18 125.7 -56.6 Liquid 0.702 70
Nonane C9 C9H20 150.8 -53.5 Liquid 0.717 66
Decane C10 C10H22 174.1 -29.7 Liquid 0.728 63
Kerosene C12-C16 200-300 Liquid 0.79 47
Distillate Fuel C15-C18 Up t0 360 Liquid 0.82 41
Lubricating Oils C16-C20 350 up Liquid 0.89 27
Residual Fuel C20&up Semisolid 0.93 21
Oil and Grease
Pitch and Tar C26&up Residue 1.2 -14
Petroleum C26&up Residue 1.35 -27
Coke

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Table 1.4 Typical crude oil fractions


Crude Fractions Boiling Chemical Use
Point, F Composition
Hydrocarbon gas C1 – C4 Natural gas, bottled fuel gas,
Petroleum ether To 160 C5 – C6 Solvent, paint thinner, cleaner
Gasoline 160 – 400 C7 – C8 Motor fuel, solvent
Kerosene 400 – 575 C10 – C16 Illuminating oil, diesel fuel, jet
fuel
Light gas oil 575 – 850 C16 – C30 Lubricating oil, mineral oil,
cracking stock
Heavy gas oil 850 – 1100 C30 – C50 Lubricating oil, bunker fuel
Residue 1200+ C80+ Tars, asphalts, roofing
compounds

As shown in table 1.3, the number of carbons increases, the molecular


structure can get more complicated. Possible arrangements other than
straight chains arise in these larger molecules, including side branches
and rings. In fact, there are around 300,000 natural hydrocarbon
compounds. There are several interesting patterns in Table 1.3 worth
noting. First, as the number of carbon atoms increases, the state of the
compound goes from gas to liquid to semi-solid or solid.

At the same time, the boiling points and melting points tend to rise. In
addition, perhaps most obviously, the molecules get bigger, resulting in
the product getting denser. This brings us to the most basic method of
classification of hydrocarbons, by what casually called their ‘weight’, or,
more accurately, their density. The smaller molecules known as ‘light’
hydrocarbons, while the larger molecules known as ‘heavy’
hydrocarbons. Engineers in the oil industry could measure the density of
hydrocarbons using specific gravity, which is simply the weight of some
volume of the compound divided by the weight of an equal volume of
water (or, equivalently, number of kilograms per liter). In these cases,
engineers generally use the American Petroleum Institute (API) Gravity
scale, which for some obscure reason uses a unit of degrees, and defined
to be:

The formula implies that water has an API gravity of 10° and that as the
product gets lighter, the API gravity increases. Since most oil and oil
products are lighter than water, they have an API gravity greater than

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

10°. There is one more important trend to note in Table 1.3. The third
column shows that, as the number of carbon atoms increase, the ratio of
hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms tends to decrease from 4:1 to around 2:1.
Since the carbon atoms oxidize into carbon dioxide when they burn,
while the hydrogen atoms oxidize into water vapor, this explains why
heavier fuels tend to have higher emissions of carbon dioxide per unit of
energy than lighter fuels.

The third column stops after C10 because there are many alternative
molecular structures for these larger molecules, but the trend to lower
hydrogen to carbon ratios continues. The heavier hydrocarbons tend to
contain ring structures, with hydrogen to carbon ratios closer to 1:1.

Coal, the heaviest of the hydrocarbons, contains many of these rings, and
may have a ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the 1.2 to 1.0 range. Since the
composition of crude oil varies greatly from field to field, the price of
crude oil also varies from field to field and thus (contrary to the
impression one would get from reading most newspapers) there is no
single ‘price of oil’. ‘Light’ crude oil (API gravity greater than 33°8) is the
most valuable, since it contains more of the light hydrocarbons. These
light hydrocarbons can blended directly into liquid fuels. ‘Heavy’ crude
oil (API gravity less than 28°) is less valuable, since it contains more
heavy hydrocarbons that must further processed to produce compounds
useful as liquid fuels.

Crude oil also can contain various impurities, which must remove.
Clearly, the less pure the oil is, the lower the value of the oil. The most
common impurity is sulphur, which often chemically bonded to the
hydrocarbons so it is not easily remove. Sweet crude is low in sulphur
(generally less than 1% by weight), while sour crude is high in sulphur.
These terms developed in the early days of the oil industry, when people
used actually taste the oil to determine if it had too much sulphur.

In general spoken, the hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly paraffin,


naphthenic, olefin and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other
organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace
amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium as follows:

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

3.3 Correlation Index (C.I.):


An early attempt to give the classification system a quantitative basis
suggested that a variety of crude should be called asphaltic if the
distillation residue contained less than 2% wax. According to the
chemical composition, a division of the 250OC to 300OC (480OC to 570OF)
fraction has also been used (Table 1.5). Nevertheless, the difficulty that
arises in using such a classification is that in the fractions boiling above
200OC (390OF) the molecules no longer be placed in one group, because
most of them are of a typically mixed nature. Purely naphthene or
aromatic molecules occur very seldom; cyclic compounds generally
contain paraffin side-chains and often even aromatic and naphthene
rings side by side. More information that is chemical is often desirable
and can be supplied by means of the correlation index (CI).
The CI, is based on the plot of specific gravity vs. the reciprocal of the
boiling point in degrees Kelvin (OK = OC +273). For pure hydrocarbons,
the line described by the constants of the individual members of the
normal paraffin series is given a value of CI = 0 and a parallel line
passing through the point for the values of benzene is given as CI = 100.
Thus,
CI = 473.7d – 456.8 48,640 ⁄ K,

where K for a petroleum fraction is the average boiling point determined by


the standard
Bureau of Mines distillation method and d is the specific gravity.
Values for the index between 0 and 15 indicate a predominance of paraffin
hydrocarbons in the fraction. A value from 15 to 50 indicates predominance
either of naphthenes or of mixtures of paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.
An index value more than 50 indicates a predominance of aromatic species.

TABLE 1.5: Classification by Chemical Composition


Composition of 250OC-300 OC (480OF-570 OF)
Paraffin Naphthen Aromatic Wax Asphalt Crude Oil Classification
% e% % % %
›46,‹61 ›22,‹32 ›12,‹25 ‹10 ‹6 Paraffin
›42,‹45 ›38,‹39 ›16,‹20 ‹6 ‹6 Paraffin- Naphthene

›15,‹26 ›61,‹76 ›8,‹13 0 ‹6 Naphthene


›27,‹35 ›36,‹47 ›26,‹33 ‹1 ‹10 Paraffin- Naphthene- Aromatic

‹8 ›57,‹78 ›20,‹25 ‹0.5 ‹20 Aromatic

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Another method based on the percentages of various hydrocarbons types


in the crude oil that classified into paraffinic or aromatic according to
following formula:

Where:
Tav.bo.po. = average boiling point temperature, in Kelvin unit (OK).
Sp. Gr. (60/60) oF = specific gravity of crude oil at 60oF.
The crude oil can be classify as follow as:
i) C.I. = 0 (normal paraffinic based crude oil).
ii) C.I = 0-15 (predominance of n-paraffinic crude oil).
iii) C.I = 15 – 50 (paraffinic and aromatic mixture).
iv) C.I > 50 (predominance of aromatic crude oil).
v) C.I = 100 benzene (Aromatic)

4. Properties of Crude Oil


Crude oil, also known as petroleum, is a wide-ranging term that includes
many substances and forms of liquids. The word petroleum derives from
the Greek words Petra, meaning rock, and oleum, denoting oil, which
combined literally means rock oil. The German mineralogist Georgius
Agricola (1546a) in the treatise De Natura Fossilium first used this term.
The ancient Greek word naphtha often used to describe any petroleum or
pitch-like substance and in older texts often used as a synonym for
petroleum, but this has now phased out in English language. However,
some languages, such as Russian or Arabic, still use variants of naphtha
as the word for petroleum.

Crude oil, sometimes classified as paraffinic base, naphthenic base, or


asphaltic base, according to the prevalence of the hydrocarbon groups.
However, various physical properties are required in addition to these
classifications in order to characterize a crude oil. The properties of oil
discussed here are viscosity, density, specific gravity, solubility, flash
point, pour point, distillation fractions, interfacial tension, vapour
pressure, and others. Table 1.6 listed these properties for the oils.

4.1. Viscosity
Is the resistance to flow in a liquid. The lower the viscosity, the more
readily the liquid flows. For example, water has a low viscosity and
flows readily, whereas honey, with a high viscosity, flows poorly. The
viscosity of the oil largely, determined by the amount of lighter and

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

heavier fractions that it contains. The greater the percentage of light


components such as saturates and the lesser the amount of asphaltene,
the lower the viscosity.

As with other physical properties, viscosity is affected by temperature,


with a lower temperature giving a higher viscosity. For most oils, the
viscosity varies as the logarithm of the temperature, which is a very
significant variation. Oils that flow readily at high temperatures can
become a slow-moving, viscous mass at low temperatures.

Types of viscosity:
1- Dynamic viscosity (μ) with units (poise or g / (cm · s)).
2- Kinematic viscosity (υ) with unit (stoke or cm2 / s).

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity


(dynamic) to absolute density (ρ) at the same temperature in the
following form:
υ=μ/ρ
The kinematic viscosity can be measurement by viscometer (U-tube
device) by following equation:
υ = c. t
Where:
υ: kinematic viscosity (St. )
C: viscometer constant (mm2/s2).
t: time required to passing the oil through the limited marks in
viscometer ( s ) .

Viscosity Index:
The viscosity index is a number indicating the effect of change of
temperature on the kinematic viscosity of an oil. A high viscosity index
signifies a relatively small change of kinematic viscosity with
temperature. Viscosity index increasing with paraffin and decreasing
with naphthenic.
VI=100 (best oil, paraffinic)
VI=0 (lowest VI oil, naphthenic)

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Viscosity index calculated as the following cases:

Where:
Y = kinematic viscosity of oil in centistokes at 100 °C.
U = kinematic viscosity of oil in centistokes at 40 °C.
L = kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 40 °C of an oil of 0 viscosity
index and having the same kinematic viscosity at 100 °C as the oil whose
viscosity index is to be calculated.
L determinate from table until Y=70 CST and from the following
equation for Y above 70 CST:

L = 0.8353 Y2 + 14.67 Y – 216.25

H = kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 40 °C of an oil of 100 viscosity


index, and having the same kinematic viscosity at 100 °C as the oil
whose viscosity index is to be calculated. H determinate from tables or
from the following equation:
H = 0.1684 Y2 + 11.85 Y – 96.95
Ex:
If we need to obtain the intermediate, value can be used interpolation
method as follows:
Y L H
20.4 510.8 236.4
20.5 L H
20.6 519.9 240.1

(20.4) L (20.5) (519.9)


---------------- = ---------------------
(20.5)(510.8) (20.6) L
420.24 L2 = 111603657.6 → L = 515.3
(20.4) H (20.5) (240.1)
---------------- = ------------------
(20.5)(236.4) (20.6) H

H = 238.2

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Table 1.6 Typical Oil Properties

Gasoline

Diesel
Property Units Light Heavy Intermediate Crude
Crude Crude Fuel Oil Oil
Emulsion

Viscosity mPa.s at 0.5 2 5 to 50 50 to 1000 to 20,000 to


15°C 50,000 15,000 100,000
Density g/mL at 0.72 0.84 0.78 to 0.88 to 0.94 to 0.99 0.95 to 1.0
15°C 0.88 1.00
Flash Point °C –35 45 –30 to –30 to 80 to 100 >80
30 60
Solubility in ppm 200 40 10 to 50 5 to 30 10 to 30 –
Water
Pour Point °C NR –35 –40 to –40 to –10 to 10 >50
to 30 30
–1
API Gravity 65 35 30 to 50 10 to 30 10 to 20 10 to 15
Interfacial mN/m at 27 27 10 to 30 15 to 30 25 to 30 NR
Tension 15°C
% distilled
at
Distillation 100°C NR
Fractions 200°C 70 1 2 to 15 1 to 10 –
300°C 100 30 15 to 40 2 to 25 2 to 5
400°C 85 30 to 60 15 to 45 15 to 25
residual 100 45 to 85 25 to 75 30 to 40
15 to 55 25 to 75 60 to 70

NR = not relevant

4.2. Density
Is the mass (weight) of a given volume of oil and is typically expressed
in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). It is the property used by the
petroleum industry to define light or heavy crude oils. Density is also
important because it indicates whether a particular oil will float or sink
in water. As the density of water is 1.0 g/cm3 at 15°C and the density of
most oils ranges from 0.7 to 0.99 g/cm3, most oils will float on water. As
the density of seawater is 1.03 g/cm3, even heavier oils will usually float
on it. The density of oil increases with time, as the light fractions
evaporate.

The density of any liquid is of course a function of the temperature, there


being expansion as the temperature rises therefore a reduction in the
density. The quantity relevant to this is the coefficient of thermal
expansion, (symbol γ) defined by:

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

SG at T F = SG (60 oF / 60 oF) - γ (T F – 60)


Where:
SG (60 oF / 60 oF): Specific Gravity at standard temperature (60 o F).
SG at T F: Specific Gravity at any temperature (o F).
γ: Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.000517 – 0.000897
T F = any temperature (oF).

Another measure of density is specific gravity, which is an oil’s relative


density compared with that of water at 15°C. It is the same value as
density at the same temperature. Another gravity scale is that of the
American Petroleum Institute (API).

4.3. API gravity


Based on the density of pure water, which has an arbitrarily assigned
API gravity value of 10° (10 degrees). Oils with progressively lower
specific gravities have higher API gravities. The following is the formula
for calculating API gravity:

API gravity = [141.5 ÷ (density at 15.5°C)] – 131.5

Oils with high densities have low API gravities and vice versa. In the
United States, the price of a specific oil based on its API gravity, as well
as other properties of the oil.
Classification According to API Gravity
Fraction
2508C–2708C 2758C–3008C
(4808F–5208F) (5258F–5708F)
API Type API Type Classification
Gravity Gravity
>40.0 Paraffin >30.0 Paraffin Paraffin
>40.0 Paraffin 20.1–29.9 Intermediate Paraffin–intermediate
33.1–39.9 Intermediate >30.0 Paraffin Intermediate–paraffin
33.1–39.9 Intermediate 20.1–29.9 Intermediate intermediate
33.1–39.9 Intermediate <20.0 Naphthene Intermediate–naphthene
<33.0 Naphthene 20.1–29.9 Intermediate Naphthene–intermediate
<33.0 Naphthene <20.0 Naphthene Naphthene
>44.0 Paraffin <20.0 Naphthene Paraffin–naphthene
33.0 Naphthene >30.0 Paraffin Naphthene–paraffin

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

4.4. Solubility
Solubility in water is the measure of how much of an oil will dissolve in
the water column on a molecular basis. Solubility is important in that the
soluble fractions of the oil are sometimes toxic to aquatic life, especially
at higher concentrations.

As the amount of oil lost to solubility is always small, this is not as great
a loss mechanism as evaporation. In fact, the solubility of oil in water is
so low (generally less than 100 parts per million) that it would be the
equivalent of approximately one grain of sugar dissolving in a cup of
water.

4.5. Flash point


Flash point of petroleum fractions is the lowest temperature at which
vapors arising from the oil will ignite, i.e. flash, when exposed to a spark
or flame under specified conditions. Therefore, the flash point of a fuel
indicates the maximum temperature that it can be stored without serious
fire hazard.

A simple relation for estimation of flash point of hydrocarbon mixtures


from vapor pressure was proposed by the below formula:

TF = 231.2 - 40 log Pvap


Where: pvap is the vapor pressure at 37.8oC (100oF) in bar.
TF: is the flash point in kelvin

4.6. Fire Point:


Fire point of petroleum fractions is the lowest temperature at which
vapors arising from the oil will ignite, i.e. fire, when exposed to a spark
or flame under specified conditions. Therefore, the fire point of a fuel
indicates the maximum temperature that it must not arrival to it to
prevent the combustion of the petroleum fractions.

4.7. Autoignition Point:


This is the minimum temperature at which hydrocarbon vapor when
mixed with air can spontaneously ignite without the presence of any
external source. Values of Autoignition temperature are generally higher
than flash point, Values of Autoignition temperature for gasoline it is
about 351 oC (660 oF) and for alcohol is about 500 oC (930 oF). With an
increase in pressure, the Autoignition temperature decreases.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

4.8. Octane number:


Octane number defined is a measure of fuel's ability to resist auto-
ignition during compression and prior to ignition to prevent the anti-
knock characteristic.

Higher octane number fuels have better engine performance so high


octane number fuels are more desirable. Generally, iso paraffin's have
higher octane number than do normal paraffin's. Naphthenic have
relatively higher octane number than do corresponding paraffin's and
aromatics have very high octane numbers.

The octane number of a fuel can be improved by adding tetraethyl- lead


(TEL) (CH3CH2)4Pb) or methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether (MTBE)

Methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether (MTBE)

4.9. Aniline point (AP):


Aniline point of a petroleum fraction is defined as the minimum
temperature at which equal volumes of aniline and the oil are
completely miscible. The higher aniline point with the lower aromatic
content and the higher paraffin content. Aniline is an aromatic
compound with a structure of a benzene molecule where the -NH2 group
(C6H5-NH2) replaces one atom of hydrogen.

The aromatic content in petroleum fraction may be calculated from


aniline point by the following formula:

%A = 692.4 + 12.15 (SG) (AP) – 794 (SG) - 10.4 (AP)

Where: %A is the percent aromatic content, SG is the specific gravity,


and AP is the aniline point in oC.

4.10. Diesel index (DI):


Diesel index is a number indicate to favors auto-ignition of diesel
engines. The diesel fuel considered is best with high diesel index. Diesel
index calculated from the following formula:

Dr. A. A. Kadi 18 Introductory Remark and Definitions


Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

DI = (API) (1.8 AP+32) / 100

Where: AP is the aniline point in oC.

4.11. Specific Heat


Specific heat is definition as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit weight of petroleum fraction through a
temperature difference of one degree, measurement in (KJ/Kg . oC or
Kcal/Kg .oC or Btu / lb. oF). Specific heat of petroleum fractions lies in
the range of (0.3 to 0.85) and depends upon temperature and gravity.
Lighter fractions have higher values.

With increasing density, the specific heat decrease. Specific Heat


calculated from standard formula:

Where:

Sp.heat is the specific heat in Ki / kg. oC.


SG is the specific gravity of petroleum fraction at (60/60) oF.
T is a temperature in oC.

4.12. Pour point


The pour point of an oil is the temperature at which it takes longer than
a specified time to pour from a standard measuring vessel. As oils are
made up of hundreds of compounds, some of which may still be liquid
at the pour point, the pour point is not the temperature at which the oil
will no longer pour. The pour point represents a consistent temperature
at which an oil will pour very slowly and therefore has limited use as an
indicator of the state of the oil. In fact, pour point has been used too
much in the past to predict how oils will behave in the environment.

For example, waxy oils can have very low pour points, but may continue
to spread slowly at that temperature and can evaporate to a significant
degree.

The pour point of a petroleum fraction is the lowest temperature at


which the oil will pour or flow when it is cooled without stirring under
standard cooling conditions. Pour point is one of low temperature
characteristics of heavy fractions. When temperature is less than pour

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

point of a petroleum product it cannot be stored or transferred through a


pipeline.

Presence of wax and heavy compounds increase the pour point of


petroleum fractions. Can be estimate the pour point of petroleum
fractions from viscosity, molecular weight, and specific gravity in the
following form:

Tp = 130.47[ SG 2.97 ]x[ M (0.61- 0.47SG) ]x[ υ38(100) (0.31- 0.33SG) ]


Tp: pour point temperature in kelvin.
SG: specific gravity at standard temperature.
M: molecular weight.
υ38 (100): kinematic viscosity at 38oC (100oF) in CST.

4.13. Cloud Point (Tc):


The cloud point is the lowest temperature at which wax crystals begin to
form by a gradual cooling under standard conditions. As temperature
decreases below the cloud point, formation of wax crystals is accelerated.
Therefore, low cloud point products are desirable under low-
temperature conditions.

4.14. Freezing Point:


Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid solidifies at 1 atm
pressure.

4.15. Melting Point (TM):


Melting point is the temperature that a solid substance liquefies at 1 atm.
The melting point increases with molecular weight increases. A pure
substance has the same freezing and melting points.

4.16. Boiling point:


The boiling point of a pure compound at a given pressure is the
temperature at which vapor and liquid exist together at equilibrium. If
the pressure is 1 atm, the boiling point is called the normal boiling point.
At this temperature, the vapor pressure will equal to atm pressure.

4.17. Distillation fractions


Of an oil represent the fraction (generally measured by volume) of an oil
that is boiled off at a given temperature. This data is obtained on most
crude oils so that oil companies can adjust parameters in their refineries

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

to handle the oil. This data also provides environmentalists with useful
insights into the chemical composition of oils. For example, while 70% of
gasoline will boil off at 100°C, only about 5% of a crude oil will boil off at
that temperature and an even smaller amount of a typical Bunker C. The
distillation fractions correlate strongly to the composition as well as to
other physical properties of the oil.

4.18. Interfacial tension


The oil/water interfacial tension, sometimes-called surface tension, is
the force of attraction or repulsion between the surface molecules of oil
and water. Together with viscosity, surface tension is an indication of
how rapidly and to what extent an oil will spread on water. The lower
the interfacial tension with water, the greater the extent of spreading. In
actual practice, the interfacial tension must be considered along with the
viscosity because it has been found that interfacial tension alone does not
account for spreading behavior.

Volatility of petroleum fractions is increasing with surface tension


decreasing. So the gasoline is highly volatility because low surface tension.

4.19. Vapor pressure


The vapour pressure of an oil is a measure of how the oil partitions
between the liquid and gas phases, or how much vapour is in the space
above a given amount of liquid oil at a fixed temperature. Because oils
are a mixture of many compounds, the vapour pressure changes as the
oil weathers. Vapor pressure can also be defined as a pressure at which
vapor and liquid phases of a pure substance are in equilibrium with each
other. Vapor pressure increases with temperature. The vapor pressure is
also called saturation pressure, PSAT.

5. Oil Products
Oil is important to us because there are so many useful products that can
made from it. Each product has properties which make it useful
applications, and which determine how it must be processed, distributed,
and consumed. Due to its high energy density, convenient liquid form,
and historically low cost, oil has a special role as a transport fuel.

Crude oil not used directly as a fuel but as a feedstuff for the
petrochemical factories to produce commercial fuels, synthetic rubbers,
plastics, and additional chemicals. Oil refineries originally placed near

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

the oil fields, in part because natural gas, which could not then be
economically, transported long distances, was available to fuel the
highly energy-intensive refining process, but since 1950, for strategic
reasons crude oil was transported by tankers and oleoducts to local
refineries.

5.1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)


LPG is typically a mixture of propane (C3), butane (C4), and isobutane
(which has the same chemical formula as butane, but has one of its carbon
atoms on a side branch), but may sometimes consist of pure propane.
Produce LPG generally extracted from raw natural gas, but it also from
oil in a refinery. LPG is a gas, but readily liquefy under pressure at
ordinary temperatures. Therefore, it transported and marketed in liquid
form in simple pressurized containers. LPG should not confused with
LNG, discussed above. LPG, commonly used in home and commercial
heating appliances, as a heat source in various industrial processes, and
as a fuel for forklift trucks. As with CNG, LPG went through something
of a boom and bust as a vehicle fuel in the 1980s, but still powers about
10,000 vehicles. Because it can delivered in pressurized containers, LPG is
a convenient alternative to natural gas in rural areas and cities not served
by the natural gas distribution network.

5.2. Petrol
Motor petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons in the C5 to C12 range. It also
known as gasoline, especially in North America, where the word often
confusingly shortened to ‘gases in casual usage. In fact, petrol is a liquid,
but it does need to vaporize easily, since in a petrol engine the fuel
vaporized and mixed with air (either by a carburettor or fuel injector)
before it ignited. Petrol generally comes in two grades: regular and
premium. Contrary to popular belief, premium petrol does not contain
significantly more energy than regular petrol. In fact, the major difference
between the two is that premium petrol is harder to ignite.

This is because in a petrol engine, the combustion of the air and petrol
vapor mix is supposed to spread smoothly though the cylinder following
ignition by the spark plug. However, as the mix gets compressed when
the piston reaches the top of its cycle, it heats-up, much like the air in a
bicycle pump. If the fuel ignites too easily, this heat of compression will

Dr. A. A. Kadi 22 Introductory Remark and Definitions


Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

cause the mix to ignite prematurely in some parts of the cylinder. The
result will be pressure waves that reverberate through the cylinder,
known as engine ‘knock’ or ‘ping’. Engine knock causes an annoying
noise, reduces the engine’s power, and can cause damage to the engine.

Premium petrol formulated to be less prone to knocking. Octane is a


measure of how resistant a fuel is to knocking: the higher the octane the
more resistant the fuel is to knocking. Since high-performance engines
designed to compress the air and petrol vapor mixture more (that is, they
have a higher compression ratio), they have a greater tendency to knock
and are more likely to need premium fuel. However, many consumers
waste money buying premium fuel: if their engine does not knock on
regular petrol, premium petrol will not noticeably improve their engine’s
performance. Adding further to the confusion about grades of petrol is
the fact that there are two accepted methods of measuring octane, the
Research Octane Number (RON) and the Motor Octane Number (MON).
MON is determined under a more stressful test, and tends to be 8 to 10
points lower than RON is. In most countries, the posted octane is usually
RON.

5.3. Jet Fuel


Jet fuel is generally a kerosene-type fuel composed of hydrocarbons in the
C8 to C16 range. It is a liquid, and it needs to stay that way, even at the
extremely low temperatures encountered at high altitudes. This
requirement has been a major obstacle so far to powering jet aircraft with
biofuels, since today’s biofuels tend to solidify at low temperatures.
Diesel Fuel – Diesel fuel is a middle distillate, generally a bit heavier than
jet fuel (C14 to C20). Diesel engines have no spark plugs, and rely on heat
of compression (discussed under Petrol above) to ignite the fuel when it
injected after the piston compresses the air in the cylinder. That is what
makes diesel engines different from petrol engines. They, therefore, need
a fuel that self-ignites easily—the very opposite of what a petrol engine
needs. One measure of the quality of diesel fuel is its Cetane number.
Cetane is very much the opposite of octane: the higher the number the
more easily the fuel self-ignites.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

5.4. Furnace Oil


Furnace Oil (FO) is a dark viscous residual fuel obtained by blending
mainly heavier components from crude distillation unit, short residue
and clarified oil from fluidized catalytic cracker unit. Also known as
number 2 oil or heating oil, it is essentially the same thing as diesel fuel—
in fact, it often is the same thing. It commonly used for heating homes
and businesses in many parts of the world.

5.5. Residual Fuel Oil


Residual fuel oil comes in several grades, often identified as fuel oil
numbers 4 through 6.33. These products are blends containing a large
amount of residue, the stuff that is left at the bottom of the distillation
tower. Often shortened to ‘resid’, residual fuel oil is heavy stuff, in the
C20 and up range. Residue and some residual fuel oils are so thick they
have to heat before they can pumped through a pipeline. Residual fuel oil
was, and still is in some parts of the world, popular as an industrial boiler
fuel. However, the market for residual fuel oil went through a sharp
decline worldwide after the oil price shocks of the 1970s, since it is
generally easy to switch to coal or gas for boiler fuel. Residual fuel oil also
used in special heavy-duty diesel engines that power large ships and, in
some countries, electricity generators. To these we must add some
significant non-fuel products derived from oil, including tar and bitumen
used for roads and buildings, lubricating oils, plastics, waxes, and a wide
variety of chemicals.

6. How Does Petroleum Occur (ORIGIN OF HYDROCARBONS)

Under generally accepted geologic theory, oil and gas are believed to
have originated from organic matter deposited in sedimentary rocks.
Pressure, temperature, and bacterial action over long periods reduce the
organic material into carbon and hydrogen molecular combinations
called hydrocarbons. The organic material from which the oil is derived
probably consisted of single-celled plants, blue-green algae, and single-
celled animals, which lived in aquatic environments 540 million years
ago.

The rapid burial of these organisms within sediments preserved them for
later biological, chemical, and physical changes into a material called

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

kerogen. Kerogen is a product of early bacterial alteration that is dark-


colored and insoluble. During this transformation stage, mostly methane
gas generated. Continuing sedimentation after burial of these organisms
increases the depth of burial, and with increasing depth, there is an
increase in temperature.

Temperature change with depth is known as the geothermal gradient.


Globally, the average temperature increase with depth ranges from about
0.57 degrees F to about 1.7 degrees F for each 100 feet. California’s
gradients tend to be more toward the higher end of the range because of
their location along a major plate boundary and its status of being
geologically active as a result of the forces of plate tectonics. However,
even in California the gradients vary considerably from one area to
another. The best way to determine the gradient in any particular area is
to consult the U.S. Geological Survey gradient map for California.

The production of multiple petroleum compounds is a direct


consequence of the thermal degradation and cracking process. Cracking
is the breaking up of the hydrocarbon molecules into lighter molecules.
The process generally occurs at depths of 2,500 to 16,000 feet and at
temperatures of 150 to 300 degrees, F. Temperatures reached by potential
petroleum source rocks can determined by the degree of darkening of
fossil pollen grains and the color changes in a type of extinct marine
invertebrate fossil.

1- Normal heat flow within the earth's crust produces an average


geothermal gradient of approximately 1.5 Fo for each 100 feet of depth.
Maturation studies on various crude oils types indicate that
temperature required to produce oil occur between of 5,000 and 20,000
feet .Temperature below 20,000 feet are excessive for oil generation and
produce gas. Above 5000 feet is too cool to generate oil or gas.

2- Like temperature, pressure is a function of depth and increases 1 psi


for one feet of depth. Pressure caused by sedimentary overburden.

3- Bacterial action is important in conversion of organic material to


petroleum in shallow depths. Causes of breaking down the original
material into hydrocarbon compounds, which become biogenic gas.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

4- The best source rocks are considered organically rich, black-colored


shale deposited in a non-oxidizing, marine environment.

5- Most petroleum is generated and occurs in sedimentary rocks. Some


petroleum occurrences in igneous and metamorphic rocks may have
inorganic or altered organic origin

In general; several theories have proposed to explain the formation and


origin of oil and gas (petroleum); these can classified as the organic
theory of petroleum origin and the inorganic theory of origin. The organic
theory provides the explanation most accepted by scientists and
geologists. It is believed, and there is evidence, that ancient seas covered
much of the present land area millions of years ago.

The Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Mexico, for example, are parts of such
ancient seas. Over the years, rivers flowing down to these seas carried
large volumes of mud and sedimentary materials into the sea. The mud
and sedimentary materials were distributed and deposited layer upon
layer over the sea floor.

The very large amount of small plant and animal life, which came into the
sea with river mud and sedimentary materials, and the much larger
amount of small marine life remains already on the sea floors constituted
the source of petroleum. These small organisms died and buried by the
depositing silt and, thus, protected from ordinary decay.

Over many years, pressure, temperature, bacteria, and other reactions


caused these dead organisms to change into oil and gas. The gas formed
under the higher-temperature conditions, whereas the oil formed under
the lower-temperature conditions. The rocks where oil and gas formed
are known as the source rock.
There are two theories on the origin of carbon fuels: the Inorganic theory
and the Organic theory. The two theories have been intensely debated
since the 1860s, shortly after the discovery of widespread occurrence of
petroleum.

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Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Inorganic Theory:
A number of scientists adhere to the concept that inorganic oil and gas have
originated in the earth’s interior as the result of chemical reactions between
hydrogen and carbon under conditions of high temperature and high pressures in
the absence of organic matter. Inorganic theory; attempt to explain the formation
of petroleum by assuming chemical reactions among water, carbon dioxide, and
various inorganic substances, such as carbides and carbonates in the earth.

Organic Theory:

The organic theory of the origin of oil – the most accepted theory- maintains that
the hydrogen and carbon source for petroleum was organic material from
decaying plants and animals forming and accumulating in oceanic sediment. The
acceptance of the organic theory of the origin of petroleum dictates that, the
search for oil is directed to areas underlying by thick sections of sedimentary
rock. Now most authorities favor the organic approach.

Due to its origin, crude oil is a complex mixture containing thousands of


different hydrocarbons. As the name implies, hydrocarbons are chemicals
containing hydrogen and carbon. In addition to hydrogen and carbon,
most crude oils also contain 1 to 3 wt. % sulfur along with smaller
amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts. The salts can removed
with a hot-water wash but the other major contaminants – sulfur,
nitrogen, oxygen and metals – are harder to remove because they are
linked to hydrocarbons by chemical bonds.

Table 1.7 compares properties for 21 selected crudes. Traders characterize


a crude by citing its source, API gravity (a measure of density), and sulfur
content. The source is the oil field from which the crude produced. The
API gravity is a rough indication of distillation properties, which
determine how much gasoline, kerosene, etc., can be distilled from the
crude. Along with other factors, the sulfur content affects processing
costs.

Natural Gas:

Natural gas is not an oil product. However, since it is the lightest of the
hydrocarbon fuels and often found in association with oil. The natural
gas used by consumers is generally well over 90% methane (C1), with

Dr. A. A. Kadi 27 Introductory Remark and Definitions


Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

smaller amounts of ethane (C2) and other hydrocarbon and non-


hydrocarbon gases. Natural gas commonly used as an electricity
generation fuel, in home and commercial heating appliances, and as a
heat source in various industrial processes. It also used to make methanol
(a feedstock to the chemical industry) and urea (primarily used for
fertilizer).

Methane and ethane are gases, and like to stay that way. In fact, no amount of
pressure can liquefy them at ordinary temperatures. Consequently, natural gas
typically transported and distributed in gaseous form by pipeline. However,
super cooling it to around –161°C to produce liquefied natural gas (LNG) may
liquefy methane.
Table 1.7: Properties of 21 Selected Crude Oils

Crude Oil API Specific Sulfur Nitrogen


Gravity Gravity (Wt. %) (Wt. %)
Alaska North Slope 26.2 0.8973 1.1 0.2
Arabian Light 33.8 0.8560 1.8 0.07
Arabian Medium 30.4 0.8740 2.6 0.09
Arabian Heavy 28.0 0.8871 2.8 0.15
Athabasca (Canada) 8 1.0143 4.8 0.4
Beta (California) 16.2 0.9580 3.6 0.81
Brent (North Sea) 38.3 0.8333 0.37 0.10
Bonny Light (Nigeria) 35.4 0.8478 0.14 0.10
Boscan (Venezuela) 10.2 0.9986 5.3 0.65
Ekofisk (Norway) 37.7 0.8363 0.25 0.10
Henan (China) 16.4 0.9567 0.32 0.74
Hondo Blend (California) 20.8 0.9291 4.3 0.62
Kern (California) 13.6 0.9752 1.1 0.70
Kuwait Export 31.4 0.8686 2.5 0.21
Liaohi (China) 17.9 0.9471 0.26 0.41
Maya (Mexico) 22.2 0.9206 3.4 0.32
Shengli (China) 13.8 0.9738 0.82 0.72
Tapis Blend (Malaysia) 45.9 0.7976 0.03 Nil
West Hackberry Sweet* 37.3 0.8383 0.32 0.10
West Texas Intermediate 39.6 0.8270 0.34 0.08
Xinjiang (China) 20.5 0.9309 0.15 0.35
* Produced from a storage cavern in the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve
† API Gravity related to specific gravity by the formula: °API = 141.5 ÷ (specific gravity @ 60°F) – 131.5

The “natural” gas that occurs in a reservoir consists of low-boiling point


alkane hydrocarbons, which range from small quantities dissolved in oil
to 100 percent of the fluids in the reservoir. In addition to the
hydrocarbon gases, there may be gaseous impurities consisting of
hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (Table 1.8).

Dr. A. A. Kadi 28 Introductory Remark and Definitions


Hodiedah University
Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Natural gas is usually classified as “associated”, when it occurs with oil


or “non-associated” when it occurs alone. In associated reservoirs, when
the oil becomes saturated, the excess gas will form a “gas cap” above the
oil and will produced as “free gas”. When the oil is under-saturated, then
the bubble point (the temperature and pressure when the gas comes out
of solution) must be reached before gas is produced. With high enough
temperatures and pressures, some of the alkanes will become a liquid and
become indistinguishable from oil.
Classifications of gas include “dry gas” (less than 0.1 gallons of natural
gas liquids per 1,000 cubic feet) or “wet gas” (0.3 or more natural gas
liquid per 1,000 cubic feet). The natural gas of commerce generally has
the following composition:
Methane 72.3%, Ethane 14.4%, Carbon Dioxide 0.5%, Nitrogen 12.8%,

Table 1.8: Physical Properties of Common Reservoir Gases

Dr. A. A. Kadi 29 Introductory Remark and Definitions

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