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1.6: HEAT TRANSFER

ENABLING OBJECTIVES:

1. Describe heat transfer:

1.1.Investigate and explain the three types of heat transfer:
1.1.1. Conduction.
1.1.2. Convection.
1.1.3. Radiation.
2. Describe the application of heat transfer.
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 Thermal energy: Energy transferred from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature.
 Thermal energy: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

CONDUCTION PROCESS

• Conduction: The process by which thermal energy is transmitted through a medium

from one particle to another.

Conduction in solids.

• All solids (metals and non-metals) are made up of tiny particles called atoms and
molecules.

• The difference between metals and non-metals is that metals contain many free
electrons which move randomly between the atoms and molecules, while non-metals
do not have such free electrons.

• Diagram A and B show what happens when a copper rod (metal) and a wooden rod
(non-metal) are heated from one end.
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• When thermal energy is supplied to one end of the rod, the particles (atoms or
molecules) at the hot end vibrate vigorously.

• These particles will collide with neighbouring particles, making them vibrate as well.

• Thus, kinetic energy of the vibrating particles at the hot end is transferred to the
neighbouring particles.

CONDUCTION PROCESS IN SOLIDS

Experiment:

Investigation of the transfer of thermal energy through different types of solids.

Objective:

To investigate the transfer of thermal energy through solids.

Apparatus:

Water bath, rods of the same dimensions but different materials, stopwatch.

Procedure:

1) Coat the parts of the rods that are on the outside of the tank evenly with melted wax.

2) Pour boiling water into the bath, so that the ends of the rods are submerged.

3) Record the length of wax that melts in a given interval of time for each of the four
rods.

Observation:

The wax melts the furthest along the copper rod, followed by iron, glass and wood.
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Explanation:

The thermal energy flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. Therefore, the wax on the rods melts as the thermal energy flows from the
boiling water (hot end) towards the cold end of the rods.

Conclusion:

1) Thermal energy flows through the material of the rods without any flow of the
material itself. Such transfer of thermal energy without any movement of the
material medium is called conduction.

2) Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Since the length of unmelted wax
is shortest for copper and longest for wood, it can be concluded that copper is a good
conductor of heat and wood is a poor conductor of heat (insulator).

• In general, metals such as gold, silver, copper, steel, iron, brass and aluminium are
good conductors of heat, whereas non-metals such as glass, stone, water, plastics,
wood, polystyrene foam, wool and fibreglass are poor conductors of heat (insulators).
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Conduction in liquids and gases.

• Conduction process in liquids and gases is inefficient.

• The particles in liquids and gases are spaced further apart than those in solids.

• Therefore, collisions between molecules are less frequent in liquids and even lesser
in gases.

• The transfer of kinetic energy from fast-moving molecules to neighbouring molecules

is slower.

• Example: Air is a poor conductor of heat as compared to water.

Experiment:

To illustrate that water is a poor conductor of heat.

Objective:

To test conduction of thermal energy in water.

Apparatus:

Test-tube, ice, metal gauze, Bunsen burner, water.

Procedure:

1) Wrap a piece of ice with metal gauze and place it at the bottom of test-tube.

2) Fill the test-tube with tap water till it is almost full.

3) Heat the test-tube at the upper end as shown in the diagram.

4) Observe the water being heated and the ice below.

Observation and Explanation:

The water at the upper end of the test-tube soon starts to boil. However, the ice wrapped in
metal gauze will melt very slowly.
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Conclusion:

The rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction from water at the top to the bottom of the
test-tube is extremely slow due to the spaces between the molecules in the water.

CONVECTION PROCESS

• Convection: The process by which the thermal energy is transmitted from one place
to another by the movement of heated particles of a liquid or gas.

Convection in liquids.

Experiment:

Investigation of the transfer of thermal energy in liquids.

Objective:

To show convection current in water.

Apparatus:

Large round-bottomed flask, potassium permanganate crystals, Bunsen burner

Procedure:

1) Fill the flask with water. Carefully place some potassium permanganate crystals at the
bottom of the flask.

2) Place a Bunsen burner with a small flame under the flask and observe the crystals.

Observation:

The purple streams of water are seen rising vertically at the centre of the flask and then
sinking down the sides of the flask.

Explanation: When the water at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands. The expanded
water is less dense than the surrounding water and therefore starts to rise. The cooler
regions of water in the upper part of the flask , being denser, sink.
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Conclusion:

The movement of the liquid is due to the difference in its density which sets up the
convection current.

Convection in gases.

Experiment:

Investigation of the transfer of thermal energy in gases.

Objective:

To show convection current in air.

Apparatus:

Two glass chimneys fitted onto the top of wooden box, a piece of clear glass on one side,
candles, matches.

Procedure:

1) Place the candle below one of the chimneys. Light the candle.

2) Introduce smoke into the other chimney by placing a piece of smouldering paper over
it and observe the movement of the smoke.

Observation:

The smoke is observed to flow down from one chimney and rise up the other chimney.

Explanation:

The air above the candle gets heated and expands. As the air is now less dense than the
surrounding air, it rises out of the chimney. The cooler surrounding air, being denser, sinks
through the other chimney to replace the less dense air.
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Conclusion:

The movement of air in and out of the chimney is due to the difference in density which sets
up the convection current.

RADIATION PROCESS

• Radiation: The process by which the thermal energy transmitted by electromagnetic

waves.

• Electromagnetic waves are the infrared waves.

• Radiation does not require a medium for energy transfer and therefore, radiation can
occur in a vacuum.

• Example: The thermal energy from the Sun reaches the Earth by the process of
radiation. Conduction and convection is not possible because of the vacuum between
the Sun and the Earth.

• Thermal energy from the infrared waves is also called the radiant heat.

• All objects emit some radiant heat. The hotter the object, the greater the amount of
radiant heat emitted.

Infrared radiation is absorbed by all objects and surfaces and the absorption of radiant heat
causes the rise in temperature.
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Experiment 1:

Absorption of Infrared radiation.

Objective:

To investigate the rate of absorption of radiation.

Apparatus:

2 temperature sensors, data logger, aluminium foil, 100 W bulb, black felt pen.

Procedure:

1) Connect 2 temperature sensors A and B to the data logger.

2) Set the sampling rate to 1 s. This means that the computer will take a temperature
reading every 1 s.

3) Wrap the ends of the temperature sensors with aluminium foils of the same
dimensions. Using a black felt pen, blacken the aluminium foil of the temperature
sensor B. Place the sensors at equal distances from the bulb.

4) Start the temperature recording. Observe the temperature-time graph. Note the
initial temperature θ of both sensors.

5) Switch on the bulb. Observe the temperature rise for both temperature sensors A and
B.

6) Switch off the bulb after 60 s.

Observation:

The graph of temperature (⁰C) against time (minutes) is plotted. It can be observed that the
blackened aluminium foil absorbed more radiation at a faster rate compared to the shiny
aluminium foil.
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Conclusion:

Dull, black surfaces absorb infrared radiation faster compared to shiny, white surfaces.

Experiment 2:

Emission of Infrared radiation.

Objective:

To investigate the emissionof radiation.

Apparatus:

2 temperature sensors, data logger, 2 identical tins (one black and one shiny), boiling water
from 2 eletric kettles.

Procedure:

1) Connect the temperature sensors A and B to the data logger.

2) Set the sampling rate to 10 s.

3) Pour boiling water into both tins at the same time until both are filled to the brim.

4) Place the lid and the temperature sensors onto the tins. Temperature sensor A will
monitor the temperature of the black tin, while temperature sensor B records the
temperature of the shiny tin.

5) Start recording the temperature. Observe the temperature-time graph of both

sensors.

6) Stop recording after 10 minutes.

Observation:

The graph of temperature (⁰C) against time (minutes) is plotted. The temperature for the
black tin is observed to fall at a faster rate than the shiny tin. The reason is that the black tin
emitted thermal energy at a faster rate compared to the shiny tin.
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Conclusion:

Dull, black surfaces are better emitter of infrared than shiny, white surfaces.

APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION

Good conductors of heat:

If thermal energy has to be transferred quickly through a substance, good conductors of heat
such as metals are used.

1) Cooking utensils such as kettles, saucepans and boilers are usually made of
aluminium or stainless steel where direct heating is involved.

2) Soldering iron rods are made of iron with the tip of copper, as copper is a much better
conductor of heat than iron.

Bad conductors of heat:

Insulators are very useful to minimise the loss of thermal energy, or prevent thermal energy
from being transferred quickly.

1) Handles of appliances and utensils such as kettles, saucepans, teapots, iron rods are
made of wood or plastics which are poor conductor of heat. In this way, the hot
utensils or iron can be picked up without scalding our hands.

2) Table mats are usually made of cork so that hot kitchenware can be placed on them
without damaging the table-top.

3) Wooden handles are very useful for stirring or scooping rice that has just been
cooked.
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CONVECTION

1) Electric kettles.

• The heating coil of an electric kettle is always placed at the bottom of the kettle to aid
transfer of thermal energy in water by convection.

• When the power is switched on, the water near the heating coil is heated up,
expands and becomes less dense.

• The heated water therefore rises while the cooler regions in the upper part of the
body water descend to replace the heated water.

• Hence, a convection current is set up.

2) Air conditioners.

• An air conditioner is always installed near to the ceiling of a room to facilitate setting
up of convection currents.

• The rotary fan inside the air conditioner releases cool dry air into the room.

• As cool air is denser, it sinks. The warm air below, being less dense, rises and is drawn
into the air conditioner where it is cooled.

• In this way, the air is recirculated and the temperature of the air will eventually fall to
the desire value.
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3) Refrigerators.

• Refrigerators work in very much the same way as air conditioners. The freezing unit is
usually placed at the top to cool the air and facilitate setting up of convection
currents. The convection currents inside the refrigeration cabinet help cool the
contents inside.

RADIATION

1) Teapots.

• Since shiny surfaces are bad emitters of radiation, shiny teapots can keep tea warm
for a longer time than black teapots.

• In addition, since shiny surfaces are bad absorbers of radiation, shiny containers can
keep cold liquids cool for a longer time than black containers.
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Greenhouses.

• A greenhouse is used in cold climates to help plants grow better by trapping heat.

• During the day, infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the glass roof of the
greenhouse. This warms up the soil and plants in the greenhouse. As the contents in
the greenhouse get warm, they start to emit infrared radiation.

• The infrared radiation emitted by the contents in the greenhouse is slightly different
compared to the infrared radiation emitted by the Sun and is unable to pass through
the glass roof. Therefore, the infrared radiation emitted by the contents in the
greenhouse gets trapped. The amount of infrared radiation in the greenhouse gets
built up over time and thus, causes the temperature in the greenhouse to increase.
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3) Vacuum flasks.

• The vacuum flasks (or thermos flask) is designed to keep liquids hot by minimising
heat loss in four possible ways, namely conduction, convection, radiation and
evaporation.

• The stopper is usually made of plastic which is a poor conductor of heat.

• Conduction through the trapped air above the liquid is minimal since air is a very
poor conductor of heat.

• Conduction and convection through the sides of the flask are prevented by the
vacuum between the double-glass

walls of the flask.

• To minimise heat loss through radiation, the walls of the glass are silvered so as to
reflect heat back into the hot liquid. Convection and evaporation can only occur when
the plastic stopper is removed during the use. Heat loss by radiation is harder to stop
as radiant heat can pass through a vacuum.
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