Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Certification of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Quality System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Quality System Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Control of Life/Safe Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Life Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hours & Cycles Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Study Questions
7.1 Safety Precautions Aircraft and Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
7.2 Workshop Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7.3 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7.5 Engineering Drawings, Diagrams and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7.6 Fits and Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.7 Electrical Cables and Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.8 Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.9 Pipes and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.10 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.11 Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.12 Transmissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.13 Control Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.14 Sheet Metal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.19 Abnormal Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.20 Maintenance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Alphabetic Index
Safety Precaution escape routes in case of danger. These signs always have three components: col-
our, shape and symbol. The meaning of a sign is easy to understand.
Safety is a keyword in aviation. The greatest possible care is taken to ensure safe-
ly; not only in the air, but also on the ground. And this is certainly the case at Air- Colour
craft Maintenance Departments. The aircraft maintenance mechanic deals with a There are four main colours that are used for signs: Red, Yellow, Green and Blue.
large number of safety regulations in his work. This apply to working in and on the In some cases these colours have been applied directly to the objects or instru-
aircraft as well as working in the workshop and in the hangar. ments. An example is the red colour of a fire extinguisher.
Everyone must cooperate to prevent accidents and injuries.
Your company has endeavored to provide adequate safe- Figure 1: Colours
guards, but safety devices alone will not guarantee safety. Ac- RED YELLOW
cident prevention depends upon the use of approved
practices and common sense. -IMMEDIATE DANGER! -WATCH OUT!
Be on the alert. Report observed unsafe practices and condi- -PROHIBITORY SIGN -POSSIBLE DANGER
tions immediately to your supervisor, since delay may result
in a serious injury.
Know the location of the nearest medical dispensary.
GREEN BLUE
Instructions for handling hazardous materials must be fol-
lowed. Further information may be obtained from your safety -ESCAPE ROUTES -SIGN WITH INSTRUCTION
officer, or your supervisor. -FIRST AID, RESCUE (MANDATORY)
Manuals
As explained before, airlines and its related companies such as maintenance de-
partments pay optimal attention to safety. This is expressed in all the manuals, Shapes of Signs
safety instructions and procedures. One of the important manuals used by the
maintenance department is the Maintenance Manual (AMM). This manual con- Danger signs have three different shapes. Each shape has its own meaning:
tains a large number of general safety regulations. Circular: prohibitory or mandatory sign
Triangular: warning
Notification System
Rectangular: rescue, instruction or supplementary sign
NOTE: Will explain a best or most efficient way to carry out a specific task
job. Have a look at the four examples shown below.
CAUTION: Will explain a procedure that, if not followed up accordingly, will re- Figure 2: Signs
sult in damaging aircraft parts, tools or equipment.
WARNING: Will explain a procedure that, if not followed up accordingly, will re-
sult in personal injury and/or the loss of aircraft parts, tools or equipment.
Danger Signs
Within each Department, bulletin boards, signs and stickers have been installed
everywhere they are needed. Some of them refer to possible danger or indicate
All workers must be familiar with the use of warning or danger tags. Frontside Backside
Danger tags are used to indicate valves or switches that must NOT be operated,
as operation could result in injury to workers or damage to equipment.
The tags should be placed on machines or equipment while they are being in-
spected, serviced or cleaned to inform another person NOT to operate the related
system.
The person working on the machine must attach a Danger tag to the control
Danger Danger
switch that supplies power or other input to the machine or work area. The
worker writes his or her name and signature, together with the date of placement, DO NOT REMOVE THIS TAG
on the Danger tag. When the work is completed, the technician who had attached REMARKS:
the Danger tag removes it.
If more than one person are working on the same equipment, each attaches their
own Danger tag. This is to ensure that the equipment is not turned on until the last
tag is removed. DO NOT
Only the worker whose name and signature appear on the Danger tag, or the su-
pervisor, can remove the Danger tag.
It is a good practice to advise your supervisor and other workers in the area of your
intended use of the Danger tag.
OPERATE 1.045
The same procedure should be used for lock-out, using an individual padlock to
isolate equipment to be worked on. Sign:
Date:
Safety with Fuels, Oils and Chemicals After completion of work ensure all traces are removed by washing. If you are
working with oil materials and waste, bins with self closing and seating lids should
Safety in and around your place of work is vital to ensure that accidents to people be provided.
and equipment are prevented. It is essential that all notices and warnings placed All accidents, no matter how small, should be reported to your supervisor.
near machines are strictly obeyed. The nature of the accident and the treatment received should be entered in
Precautions should be taken to protect your skin by the application of barrier a book to record the accident. Evaluation these data gives more information if any
cream or gloves prior to practical work, especially if handling oils, chemicals and other action is required.
greases which can cause irritation. Containers should be tagged with a label as
shown in Figure 7 on page 7.
Figure 7: Labels
Aviation Fuels Aviation turbine kerosines are Class II products, which are flammable and
should be stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Any
The main safety hazard relates to the risk of fire or explosion with aviation fuels spillage should be treated as a potential fire hazard and/or explosion hazard.
and methanol/water mixtures. The information in this part is intended to act as a
guide to users. It is of a very general nature and is not intended to replace any local Aviation lubricants and hydraulic fluid are unclassified products which are
regulations. combustible and should be stored at ambient temperature away from ignition
sources.
Flash Point Classification
Fire Extinguishing
To apply safeguards to the storage, transport and handling of petroleum liquids,
international organisations and authorities classify these liquids according to their In the event of fire, extinguish using dry powder, foam or, for small fires, carbon
flammability. These classifications sometimes vary slightly from country to coun- dioxide.
try. They are classified according to their closed cup flash points in conformance The use of BCF/halon extinguishers is environmentally unacceptable. Water
with the most widely used system. The classification and guidance is as follows: (as a fine spray or mist) should only be used as a protective screen and/or to
Class I cool adjacent tanks.
Products with a closed cup flash point below 21ºC should be stored and handled In some instances, products which are exposed to fire may produce toxic fumes
in accordance with local regulations for highly flammable liquids and all sources of during thermal decomposition.
ignition excluded. Electrical equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the
Institute of Petroleum Electrical Safety Code or its local equivalent. Specially Hazardous Circumstances
Class II Aviation Fuel Spillages
Products with a closed cup flash point from 21ºC to 55ºC inclusive should be If fuel is spilled in a confined space, dangerously high concentrations of vapour are
stored and handled in accordance with local regulations for flammable products produced; great care must be taken to reduce fire hazard and to prevent the seri-
and stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Electrical ous consequences of inhalation in such circumstances by wearing the appropriate
equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the Institute of Petroleum Elec- respiratory protection.
trical Safety Code or its local equivalent.
Class III Aviation Fuel Tank Cleaning
Products having a closed cup flash point above 55ºC up to and including 100ºC. Special precautions must be taken during cleaning or maintenance on storage
tanks. Special precautions are also necessary when sludge from these tanks is be-
Unclassified
ing removed or disposed of.
Products having a closed cup flash point above 100ºC.
Aviation gasolines and methanol/water mixtures are Class I products. Their General Health Aspects
very low flash points mean that any spillage or leak is a severe fire and/or explo- Aviation fuels (gasolines and kerosines) are complex mixtures of distillate fractions
sion hazard. They must be stored at ambient temperatures away from ignition of petroleum. They are manufactured to a technical specification and their hydro-
sources and only in equipment or containers designed specifically for their use. carbon make-up varies considerably, depending on crude oil source, processing
Containers must be properly labelled and kept closed when not in use. Hot work, and intended application. They generally contain low concentrations of perfor-
such as cutting or welding, must not be carried out on any container used for these mance additives.
products unless it has been made safe. Containers, such as drums, containing
residues of these products must be disposed of safely according to local regula-
tions.
Exposure Emergency surgical exploration and thorough cleansing of the wound and under-
Under normal conditions of use, exposure to aviation fuels is likely to be confined lying tissue is necessary to minimise necrosis and tissue loss.
to inhalation of mists or vapours generated during handling or incidental skin con-
tact. Accidental skin contact with methanol/water mixtures may also occur during
Eyes
maintenance. Inhalation exposure or accidental ingestion or eye contact is also Eye contact with liquid products and their vapours may cause transient irritation
possible. but no lasting effects. Irritant effects are likely to be more pronounced with prod-
ucts of low viscosity and high aromatic content, such as some aviation gasolines.
Exposure to lubricants and hydraulic oil is most likely to occur due to incidental
skin contact during ‘top-up’ or routine maintenance procedures. Aspiration
Effects of Exposure Inhalation Aspiration means the introduction of liquid into the lungs. Products such as avia-
tion gasolines and kerosines can enter the lung causing rapidly developing inflam-
The volatility and vapour pressure of aviation fuels and methanol/water mixtures mation (chemical pneumonitis) which may prove fatal.
means that inhalation exposure may occur to vapours and mists evolved during
handling. Such exposure to high concentrations may cause irritation of the respira-
tory tract. In common with many hydrocarbons, exposure to high vapour concen-
Preventive Measures Inhalation
trations may cause drowsiness or loss of consciousness. Aviation fuels are Inhalation of mists and vapours should be avoided as far as possible, and expo-
complex mixtures which can contain small amounts of dangerous components. In- sures should be reduced to the lowest practicable level. Good local and general
halation, therefore, presents a potential hazard in that this could result in absorp- ventilation should be provided.
tion into the bloodstream and possibly systemic damage. Appropriate personal protective equipment should be available. If operations are
Under normal conditions of use, inhalation of aviation lubricants and hydraulic oil such that exposure to vapour, mist or fume may be anticipated, then suitable ap-
are unlikely. However, if the products are heated or used in situations where aer- proved respiratory equipment should be worn. The use of respiratory equipment
osolisation is likely then exposure to mists may occur. Apart from transient irritation must be strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and any statu-
of the respiratory tract, such exposure is not expected to cause any particular tory requirements governing its selection and use.
health effects. Overheating of the products may, however, result in hazardous de-
composition products being evolved. Skin Contact
Skin contact with fuels and lubricating oils of various types is a common route of
Skin industrial exposure. Adverse effects can be prevented by the use of good industrial
Frequent or prolonged skin contact with fuels and lubricants will de-fat the skin, and personal hygiene measures such as:
leaving it dry and susceptible to fissuring, dermatitis and subsequent infection. Ex- • the wearing of adequate protective clothing and the frequent laundering of
posure to fuels may also cause chemical burns particularly if contact is prolonged overalls;
or the affected area is occluded for example by clothing. • the provision of disposable ‘wipes’ (oily rags or tools should never be kept in
Skin exposure to used lubricants should be avoided as they may have a potential overall pockets);
to cause serious irreversible skin disorders, such as warty growths and cancer, • good washing facilities should be available with hot and cold water, proprie-
due to the presence of small amounts of harmful contaminants. tary hand-cleansers and clean towels (barrier creams and reconditioning
Injections through the skin arising from contact with high pressure/velocity sprays creams may be beneficial).
are SERIOUS MEDICAL EMERGENCIES.
Skin Care When Using Petroleum Products
Injuries may not appear serious at first but within a few hours tissue becomes swol-
len, discoloured and extremely painful with extensive subcutaneous necrosis. To minimise the possibility of skin problems arising during handling fuels and lu-
bricants, it is important that good hygiene (industrial and personal) practices are
followed. This section provides general advice on the prevention of occupational tact with the offending material(s) is avoided. Prevention of contact dermatitis
skin diseases when using petroleum products. The appropriate BP Materials Safe- developing must, therefore, be the primary consideration.
ty Data Sheet should be consulted for specific advice on safe handling precautions Oil Folliculitis (blocking of hair follicles) and/or Oil Acne (blocking of sebaceous
and emergency procedures for particular Air BP products. and/or sweat glands) may develop as a result of prolonged skin contact with min-
eral oil products (particularly where oil-soaked clothing has been allowed to remain
Healthy Skin in prolonged contact with the skin). The first sign is normally the appearance of
The skin is the main barrier protecting the body from harmful substances in the en- ‘blackheads’ but more susceptible individuals may suffer from boils or even car-
vironment and comprises a thin outer layer (the epidermis) and a thicker inner lay- buncles.
er (the dermis which contains sweat glands, hair follicles and blood vessels). The
Frequent and prolonged skin contact with some lubricants and fuels, especially if
epidermis consists of a layer of dead cells (cells being the basic structural and
accompanied by poor standards of personal hygiene, may lead to localised thick-
functional building blocks of the body) bound together by natural oils to form an
ening of the skin (keratosis) or to warty growths.
impervious barrier. The natural oils present are important in retaining water and
their loss (known as defatting) can lead to dehydration of the skin which becomes Rarely, a warty growth may become malignant (cancer). In addition, small growths
stiff and cracks open exposing the underlying living cells to harmful substances or or malignant ulcers may develop on otherwise normal skin. These occur most fre-
infection. quently on exposed areas (hands, forearms) but may also appear on other areas
where the skin is habitually chafed by oil-impregnated clothing. The scrotum is par-
Effects of Petroleum Products on the Skin ticularly susceptible and therefore oily rags or tools should never be put into trou-
Frequent or prolonged contact with mineral oil products can cause various skin ser pockets. Work clothes should be cleaned regularly and changed promptly if
conditions which may occur singly or in combination: they become contaminated. It is essential to maintain high standards of personal
hygiene.
Irritant Contact Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin resulting from contact with
an irritant material. The response of individuals to irritant materials may vary. Pe- Skin cancers may not appear for many years (usually more than twenty) after ex-
troleum products, particularly those of low viscosity, may defat the skin leaving it posure. Early medical treatment is essential. Personnel with prolonged occupa-
dry and susceptible to dermatitis and infection. Irritant dermatitis is the most com- tional exposure to petroleum products should be advised by management to
mon skin condition caused by frequent or prolonged skin contact with petroleum examine themselves regularly, for example when bathing. Handling instructions
products. for materials suspected of being able to cause skin cancer should be followed
carefully at all times. Anyone who develops a skin sore or ulcer which does not
Allergic Contact Dermatitis occurs only in individuals who have become allergic heal quickly (even though they have not handled petroleum products for many
(sensitised) to particular materials as a result of previous exposure. The inflam- years) should consult a physician.
mation of the skin in such cases is the same as in irritant contact dermatitis except
that severe inflammation may be caused by even trivial contact with small amounts Prevention of Skin Contamination
of the material.
The best way to protect the skin from any harmful effects of petroleum products is
In both irritant and allergic contact dermatitis, inflammation causes the skin to be- to prevent skin contamination. Personal protection is less effective than properly
come red and itchy. Small watery blisters may develop and burst, leaving the skin engineered containment. Work practices must be adopted to minimise contact and
surface dry and flaky which may result in cracking and in some cases bleeding. prevent the accumulation of material on the skin. Only disposable ‘wipes’ should
Dermatitis developing over a long period may result in skin which is thickened and be used – workers should never put oily rags or tools in pockets.
scaly. Occupational contact dermatitis commonly affects forearms, backs of hands
and between fingers, but may affect any exposed areas of skin. Although it may Protective clothing: cotton or polyester/cotton overalls normally provide ade-
quate protection where only intermittent or occasional contact is likely. Where a
occur at any age it arises most often in middle age, sometimes after exposure to
the same material for twenty years or more. Once contact dermatitis has devel- higher degree of contact is possible additional impermeable protective clothing,
oped, the skin does not always return to a normal healthy condition even if all con- such as gloves, aprons, oil-resistant footwear, should be worn as appropriate.
Every aircraft maintenance shop uses electrical power for day to day activities.
While electricity performs many useful functions, you must remember that it can
injure or kill if mishandled. Consider that the aircrafts structure is conductive and
there is always a certain amount of fuel in the tanks. On aircrafts, electrical power
should only be used to illuminate the work area. Electrical equipment such as drill-
ing machines are not allowed since they produce sparks (equipped with carbon
brushes). Pneumatically actuated equipment can be used as an alternative. Gen-
erally, electrical equipment must be approved and periodically checked for proper
condition. When plugging elect. equipment, make sure the outlet is equipped with
a fault current breaker.
It is the responsibility of everyone that uses electrical power to be aware of the
safety procedures regarding it.
Ox
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex-
el
tinguish them. (Symbol: Yellow star)
yg
Fu
en
European System
1.060
Class A fires are those in which solid combustible materials such as wood, paper,
or textiles burn. Aircraft cabin fires are usually of this class.
Class B fires involve combustion liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel and
many of the paint thinners and solvents. Heat
Class C fires are those in which escaping gas is involved.
Class D fires are those in which some metal, such as magnesium, is burning. The Types of Fire Extinguishers
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex- In order to extinguish a fire, we must either lower the temperature of the material
tinguish them. below its kindling temperature, or deprive it of oxygen. All of the fire extinguishers
Class E fires are those in which energised electrical equipment is involved. Spe- we have in common use work on one or the other of these principles.
cial care must be exercised in the selection of a fire extinguisher for Class E fires.
Water Extinguishers extinguishing fires in engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered air-
Water can only be used for Class A fires, such as aircraft cabin fires, where elec- craft. In engine compartment installations, the Halon 1301 container is pressurised
tricity is not involved. Most modern water-type extinguishers consist of a container by compressed nitrogen and is discharged through spray nozzles in the engine
of water in which some antifreeze material has been mixed. The water is propelled compartment.
from the extinguisher by a charge of carbon dioxide. Once the extinguisher is ac- Table 1: Toxicity Number
tivated, all of the propellant will be discharged and a new cartridge must be in-
stalled when the extinguisher is serviced. Toxicity Group Extinguishing Agent
Figure 11: Different Hand Fire Extinguishers Correct behaviour in case of Fire
The correct behaviour in case of a fire is very important and decisive to protect
people and material assets. Unfortunately, the fire brigade is often called to late,
after an unsuccessful attempt to extinguish the fire. Valuable minutes are therefore
lost.
The following steps explain the correct procedure:
Alarm
• Immediately call the Fire Brigade. You should always know the local emer-
gency numbers. They will ask you about the location, your name and the gen-
eral situation.
• Inform endangered persons.
Save Life
• Avoid panic.
• Save live of peoples and animals and bring them out of danger.
• Shut windows and doors.
Water or Foam Powder Carbon Dioxide CO2
• Leave the scene of the fire. Do not use elevators.
Figure 12: Illustrated Fire Classification • In case of a smoky staircase or corridor, stay in the most save room with the
doors and windows closed and wait for the fire brigade.
CO² ✔ ✔ ✔
Halon™ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Welding
Use more than one extinguisher at Welding should not be performed except in designated areas. Any part to be weld-
the same time, if ever possible.
ed should be removed from the aircraft, if possible. Repair would then be accom-
plished in the welding shop under controlled environment.
A welding shop should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool storage,
and fire prevention and extinguishing equipment. Welding on an aircraft should be
performed outside if possible.
UNSERVICEABLE
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, temperature, pres- Circumference at the
sure etc., it is necessary that we get familiar with the accepted methods for meas- α α = 1 angular minute = 1.852 km
Equator = 40'076,592 km
uring these values and the units used to express them.
Through the ages human beings have devised many methods for measuring.
However, it would be impossible to cover even a small part of the information ac-
cumulated for these several thousands of years. Now we shall concern ourselves
principally with the English (Imperial) system and the SI metric system, both of
which are used extensively throughout the world.
Tolerances Calibration
Tolerances are used on engineering drawings to indicate acceptable limits of size Calibration and Graduation of Measuring Instruments
for parts. You will need to be able to recognise how tolerances are specified. Tol-
erances are usually specified for all dimensions affecting functioning or inter- Calibration is defined as the process of determining the characteristic relationship
changeability whenever it is doubtful that ordinary or established workshop between the values of the physical quantity applied to the instrument and the cor-
techniques can be relied upon to achieve the required standard of accuracy. Also, responding positions of the index, i.e. a chart of measured quantity versus instru-
tolerances are used to indicate where unusually wide variations are permissible. ment readings is required.
The wider the tolerance which can be machined, the cheaper will be the cost of Calibration may be achieved by comparison with:
production. Wide tolerances permit the use of less accurate machines and less ex- • a primary standard.
perienced machinists.
• a secondary standard which has a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
Tolerances are given: calibrated.
• By a general note • a known input source.
• By tolerances assigned to individual dimensions The first step in the graduation of an instrument scale is to locate certain fixed
points. The division of the scale into a specified number of increments is then
General Tolerances made with reference to the fixed points. As an example consider a simple liquid in
Drawings are simplified by the use of general tolerance notes. These are often in- glass thermometer. For most purposes the scale can be assumed to be linear and
cluded in the title block of the drawings but may appear anywhere on the drawing. has 100 Celsius units between the freezing point and the boiling point of water at
When you are using working drawings, first look carefully for any general tolerance standard atmospheric pressure. The fixed points 0°C and 100°C are obtained by
notes or any other general directions. If no tolerances are shown, make sure you standing the thermometer in melting ice and steam from boiling water respectively,
find out what the generally accepted tolerances in your shop are. the distance between the fixed points then being divided into 100 equal parts.
See also Sub Module 7.5 "Engineering Drawings and Diagrams" and Sub Module For an instrument having an arbitrary scale, the factor by which the indication has
7.6 "Fits and Clearances" and for further information. to be multiplied in order to obtain the nominal value of the quantity measured is
known as the scalefactor.
It is essential that, after a measuring instrument has been graduated and calibrat-
ed, the instrument be tested for the purpose of assessing the instrument errors.
This process is known as verification and is employed to determine whether an in-
strument does in fact comply with a prescribed specification.
the assumed law of operation of the instrument, i.e. the instrument scale may not Checking of Torque Wrenches
be perfect.
Torque wrenches should be tested at least once each month, and at more frequent
(c) The indication error which is defined as the error obtained by subtracting the intervals if they are used regularly. They are calibrated normally every 12 Months.
true value of the quantity measured from the indicated value, due regard being Note that the calibration interval may vary depending on the national regulations.
paid to the sign of each. When the instrument is in the specified conditions of use, Torque wrenches must be treated as precision measuring instruments. If a torque
and a physical quantity is presented to it for the purpose of verifying the setting, wrench is dropped or subject to any shock it must be tested for accuracy before
the indication error may be referred to as datum error. further use.
(d) Zero-error which is the indication when the instrument is in the specified con- Methods of testing are by static test rig, or with a spring balance. The test rig, is
ditions of use and the magnitude of the physical quantity presented to it is zero. the most accurate and reliable method but may not always be available, in which
case a spring balance may be used.
The limits of error for a measurement system are the positive and/or negative val-
ues of the errors which must not be exceeded under test. In the case of indication Figure 5: Torque Wrench Calibration
errors the limits may be expressed in the following ways:
a) Directly in units of the measured quantity.
b) As a percentage of the full-scale deflection (e.g. error 10% F.S.D.).
c) Is a percentage plus or minus of the expected reading (e.g. ± 1% error
at 30°C). Errors are often expressed in this form when the error varies
over the working range.
7.3 Tools
12.367
REF mm/in ON/OFF 0 HOLD
Hand Tools hex bits. The bits come in many types and sizes and typically fit inside the hollow
handle of the screw-driver for storage.
Hand Tools are these tools commonly used in everyday maintenance and repair.
Some of these are common while others have a very specialized usage. The most Powered Screwdriver
common tools are listed in the following text. Most aeroplanes have stressed inspection
panels held on with many countersunk re-
Screwdrivers cessed-head screws. On each inspection,
A screwdriver is the most familiar and, often times, the most these screws must be removed and replaced.
misused tool. The screwdriver’s handy shape and wide assort- The time involved to complete this process
ment of sizes makes it tempting to use as a punch, a chisel, or makes this a major part of an inspection. To
a pry bar. However, screwdrivers should only be used for their help decrease the time spent removing in-
intended purpose to turn screws. spection panels, most shops are equipped
with air or battery powered screwdrivers.
The blades come in a wide variety of shank and blades sizes. These tools accept a standard 1/4 inch screwdriver bit. Many of these screwdriv-
Standard screwdrivers are typically available with shanks from ers allow you to adjust the amount of torque applied to a screw. Once the preset
about 1 1/2 inches up to lengths of 10 to 12 inches. torque value is reached, a chuck slips inside the screwdriver preventing the screw
from being over-torqued. Prior to using an air-driven screwdriver you should make
sure you understand how to set the proper torque.
Wrenches
Offset Screwdriver The majority of removable fasteners used in aircraft construction are bolts and
nuts. Therefore it makes sense that the largest number of individual tools in a well-
Offset screwdrivers are available for turning screws where
equipped tool box is an assortment of wrenches. Aircraft usually use nuts and bolts
there is no clearance for a straight screwdriver. There are two
with English sizes. However, now that the metric system is becoming the standard
types of offsets, one with two blades at right angles to each
across the globe, metric size wrenches may also be needed for aviation mainte-
other, and one with four blades oriented in 45° increments.
nance. Good quality wrenches are forged of chrome-vanadium steel. This combi-
nation of metals is an extremely tough alloy. After being forged, burrs are removed
and then the wrenches are plated with cadmium or hard chrome to protect them
from rust. The plating process improves the wrench’s appearance and makes it
Changeable Head Screwdriver easier to clean.
Two types of screwdrivers that are useful for line
technicians working away from their tool boxes are
the reversible-blade screwdriver and the inter-
changeable head screwdriver. The reversible-blade
screwdriver has a regular slotted blade on one end,
and a blade that fits a recessed-head screw on the
other end. The interchangeable head screwdriver
has a hollow magnetized shaft that holds 1/4 inch
Open-End Wrenches where the swinging of the wrench handle is severely restricted. To help remedy
Open-end wrenches have an opening in each this, a special type of box-end wrench is used. A slot is cut into the box end to allow
end that fits a bolt head or nut. The openings of the wrench to slip over a fluid line and then the hex of the nut is engaged.
an open-end wrench are parallel to each other
and are normally angled at 15 degrees to the
handle. This angle allows you to turn a nut even
when the space for the handle is severely re-
stricted. However, while the 15 degree head an-
gle is standard, there are many other angles
available.
Ratcheting Box-end Wrenches
This type of wrench consists of a box-end wrench set into a handle with a ratchet-
Box-End Wrenches ing mechanism. Most ratcheting box-end wrenches are locked in one direction,
Nuts that are exceptionally tight can spread the jaws on even the best open-end thus to change the direction of movement, the wrench is turned over.
wrench. To break the torque on tight nuts a box-end wrench is used. Box-end
wrenches have a six- or twelve-point opening attached to each end and offset from
the axis of the handle by about 15 degrees.
Standard Sockets
Standard sockets are available in all of the popular
drive sizes and with either four-, six-, eight-, or twelve-
point openings. These sockets are also deep enough to
Flare Nut Wrenches fit over a bolt head or a nut if too much shank does not
protrude. The six- and twelve-point sockets are usually
As you know, aircraft fluid lines are connected to components with flare nuts. While used in aviation.
these nuts are typically not tightly torqued, they are often situated in locations
Torque Wrenches amount of bar deflection. The deflection is calibrated in inch-pounds, foot-pounds,
or in meter or centimetre-kilograms.
The holding power of a threaded fastener is greatly increased when it is placed un-
der an initial tensile load that is greater than the loads the fastener is subjected to. Figure 2: Torsion Bar Torque Wrench
This task is accomplished by tightening a bolt or nut to a pre-determined torque,
or pre-load, with a torque wrench.
A torque wrench is a precision measuring tool that measures the amount of force
applied to a fastener. Under controlled conditions, the amount of force required to
turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress within the fastener. The
amount of torque, measured in inch-pounds or foot-pounds, is the product of the A toggle torque wrench is pre-set to the desired torque before it is put on a fasten-
force required to turn the fastener multiplied by the distance between the centre of er. When this preset torque is reached a sound is heard and the handle releases
the fastener and the point at which the force is applied. For example, a torque a few degrees. The release indicates that the desired torque is reached. Once the
wrench has a length permanently established between the centre of the drive release is reached all force should be removed.
square and a pivot in the handle. The force applied is measured by the amount the
Figure 3: Toggle Torque Wrench
beam deflects. Hooke’s law states that the amount a beam deflects is directly re-
lated to the force applied. Therefore, if the lever is exactly 12 inches long and a
force of 30 pounds is applied to the handle, a torque of 360 inch-pounds is pro-
duced on the fastener.
12 in. x 30 lbs. = 360 in./lbs.
There are three basic types of torque wrenches typically found in aviation mainte-
nance shops. They are the deflecting-beam type, the torsion bar type, and the tog-
gle type. The deflecting-beam torque wrench is one of the simplest. The square The force required to cause a toggle-type torque wrench to snap is determined by
drive is on one end of an accurately ground beam with a handle mounted on a pivot the amount of compression on the spring in the wrench handle.
at the other end. The pivot ensures that force is always applied at a specific point. Rather than measuring the deflection of a beam, the toggle-type torque wrench
A pointer attached to the end of a beam holds the drive square, and a scale is uses a calibrated compression or spring to apply a force to a load lever. When the
mounted near the handle end. When force is applied to the handle, the beam torque applied to the drive square reaches the preset value, the toggle forces the
bends and the pointer moves across the dial measuring the amount the beam toggle slide bar back enough for the toggle to snap over.
bends. The amount of bend is directly proportional to the amount of torque applied.
Figure 4: Build up of a Toggle Torque Wrench
Figure 1: Deflecting Beam Torque Wrench
A bar accurately deflects in torsion as well as bending when a force is applied. This
principle is used in the torsion bar torque wrench. The drive square of a torsion bar-
type wrench is accurately ground and has a rack gear on one end. When the bar
is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in a dial indicator which shows the
L
E
When this formula is used and the torque wrench reads 120 inch-pounds, the TA L
amount of torque actually applied on the fastener is 150 inch-pounds. T W = -----------------
L – E
By shifting the variables the same for-
mula can be used to determine what a TA L
torque wrench will indicate for a given T W = ------------------
torque on a fastener. The formula to do
L + E
this is:
Using the same figures as before, it is found that in order to apply 150 inch-pounds
of torque on a fastener with a five-inch extension, the torque handle scale needs
to read 120 inch-pounds.
Standard Tightening Procedure for Threaded Fasteners • The calibration of the tools is correct.
The threaded fasteners are identified with a standard number written on the head • The torque is applied correctly.
(example: ABS, AN, ASNA, NAS, ASN, NSA, MS). They are installed in standard You can apply unwanted torsion or flexing to the component if:
condition what means, no lubricant is applied to the thread. • The position of the wrench (or the screwdriver) is incorrect.
If lubrication is required by the maintenance manual, a corrected torque value is • You apply the tightening torque incorrectly:
given. Note: If you use a screwdriver, you must tighten at the correct speed to prevent too
Before you apply a tightening torque to a fastener, make sure that you know its much heat on the fasteners. This can cause damage to the protection and the lu-
correct part number. To find the correct part number of a fastener (screw, washer, bricant and can make the fastener seize.
nut), refer to the installation figure of the IPC. Do not apply more than the maximum torque value. Make sure that you get
The torque values of the nuts and the screws are given with their initial lubricants. correct part mating before the maximum torque value is applied.
These torque values are available for the different screw/nut diameters:
• The minimum value
• The nominal value
• The maximal value.
Tightening Procedures
Apply the tightening torques with:
• Torque wrenches
• Calibrated screwdrivers.
If you use torque wrenches or calibrated screwdrivers, make sure that:
Checking and Handling of Torque Wrenches Figure 6: Torque Wrench Tester (Acratork))
Torque wrenches must be treated as precision measuring instruments. If a
torque wrench is dropped or subject to any shock it must be tested for accu-
racy before further use. They are calibrated normally every 12 Months. Note
that the calibration interval may vary depending on the national regulations.
Torque wrenches should be tested before each job with a torque wrench tester as
shown in Figure 6. Methods of testing are by static test rig, or with a spring bal-
ance. The test rig, is the most accurate and reliable method but may not always
be available, in which case a spring balance may be used.
Check that the torque wrench is not overdue for calibration. Never use an out of 3.080
date wrench.
Physically check that the wrench is not damaged. If there is any doubt about the
wrenches accuracy or serviceability, return it to the tool store for calibration or re-
pair. Attach a label indicating that it is unserviceable.
When accessories are to be used with a torque wrench, be sure to make the nec-
essary corrections in the wrench setting. Failure to do so may result in serious in-
stallation errors.
A reliable torque reading cannot be obtained by using a torque wrench on a nut
which has already been tightened. The final turn of a nut should be made with the
torque wrench.
Apply a smooth pull to the torque wrench and allow the torque to build up uniform-
ly, not with a series of jerks.
Apply the force at the torque wrench handle only and try to keep the pull at right
angles to the handle.
Try to select a torque wrench that will require 80% or less of full-scale deflection
to do the job. Never exceed the full-scale limit of the torque wrench.
When a torque value is not specified for a fastener in the relevant Maintenance
Manual, use the standard torque charts or the relevant Manufacturers Specifica-
tion.
Cutting edge
Hardened and
tempered
Chisel Point
Angle Cutting Edge
115˚-135˚ Web
Margin
Land
Dead
Center Body
Flute Clearance
Jobber Drills
The jobber drill is the most often used twist drill in sheet metal work. It is a pointed
tool that is rotated to cut holes in material. It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel
bar having spiral flutes (grooves) running the length of the body, and a conical
point with cutting edges formed by the ends of the flutes. Twist drills have from one 3.100
to four spiral flutes. Drills with two flutes are used for most drilling. Those with three
or four flutes are used principally to follow smaller drills or to enlarge holes.
The principle parts of a twist drill are the shank, the body, and the point. The drill
shank is the end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill. The straight shank
generally is used in hand, breast and portable electric drills.
Extension Drill
The extension drill has a long shank for reaching limited access areas. The drill
should not be used unless absolutely necessary. Use a drill guard (a plastic tube
slipped over the drill to protect adjacent structure from drill whip, and to make it
possible to guide the drill by hand). Hold the drill guard as near the drill point as
possible.
Vise
The most works will be secured by the vise. The main use of the vise is to hold the
work during drilling, reaming etc. in a correct position. Care should be taken to en-
sure that when the drill passes through the work it does not drill into the bottom of
the vise.
Drill Guide
The hand held drill guide keeps the drills 90° to the skin surfaces. The guide as-
sembly consists of a clear plastic housing and special screw in type hardened steel
bushing. The bushing can be interchanged.
1. Align pilot with pilot hole when drilling the first hole.
2. Align pilot with pilot hole and pilot pin with hole drilled in the first operation and
then drill the second hole.
3.130
3.115
When two or more sheets were drilled at the same time, it is necessary to remove
chips from between the sheets. The illustrations show the results of leaving mate-
rial between drilled sheets.
Figure 17: Drilled Sheets / Trapped Burrs
3.140
3.110
3.155
3.145
Drilling Speeds terial being out. The proper speed for aluminium alloy will not produce the best
results with stainless steel or titanium. When harder materials are drilled, slower
The drill speeds are an important factor in getting good results. Drill speed deter-
speeds are required.
mines the rate at which the outer cutting edge of the drill is moving across the ma-
Soft Plastics and Annealed Mild Malleable Hard Cast Tool or Alloy Steel
Diameter
Metals Hard Rubber Cast Iron Steel Iron Iron Hard Steel Cast Steel
Of Drill
300 F.P.M. 200 F.P.M. 140 F.P.M. 100 F.P.M. 90 F.P.M. 80 F.P.M. 60 F.P.M. 40 F.P.M.
1/16 (No. 53 – 80) 18320 12217 8554 6111 5500 4889 3667 2445
3/32 (No. 42 – 52) 12212 8142 5702 4071 3666 3258 2442 1649
1/8 (No. 31 – 41) 9160 6112 4278 3056 2750 2445 1833 1222
3.160
5/32 (No. 23 – 30) 7328 4888 3420 2444 2198 1954 1465 977
3/16 (No. 13 – 22) 6106 4075 2852 2037 1833 1630 1222 815
7/32 (No. 1 – 12) 5234 3490 2444 1745 1575 1396 1047 698
1/4 (A – E) 4575 3055 2139 1527 1375 1222 917 611
9/32 (G – K) 4071 2712 1900 1356 1222 1084 814 542
9/16 (L,M,N) 3660 2445 1711 1222 1100 978 733 489
11/32 (O – R) 3330 2220 1554 1110 1000 888 666 444
3/8 (S,T,U) 3050 2037 1426 1018 917 815 611 407
13/32 (V – Z) 2818 1878 1316 939 846 752 563 376
7/16 2614 1746 1222 873 786 698 524 349
15/32 2442 1628 1140 814 732 652 488 326
1/2 2287 1528 1070 764 688 611 458 306
9/16 2035 1357 950 678 611 543 407 271
3/8 1830 1222 856 611 550 489 367 244
11/16 1665 1110 777 555 500 444 333 222
3/4 1525 1018 713 509 458 407 306 204
Figures are for High-Speed Steel (HSS) Drills. The speed of Carbon Drills should be reduced one-half.
Use drill speed nearest to figure given.
Drill Press
A drill press is a bench-mounted or floor-mounted machine designed to rotate a
drill bit and press the sharpened point of the bit against metal in order to drill a hole.
The drill press is driven by an electric motor through a speed-changing mecha-
nism, either a belt transmission or a gear transmission.
3.165
3.200
Point Thinning
The metal at the center of a drill (called the web) tapers
and gets thicker towards the shank. This causes the
center of a drill point to get thicker as its length is re-
duced by grinding, and to prevent this thick edge from
reducing the efficiency of the drill it should by ground
thinner. The point thinning of a drill will usually remain
the drill in a proper position during starting the hole.
Grinding Problems
1. Lips of different lengths
Drill moves off starting position
2. Lips at different angles
Hole will be enlarged, rough hole surface.
Figure 23: Grinding Problems
Instruction to use the Microstop Countersink Tool Figure 27: Microstop Countersinking Tool
The shaft of the microstop countersinking tool rotates on a bearing inside an ad-
justable "locking sleeve and foot piece assembly". The foot piece (or "stop" as it is
often called) threads onto the shaft bearing, enabling depth adjustments to be
made.
Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001-inch increments, surround the
beveled circumference of the locking sleeve to aid in dept adjustments.
The adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop, to deepen
or shallow the cut. The sleeve is then dropped back into its original position to ef-
fect a lock.
Make sure that the locking splines intermesh, only then is the adjustment se-
curely locked. In general adjustment of the microstop will be made on
scrapped sheets.
The stop countersink may be adjusted or set up on the part to be countersunk, pro-
vided the following precautions are taken:
1. Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the
Adjusting of microstop countersink tool
cut will not be too deep.
2. Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the 3.220
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.
3. If at all doubtful of the accuracy of the adjustment, try the countersink on a
piece of scrap sheet stock before using.
3.250
3.240
Hot Dimpling
It is sometimes necessary to dimple heavy sheet in a highly stressed part of the
aircraft in order to retain the maximum strength of the sheet. A process called hot
coin dimpling has been developed for this purpose. Hot coin dimpling is performed
with a special hot-dimpling machine consisting of heated dies which can be
pressed together to form a dimple.
Figure 32: Hot Dimpling
Heater
Vernier Calliper
Vernier calipers / sliding gages are used to make accurate inside or outside as well
as depths measurements faster than can be made with a micrometer, and for 0 4 8
3.275
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.270
The most often used vernier caliper is the caliper with the 1/20 vernier and an ac-
curacy reading of 0.05 mm. Have a look at Figure 35 on page 29.
It will be seen that 20 divisions on the nonius scale are equal to 39 mm on the fixed
scale. The length of the nonius is 39 mm / 20 = 1.95 mm, and since the top division
The vernier calipers consists of the bar and the two measuring jaws. One jaw is is 2 mm, the difference is 2 mm – 1.95 mm = 0.05 mm. This distance represents
fixed to the bar, the other one slides on the bar. The bar of a metric vernier caliper the accuracy to which readings may be taken.
is equipped with a graved in scale, graduated in mm or inch, the so-called fixed or
main scale. Opposite to this scale, there is the so-called vernier scale (in German: 1/50 Metrical Vernier
nonius) on the slide. These scales are normally divided in 8 equal spacings for The accuracy reading is 0.02 mm.
Inch measuring(1/128), and 10, 20 or 50 equal spacings for metrical measuring,
the so-called 1/10, 1/20, or 1/50 vernier (nonius).
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 10
2.00 mm
Fixed Scale
1.95 mm
Nonius Scale
0 1 2 3 4
1/128 Inch Vernier (Fraction Inch) Figure 36: 1/128 Inch Vernier Scale
Vernier callipers with a reading accuracy of 1/128 inch fraction are used to deter- 1/128"
mine the length and the thickness of bolts, hi-locks, rivets and cables. Nonius Scale (8 Units)
In Figure 36, one inch is divided into 16 equal units on the fixed scale. Thus each 0 4 8
unit is 1/16 inch. To convert the fraction into 128 inch, the numerator and the de-
nominator has to be multiplied by 8.
1/128 in.
8 1- --------
8-
------------ = inch
8 16 128
This means that each unit on the fixed scale is 8/128 inch. The nonius scale is di-
vided into 8 equal units. These equal the length of 7 units on the fixed scale. 7 units
on the fixed scale are:
1/16"= 8/128"
8 56 Fixed Scale (16 Units) 1
7 --------- = --------- inch 0
128 128 7/16" is 8 Scale Units
of the Nonius Scale
One nonius unit is therefore:
56 7
---------------- = --------- inch
128 8 128
The reading accuracy is determined by subtracting one unit of the nonius scale
from one unit of the fixed scale:
8- 7 1-
-------- – --------- = 8-----------
– 7- = --------
inch
128 128 128 128
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50
b) 0 4 8
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1/128 in.
f)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 1
c)
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a) 7.3 mm
b) 11.45 mm
c) 2.4 mm
d) 48/128 inch = 3/8 inch
e) 45/128 inch
f) 68/128 inch = 17/32 inch
Ratchet 30
Scale Thimble
Anvil Spindle Stop
0 5
0 For accurate measuring, use only the ratchet stop.
45
Measuring
Faces Barrel
3.290
Temperature Shield
Frame
Barrel 0.2750
Thimble 0.0100
3.310
Rotation
Rotary 3.305 Tachometer
Scale (mm)
Climb Shaft
Spindle
Pin
A special type of the dial indicator is an excellent tool to measure for example the
removed material after corrosion strike clean up.
3.320
5/32
3.325
Outside Radius
1/3
2
3.335
3.340
Scriber
The scriber is used to mark lines on metal surfaces.
Note: A scriber is used only when the material within the scribed line is to be cut
out and the scribble mark is removed as part of the scrap.
Pencil
When working with aluminium, a soft lead pencil may be used for layout work or
for marking reference lines in areas that will not be removed.
3.345
Lubrication usual method and the type of lubricant to be used is shown in diagrams or illustra-
tions. A symbolic system is used and could look like Figure 52 on page 40.
Hinges, bearings, sliding numbers etc. on aircraft must be lubricated at regular in- Guns and oil cans must be kept clean and must be filled with new lubricant from a
tervals to reduce friction and prevent seizure. Grease or oil is used as the lubricant. container marked with what it contains. The lubrication point and its surrounding
Grease, which has greater viscosity and adhesive properties, is more suitable than area should be wiped clean to prevent grit being pumped in with the lubricant, any
oil in positions where prevention of lubricant leakage would be difficult. Grease excess should be wiped off to prevent it attracting dirt and grit. Always ensure that
also excludes moisture and dirt, giving additional protection from corrosion and the correct quantity is applied, the Maintenance Manual will- specify the amount
wear of moving parts. required, normally with a greased joint when new grease extrudes from the bear-
ing it is sufficient.
Lubrication Diagram
Oil systems are normally filled to a point on a dipstick or sight glass to ensure the
Lubrication is carried out in accordance with a schedule approved for the particular correct quantity. Use new oil of the correct type and ensure that the area around
aircraft. The intervals normally being related to flying hours. Certain positions may the fillpoint is clean.
require additional lubrication after ground de-icing operations and after cleaning
the aircraft. The types of lubricant and the position of the lubrication points, are After cleaning aircraft with high pressure washing equipment or after de-icing, the
shown in the lubrication diagrams in the aircraft maintenance manual. lubricant in exposed bearings could be diluted or contaminated so lubrication may
be required after these operations. Some types of bearings containing Teflon must
Minor lubrication points have a drilled hole into which oil is fed using an oil can. not be lubricated as the lubricant causes deterioration of the Teflon coating and
Nipples are provided where it is necessary to force grease or oil into bearings etc. reduces its life.
Some bearings are self lubricating, and other are packed on assembly with suffi-
cient grease for the life of the bearing. These bearings will require no further lubri- Figure 51: Lubrication Nozzles
cation during service.
Lubricating Gun
A typical lubricating gun is designed for use with oil or soft grease. It consists of a
barrel that is closed at one end by a spring-type cap, and at the other end by a
pump head. The barrel houses a piston follower assembly. The pump head, which
screws on to the barrel, houses a lever-operated piston and a spring loaded non-re-
turn-valve. In addition, fitted in the front face of the head, is an adapter for fitting
accessories, and a pressure relief valve.
The accessories supplied with the gun consist of four nozzles. The standard noz-
zle is for use with the gun nozzle is for use with Tecalemit standard size hexagon
nipples. The miniature nozzle is for Tecalemit miniature size hexagon nipples. The
push-on nozzle is for Tecazerk ' and similar type nipples. The hydraulic nozzle is
for use with hydraulic nipples.
Application
Lubrication must be carried out at the intervals specified in the Maintenance Man-
uals, the lubricant used and the method of application will also be detailed. The
Grease gun
Oil can
Brush
Hand
3.350
Clean linth-free cloth
Aerosol spray
Continuity Tester
A continuity tester, using a flashlight batteries, a 3-volt flashlight bulb, and two test
leads. With this simple home-made tool, you can trace wires through a system, lo-
cate shorts and open circuits, and quickly determine whether a fuse is good or bad.
Instead of an indicating bulb also a buzzer is sounding at continuity.
When using the continuity tester, all electrical power must be off to the circuit. Con-
nect one test lead to one end of the circuit and the other lead to the other end. If
there is continuity, the bulb will light up. If there is an open circuit, the bulb will not
light.
Test Lights and Continuity Tester are simple, inexpensive to make, and can be
easily carried in your tool box, but they are limited in what they can do.
Piercing
It is not allowed when troubleshooting an aircraft electrical system to follow the au-
tomotive practice of piercing the insulation with a sharp needle point on the test
lead to contact the wire for checking continuity or voltage. The insulation is differ-
ent and there is a danger of damaging the wires.
Note:
• Make sure, that the date of instrument-calibration is not expired. Voltmeter. An electrical instrument used to measure voltage. Most analog voltme-
• With unknown voltages and currents to be measured, always start with the ters determine the voltage by measuring the current forced through a series of pre-
highest range. If the meter is placed away, select the 500 Volt AC range, to cision resistors inside voltmeter.
prevent any damage by the next user. Ammeter. A measuring instrument installed in series with an electrical load to
• For resistance reading, first check that the pointer is showing zero Ohm (0 measure the amount of current flowing through the load. The current is measured
with both probe leads shortened. in amperes.
• This meter must be placed horizontally for exact read-out. A mirror behind the Ohmmeter. An instrument used to measure resistance in an electrical circuit or
pointer eliminates the read-out parallax error. component. A known voltage is applied across the unknown resistance, and the
resulting current is measured.
Voltage Measuring When a voltmeter is connected across an open switch, a blown fuse, or an open
component, it will read the system voltage. When it is connected across a closed
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component whose voltage is to be switch or a good fuse, it will read zero voltage.
measured. The (+) terminal of the voltmeter must be on the side of the component
to which the positive terminal of the power source is connected. Figure 58: Instrument used to measure voltage drop over switches
Figure 57: Connecting a Voltmeter
Voltmeter Voltmeter
- -
+
+ +
L V + +
Voltmeter
- L L
-
- -
A B
V
0 Table 3: Voltages on Aeroplanes
System Voltage
Lights 5 - 6 V and 28 V
Measuring Voltage with DMM Figure 59: Measuring Voltage with DMM
One of the most basic tasks of a DMM is measuring voltage. A typical DC voltage
source is a battery, like the one used in your car. AC voltage is usually created by
a generator. The wall outlets in your home are common sources for AC voltage.
Testing for proper supply voltage is usually the first thing measured when trouble-
shooting a circuit. If there is no voltage present, or if it is too high or too low, the
voltage problem should be corrected before investigating further.
The waveforms associated with AC voltages are either sinusoidal (sine waves) or
non-sinusoidal (sawtooth, square, ripple, etc.) DMM’s display the “RMS” (root-
mean-square) value of these voltage waveforms. The RMS value is the effective
or equivalent DC value of the AC voltage.
Most meters, called “average responding”, give accurate RMS readings if the AC
voltage signal is a pure sine wave. Averaging meters are not capable of measuring
non-sinusoidal signals accurately, Special DMM’s, called “true-RMS” DMM’s, will
accurately measure the correct RMS value, regardless of the waveform, and
should be used for non-sinusoidal signals.
A DMM's ability to measure AC voltage can be limited by the frequency of the sig-
nal. Most DMM’s can accurately measure AC voltages with frequencies from 50
Hz to 500 Hz, while others can measure AC voltages with frequencies from 20 Hz
to 100 kHz, DMM accuracy specifications for AC voltage and AC current should
state the frequency range of a signal the meter can accurately measure.
Voltage measurements determine:
• source voltage
• voltage drop
• voltage imbalance
Current Measuring Current measurements are made in series, unlike voltage or resistance measure-
ments, which are made in parallel. The entire current being measured flows
Ammeters are connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be meas- through the meter. Also, the test leads must be plugged into a different set of input
ured. The (+) terminal of the ammeter connects to the portion of the circuit to which
jacks on the meter.
the positive terminal of the power source connects.
Current measurements determine:
Figure 60: Instrument used to measure Ampere • Circuit overloads
Ammeter • Control circuit current (4-20 mA current loop)
+ - • Circuit operating current
I
• Current in different branches of a circuit
+
Figure 61: Measuring Current with DMM
mA
0
Resistor
Ω
0
8
Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.3 - 49
Basic Maintenance Module 7 Maintenance Practices
Training Manual 7.3 Tools
Continuity
Continuity is a quick go/no go resistance test that distinguishes between an open
and closed circuit.
A DMM with a continuity beeper allows you to complete many continuity tests eas-
ily and quickly. The meter beeps when it detects a close circuit, so you don't have
to look at the meter as you test. The level of resistance required to trigger the beep-
er varies from model to model of DMM.
Continuity tests determine:
• Good or blown fuse
• Open or shorted conductors
• Operation of switches
• Circuit paths (by circuit or conductor tracing)
R1 R2
U S
A B
Rx R3
R1 Rx
Balanced Bridge = ------- = -------
R2 R3
Resistance Measurement with the Wheatstone Bridge Figure 68: Wheatstone Bridge (Pontavi Wh2)
• The resistance to be measured must be connected between the terminals (3).
• Before measuring, the user must check if the pointer is in the middle. If this is
not the case, then a mechanical zero point correction can be made with the
adjustment screw (8).
• Then, the user must check if the battery is still in good condition. This is done
by pressing S2. The pointer should move to the right and remain within the
green band (7).
• If S1 is pressed, the meter is operational. As soon as S1 is not pressed any-
more, the meter is switched off.
• While pressing S1, the user must check if the pointer deflects and to which
side. If the pointer moves to the + side of the scale (6) the value of the con-
nected resistance will be greater than the resistance measuring setting of the
meter.
• To find the correct resistance value, choose a higher range with range switch
S3. The potentiometer for zero setting (9) can also be turned to the left until
the pointer is in the middle.
• The resistance value will then be readable on the resistance scale (1). If the
pointer deflects to the - side of the scale, the user must choose a lower range
and/or the switch for the zero setting must be turned to the right.
R1 R2
U S
A B
Rx R3
• Working with high voltages can be dangerous to your health and to the envi-
ronment.
• Make sure that nobody can touch the circuit to be measured during measur-
ing;
• Make sure that the circuit to be measured cannot be damaged by the high
measuring voltage. Consult the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or the Wiring Di-
agram Manual.
Results:
Vernier Calliper Reading on Page 31:
a) 7.3 mm
b) 11.45 mm
c) 2.4 mm
d) 48/128 inch = 3/8 inch
e) 45/128 inch
f) 68/128 inch = 17/32 inch
Electrical Bonding Following table shows different bonding resistance values. Actual values must be
taken from the maintenance manuals.
Bonding provides a path for return current from the components and provides a
low-impedance path to ground to minimize radio interference from static electrical Table 1: Example
charges collected on the component. Therefore all isolated components are elec-
trically connecting to the aircraft structure. Low-resistance wire (bonding jumper) Bonding Resistance between Resistance
or metal strap are used to connect a structural component or an electrical compo- Primary Structure and: (Milli-Ohm)
nent to the basic structure of an aircraft.
Bonding carries the return current from an electrical component back to the elec- Wing, Stabilizer, Engine and APU-Structure 2
trical power sources like generators, transformer-rectifiers and batteries.
Cabin- Cargo- and Access-Doors, Fuel Tank Access Panels 10
Bonding connects flight control surfaces to the main structure to carry static elec-
trical charge that build up when air flows over the surface into the main structure. Pipes for Fuel, Hydraulic and Air 10 - 500
Bonding prevents sparks that could cause radio interference.
Electrical Components 1 - 10
Testing
Shielding Conduits 5 - 10
In general, most bonding jumpers or ground straps must have each connection
made to have 0.003 ohms or less in resistance. This measurement must be taken Cockpit and Cabin Installations 10 - 500
between the surface being bonded and the bonding jumper.
This test may be performed using an extremely sensitive ohmmeter or a bonding Main Grounding Points of Electrical Power Distribution System 0.05
tester, and should be done any time a connection has been modified, added to or
temporally disconnected.
Figure 1: Bonding Resistance Test
Determination of Bonding Resistance by Low Current Method Figure 2: Determination of Bonding Resistance
• A variable DC current power supply unit feeds a continuous current of
10 Ampere through the bonding connection under test.
• The voltage drop over the bonding is determined with a millivolt meter.
• Calculate the resistance in milli ohm by following formula:
Voltage mV
Bonding Resis tan ce m = ----------------------------------------
Current 10A
Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted
published in the respective aircraft maintenance manual.
Data summary:
Resistance range: 3.5 m to 199.9 m
(for a loop induced current of 1 Ampere)
Induce current frequency: 1KHz
Current injection source output voltage: 3.5 to 199.9 V
(at induction transformer)
Theory of Operation Figure 6: Good Current Loop and Faulty Current Loop (Interrupted)
The tester is designed to measure the electrical resistance of a closed loop; typi-
cally that formed by a conductive specimen bonded to a conductive structure, by
the induction of an alternating current AC into the loop so formed.
Normal Operation
Current is induced into the loop under test by the generator in the Current Injection
Source, via the Clip-on Transformer (CT1) and flows through the specimen, its
bonding connections with structure and the structure itself. Loop induced current
is detected by the Clip-on Transformer (CT2) and measured by the Multimeter (set
to read current). The generator voltage present at Clip-on Transformer (CT1), that
which gives rise loop induced current, is displayed on the panel meter of the Cur-
rent Injection Source.
Air Data Pitot Static Test Sets Manually operated Test Set
There is a wide variety of different testers varying from those with hand pumps to
To verify the correct function of the Air data Computers and Instruments mainte-
those with electric pumps and computers.
nance facilities needs the appropriate equipment. This equipment is used:
• To read the errors of Altimeter and Airspeed-Indicators. Figure 8: Sextant 301 Tester with Hand Pump and Electronic Displays
• After disconnection of Pitot/Static-Lines leak test must be performed.
The art of test equipment has a wide variation. Roller-Pumps (for leak-test only),
Hand-driven Pumps, electric driven and computer controlled units are available.
Figure 7: Roller Pump with Static Port Adapter (Used for Leak Test only)
• For all pitot- and static-test use approved adapters for connecting the hoses
to pitot tubes and static ports. If connections inadvertent falls off, damage of
the instruments or airdata computers can be the result!
• Drain holes and opposite static ports must be closed during test. Don’t forget
to remove the adhesive red tape or adapter after the test is finished!
• Example: Static pressure: 20’000 ft Pitot pressure: 320 kts
maximum Leak rate: 100ft/min 2kts/min
Automatic Air Data Tester (Sextant 410) Figure 11: Sextant 410 Air Data Tester Front Face
Pressure test unit
1. High pressure gauge showing the high pressure HP.
2. Fuse 1A to protect 9 VAC (RCDU power supply).
3. Fuse 1. 5A mains protection.
4. Remote Control Display Unit.
5. Failure warning light.
6. IEEE connector (to connect an external computer with standard IEEE port).
7. Address switches (used to select address in automatic mode.
8. Openings using screwdrivers to the Ps and Pt channel venting valves.
9. Pt warning light (Pt pressure is available).
10. Ps warning light (Ps pressure is available).
11. Black Ps self-sealing pneumatic coupling.
12. Red Pt self-sealing pneumatic coupling.
These needle valves can be separately adjusted by the user in order to select the
venting speed.
13. On/Off switch.
14. Main Power on indicator light of the generator.
15. Vacuum gauge showing the low pressure value BP.
Remote and Control Display Unit Figure 12: Sextant 410 RCDU
The man-machine interface was developed based on a software using multiple
windows with drop-down menus activated by the operator.
The RCDU is made up of:
• 320 x 240 pixel monochrome screen managed in graphic mode
• Keypad with 23 keys
• Potentiometer for adjusting brightness
• Connector for a parallel output (printer)
The screen is composed of:
• 12 keys: 0 . . .9 used to define the order values, program and acceptance
numbers.
• ESCAPE used to Exit from the window displayed and return to the menu at a
higher level menu.
• DELETE used to delete the last numerical value entered and not yet validat-
ed. It can also be used to delete line in certain auxiliary functions.
• PAUSE used to stop the change in progress when in generator mode.
• UP and DN keys used to change zones in a window and to decrease or in-
crease the generated pressures.
• 4 keys: UP, DN, LH and RH used to move the cursor in a menu.
• ? / EXEC used for obtaining information if there is an error message (M ?) or
for executing an order (EXEC).
• ENTER used to validate the current command or value.
Description
The Model 43 THRULINE, is a portable unit contained in a die cast aluminum
housing, with a formed metal enclosure on the back which is easily removed. In-
cluded with the unit is a leather carrying strap, four rubber shock feet on the base,
and four rubber bumpers on the back, which allow the Model 43 to stand or lie flat
when used.
A shielded cable connects the microammeter to the dc jack which is attached to
the side of the RF line section casting. This cable, nearly three feet long, permits
removal of the RF line section from the Wattmeter housing. Meter connections
may be maintained with any installations outside of the housing. This permits per-
manent additional installations to be made. See Section 3, INSTALLATION.
To make measurements, the cylindrical shaped Plug-In Element is inserted into
the line section socket and rotated against one stop.
These contacts make connection with the spring finger of the de jack only when
the Plug-In Element is in the precise forward or reverse position, and with the index
pin on the Element on the lower level of the line section castingface against its re-
spective stop.
Usage
The wattmeter will be connected with coax cables between the transmitter and the
associated aircraft antenna.
Different Plug-In elements for 25 W, 50W and 100W are used. The Arrow on the
Plug-In elements shows the direction of the RF-power, forward- or reflected power.
VOR, LOC, GP, Marker and VHF-COM Tester Figure 16: NAV402AP Navigation/Communication - Radio Tester
The NAV-402AP is a bench and ramp test set designed to meet the electronic
functional test requirements of Category I, II, and III ILS Systems, Communication
(COMM), Navigation (NAV), and Marker (MKR) Systems.
The tester contains features to allow testing of sophisticated autopilot systems.
These features include: automatic LOC DDM (Difference in Depth of Modulation)
automatic sweep, two crystal controlled VOR frequencies; and two crystal con-
trolled, paired LOC and GS frequencies.
It is housed in a compact, portable case and includes a signal generator with a var-
iable attenuator which can be connected to the equipment under test by a radiated
signal from a self-contained antenna or by a coax line. It can be operated under
either crystal frequency control or in variable frequency mode in each band.
The RF generator can be modulated internally by a 1020 Hz Ident tone, Marker,
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR), Localizer (LOC) or Glide Slope (GS) tones, or
by an external signal.
Six-digit counter indicates the RF frequency of the signal generator on any band,
the frequency of a COMM transmitter under test, any external signal input from 1
MHz to at least 300 MHz, or the VOR bearing selected by Bearing Select Switch-
es.
RF power meter is built-in to measure COMM transmitter power from 0-10W or 0-
100W either peak or average power by selecting a switch position located on the
Front Panel. A COMM transmitter demodulation output permits viewing or listening
to COMM modulation.
Modulation Meter measures Signal Generator Percent of Modulation on any fre-
quency band from 0-30% or 0-100%. Front Panel controls permit quick setting of
modulation percentages.
A 90° bearing check monitor allows quick verification of basic VOR bearing from
the VOR demodulated signal.
A nickel-cadmium battery and built-in charging system permit completely portable
operation up to 2 hours continuous duty. Any time the set is plugged to an AC line,
the battery is being charged. In battery operation, an automatic timer turns the set
off after 6 to 10 minutes. The set can be recycled by pressing power switch to BAT
position.
ATC Transponder / DME Tester Figure 17: ATC-600 ATC-DME Tester with Antenna
The ATC-600 is designed for ramp use and is capable of exacting functional test
of aircraft transponder {XPDR) and distance measuring equipment {DME) sys-
tems.
The test set contains built-in signal generators and modulators for XPDR and se-
lected DME frequencies. Its radio frequency {RF) output is coupled to airborne
equipment by a remote tripod mounted antenna system. Functional bench testing
requires a 34 dB external attenuator and a three foot coaxial cable between the
test set and the unit under test.
The type of transponder interrogation desired is selected from Modes:
A/C ALT aircraft altitude and A/C Code aircraft code.
The A/C ALT Mode displays the altitude code.
The A/C CODE Mode displays the pilot’s code. Code pulses and numerical read-
out are displayed simultaneously in all modes.
FREQ/PWR Meter indicates peak RF power and the transmitter frequency of the
unit under test.
TXPDR% RPLY/DME PRF Meter indicates XPDR percent reply and DME interro-
gation pulse repetition frequency {PRF).
Interrogation Spacing Control allows precise checking of the XPDR input pulse de-
coder gate.
FRAMING Pulse Spacing Control allows checking of the F2 pulse width and its po-
sition relative to F1.
Front Panel Altitude ENCODER Input Connector allows altitude display from an
encoding altimeter without a transponder.
DME fixed range is variable from 0 to 399.0 NM
and velocity from 50 to 2400 knots.
X Channel (108.00 or 108.10 MHz paired channel) and
Y Channel (108.05 MHz paired channel) are provided.
An internal Ni/Cd battery permits ramp operation for over two hours. A built-in
charger functions when the set is connected to an ac line.
ATC / TCAS Tester Figure 18: TCAS 201 Ramp Test Set with Antenna
Scenario Test
The TCAS-201 simulates a moving mode C or mode S transponder when scenario
test is initiated. Once a second, the tester calculates a new position for the test.
Using range rate information from the Scenario Test Screen, the tester calculates
and implements a new reply delay for simulating the updated position.
Using the altitude rate from the Scenario Test Screen, the tester1 calculates new
altitude data for the next Mode C or Mode S reply. Screen edits are incorporated
at any time during operation.
Reply Test
The TCAS-201 simulates a stationary Mode C or Mode S transponder (reply gen-
erator) when Reply Test is initiated. The tester sets replies according to informa-
tion loaded into the applicable Reply Test Screen. Information is updated only
when edits are made to the Reply Test Screen.
Monitor
The TCAS-201 monitors the Whisper-Shout sequence in ATCRBS operation and
interrogations including the TCAS Broadcast in Mode S operation.
Positioning of the Antenna The position of the test set is not too critical. For optimum results however, obsta-
For proper results the test set antenna must be ‘in sight’ of the ATC or TCAS an- cles must be located outside the main antenna lobe. Distance to the antenna must
tenna. The Mode-S transponders and the TCAS computer are connected to two be between 6 and 300 feet (1,8 to 90 meters). Signal strength is adjusted automat-
antennas, that both must be able to exchange valid signals, only one antenna may ically.
be checked at a time. Thus the antennas must be in the signal beam of the test set Figure 20: Avoiding of signal reflections
one by one. During testing the upper antenna, the lower one must be shielded. But
shielding the upper antenna during the lower antenna test is not so easy. Using
the aircraft fuselage as a barrier between the test set and the upper antenna
solves the problem.
Figure 19: Testing of upper and lower antenna
The Portable Data Loader (PDL) is a device used to load data bases and opera-
tional programs into an aircraft‘s Flight Management Computers and other avion-
ics subsystems. The PDL is designed to meet the requirements pertaining to the
portable version of the data loader listed in the ARINC Report 615.
The PDL is housed in an aluminium case and is designed to be lightweight and
rugged. The top of the case includes storage space for cables and disks and can
be removed during operation.
The front panel contains a backlit LCD display. four function push buttons and
three discrete LED annunciators to indicate power and status. The push button
function keys are not required for normal operation but provide optional functions
such as self test and disk directory information.
The PDL uses the 3.5 inch floppy storage media specified in ARINC Report 615.
Both high and low density MS DOS disks formatted for 1.44 MB and 720 KB ca-
pacity can be used.
Two cables are provided with the PDL The primary cable links the PDL to ARINC
615 high speed load devices and an adapter cable interfaces the PDL to ARINC
603 devices.
The PDL contains two independent ARINC 429 serial bus transmitters and four in-
dependent receivers, each capable of either high speed (100 Kbits/second) or low
speed (12.5 Kbits/second) operation. An RS232 serial bus interface is available
through the J1 connector or through a separate 'D' type connector.
ARINC Report 615 is a commercial aircraft bus specification defining loading pro-
tocols. The specification includes the use of a high speed ARINC 429 bus and au-
tomatic protocol for up loading and down loading data to and from avionics
devices.
ARINC Report 615 allows provisions for various loading methods but defines cer-
tain protocol that require Iittle operator intervention. In most cases, the operator is
only required to turn the unit on and install the floppy disk containing the data files.
Features
• Library of Loadable Software Airplane Parts on a
Mass Storage Device (80Mbyte Solid State Memory).
• Capable of supporting loadable software for an entire fleet.
• Interface to PMAT 2000 via Ethernet link for fast transfer to libraries.
• Provide user with the ability to select airplane loads by aircraft type,
tail number, LRU type, or software part number.
• Updating and storage/editing capability via Loadstar.
Benefits
• Eliminates need to use floppy disks at the flight line.
• Load times will be reduced for large loads that require multiple disks
(no swapping required by operator).
• Future updates of PDL operational program performed in the field
no EPROM's need to be swapped.
Portable Maintenance Access Terminal Figure 23: PMAT Rear and Top view
The PMAT 2000 is the perfect “on-the-spot” cost effective solution for all onboard
electronic aircraft maintenance, service, and data loading applications. Capable of
over 5 hours of portable operation on a single battery charge, this unit combines
integrated electronic maintenance manuals, wiring diagrams, Fault Isolation Man-
uals, on board fault code access, hard drive based ARINC 615 data loading, and
a variety of custom applications in a single, easy-to-use tool.
Main Menu
The main menu is displayed after boot up. The main menu is the default display.
The user can select any function from the main menu. The available functions are
shown on the figure below.
ARINC 429 Micro DITS Reader Figure 25: Micro DITS Reader
Today aircraft avionics system is using the Digital Information Transfer System
(DITS) like ARIN429, ARINC 571 and ARINC 629. Common of all this buses is that
the data transfer from one unit to the other units occurs over two wires in serial for-
mat.
To verify that the desired data is correct the Micro-DITS Tester can be used in line
maintenance and avionics workshop. For example M56BAM SFENA/SEXTANT.
It is used for checking 32-bit serial transmissions.
After selecting the Label and Identifier, any of the display modes may be chosen
by means of the Keyboard.
Decoded Display
• Display of the information corresponding to the selected Label in hexadecimal
or data value.
• Display of Sign/Status Matrix (SSM) and Source Destination Identifier (SDI).
• Display of update interval and Message Parity.
Binary Display
• Display of 32-bit word in real time.
• Display and storage of a word transmitted once only. (Snapshot)
Connections
• Line Voltage 115 VAC 400 Hz or 230 VAC 50 Hz or internal battery.
• Signal to be verified at connections A and B between 5 - 6.5 Volt 200 KOhm.
Drawings Note: Since european aerplane drawings are made using well known ISO-
norms, only the drawing norm of the USA is explained in this section
The purpose of this training section is to familiarise individuals from these and oth-
er areas with the engineering production drawing, procedures, and specifications Figure 1: Production Drawing Layout
most commonly used in the fabrication, assembly, and installation of the compo-
nents that make up today's modern aircraft and vehicles.
Drawings used in the design, construction, and maintenance of engineering pro- Rev.
jects are called "production drawings". Drawings used in the design, construction,
and maintenance of the jigs, tools, and checking fixtures that held in the building D
of an engineering project are called "tool drawings".
Blueprints are simply copies of engineering drawings. Many "blueprints" are not C
Picture Area
blue at all, but black lines on white, blue lines on white, or even brown lines on
white. "Blueprint" has come to mean almost any colour of drawing reproduced on
paper. Blueprints reproduced on metal or Mylar film are also available. B
87
the largest possible scale consistent with drawing clarity. the drawing scale is en-
2.
tered in the title block. 45˚
Some drawings contain pictures of small parts drawn twice or even four times ac- + + +
0.50
tual size to show their details clearly. In such cases, the scale is noted directly be- 2.50
neath the picture of the part. 0.75
If various scales are used on any one picture sheet of an commercial program 1.50
drawing, the scale is noted beneath the picture and the word "noted" is entered in 2.25
the scale block of the title block.
3.00
Aircraft Drawings
Methods of Illustration
The methods of illustrating a part refer to its orientation with respect to how it is
viewed on a flat plane. The orthographic projection, auxiliary, isometric, oblique,
and perspective methods of illustration are all common to the aviation mainte-
nance industry.
Orthographic Projection
Most drawings used in the construction of a detailed part are drawn using the or-
thographic projection method of illustration. In orthographic projection there are six
possible views from which an object can be drawn: the front, rear, top, bottom, left
side, and right side. Each view is drawn as if you put an object in a transparent box
and viewed it from one of the box faces. All rays extending. from the part are par-
allel and perpendicular to the side they are viewed from.
More often than not, six views are not needed to illustrate a part. In fact, one-view,
two-view, and three-view drawings are the most common. In a three-view drawing
the front, right side, and top views are illustrated. When drawn, these views are
positioned on paper according to the same relationship they have if the sides of
the transparent box are opened out.
Auxiliary Drawings
Although an orthographic drawing can represent up to six individual views, it is
sometimes necessary to see a view that is not at a 90 degree angle to the face of
an object. In this situation, an auxiliary drawing used.
Isometric Drawings drawing, and the cavalier drawing. A cabinet drawing gets its name from draw-
The form of pictorial presentation that is most used for aircraft drawing and sketch- ings used for cabinet work. In these drawings, the oblique side is at a 45 degree
ing is the isometric drawing. An isometric drawing is a projection of a three-dimen- angle to the front side and is 1/2 the scale. This allows for an accurate and undis-
sional object on a flat plane. With this type of drawing an object is rotated so three torted front view. The remainder of the drawing is present only to illustrate depth.
sides are visible. In other words, to make an isometric drawing, an object is rotated Cavalier drawings use the same scale for the front view as the oblique side lines.
so that three views are visible and touching the drawing plane. When doing this, However, the oblique sides are still set at a 45 degree angle to the front view. This
you must ensure that the edges all form the same angle to the drawing plane. creates a distorted picture of an object's true proportions. These drawings are pri-
In an isometric drawing all distances are the same length as the actual sides. This marily used when detailing is required on the oblique side.
makes an isometric drawing fairly easy since no changes are made to any dimen- Figure 7: Oblique Drawing
sions. Since an isometric drawing allows you to visualize a part, most pictorial
drawings are illustrated in this way.
Figure 6: Isometric Drawing
Full Lenght
1/2 Lenght
A 45˚ 45˚
30˚ 30˚
Oblique Drawings
An oblique drawing is an isometric drawing with one object face parallel to the
drawing plane. In other words, two axes are perpendicular to each other, with the
front of the object identical to the front view of an orthographic drawing. The depth
axis of the oblique drawing is typically any convenient angle and most often about
30 degrees. There are two special types of oblique drawings. They are the cabinet
Detail Drawings
Drawings used in the detailing or fabrication of single parts are called "detail" draw-
ings. Sometimes these drawings may be called "fab" drawings. Detail drawings do 5.015
not put parts together.
Most detail drawings are easily recognised by their titles. If the word "assembly" or
"installation" does not appear in the title, the drawing is a detail drawing.
An inseparable assembly delineates items-parts separately fabricated and perma-
nently joint together, such as welded or riveted parts not subject to disassembly.
The size of the drawing gives no indication of the drawing type. Some detail draw-
ings are small, whereas others are large. The size of the drawing is governed only
by the size the part or parts being detailed.
Note: Detail drawings do not ordinarily show location, position, or fastening meth-
ods. They will occasionally show where a fastener eventually be installed, but they
do not show the fastener itself. Sectional Drawings
Detail drawings are designed primarily to give instruction for fabrication personnel It is often necessary to show the internal construction or shape of a part, and this
and provide only information used to make a part, since the assembly and instal- is most generally done with the use of the sectional drawing.
lation information is of little value in fabrication work.
There are four types of sectional drawings, the revolved section, the removed sec-
Detail information includes: tion, the complete section. and the half section.
– Size and shape description If only the shape of a cross section of a part needs to be shown, this can be done
– Material and heat treatment requirements with either a revolved or removed section.
– Protective finish instruction (painting, plating, etc.) In a revolved section, a portion of an object is turned or revolved to show a different
– Machine finish if required (surface smoothness for metal) view (see “Figure 9” on page 9). The T-beam has been broken in two places with
– Part numbering and marking instructions long break lines and the cross section is shown between the breaks.
– The next higher drawing number (where the part will be used)
The engineer may not issue a separate detail drawing for each individual part. Fre-
quently several parts are detailed on one detail drawing, or some parts are detailed
on assembly or installation drawings.
Figure 10 shows a removed section drawing, the object illustrated is cut and a sec-
tion is removed to illustrate another angle.
Figure 10: Removed Section
A The half-sectional view allows the inside and outside of a part to be seen at the
A-A same time (see “Figure 12” on page 9).
Figure 12: Half Sectional View
Figure 11 shows the use of a sectional view to illustrate a union and makes it easy
to identify the unit’s separate parts.
Drawing Practices A center line divides a part into symmetrical halves and is made of a thin line of
alternate long and short dashes.
Line Types and Weights Dimension Iines are thin lines with arrowheads on each end. The arrowheads
touch the extension lines that locate the points from which the dimension is taken.
Different types and weights of lines are used to make aircraft drawings.
Dimension lines are broken in their center, and the dimension is noted in the break.
"Figure 13: Line Characteristics" on page 10 shows the most generally used lines.
A leader line is a thin line with an arrowhead. It joins a call-out on the drawing with
It is to say that the norm used here belongs to the USA and has nothing to do with
the point to which the call-out is referring.
ISO.
A short break line showing where a part is broken away from the view is a thick
Figure 13: Line Characteristics wavy line. Long break lines are thin straight lines that are broken, with zig-zags in-
serted, to show that the line is not continuous.
Extension lines are thin lines used for dimensioning when it is not practical for the
dimension line to touch the actual part from which the measurement is made. The
arrowheads on the dimension lines touch the extension lines.
Phantom lines showing the location of a part that is used for a reference are made
up of a medium-weight line of alternating one long and two short dashes.
The visible outline of a part is made with a thick solid line A hidden line, showing
an edge of the part that is not visible in the view, is a medium-weight dashed line.
The alternate position of a part may be shown on a drawing by thin dashed lines.
A cutting plane, or viewing plane, is a thick line with arrowheads showing the di-
rection the part is viewed.
Section lines are used to identify the material of which a part is made.
Assembly Drawings
Assembly may comprise only two parts or it may comprise many, depending on
the judgement of the designer. In some cases a large assembly may comprise
several small assemblies fastened together. Information about how to locate the
parts in reference to each other (not in reference to the entire aeroplane) and
about how to fasten them together is called "assembly information". The primary
function of the assembly drawing is to show the relationship of two or more parts
and subordinate assemblies, or a group of assemblies to form an assembly of a
higher order (see “Figure 19” on page 49).
A part can be shown on an assembly drawing by means of a symbol, incomplete
picture, or even by location only, with no picture actually shown.
The word "assembly" is defined as follows: "An assembly is a multiple-piece item
that can be disassembled into its component parts or units without destruction; it
does not independently of itself perform or fulfil a specific complete function but is
essential for the completeness or proper operation of a more complex item of
equipment with which it is mechanically combined".
Assembly drawings give locations of parts only as they pertain to each other; in-
stallation drawings give position within the aircraft structure.
Actually, most of the installation drawings are combination assembly-installation
drawings. The drawing name describes the final operation performed.
Detailed information about some or all of the assembly or installation components
may also be given on the installation drawing. Thus, many of the installation draw-
ings are actually combination detail-assembly-installation drawings.
Assembly and installation drawings, often involve several parts. Because these
large assemblies and installations cannot conveniently described on a single
sheet of paper or metal, many drawings consist of more than one sheet. These are
called "multisheet drawings". Some multisheet drawings consist of only two
sheets; others consist of many sheets.
Exploded-View Drawing
Illustrated parts lists often make use of exploded-view drawings to show every part
that is in an assembly. All of the parts are in their relative position, but are expand-
ed outward, so that each part can be identified both with its physical appearance
or by its name or by a reference number that is coded to the parts list.
Installation Drawings as any instructions required for the installation. Dimensions are given only for
those adjustments necessary for the part to function. Often, portions of an aircraft
All subassemblies are brought together in an installation drawing. This type of that are not involved in the installation are shown using phantom lines. This helps
drawing shows the general arrangement or position of parts with respect to an air-
you locate where a part is installed.
craft and provides the information needed to install them. Like the assembly draw-
ing, the bill of material on an installation drawing lists the fasteners needed, as well
Figure 15: Installation Drawing
Logic Flowcharts
As a further aid to troubleshooting, the logic flowchart has been developed.
When troubleshooting a system or problem using this aid the technician starts at
the oblong START/INSPECTION symbol and follows the arrows. Rectangular
boxes tell what to do, and the diamonds are decision points. Match the condition
that exits after the instructions in the rectangular boxes have been followed. Each
diamond has one input and only two outputs so, by using the logic, the chart can
be followed to the oblong END OF TEST/TERMINATE INSPECTION symbol.
This type of charts identifies the probable faults a system can develop and speci-
fies the fix for each one. And by using this chart, troubleshooting time is reduced
to a minimum.
Is
yes Corrosion no Reinspect
Found?
Is Has
no Corrosion yes Clean up Corrosion Fitting been yes
within per Part ll Modified or
Limits? Repaired?
no
no
Is
yes no Modify
Crack
Airplane
Round?
yes
Accouplish Modification
per Part lll
Are
Cracks Con-
no yes Repair Fitting
tained Within
Horizontal per Part ll
Replace Fitting Flange
per Part lV
Terminate Inspection
per this Service Bulletin
Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram is to explain a principle of operation, rather than to show the
parts as they actually appear, as they actually function.
However, schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components with respect
to each other and in the case of a hydraulic system, the direction of fluid flow. be-
cause of this, schematic diagrams are best utilized for troubleshooting cad train-
ing.
In order to show different components (Valves, Indicators, Circuit Breakers, etc.) Description Schematic
in various drawings; simplified symbols are commonly used. these symbols are
standardized. However, manufactureres often use their own layout for illustrations
issued in various manuals. (Maintenance Manual, Schematics Manual, etc.) • Gearcase vent
air
Table 2: Schematic Symbols
Description Schematic
• Scavenge
Pressure
Hydraulic motor
Return
Suction
Pumps:
• Electric
Motors:
• Pump inlet
• Regulated pres-
sure
• Engine • HP gear
• Hand
• Impeller
Filter
• Hydraulic
Solenoid valve
• Gerotor
Electrical selector
valve
3-way valve
Hydraulical selector
valve
Solenoid shut-off
valve
Priority valve
Hydraulical shut-off
valve
Mechanically oper-
ated selector valve Smoke detector
Exchanger oil/fuel
Pressure transmitter
Pressure accumula-
Pressure switch tor
Hydraulic actuator
Temperature sensor
Toggle circuit breaker
Push-pull circuit
breaker
Push-pull circuit
breaker
Motor DC seperate
excitation
Motor DC shunt
excitation
Motor DC series
excitation
Electronic filter
High-pass filter
Low-pass filter
Band-stop filter
FAN
Band-pass filter
Cluth engaged
Logic low
Inverter
Or function
Or exclusive
Multipler
Divider
Multicell battery
Thermocouple
Photovoltaic cell
Integrator
Continous loop
Thermometer bulb
TV-camera
Ammeter
TV-monitor
Wattmeter
Voltmeter
Voltammeter
Induction position
Frequency meter transmitter
Current comparator
Synchro transmitter
Synchro differential
transmitter
Alternating current
3-phase delta
Positive polarity
3-phase scott or t
Negative polarity
Ohm
Phase
Incomplete compo-
nent
Single phase
Ground connection
2-phase 4-wire
Zone
Heater element
Unit incomplete
Variable resistor
Variable resistor
• Non linear
Capacitor polarized
Resistor module
Capacitor variable
Capacitor preset
Instrument shunt
Winding
Ferrite core inductor
Adjustable magnetic
Electromagnetic actu-
core inductor
ator
Transformer dots
Current transformer
Transformer rectifier
Thermal switch
Thermal relay
Single pole
microswitch
Double pole
microswitch
Centrifugal switch
Multicontact
microswitch
Inertia switch
Rotary switch
Description Schematic
Wafer switch
Push-pull switch
Protection fuse
Pushbutton
Pressure switch
Single pole relay
Magnetic relay
Rotary switch 2
Plug-in relay com-
plete
Thyristor
Photosensitive diode
Photoemissive diode
Relay coil
Thermal resistor
Schottky diode
Thermistor
Schottky transistor
Varistor
Photoconductive
transducer
Indicator light
Lamp
Monitoring indicator
Glow lamp
Indication segment
Fluorescent lamp
Radar antenna
Buzzer
Bell
Microphone
Horn
Receiver
Antenna
Headset
Loop antenna
Description Schematic
Loudspeaker
Handset
More detailed informations about standards are to find in the applicabe sub-mod-
ule descriptions.
Aircraft Recovery Manual (ARM) Fault Reporting and Fault Isolation Manual (FRM/FIM)
The Aircraft Recovery Manual is the manufacturer's mean of describing aircraft re- The FRM/FIM will:
covery operations in terms of equipment and tooling requirements as well as pro- • Enable effective use of electronic fault indicating features in the flight compart-
cedures necessary to lift, shore and recover aircraft from any abnormal condition ment
to which it may be subjected. • Enable effective use of electronic fault isolation features and maintenance
data retrieval features of the aircraft.
Component Maintenance Manual (CMM)
The FIM will provide the technical data required by the maintenance crew to isolate
Procedures contained within a component maintenance manual are intended for
the cause of the fault and to determine the corrective action. The FIM will be com-
work on the applicable components in a workshop environment. The manual shall
patible with airline maintenance concepts, maintenance training, and maintenance
contain sufficient detail for the return of the component to a serviceable condition.
manual procedures to the maximum degree possible.
Consumable Products Manual (CPM) The FRM will provide technical data for flight crews to easily identify and commu-
A complete shopping guide of consumable materials is provided by the aircraft and nicate details of aircraft faults to maintenance personnel. The (FRM) will also con-
engine manufacturers, as a separate manual / listing or included as a separate tain listings of faults recognized by flight, cabin, servicing, and maintenance
section of a stand-alone Standard Practice Manual. personnel.
Engine Cleaning Inspection and Repair Manual (CIR) Non Destructive Testing Manual (NDT)
The purpose of the CIR Manual Specification is to provide the technical data re- The Nondestructive Testing Manual is intended to provide specifications and
quirements for information needed to maintain the engine and associated parts guidelines in the various methods of nondestructive testing.
when it is removed from the aircraft. The CIR Manual is an optional manual and NDT shall contain the Standard Practices and explanations of each testing proce-
may be offered by manufacturers as an alternative to the single-document Engine dure. Procedures shall be defined including effectivity, tooling / equipment, prepa-
Manual. ration, equipment calibration, inspection procedure, evaluation and acceptance /
rejection standards.
Engine (Shop) Manual (EM)
The Engine Manual / CIR (Cleaning-Inspection-Repair) Manual Specification is to Power Plant Buildup Manual (PPBM)
provide technical data requirements for information needed to maintain the engine The Power Plant Build-up Manual shall contain all information necessary to as-
and the maximum potential number of parts that could remain with the engine semble the power plant to the desired configuration from the "Basic Engine"
when it is removed from the aircraft. Additionally, the data file shall include cover-
For this manual, the demountable power plant includes the engine, nacelle and
age for those interrelated parts (e.g. thrust reverser, cowling, mounts, electrical
certain accessory components.
looms, etc.) that while remaining with the aircraft when the QEC unit (Quick Engine
Change unit) is dropped, can be removed for maintenance purposes at the time Service Bulletin (SB)
the engine is removed.
Service Bulletins shall be issued to describe changes that fall into the following cat-
The EM / CIR Manual is a double-document set, which may be offered by manu- egories:
facturers as an alternate to the single-document Engine Manual.
• Modifications to the aircraft, engine or accessory including embedded soft-
The term CIR Manual and EM are also applicable to the Airborne Auxiliary Power ware.
Plants (engines). • Modifications, which affect performance, improve reliability, increase safety of
operation, provide improved economy or facilitate maintenance or operation.
• Substitution of one part with another superseding part only when it is not com-
pletely interchangeable both functionally and physically, or when the change
is considered to be sufficiently urgent or critical that special scheduling or re-
cord of accomplishment will be required.
• Special inspections/checks required to maintain the aircraft, engine, or acces-
sories in safe operating condition.
• One-time inspections/checks to detect a flaw or manufacturing error.
• Special inspections/checks required to be performed until a corrective action
can be taken. (e.g., an inspection to detect cracks in a radius until the radius
can be ground out.)
• Special functional checks of an urgent nature required to detect an incipient
failure, such as pressure checks, functional checks, etc.
• Reduction of existing life limits or establishment of first time life limits for com-
ponents.
• Conversions from one engine model to another.
• Changes affecting the interchangeability or intermixability of parts.
24-51-02
BUS 2
115V AC
27-81-05 POWER UNIT
PNEUMATIC DRIVE
TYPICAL ELECTRO
(P2-3)
ALT DR ARM SW
S1710 SW-OUTBD FLAP 3 (P414) 1 LE FLAP RIGHT STA 1401
R8075 RLY-ALTN M885 ELECTROPNEUMATIC DRIVE
ARM
11 X2 12
12 X1 (P54)
DS1710 10 A1 DRIVE EXTEND 10 NOT EXTEND
OFF DS1710 A2 R379 RLY-LE FLAP (P54)
NC A3 DRIVE RETRACT 9 FULLY EXTEND
27-51-02 D1 R380 RLY-LE FLAP 27-88-01
D2 X2 7 FULLY RETRACT
(P2-3) NC D3 DR8075 X1
S1709 SW-ALT CONT DR8075 D1 X2 8 NOT RETRACT
D2 X1
D3 D1
27-51-02 4 RET D2 1
19 OFF 10 C1 D3
3 EXT C2 MOTOR
27-51-02 C3 C1 DRIVE
(P414) B1 C2 2 ALTERNATE
PROTECT GROUP B B2 C3
R7772 RLY-LE FLAP DR379 B3 B1
B2 3
P6 PNL-MN PWR DIST B3 DR380 4
X2 A2 A2
DRIVE 1 (L21) X1 A1 A1 6 SOLENOID
ELEC CONT GRP B A1 5 BREAK 27-81-12
C595 LE FLAP A2 A3 A3 VALVE 27-81-11
24-54-01 A3 DR7772 DR379 DR380 11 27-51-21
BUS 1 DR7772 DM885B
28V DC
WIRING DIAGRAMS
SCHEMATIC
The first number in the three-part subject number is the chapter number and
serves to identify the major functional system to which the subject pertains.
The middle part of the number is the section number and serves to identify all of
the coverage pertaining to a system, subsystem, or group of related assemblies.
The last part of the number is the subject number and serves to identify all infor-
mation relative to a specific unit, minor assembly, simple system or simple circuit.
Complete system information is included in subjects identified by the third part of Table 6: Major Section 1 - Aircraft General
the subject number being a dash-zero (-0) number. The descriptions of units
which comprise the system or subsystem are also included with the complete Chapter Title
system information to the extent necessary for understanding how they work in
performing their function in the system. In those cases where the units are suffi- 01 Introduction
ciently complex, additional description and operation type information is given at
05 Time Limits / Maintenance Checks
the unit level.
Manuals like AMM, CMM, FIM are further divided into reasonably small Page 06 Dimensions and Areas
Blocks to enable the user to locate the desired information more readily. The topics 07 Lifting and Shoring
are listed in the :
08 Leveling and Weighing
Table 5: Pageblocks
09 Towing and Taxiing
Topic Pageblock 10 Parking and Mooring
Description and Operation 001 - 100 11 Required Placards
Troubleshooting 101 - 200 12 Servicing
Maintenance Practices 201 - 300 18 Vibration and Noise Analysis (Helocopter only)
Servicing 301 - 400 20 Standard Practices
Sub-topic
Table 7: Major Section 2 - Airframe Systems
Removal / Installation 401 - 500
Chapter Title
Adjustment / Test 501 - 600
21 Air Conditioning
Inspection / Check 601 - 700
22 Auto Flight
Cleaning / Painting 701 - 800
23 Communications
Approved Repairs 801 - 900
24 Electrical Power
Familiarise yourself with structure of each Manual by reading introductory para- 25 Equipment and Furnishings
graphs and contents pages.
26 Fire Protection
Manuals are divided into four main sections. The sections are then separated into
chapters, with each having its own table of contents. The manual divisions are as 27 Flight Controls
follows:
28 Fuel 53 Fuselage
29 Hydraulic Power 54 Nacelles and Pylons
30 Ice and Rain Protection 55 Stabilizers
31 Instruments 56 Windows
32 Landing Gear 57 Wings
33 Lights
Table 9: Major Section 4 - Propeller / Rotor
34 Navigation
Chapter Title
35 Oxygen
36 Pneumatic 60 Standard Practices - Propeller / Rotor
52 Doors 74 Ignition
Table 10: Major Section 5 - Power Plant The Effectivity Code consists of a three digits number. In the manuals, it is printed
at the bottom of a page (see “Figure 25” on page 60). The Effectivity Code is also
75 Bleed Air printed following the subjects on the Table of Contents page of each chapter.
76 Engine Controls A six digit Effectivity code is located in the Effectivity block on each page. The first
three digits indicate the first aircraft to which this Effectivity applies. Then there is
77 Engine Indicating a hyphen followed by a further three digits which indicates the last aircraft.
78 Exhaust A page that applies to all aircraft of that type (e.g. A320) will have the word "ALL"
entered in the Effectivity block.
79 Oil
Open ended Effectivity, for example 476 - 999, 476 indicates the first aircraft to
80 Starting which this Effectivity applies and 999 indicates all subsequent aircraft.
81 Turbines Figure 25: Effectivity Block Examples
82 Water Injection
83 Accessory Gear Boxes
84 Propulsion Augmentation
Chapter Title
91 Charts
Normally only one set of pages is issued for a subject, differences being indicated
115 Flight Simulator Systems
in the text as necessary. If configuration differences are extensive then additional
116 Flight Simulator Cuing Systems page block will be issued (Config 1, Config 2).
(e. g.: motion simulation)
Effectivity Code
ATA has developed a code to distinguish the configuration of a certain type of air-
craft from its “brothers” of the same ‘type family”. Aircraft manufacturers often build
various configurations of a particular aircraft type. You can find the specific infor-
mation which is relevant for an aircraft by means of a code unique to that aircraft.
This code is called the Effectivity Code.
Note:The aircraft maintenance mechanic must know the Effectivity Code of
the aircraft he is working on.
Maintenance Task Oriented Support System (MTOSS) Figure 26: Task / Sub-Task Number
With the introduction of computer technologies, ATA has enlarged its "ATA100
Specifications" to cover this media. The new name is: "ATA iSpec 2200" Task 29 - 11 - 53 - 400 - 801 - B
The MTOSS permits the use of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) of maintenance
data. The system uses standard and unique number combinations to identify
maintenance tasks and sub-tasks. It is an expansion of the ATA Chapter, Section,
Subject numbering system applied to the 200 through 800 pageblocks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AMTOSS
Aircraft Maintenance Manual - TOSS
The functional arrangement of data and the ATA 100 numbering system form the
Sub-Task 29 - 11 - 53 - 43X - XXX - A01 - CC1
basis for the assignment of maintenance Task/subtask numbers to each mainte-
nance operation (Task) described in the AMM. Table 12: Task / Sub-Task explanation
Note:TASK/Sub-task numbers are mainly for the use of the Production Man-
agement Data Base (PMDB) and have no significance for the reader of the 1 to 3 ATA six digit number
AMM. Task/Subtask numbers are included in the manual to allow the man-
agement of technical data contained in the PMDB and the AMM magnetic 4 The three digit numeric function code is used to indicate the particu-
tape lar maintenance function involved
Note: In principle the Sub-task numbers have no significance for the AMM 40 = Installation
reader, since the arrangement of technical data is unaffected.
5 The three digit numeral enables a unique identification number to be
allocated for all Tasks/Subtasks which are similarly numbered
The TASK/sub-task number contains five, six or seven elements. Tasks and sub- throughout the preceding elements.
tasks numbers are structured as follows:
6 The three digit alphanumeric indicator comprises of:
• First digit alpha to indicate a different configuration due to different
criteria configuration (modification, service bulletin(s), etc.).
• Second and third digit numerals to indicate alternative methods/
techniques of maintenance.
Common System of Fits and Clearences The type of fit between two assemble parts depends on the size to which each part
is made. Since no size can be exact then each part must be made within two siz-
In precision manufacture it is not possible to make an engineering component to es. The two sizes within which a part must be made are called limits. The term
an exact size. Gauge blocks are considered to be very accurate standards of limit implys also the minimum and maximum size of a component. If the basic per-
length but even these are not exact. manent size (also known as the normal size) of a shaft is 25mm then the limits
If a component cannot be made to an exact size then the amount by which it can could be given as:
be in error (known as the deviation from the exact size) must be known and includ- 24.98mm Upper Limit
ed with the dimension. 24.96mm Lower Limit
If moving parts in machines are to function properly, then the relationship between If you subtract the lower limit from the upper limit the result is known as the toler-
the size of one part and the size of the part which fits into it is of extreme impor- ance.
tance. In, for example, manufacturing a shaft which has to run freely in a bearing,
there must be enough space for a film of oil between the two in order to prevent Tolerance = Upper Limit – Lower Limit
wear. = 24.98 - 24.96
The ISO System of Limits and Fits = 0.02mm
The ISO system of limits and fits gives a range of sizes to which parts should be
made. The following list gives examples of the types of fits used: Figure 1: Ilustrating Fits and Clearences
• Clearance fit
• Transition fit
• Interference fit
Tolerance
Clearance Fit
Tolerance
In this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is always small-
er than the part it fits into.
Transition Fit
Upper Limit
Upper Limit
Lower Limit
This is a range of fits that can be either clearance or interference. The shaft can
be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.
Interference Fit
In this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is always larger
than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble the parts.
Tolerances
The difference between the maximum and minimum sizes (limits) is called toler-
ance. There are a number of limits and fits systems in use which give the largest
and the smallest size of a part for any required type of fit.
Bolt and Hole Sizes Figure 4: Example of Hole Diameter Table (Airbus SRM)
Clearance Fit in boltholes are permissible wherever bolts are used in tension and
are not subject to reversal of load. A few of the applications in which clearance fit
of holes may be permitted are in pulley brackets, conduit boxes, lining trim, and
miscellaneous supports and brackets.
In cases of oversized or elongated holes in critical members, obtain advice from
the aircraft or engine manufacturer before drilling or reaming the hole to take the
next larger bolt. Usually, such factors as edge distance, clearance, or load factor
must be considered. Aircraft Structural Repair Manuals give instructions about
hole sizes and oversizes (see “Figure 4” on page 4).
Oversized or elongated holes in noncritical member’s can usually be drilled or
reamed to the next larger size.
Many boltholes, particularly those in primary connecting elements, have close tol-
erances. Generally, it is permissible to use the first lettered drill size larger than the
normal bolt diameter, except where the AN hexagon bolts are used in lightdrive fit
(reamed) applications and where NAS close fit bolts or AN clevis bolts are used.
Note: boltholes are to be normal to the surface involved to provide full bear-
ing surface for the bolt head and nut and must not be oversized or elongat-
ed. A bolt in such a hole will carry none of its shear load until parts have
yielded or deformed enough to allow the bearing surface of the oversized
hole to contact the bolt. In this respect. Remember that bolts do not become
swaged to fill up the holes as do rivets.
Standard Methods for Checking Fits and Clearences Figure 5: Usage of Gap Gauges
Limit Gauges Shaft size is Shaft size too Shaft size too
The use of any system of limits and fits makes it possible to gauge the size of a between the small large
component. When limit gauges are used to inspect a component, there is no at- limits of size
tempt to determine its actual size. Essentially gauging a component is carried out
to ensure that the actual size is within the limits of size.
To this end two gauges are used for each basic size.
• one gauge for the upper limit
• one gauge for the lower limit
Gauging a Shaft
Gap gauges are used to check that the size of a shaft, bolt or cylinder is within lim- T GO T GO T GO
its. One gap gauge is made (by precision grinding of the faces) to the upper limit. NO NO NO
GO GO GO
This is the GO gauge. The other gauge is made to the lower limit. This is the NOT
GO gauge.
In practice the GO and NOT GO gauges are often combined.
Adjustable Thread Calliper Gauges
The go gauge should fit over the shaft. The not go gauge should not be able to
pass over the shaft. The anvils of these gauge’s can be set to the limit given on the data sheet. The go
anvil is set to the upper limit. The not go anvil is set to the lower limit.
• If the GO gauge did not fit over the shaft then the shaft diameter would be too
large. Figure 6: Adjustable Calliper Gauge
• If the NOT GO gauge passes over the shaft then the shaft diameter would be
to small.
GO
NOT
GO
Dial indicators are precision measuring instruments used to measure such things
as shaft runout, gear backlash, end-play in a shaft or axle.
Bowing Limits
The maximum amount of bow in members that can be classified as negligible is 1
in 600, or as stated in the relevant aircraft maintenance manual. When testing a
member for bow, the test must be done on that part of the member in which the
section is uniform. Hollow member are checked for bow by using straightedge and
feeler gauge.
Background
Over the years there have been a number of in-flight smoke and fire events where
contamination sustained and caused the fire to spread. The FAA and the NTSB
have conduced aircraft inspections and found wiring contaminated with items such
as dust, dirt, metal shavings, lavatory waste water, coffee, soft drinks and napkins.
In some cases dust has been found completely covering wire bundles and the sur-
rounding area.
Research has also demonstrated that wiring can be harmed by collateral damage
when maintenance is being performed on other aircraft systems. For example a
person performing an inspection of an electrical power center or avionics compart-
ment may inadvertently cause damage to wiring in an adjacent area.
In recent years Federal government and industry groups have come to the reali-
sation that current maintenance practices may not be adequate to address aging
non structural systems. While age is not the sole cause of wire degradation, the
probability that inadequate maintenance, contamination, improper repair or me-
chanical damage has caused degradation to a particular EWIS increases over
time. Studies by industry and government agency working groups have found that
although EWIS management is an important safety issue, there has been a ten-
dency to be complacent about EWIS. These working groups have concluded that
there is a need to manage EWIS so that they continue to function safely.
The objectives of the EWIS training programme is to give operators, holders of Figure 2: Inspection Tools
Type Certificates (TC), holder of Supplemental Type Certificates (STC), mainte-
nance organisations and persons performing field approval modifications or re-
pairs a model for the development of their own EWIS training programme. This will
ensure that proper procedures, method techniques and practices are used when
performing maintenance, preventive maintenance, inspection, alteration and
cleaning of EWIS.
Zonal Inspection
A collective term comprising selected GVI and visual checks that applied to each
zone, defined by access and area, to check system and power plant installations
and structure for security and general condition.
A Zonal Inspection is essentially a GVI of an area or zone to detect obvious unsat-
isfactory conditions and discrepancies. Unlike a stand-alone GVI, it is not directed
to any specified component or assembly.
Connectors
• "Corrosion Figure 4: Wrong Connection
• "Backshell broken
• "Rubber pad or packing missing
• "No backshell wire securing device
• "Fool proofing chain broken
• "Missing or broken safety wire
• "Discoloration / overheat on terminal lugs / blocks
• "Torque stripe misalignment
Switches
• "Rear protection cap damaged
Bonding
• "Braid broken or disconnected
• "Multiple strands corroded / broken
Clamps or Brackets
• "Corroded
• "Broken / missing
• "Bent or twisted
• "Faulty attachment
• "Protection / cushion damaged
Supports
• "Broken
• "Deformed
• "Fastener missing
• "Missing edge protection
• "Racetrack cushion damaged
• "Obstructed drainage holes Figure 6: Clamp Inspection
Circuit Breakers
• "Overheating
• "Arcing
General Cleaning For exactly cleaning procedures, methods and cleaning products consult the
ESPM or SWPM.
Cleaning of electrical Components
There are different contamination types: Cleaning Processes
Surface Contamination, Deep Contamination, External contamination, Internal General Cleaning
contamination and also:
Cleaning of electrical installation on aircraft.
• natural: the contamination agent is an identified material used in the aircraft
systems (hydraulic fluid, fuel, etc.), Contamination can be internal or external.
• accidental: the contamination agent comes from an external source (cleaning Internal Contamination
agent, etc.),
• the effect of ageing: the contamination agent is dust, lint or fluff. This type of contamination is an identified material used in the aircraftsystems (hy-
draulic fluid, fuel, etc...)
Procedure in relation to the type of contamination:
• stop the contamination source. External Contamination
• keep the area that has contamination to a minimum. This type of contamination agent comes from an external source (coffee,miscella-
• Estimate the damage in the contamined area. neous liquids carried on aircraft, metal shaving, etc...)
• Select the applicable cleaning procedure. Following safety practices during cleaning operation is mandatory.
Sequence of actions:
Cleaning Principle
• Stop the contamination source.
You must clean only the areas and items that have contamination. Before you
• Keep the contaminated area to a minimum.
clean, make sure that the cleaning materials and methods will not cause more con-
tamination. • Apply the correct cleaning procedure
Liquid contamination example:
Cleaning Method • Stop the contamination source.
Always start from the top to the bottom and from the periphery to the center of the • Make a sealed barrier.
area that has contamination. • Remove liquid with vacuum cleaner for liquids.
Using cleaning agents: For powder or granular or dust contamination, you must ensure there is no draught
• First, do a test with the cleaning agents and procedures in a low-risk area or (wind) and remove the contamination with a vacuum cleaner and a soft brush.
on a small surface.
For external contamination, you have to make an estimate of the risk of deteriora-
• Examine the results immediately to make sure that they are satisfactory for tion of electrical item (some agents can cause damage to the polymers used in
the task. If the results are not satisfactory, adapt the procedures and/or the electrical items).
materials as necessary.
In case of damage due to the contamination agent, refer to this table know if:
Using a cloth:
• you can clean the item.
• make sure that it is clean, dry and lint-free.
• you must replace the item.
Using a vacuum cleaner, make sure that:
• the filters are in position.
• its outlet is out of the aircraft to prevent contamination of a different area.
This document is only an extract of the ESPM. It has been created in pocket format
to permit you to have it in your toolbox.
General
Design of the wiring installation shall conform to the following precedence:
1. Safety in flight
2. The ease of maintenance, removal and replacement of the wiring.
3. Cost effective aircraft production.
Installation
Mostly all wires are installed in bundles which includes different wire types, such
as single-, shielded-, multiple-wires. All wire bundles must be clamped at least at
every frame. Make sure, that no mechanical stretch on each wire is present.
Bundles
Wires and cables shall be arranged in bundles to facilitate installation and mainte-
nance.
Wire Separation
Wire bundles of essential systems (e.g. Stabilizer Trim, Autoflight, Essential Pow-
er) must be separated. For example, Autopilot 1 must be installed on the left side
of fuselage, A/P 2 on the right side and A/P 3 in the middle of fuselage. If these
bundles comes adjacent to each other (e.g. near computers, in racks), they must
be separated by colored sleeves.
Figure 8: Wire separation
Caution with Kapton Wires It should be noted that resetting a circuit breaker which has tripped on this type of
fault, can result in a restrike of the arc and the continuation of the tracking process
The majority of the general purpose aircraft wiring is insulated with Kaptonbrand until power is, once again, removed.
polyimide film. On single conductor constructions, the film is spiral wrapped in sev-
eral layers around the conductor and then covered with a thin polyimide resin top Care should be exercised when working on or around all aircraft wiring. The insu-
coat to facilitate readability of the wire identification marking. Interior wires and the lation should be inspected for nicks or cracks which decrease the insulation thick-
jackets of shielded and jacketed construction do not receive the top coating. ness or expose bare conductor.
One characteristic of any type of wire insulation material is a failure mechanism These conditions may be repaired by procedures found in the maintenance man-
known as "arc tracking". This phenomena may occur with or without the presence uals. This type of insulation damage can occur due to improper handling, hot-
of moisture on wires which carry power, and whose insulation has been damaged stamp printing and excessive bending. Top coats can be damaged by pulling the
to the point of exposing bare conductor. wire through bulkheads, clamps etc. Proper tools and handling must be used when
working with Kapton as with all types of aircraft wire.
The arcof this phenomena may occur to another exposed conductor with another
power potential or to structure (ground). On Kapton insulated conductors, the arc- Figure 10: Kapton Insulated Wire
ing process volatilizes portions of the polyimide leaving a film of semi-conductive
carbon. The arc will continue to track across the affected conductor(s) until the pro-
cess severs the power lead, or the ground connection so a circuit breaker trips.
Lacing and Tying Wire Bundles Figure 11: Tie Wrap and Tool
In the aircraft factory wire bundles also called harnesses are made up on jig
boards. The individual wires are tied together every 5 - 8 cm with teflon coated
fiberglass tie tape (AIR-TEX). A convenience item that makes wire bundling fast
and neat is the nylon strap also called tie-wrap.
Nylon Straps
Nylon straps or tie-wraps are available in different sizes, and must be installed us-
ing the correct tool.
• Plastic ties can be used instead of lacing cord in pressurized areas only.
For tightening use the strap hand tool. Select the proper setting dependent of the
tie-wrap size by selector and tension indicator.
Waxed Linen or Tying Tape Ties Figure 13: Clove hitch and square knot used in spot ties of wire bundle
Wire Bundles has to be tied off with or teflon coated fiberglass tie tape (AIR-TEX).
Special knots are used to make bundle ties and group ties.
Clove hitch with square knot is the basic binding of the individual spot ties.This
knot is to be used in low vibration - low temperature areas.
Wiring shall be arranged in groups and bundles to facilitate installation and main-
tenance. Individual groups shall be spot tied.
Put additional ties on the wire harness so that a wire does not sag or the harness
does not balloon between the ties.
This knot has a tendency to move along the wire bundle in high vibration areas.
Other tying techniques are used in:
• high vibration - low temperature areas and
• high vibration - high temperature areas.
For special knots withstanding this conditions consult the maintenance manual.
Figure 12: Double Clove Hitch Installation
STEP 4:
STEP 5:
~ 6 mm
(0.236 in)
Nylon Clamps
• Nylon clamps shall only be used in areas not exceeding 120°C.
• To prevent loose parts falling in the fuel system, nylon clamps without fillers
shall be used inside tanks, no washers or spacers are permitted.
Figure 14: Nylon Clamp
Nylon Clamp
Spacer Washer
Structure
Examples of Tying Bundles Figure 17: Adding wires to existing wire bundles
The following illustration shows a correct and an incorrect example for a good wire
bundle installation and a wire bundle installation in a high vibration area.
To keep the electrical wiring isolated, you can use separators and spacers.
When it is mandatory to use spacers or separators, they are shown on the instal-
lation drawings.
If necessary, you can add spacers to get a correct clearance but you must keep
them to a minimum.
For essential system harnesses, you can use spacers or separators as a tempo-
rary repair only. This repair can only stay on the aircraft for certain period of time
(Refer to ESPM/ SWPM). Route the harness again (refer to the segregation rules)
at the subsequent maintenance check.
Wiring Damage Prevention Employees working on aircraft takes care to wires and cables!
Modern lightweight wires using special composite insulators like Kapton. So the Especially:
aircraft wiring is very sensitive for damaging by wrong treatment and careless – Sheet Metal Workshop staff
working in their surrounding. Following table gives you an overview of different – Composite Workshop staff
possible damages and their prevention. – Paint Shop staff
Mechanical damages • Tools: Paint scrappers, Knives, Drills, Screwdrivers etc. • Use correct tools.
• Bad installations of cables: Chafing to structure & components. Work with correct application of the tool.
Too much stretched cables. Bending radius to small. • Usage of protection devices like Covers and Drillstops.
Bad or defective cable clamps. Remove cables in working area by electricians.
Agents, Liquids • Water, Acid or Lye, Solvents, Paint, Fuel, Oil, Grease. • Use safe Liquid Containers for all Agents at work.
• Unspecified adhesive Covering Tape (remainders of glue) • Covering of working area for Stripping, Cleaning and Painting.
• Cleaning of contaminated Zones and Wire Bundles with dry
Clothes and call for inspected by Specialists.
Heat Sources • Overheating and drying out of Cable Insulation • Arrange the removal of Wires located at heated places.
(Heat-Lamps) • Monitor Ambient Temperature
Foreign Parts • Sanding and grinding Dust, Drilling-Swarfs • Covering and protection of Wire-Bundles and open Connectors.
• Lost remainders of Fasteners, Screws, Washers • Cleaning of working area after completion of work.
• Forgotten Tools • Inspection and searching for lost parts and tools.
Working Employees • Stepping on Cable Bundles • Watch Your Step ! Cover open Floor with Panels !
• Using Cable Bundles as a Hand-Hold • Do not use Cable Bundle as Hand holds ! Use proper Steps.
• Hanging Lights and other Items used at work on cables. • Hang Lamps and necessary Items on Structural Points.
• Unqualified Employees working on electrical cable installations. • Call Electricians if work or inspection on Wiring is needed.
General
This topic gives the requirements and the miscellaneous processes to strip the
various types and gauge of electrical cables encountered on aircraft. Any crimping
or soldering operation must be preceded by the stripping of the conductor.
• The stripping operation must remove the insulation from the cable over a giv-
en length with tolerances without damaging the core strands or the shielding
and without reducing the original performance of the cable.
• The insulation must be cut clean and not start tears or unwanted untwining of
the insulating sheath.
• Stripping of a wire end implies the quasi immediate connection of the wire. Do
not store stripped cables.
Stripping Procedure
With different cable the method to strip is not the same. A difference is made be-
tween the cable that require a specific procedure due to the cable types (sin-
glecore or multicore cables, standard, screened or coaxial cables). These
characteristics can be related to the materials that make up the cable, to their spe-
cific design in the case of coaxial cables (impedance), to the type of each conduc-
tor part of the assembly in the case of specific single or multicore cables.
Figure 20: Stripping with cutter or scalpel
General
Pre-insulated crimp-on terminals or terminal lugs are used on all wires connected
to terminal strips. The insulation is stripped from the end of the wire, which is in-
serted into the terminal until the insulation butts up against the sleeve of the termi-
nal and the end of the wire sticks out slightly beyond the end of the sleeve. When
the terminal is crimped with a special crimping tool, the terminal sleeve grips the
wire tightly enough to make a joint that is as strong as the wire itself.
The insulation around the sleeve is crimped at the same time, so it is forced tightly
against the insulation on the wire and helps remove some of the strain from the
wire strands when the wire is subjected to movement and vibration.
NOTE:
A maximum of 4 terminals are allowed on one pillar bolt.
Wires with AWG 26 may not be pressed onto terminals.
Boeing: AMM 20-30-10
Cadmium-plated steel washers must be installed between terminals of different
materials (copper-aluminium).
The colour of the insulation on the terminal indicates the wire size the terminal is
designed to fit. A small yellow terminal fits on wire gages 24 through 22, a red ter-
minal fits wires from 20 through 18, a blue terminal fits wires from 16 through 14,
and a large yellow terminal fits wire gages 12 through 10.
Single splice
To much splices on one spot
Engine Areas
Splicing is allowed in engine areas only in exceptional circumstances.
Splicing must be recorded in the Hold Item List (HIL) for next engine change.
Use therefore specified splices (High Temperature Parallel Splices)
Fuel Tanks
Splicing is not allowed in fuel tanks.
Crimping Tools Figure 27: Hand crimping tool for small terminals
General
Crimp tools used for aircraft electrical installations may be of the following types:
1. Hand Tools -> used for smaller terminals.
2. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Tools -> used larger terminals.
Hand Tools
The hand crimp tool is typical, used for crimping of small terminals and splices.
The crimp tool is of the ratchet type, meaning once the crimping action is started,
the tool cannot be opened until completion of the crimping operation.
Hand crimping tools have colour coded handles to indicate which terminals they
can be used with.
AWG Colour
24 - 22 Yellow
20 - 18 Red
16 - 14 Blue
12 - 10 Yellow
< 10 Blank
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Tools Figure 30: Hydraulic crimping tool with handpump
Larger sizes of terminal lugs, splices and connector contacts are treated with the
more powerfull crimping tools.
Figure 29: Pneumatic crimping tool with large cable terminal
Figure 31: Hot Air Gun with different heads and Crimp and Shrink Splices
WARNING:
BE CAREFUL WHEN YOU USE ELECTRIC TOOLS IN AREAS WHERE THERE
ARE RISKS OF EXPLOSION (FUEL TANKS, FUEL VAPOUR AREAS, ETC.).
REFER TO YOUR LOCAL REGULATIONS AND MAKE SURE THAT YOU OBEY
THEM. SOME ELECTRIC TOOLS SUCH ASHEAT GUNS, SOLDERING IRONS
AND TOOLS WITHOUT INTRINSIC PROTECTION ARE NOT PERMITTED IN
THESE AREAS.
Removal and Insertion of Wired Contacts Figure 36: Connector with Contacts
There are two basic types of contact (pin or socket) retention used in plug and re-
ceptacles connectors in aircraft, one which the contacts being released for remov-
al from the rear and one where release is from the front using the insertion/
extraction tools. Therefore, it is essential that the correct procedures and tools are
used for a particular type of plug or socket.
• Front Release - The contact is removed by pushing from the front of the con-
nector and removing from the rear.
• Rear Release - The extraction tool enters the connector from the rear of the
connector and the contact is also removed from the rear.
Multiway connectors, terminal junctions, inline single wire connectors, switches,
motors, indicators, instruments and other electrical components; all may now be
terminated by a rear release system which requires the use of a few tools and the
minimum of operator training.
Contacts crimped with a standard crimping tool are inserted and removed using a
single fail-safe plastic tool for each size of contact.
Contact Removal
1. Slip the removal tool (with white tip) around the wire of the contact to be ex-
tracted.
2. Slide the tool along the wire into the insulator until it buts against he shoulder
of contact.
3. Remove wire and tool together.
Contact Insertion
1. Press the conductor into the conical end of the slot with the thumb and press
the wire into the slot by moving it along the tool.
2. Under this pressure, the slot will open to accept the wire.
3. Hold the connector in one hand and insert the contact into its cavity, pushing
with the tool perpendicular to the insulator face. When contact is in place a
metallic click is audible.
4. Remove tool to the rear. Check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gen-
tly.
Contact Removal
Note: Use the correct tool and make sure that it is in a good shape.
1. Align tool squarely insert face,
2. Push tool squarely into insert hole until it butts against insert face.
3. Holding the tool firmly, advance the slider knob so that the contact is ejected
from its seated position.
4. The contact may then be pulled free of the grommet with the hand.
Contact Insertion
1. Slip insertion tool over the wire and put it against the contact shoulder.
2. Align tool and contact axially with the grommet.
3. Guide contact carefully through grommet hole, pushing tool axially to grom-
met all times.
4. Remove tool and check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gently.
Crimping
Following example shows the process performed in two steps
Contact crimping:
1. Place contact on die of crimp tool
2. Close handles just enough to hold contact in place
3. Insert center conductor into contact until dielectric touch against contact
4. Close handles until ratchet releases
Sleeve crimping:
5. Place assembled cable, connector and sleeve in crimp tool with shoulder of
connector resting against die
6. Close handles until ratchet releases
Cable Installation
To install coaxial cable, the bending radius should be 10 times the cable diameter.
Avoid hot locations like pneumatic ducts.
Cable Repair
It is not practicable to repair damaged coaxial cable.
First clarify whether or not the coaxial cable may be shortened.
(ATC, TCAS, R/A System)
If not, the cable must be replaced by a new cable of same type and length.
Figure 43: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus) Figure 45: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus)
TECHNICAL TECHNICAL NUMBER OF REPAIRS
TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS NUMBER OF REPAIRS COMMENTS TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS COMMENTS
AT ENDS (*) (ATTENUATION VALUE) AT ENDS (*)
(ATTENUATION VALUE)
UHF 1 1V 3dB AT 400MHz IT IS NECESSARY TO
IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
VHF 1 1T ON THE TWO ENDS
VHF 2 2T 5dB AT 137MHz OF THE CABLE.
VHF 3 9T THE REPAIRS MUST
AGREE WITH THESE
VOR 1 1U REQUIREMENTS:
6dB AT 118MHz
VOR 2 2U
a) EITHER 2 REPAIRS
HF 1 7T
3dB AT 30MHz MAXIMUM ON
HF 2 8T TRANSMISSION CABLE
R.ALTI 1 5T
DME 1 4T R.ALTI 2 6T 2 REPAIRS PER CABLE
5dB AT 1210MHz RECEPTION CABLE
DME 2 4T ONLY LIMITED
1 NOT LIMITED BY AVAILABLE CABLE b) OR 0 REPAIR ON
GLIDE 1/2 3U 3dB AT 332MHz
LENGTH TRANSMISSION CABLE
LOC 1/2 4U 3dB AT 112MHz
ON RECEPTION
MARKER 5U 6dB AT 75MHz CABLE
MLS 1 7U c) OR 1 REPAIR MAXIMUM
11dB AT 5GHz 2
MLS 2 6U ON RECEPTION CABLE
GPS 1 11T ON TRANSMISSION
1.5dB AT 1.6GHz
GPS 2 12T CABLE
ELT 10T 1dB AT 406MHz
AIRBONE 13T 3dB AT 30MHz IT IS NECESSARY TO
ATC 1 3T 2db ± 1db AT 1030MHz 3 REPAIRS MAXIMUM IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
BBC ON THE TWO ENDS
ATC 2 3T
OF THE CABLE.
(*) ONE REPAIR CORRESPONDS TO A DECREASE IN
CABLE LENGTH OF APPROXIMATELY 50 mm (1.9685 in) 3 REPAIRS MAX PER
CABLE (3 REPAIRS ON
EACH 4 CABLES OF
TCAS ANTENNA) WITH IT IS NECESSARY TO
Figure 44: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus) TCAS 3TS 2.5db ± 0.5db AT
1030MHz
MAX DIFFERENCE IN IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
CABLE LENGTH <200mm ON THE TWO ENDS
(7.8740in) (BETWEEN OF THE CABLE.
TECHNICAL NUMBER OF REPAIRS
TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS COMMENTS THE LONGEST AND THE
(ATTENUATION VALUE) AT ENDS (*)
SMALLEST CABLE)
SAT COM (TX) 3V (*) NOTE: ONE REPAIR CORRESPONDS TO A DECREASE IN CABLE
SAT COM (RX) 5V NOT REPAIRABLE LENGTH OF APPROXIMATELY 50mm (1.9685in)
UNLESS AUTHORIZED
IN VENDOR
DOCUMENTATION FOR
CABLE REPAIR
3
COAXIAL CABLE
SDU UNIT CONNECTION:
UNITS 1db AT 1.6GHz 1 REPAIR TO EACH
PART
Daniels
JUMPER
terminal block module. For wires with crimp contacts, pull the wire lightly to POWER <1
LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
make sure the locking is correct.
SOURCE
Ω
• To do a continuity test and then do an operational or a functional test of the
related function. b
CONTINUITY TEST
Each time a connector is disconnected/reconnected:
• Do a visual check of the connector locking
• Do an operational test or a functional test of the related functions
CB
Wiring Test a
Measuring the continuity and insulation-resistance is a basic need for trouble
8
shooting electric and avionics system. POWER
SOURCE MΩ LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
Principle of wiring testing and trouble shooting
1. Disconnect the system from power source b
2. Disconnect all systems from the line has to be tested ISOLATION TEST
LINE TO LINE
3. Make sure that all other system are disconnected from the line
4. Test for continuity with ohmmeter, pontavi or milliohmmeter
Shorting jumper or jumper to ground simplifies the continuity test
8
CB
5. Test for insulation between the conductors of the line MΩ
with isolation resistance ohmmeter
6. Test for insulation of the conductors against ground or cable shielding a
with isolation resistance ohmmeter POWER
SOURCE LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
b
ISOLATION TEST
8
MΩ LINE TO GROUND
Testing Components
For trouble shooting its useful to test the resistance of bulbs, fuses, switches, re-
lays etc. to determine its functionality.
Continuity test with aircraft wire connected to a grounding point Figure 50: Continuity test with grounded aircraft wire
1. Disconnect the aircraft wire at the two ends.
2. Connect one end of the aircraft wire to a grounding point.
3. Connect one of the ohmmeter probes to the other end of the wire.
4. Connect the second ohmmeter probe to a grounding point.
5. Make sure that the current flows through the conductor (the indication on the
ohmmeter changes).
Tests for Short Circuit Figure 52: Short cirquit between wire and structure
For test for short circuit of an aircraft wire, disconnect the aircraft wire at the two
ends.
1. Test between two wires:
• Connect one of the ohmmeter probes to the wire to be tested.
• Connect the second ohmmeter probe to other wire of the connector.
Procedure
To do this test, you must connect the conductor to one probe of the Megohmmeter
that supplies 500 VDC +/- 10%. With the other probe, touch, for 25 ms, all the oth-
ers conductors commoned together with the main assembly and any other metallic
parts (braid, backshell, etc.) that are not bonded together to the return line.
The insulation test value must not be less than 20 Mohms in all temperature and
relative humidity conditions.
Do this procedure for each conductor.
Primary Bonding
Primary bonding is supplied by all the conductive strucrural parts (fuselage, wings,
control surfaces, nacelles, landing gears, etc.) of the aircraft to:
• Collect high energy (as caused by lightning).
Secondary Bonding
The secondary bondings which include the other cases of conductibility related to
electrical potentials circulating in the aircraft and especially the following:
1. Current return through aircraft ground return.
2. Electrostatic potential circulation.
3. Grounding of various shieldings.
4. Electrostatic potential discharging.
5. Grounding of the aircraft.
6. Protective grounding against electric shock in case of defective insulation.
General Requirements for Bonding 12. The attaching hardware used in electrical bonding must be such that low im-
1. Non conductive finishes that must be removed from bonding surfaces before pedance conductivity and minimum corrosion effects are achieved.
conductive chemical treatment, sealing (if required) and bonding. 13. Bonding applications are divided into six classes. Each of these classes indi-
a) All paints and primer coatings. cates the specific bonding application (See next table)
b) Organic markings (crayons and dyes) and tapes.
Table 2: Application of electrical bond classes
c) Chemical treatment (anodize, Dow #17, Parkerize and Alumilite).
2. All bonding surfaces must be solvent cleaned if not assembled (mated) within Class Application Maximum DC Resistance and Path
24 hours after removal of non conductive finishes and application of conduc-
tive chemical treatments. A Antenna Installation 0.0025 Ohm through Bond
3. All surfaces where non conductive finishes have been removed and before or
after the application of a conductive chemical treatment, must be protected C Current Path Return 0.0025 Ohm from Terminal-Lug to Structure
when stored outside. Surfaces must be inspected for corrosion after outside
H Shock Hazard 0.1 Ohm from Component to Structure
storage, any corrosion must be removed, if present, before application of con-
ductive chemical treatment. L Lightning Protection 0.0025 Ohm through Bond
4. Bonding jumpers must be installed so that there is no interference with the op-
eration of movable components of the aircraft. R RF Potentials 0.0025 Ohm from Component to Structure
5. Bonding clamps must be installed so as not to crush or damage the metallic S Static Charge 1.0 Ohm from Object to Structure
conduit or tubing.
6. All prepared metal surfaces that remain exposed after assembly and applica- 14. Mating metal surfaces must have all non conductive material and treatments
tion of sealant (if required) must have the original finish paint re-applied within removed. The exposed metal surfaces must extend a maximum of 0.130 in.
48 hours after assembly. (3.302 mm) beyond the mating surfaces.
7. All faying surfaces must be smooth, flat and free from any scratches deeper 15. Attachment holes surface must have all non conductive material and treat-
than 0.010 in. (0.254 mm). ments removed before bonding. The exposed metal surfaces must extend a
NOTE: Faying surfaces are the mating areas which fit or join together. minimum of 1.25 times the diameter of the terminal lug or attachment hard-
8. Sealant fillets must not be applied to metal surfaces that are colder than 10° C ware
9. Sealant fillets must not be applied to any joint until after sufficient permanent 16. Attachment hardware carrying the current load through each interface, hard-
fasteners are installed to prevent separation of parts. ware (nuts and washers) must be cleaned on each faying surface area.
10. When installing grounding and bonding tabs or brackets which are fastened NOTE: Nuts and washers must not be abraded or sanded.
to a structure, prepare the mating surfaces to the same requirements as the 17. If radio frequency (R.F.) bond is required, the bonding connection must meet
basic structure surfaces. the electrical bonding requirements that are specified.
11. Screws and bolts must be sufficiently tightened so that the lock washer is
completely compressed.
NOTE: Do not use lock washers between electrical current carrying members,
such as between terminals or between terminals and structure.
NOTE: Do not use self tapping screws.
7.8 Riveting
Rivet Layout
For example: lets assume that we want to join two 3 3/4" straps of 0.040” sheet
aluminium alloy with 11 MS20470AD4-4 rivets. We immediately see that we will
need more than one row of rivets, because for one row, the spacing would be so
close that the joint would be weakened. We can use two rows with six rivets in the
first row and five in the second. First, mark off the edge distance of two and one-
half diameters, or 5/16" from the end of the sheet. Mark this with a soft lead pencil
so you will not scratch the metal. Measure in 5/16" from both edges of the sheet
along this line to locate the end rivets so they will have the proper edge distance
from both the end and the sides. Mark both of these locations with a prick punch.
Then with a pair of dividers, divide the distance between these two locations into
five equal spaces. This gives us the location of the six rivets for our first row. These Please notice that the
rivets will be 5/8" apart, which is five diameters and is well within the allowable holes made by drills are
spacing of between 3D and 12D. usually three or four thou- Burrs or Chips
The gauge, or distance between the rows, should be about 75% of the pitch and, sandths of an inch larger
from a too small
in this case, will be 0.468”; to be practical, though, 0.50 (1/2") will be entirely ade- than the diameter of the
rivet. This allows the rivet Hole
quate. Mark a line across the strap 1/2" from the first row of rivets and locate the
five holes needed on this line. These holes should be centred between the rivets to be slipped in place with-
in the first row. Mark the location of all of the rivet holes with a prick punch. out forcing it and scraping
the protective oxide coat-
Figure 2: Two-row splice ing off the shank. The
clearance is small enough
that, in the process of driving the rivet, the shank will swell up enough to complete-
ly fill the hole and make a good tight joint.
2-1/2 D 5/16"
erly ground and is sharp. Put it in the chuck and tighten it with a proper fitting chuck
key. Mark the location for the hole with a centre punch and make the indentation
just large enough for the drill to start cutting. Too small a mark will allow the drill to
walk, and too heavy a blow on the punch will distort the metal. Allow the point of
the drill to go all of the way through the metal, but do not allow the chuck to touch
the work, as it will damage it.
Figure 3: Deburring the Hole shaft. Pilots are available for all of the popular rivet sizes and the shank of all of
the pilots are the same. Because of this, one cutter will work for all size rivets: you
need only replace the pilot to countersink holes of different sizes. The body and
stop fit over the cutter shaft and may be held still while the cutter is driven by the
drill motor.
Adjust the countersink to cut the proper depth by using a piece of scrap metal the
thickness of the top sheet being riveted. Drill some holes the size used for the rivet
and adjust the stop of the countersink by screwing it up or down on the body and
locking it with the locknut. Hold the stop with one hand and run the countersink into
a hole until the fibre collar touches the sheet, and then take it out. Slip the proper
rivet into the hole. It should fit so its top is flush with the skin. When the stop is ad-
justed and the, Locknut is tightened against it, the countersink should cut all of the
Hole Preparation for Flush Rivets holes to a uniform depth. When using it, be sure to keep the stop from spinning
It is extremely important for high-speed aircraft that the skin and marking the metal.
be as smooth as possible. In order to have the rivet heads at
flush with the surface, we must prepare the skin by either cut- Figure 4: Stop Countersink
ting away a portion of the metal to match the taper of the rivet
head, or by bending, or forming, the edges of the hole to fit the
rivet head. The flush rivet used in modern aircraft has mostly
a head angle of 100°.
Countersinking
If the top sheet of the metal being joined is thicker than the tapered portion of the
rivet head, the material should be countersunk; that is, it should be cut with a ta-
pered cutter. The thinnest material that can be countersunk for the various rivets
is given here:
Coin Dimpling
In coin dimpling, the male die fits
through the rivet hole in the material
and the coining ram in the female ex-
erts a controlled pressure on the under-
side of the hole while the male die is
forced into the upper side. The pres-
sure on the dies coins, or forges the
edges of the hole to exactly fit the
shape of the dies. Coin dimpling gives
the hole sharply defined edges that al-
most resemble machine countersink-
ing. Both the top and the bottom of the
dimple are formed to a 100” angle so
dimples may be stacked, or nested.
Radius Dimpling
In this form of dimpling, the pilot on the
male die is passed through the hole in
the material and the male die is pressed into the female die. The dimple formed in
this way does not have parallel sides, as the lower side has an angle greater than Hot Dimpling
100°. So these dimples cannot be nested unless the radius dimple is used only as Magnesium and some of the harder aluminium alloys such as 7075 cannot be suc-
the bottom member of the stack. Radius dimpling is done because its equipment cessfully cold dimpled, as the material is so brittle it will crack when the dimple is
is smaller than that needed for coin dimpling and can be used in locations where formed. To prevent this cracking, the material is heated as the dimpling is done.
coin dimpling cannot. The equipment for hot dimpling is similar to that used for either coin or radius dim-
pling except that the dies are heated. The material is put in place and heat and
pressure are applied. The heat from the dies transfers into the metal and softens
it, then the pressure is increased to form the dimple and the pressure is released.
The amount of heat and the time the heat is applied, or the dwell time, is carefully
controlled to prevent destroying the temper condition of the metal being dimpled.
Stacking of Sheets for Flush Riveting eted joint, always choose a rivet whose shear strength is near to, but slightly Iess
than the bearing strength of the metal sheet.
The proper preparation of the holes for flush riveting depends upon the thickness
of the sheets being joined. If the top sheet is thick enough to be countersunk, the If two sheets of 0.040 aluminium alloy are riveted together with 1/8-inch 2117T riv-
substructure, or lower skins, need nothing more than to have the holes drIlled for ets and the joint is loaded until it fails, it will fail in shear. The rivets will shear and
the rivet. But if the top skin is too thin to be countersunk, it must be dimpled and the sheets of metal will be undamaged. We know this because the shear strength
the bottom skin either countersunk or dimpled. The top skin must be coin dimpled of 1/8-inch 2117T rivets is 331 pounds (Table 1 on page 6) and the bearing
so the bottom of the dimple will fit into the 100° inside angle of the dimple or coun- strength for 0.040 aluminium alloy sheet for a 1/8-inch rivet is 410 pounds (Table 2
tersink in the lower skin. on page 7). If the same size higher strength 2024T rivets were used in this joint,
the sheet would tear at the rivet holes because the shear strength of the rivet is
Figure 6: Stacking 429 pounds, which is greater than the 410 pound bearing strength of the sheet.
Table 2: Bearing Strength (pounds) The length are measured only on the cylindrical shank for universal head rivets. In
the case of countersunk-head rivets, the length is given to include the head of the
Sheet Diameter of Rivet (inch) rivet.
thickness The diameter of a rivet is standardised in 1/32”. The rivet lengths are graduated by
3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 1/16” increments.
Figure 8: Measuring using the Grip Scale
0.020 153 205 256 307 410
Not only must the rivet set have the correct size and shape of depression, but it In Figure 13 on page 10, we see several of the more commonly used shapes of
must fit squarely on the rivet head. Because the structure inside an aircraft some- bucking bars, along with a chart to indicate the weight of the bucking bar best suit-
times makes it difficult to align the gun exactly with the rivet, rivet sets are made in ed for the various diameters of rivets.
many lengths and shapes; some straight, some having a single offset, and some Bucking bars must be polished and free from any scratches or tool marks that
even having two offsets. Be sure to use a rivet set that will allow you to direct the would be impressed on the upset end of a rivet.
blows from the gun straight in line with the rivet.
Figure 13: Bucking Bars
Figure 12: Rivet Sets
to the structure, and only one third is utilized to upset the shank. To avoid the rivet Table 3: Upset Head Dimensions for A, AD, DD and B Rivets
being cold worked and brittle with less strength as a consequence, few but power-
ful impacts are required. Therefore the indirect method sometimes requires more Nominal Upset Diameter (d) Upset Height (H)
powerful riveting tools than the direct method. As hand riveting is certain to remain Diameter (D)
the dominant method in the foreseeable future, and with operators likely to be ex-
minimum maximum minimum maximum
posed to noise and vibration during the major part of their working life, it is neces-
sary to reduce or eliminate these problems through still another approach- inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm
redesigning the riveting tools. 3/32 2.50 .125 3.18 .156 3.96 .031 0.79 .062 1.57
1/8 3.25 .156 3.96 .203 5.16 .047 1.19 .078 1.98
Evaluating the Rivet
5/32 4.00 .203 5.16 .265 6.73 .047 1.19 .109 2.77
In the process of developing your skill in riveting, you will drive some rivets improp-
3/16 4.80 .234 5.94 .312 7.92 .063 1.60 .125 3.18
erly, and a good technician must be able to identify those that are good and those
that are not, and know the cause of improperly driven rivets. 1/4 6.40 .312 7.92 .423 10.7 .078 1.98 .172 4.37
A properly formed shop head is one-half the shank diameter high, its diameter is 5/16 7.90 .391 9.93 .515 13.1 .108 2.74 .203 5.16
one and one-half times that of the shank, and it is concentric with the hole. 3/18 9.50 .469 11.9 .625 15.9 .125 3.18 .250 6.35
Table 3 on page 11 and Table 4 on page 11 shows the required Upset-head di-
Table 4: Upset Head Dimensions for D, Stainless steel, monel and A-286
mensions.
Rivets
Figure 14: Rivet Head and Upset-Head Sizes
Nominal Upset Diameter (d) Upset Height (H)
D D Diameter (D)
minimum maximum minimum maximum
T L
inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm
3/32 2.50 .125 3.18 .140 3.56 .047 1.19 .063 1.60
1/8 3.25 .156 3.96 .187 4.75 .063 1.60 .078 1.98
5/32 4.00 .203 5.16 .234 5.94 .078 1.98 .109 2.77
≅ 0.5D 3/16 4.80 .234 5.94 .281 7.14 .094 2.39 .125 3.18
≅ 1.5D
1/4 6.40 .312 7.92 .375 9.53 .125 3.18 .172 4.37
≅ 1.5D 5/16 7.90 .391 9.93 .569 14.5 .156 3.96 .203 5.16
3/8 9.50 .469 11.9 .562 14.3 .187 4.75 .250 6.35
The manufactured head of the rivet must be perfectly flat against the metal. If you
can slip a thin feeler gauge blade between the manufactured head and the skin,
the rivet must be removed and the cause of the improper fit determined. The rivet
may be cocked in its hole by a small burr (Figure 15 on page 12).
Figure 15: Evaluation the Rivet either use a pin punch the size of the drill to pry the head off, or you may tap it light-
ly with a cape chisel to knock the head off of the shank.
Back up the side of the skin near the shop head with a bucking bar or a piece of
wood. Gently drive the rivet out, using a pin punch slightly smaller than the shank.
When the rivet is out, examine the hole, and if it is not elongated, another rivet of
the same size may be used as a replacement. If the hole is damaged, pass a drill
that is correct for the rivet of the next size larger through the hole and install the
larger rivet, If you must use a larger rivet, be sure that the pitch, gauge, and edge
distance values are all satisfactory.
Removal of Rivets
Figure 1: Wheel Type Tubing Cutter Figure 2: Correct and Incorrect Tubing Bends
block with the slide bar until the incidence mark aligns with the degree mark on the Figure 3: Using a hand operated Tubing Bender
radius block for the desired degrees of bend.
Incidence mark
Thin-wall tubing installed in aircraft fluid systems must not be bent with a bend ra-
dius smaller than shown in Table 1 on Page 3. The bend radius in this table is Slide bar
measured to the center line of the tubing.
1 3 3 1/2
Springback
90˚ mark
The material along and on either side of the neutral axis or centerline is not
stretched or compressed as much as the material in the extrados and intrados ar-
eas, which have been stretched and compressed. The centreline material , there-
fore, is trying to return to its original shape, yet it is constrained by the unyielding
material on either side. A bend of 90˚
The effect of this is noticed immediately when the clamp and/or pressure die is re- done as shown
tracted. The pipe tends to straighten out slightly, and this is what is referred as in the above
springback. steps
Methods of Joining Rigid Tubing ameter. To use this tool, the dies are rotated until the two halves of the correct size
are aligned and the tube is inserted against the stop.
Sections of rigid tubing may be joined to another tube, or to a fitting, by any of sev- The dies are clamped together and then a lubricant is placed on the flaring cone.
eral methods, including; single and double-flares, flareless connectors, or a hose The flaring cone is turned into the end of the tube. Rollers in the cone burnish the
and clamps over a beaded tube. We will examine each of these and detail the pro- metal as it is expanded into the die, and a smooth flare results. When the flare is
cedure necessary to prepare the tube for connection. formed sufficiently, the handle is reversed and the dies released, the tube can be
removed from the tool.
Tube Flaring and Flared Fittings
Much of the rigid tubing used in modern aircraft is joined, or connected, to the com- Figure 4: Flared Tubing
ponents by flaring at the ends of the tube and using flare-type fittings. The actual Single Flare Double Flare
sealing is done by the close fit between the inside of the flared tube and the flare
cone of the fitting. These two surfaces must be absolutely clean and free from
cracks, nicks, and scratches. Aircraft fittings have a flare angle of 37º and are not
interchangeable with automotive type fittings, which have a flare angle of 45º.
There are two types of flares used in aircraft plumbing systems; the single flare
and the double flare. These two types are shown in Figure 4. The flare provides
the sealing surface, but is also subject to extremely high pressures and must be
properly formed to prevent leaks or failures.
A flare which is made too small will produce a weak joint, which may leak or pull
apart. If the flare is too large it may interfere with the installation of the nut, and
result in leakage. A common mistake is overtightening a leaky fitting. If the fitting
leaks when properly torqued, inspect the flare and the fitting components for prop-
er manufacture and assembly and for mechanical damage.
Single Flare
A single flare may be formed on a piece of rigid tubing with either am impact-type
flaring tool, or one having the rolling action of the flaring cone.
To form a flare using an impact type flaring tool, the tube must be cut squarely and
the ends polished. Before the tube is flared, a B-nut and sleeve are slipped over
the end. The tube should be clamped between the halves of the vice block with
only about 1/16 inch of the tube sticking above the blocks. The blocks are clamped
in a vice and the pipe-type flaring tool is driven into the tube with a few light blows
of a hammer. It is important that as few blows as possible are used, as to many
light blows will work-harden the tubing.
Rolling-type flaring tools are quite popular in aviation maintenance shops because
they are entirely self-contained and it is easy to make a good flare with this type of
tool. The tool pictured in Figure 4 will flare tubing from 1/8 to 3/4 inch outside di-
MS Flareless Fittings
The fluid lines used in some of the high-pressure hydraulic and pneumatic systems
are so hard they are difficult to flare without cracking, so a system of flareless fit-
tings has been developed. These fittings as shown in Figure 7 on page 6 consist
of a body, a sleeve, and a nut. The actual seal is between the outside of the sleeve
and the inside of the body.
MS flareless fittings are attached to the end of the metal tubing by presetting the
sleeve on the tube. Presetting puts enough pressure on the fitting to deform the
sleeve and cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.
1. The cutting lip of the sleeve should be embedded into the tube OD between
0.003 and 0.008 inch, depending upon the material (A).
2. A lip of material will be raised under the pilot (B).
3. The pilot of the sleeve should contact or be quite close to the outside diameter
of the tube (C).
4. The tube projection from the sleeve pilot (D) should be between 7/64 inch for
No. 2 tubing to 9/32 for No. 32 tubing.
5. The sleeve should be bowed slightly (E), and the sleeve may rotate on the Metal Seal Fitting
tube and have a maximum lengthwise movement of 1/64 inch.
There are many types of metal-seal fittings: unions, reducers and plugs. It is nec-
6. The sealing surface (F) of the sleeve which contacts the 24° angle of the fitting essary that the metal-seal fitting touches against the surface of the boss to seal
body seat should be smooth and free from scores. There should be no evi- correctly. The new metal-seal fittings have an O-Ring and a backup ring. The met-
dence of any lengthwise or circular cracks. al-seal fittings with the secondary seal are identified by notches on the edges of
When installing the fitting in an aircraft hydraulic system, tighten the nut by hand the hex flats.
until resistance is felt, and then turn it 1/6 to 1/3 of a turn (one hex to two hexes)
with a wrench. Overtightening a fitting to stop a leak will damage the fitting and will Figure 11: Metal Seal Fitting
probably cause the leak to become worse.
Notch
Backup
Washer
Ring
O-Ring
O-Ring
(Seconadry
Seal)
OD = outside diameter
WT = wall thickness
Scratches and nicks that are no deeper than 10 % of the wall thickness of a piece
of metal tubing can be repaired by burnishing, provided the damage is not in the
heel of a bend. Tubing containing damage in the heel of a bend must be replaced.
Dents that are less than 20 % of the tube diameter are not objectionable unless
they are in the heel of the bend. Dents can be removed by pulling a bullet-shaped
forming tool of the correct diameter through the tube. This can be done by using a
length of cable.
Damage in a section of tubing may be repaired by cutting out the damaged area.
Then, insert a new piece of tubing and join the ends with the proper nuts and un-
ions. Figure 13 on page 9.
Figure 13: Approved Repairs
9.33
Swaged fittings may also be used to make a permanent repair on a damaged fluid
line. "A" shows the way a pinhole leak or circumferential crack can be repaired with
a single swaged fitting; "B" shows how more extensive damage is repaired by
splicing in a new section of tubing.
Not only must the correct fluid lines be installed in an aircraft, but they must be in- Correct Incorrect
stalled properly. Here are a few basic rules regarding their installation: Liner properly Liner improperly
positioned positioned
When a fuel or hydraulic line is routed through a compartment parallel with an elec-
trical wire bundle, the fluid line should be installed below the wire bundle to prevent
a leak wetting the wires.
Fluid lines must be installed in such a way that they are supported and protected
from physical damage. They should be installed in such a way that they cannot be
used as a hand hold or a step.
Each section of rigid tubing should have at least one bend in it to absorb vibration
and the dimensional changes that occur when the tubing is pressurized, and the
tubing should fit squarely against the fitting before the nut is started. Pulling a tube
to the fitting with the nut will deform the flare and can cause a flare to fail.
Metal fluid lines are installed in an aircraft with bonded cushion clamps. These
clamps have a strip of metal inside the cushion that electrically connects the tubing
to the aircraft structure. When installing a bonded clamp, remove all of the paint
and the anodized oxide film from the location to which the clamp is fastened. This
will provide a good electrical connection between the tubing and the aircraft struc-
ture. The table below gives the maximum distance between supports for rigid tub-
ing installed in an aircraft.
Figure 17 shows the right and wrong way of installing flexible hose in an aircraft Figure 17: Flexible Hose Installation
fluid system.
Flexible hoses should be approximately 5 % to 8 % longer than the distance be-
tween the fittings. This slack allows for contraction as the line expands its diameter
and shortens its length when it is pressurized. See this in view A.
In B, we see an example of using the correct type of elbow fittings to prevent fluid
lines from making sharp bends.
In C, we see the correct way to connect a movable actuator into the aircraft hy-
draulic system. The hose must be of sufficient length, and installed in such a way Wrong A Correct
that it is not crimped in any position of the actuator.
Lay Line
The flexible hose is marked with yellow, white or red strip running the length of the
hose.
This lay line not only identifies the hose but also indicates if the hose is twisted dur-
ing installation. When installed properly, the line will run straight and not spiral
around the hose as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Lay Line Wrong
Incorrect Installed(Twisted)
MIL H 87
94 Size
6-2 92
MFG
Wrong C
Correct
9.075
3/32 Inch
Removal and Installation of Tubing and Hoses Figure 21: Teflon Hoses with Support Wire
Installation of Hoses
• Visually check hose for cleanliness before installation.
• Hose with protective cap missing should be thoroughly cleaned before instal-
lation.
• Check hose of chafing, cuts or evidence of kinking before installation.
• Make certain that fittings are properly aligned and secured before installation
of the hose.
• Apply anti size lubricant to fitting only when required by maintenance specifi-
cation.
• Install hose on fitting and tighten connections to torque values as per applica-
ble specification.
• Hose assembly installing on non moving connections should have not twist af-
ter B-nut has been tightened.
• Hose should not be under tension or cause any deflection of rigid tubing when
subjected to full system pressure.
• Check that hose installed on moving connections is free from torsion or ten-
sion stresses through entire range of travel when subjected to full system
pressure.
• Hose should not cause any deflection of rigid tubing to which hose is connect-
ed.
• Check that hose is free to expand contract and is clear of all structure.
• Where inadequate clearance exists between hose and structure protection
must be provided.
• Do not use support clips on hose unless specifically authorised to do so.
• Make certain not to exceed minimum bend radius for hoses.
Fuel lines are made from stainless steel. Where hoses are required, the hose must Split Retainer
be made of fire resistant material. As a common rule, self locking line connections Gland Washer
are used inside the fuel tanks. Wire locked connections are used in fuel lines out-
side the fuel tanks. However, for safety requirements consult the applicable main- A
tenance manual.
Flexible Couplings
Two types of flexible couplings are illustrated.
Sketch (A) shows a coupling which has provision for a certain amount of misalign- Nut Body O-Ring Seal
ment, as well as both angular and axial movement of the pipes. The pipe ends are
beaded, and the surfaces within the joint are smooth and polished, so that the
seals may slide freely over the pipes. Outer Sleeve Inner Sleeve
A split retainer encloses the beads. When the coupling nut is tightened on the
body, the 0-rings are squeezed between the gland washers and the split retainer,
and expand to form a seal between the body and the pipes. B
Sketch (B) shows a coupling which is less flexible, but which has provision for a
limited amount of misalignment and movement.
When the inner and outer sleeves are screwed together and pressure is applied to
the split collars, the rubber seal is squeezed out to form a seal between the inner
sleeve and pipe beads.
V-Clamp
Janitrol Clamp
Bolt Support
Support
Bolt
Nut
Nut
ds
/p
in e:
ch
55 rqu
To
-
45
Segment
Bolt Support
Locking pin Support
Bolt
Lock tounge
Nut Nut
Locking pin
ds
/p
in e:
ch
55 rqu
To
-
45
7.10 Springs
Inspection and Testing of Springs The weight used to gain the test length should fall within the limits given.
Table 1: Measuring Data
Checking Springs for Wear
Before testing, the spring should be always visualy inspected. Special care should MP Length(L) Desired Measured Deviation Condition
be given to the hooks where they connect to their mounting points. Value (F) Value (F) Error
800 N
mm
700 N
40
600 N
30
20 500 N
10
400 N
300 N
200 N
100 N
0N
0 100 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 mm
N
7.11 Bearings
Bearings are heavy-duty machine elements with high-precision components. We bearing. In service, the oil combines with the bearing lubricant and provides for
must give special attention to mounting, dismounting, lubrication, sealing and sufficient lubrication in the run-in period. The seats and mating surfaces must be
maintenance of bearings. wiped clean of anticorrisive oil before mounting. Wash out anticorrisive oil with
Appropriate means for mounting and dismounting of rolling bearings as well as ut- cold-cleaning agent from tapered bearing bores prior to mounting in order to en-
most cleanliness and care at the assembly site are necessary in order to enable sure a safe and tight fit on the shaft or sleeve. Then thinly coat the bore with a ma-
the bearings to reach a long service life. chine oil of medium viscosity. Prior to mounting, wash used and contaminated
bearings carefully with kerosene or cold-cleaning agent and oil or grease them im-
mediately afterwards.
Rolling Bearing Storage
Store bearings in their original package in order to protect them against contami-
Cleanliness in Mounting
nation and corrosion. Open package only at the assembly site immediately prior to Absolute cleanliness is essential! Dirt and humidity are dangerous offenders, since
mounting. Larger bearings with relatively thin-walled rings should not be stored up- even the smallest particles penetrating into the bearing will damage the rolling sur-
right but flat and supported over their whole circumference. Prior to packing, rolling faces. The work area must, therefore, be dust-free, dry and well removed from ma-
bearings are dipped in anticorrisive oil. This oil does not gum and harden and is chining operations. Avoid cleaning with compressed air. Ensure cleanliness of
compatible with all commercial rolling bearing greases. In their original package shaft, housing and any other mating parts. Castings must be free from sand. Bear-
rolling bearings are safely protected against external influences. ing seats on shaft and in housing should be carefully cleaned from anti-rust com-
pounds and residual paint. Turned parts must be free from burrs and sharp edges.
Prepare Bearings for Mounting and Mismounting Surrounding Parts
Work Planning All surrounding parts should be carefully checked for dimensional and form accu-
racy prior to assembly.
Prior to mounting and dismounting of rolling bearings, several preparatory steps
should be taken. Study the shop drawing to familiarize yourself with the design de-
tails of the application and the assembly sequence. Phase the individual opera- Bearing Mounting
tions and get reliable information on heating temperatures, mounting and
dismounting forces and the amount of grease to be packed into the bearing. The various bearing types and sizes require different mounting methods. Depend-
ing on the individual conditions these can be mechanical, hydraulic or thermal. As
Whenever rolling bearing mounting and dismounting require special measures,
the mechanic should be provided with comprehensive instructions on mounting the hardened bearing rings are sensitive to blows, these must never be applied di-
details, including means of transport for the bearing, mounting and dismounting rectly to the rings. On mounting of non-separable bearings, the mounting forces
must always be applied to the ring which will have the tight fit and therefore is the
equipment, measuring devices, heating facilities, type and quantity of lubricant.
first to be mounted. Forces applied to the ring with the loose fit would be transmit-
ted by the rolling elements, thus damaging raceways and rolling elements. Mount-
The „Right“ Bearing ing of separable bearings is easier, since the two rings can be mounted separately.
Prior to mounting, the mechanic must make sure that the bearing number stamped In order to avoid score marks during assembly, slightly rotate the parts.
on the package and on the bearings thrustface agrees with the designation given
in the parts list.
Mechanical Methods Figure 2: Mounting a bearing on the shaft and the housing at the same time
Bearings with a maximum bore of approximately 80 mm can be mounted cold. The
use of a mechanical or hydraulic press is recommended. If no press is available,
the bearing can be driven on the shaft by gentle taps with a hammer or mallet.
Disk
However, a mounting sleeve of soft steel and with a flat face must be used in order Sleeve
to distribute the mounting force evenly over the entire ring circumference and to
avoid damage to the bearing.
Figure 1: Mounting a bearing by tapping
Sleeve
If a tight fit is required for the inner ring of a non-separable bearing, the bearing will
first be mounted on the shaft; then the shaft and bearing assembly is pushed into
the housing. Pushing the bearing in to the housing can be done with a plate and
screws as shown in Figure 3. Tightening the screws must be done symmetricaly
to avoid jaming.
Figure 3: Mounting a bearing with the shaft already installed
The inside diameter of the sleeve should just be little larger than the bearing bore
and, to avoid damage to the cage, its outside diameter should not exceed the inner
ring shoulder height. If a self-aligning bearing has to be pressed on the shaft and
pushed into the housing at the same time, a disk should be used which bears
against both bearing rings, thus avoiding misalignment of the outer ring in the
housing as shown in Figure 2.
Thermal Methods der. A slight twisting motion during fitting facilitates the work. It is advisable to use
heat-protective gloves or non-fraying cloths, but never cotton waste.
If tight fits are specified for the inner rings on cylindrical shaft seats, the bearings
are heated for mounting. Sufficient expansion is obtained when heated between Hot Air Cabinet
80 and 100°C. Accurate temperature control is essential in heating the bearings.
If the temperature exceeds 120°C there is the risk of alteration of bearing grain A safe and clean method of heating rolling bearings is by use of a hot air cabinet.
structure resulting in a drop of hardness and dimensional instability. For bearings Thermostat regulation enables accurate temperature control. Careful operation
with moulded cages of glass fibre reinforced polyamide the same temperature lim- excludes contamination of the bearings. However, heating the bearings in hot air
its are valid as for the other rolling bearings. Bearings with shields and with seals takes considerable time, therefore adequately dimensioned hot air cabinets
are packed with grease during manufacture. They can be heated up to 80°C max- should be provided.
imum, but never in an oil bath.
Induction Heating Device
Heating Plate With an induction heating device, rolling bearings are brought up to mounting tem-
Provisionally, rolling bearings can be heated on a heating plate which should be perature in a fast, secure and clean manner. The devices can be used for any roll-
thermostatically controlled. Turn the bearing over several times in order to ensure ing bearing types including greased and sealed bearings. They operate on the
uniform heating. If the temperature of a heating plate without thermostatic control transformer principle.
exceeds 120°C, polyamide cages must not contact the heating plate. This can be The heating device is suitable for rolling bearings of a minimum bore diameter of
avoided by inserting a ring between the plate and the bearing inner ring. 20 mm. The device can also be used to heat other ring-shaped steel parts such as
shrink rings or labyrinth rings. After heating, the parts are automatically demagnet-
Figure 4: Heating Plate ized.
Figure 5: Induction Heating Device
Oil Bath
For uniform heating, rolling bearings are generally immersed in an oil bath which
is thermostatically controlled to a temperature of 80 to 100°C. The bearing should
not be in direct contact with the heat source. The best arrangement is to have a
screen several inches off the bottom of the oil tank which will prevent uneven heat-
ing of the bearing and protect it from contaminants settling on the tank bottom. The
bearings may also be suspended in the oil bath. After heating, any oil adhering to
the bearing should be well drained off and the fitting surfaces should be carefully
wiped clean. Mounting of heated rings or bearings requires some skill. The parts
should be rapidly pushed on the shaft and positioned squarely against the shoul-
Tapered bearing
Provisionally, small bearings can be driven off their seat with a hammer and a met-
Wheel-nut al drift, usually made of brass, as shown in Figure 9 (right). The light hammer
blows should be applied evenly round the whole circumference of the tight-fitted
Wheel assy ring.
Figure 9: Driving off a bearing with a hammer
Bearing Dismounting
If the bearings are intended for re-use, dismounting must be performed most care-
fully; it is imperative that the extracting tool be applied to the ring to be extracted
to prevent the rolling elements from brinelling the raceways. In addition, thin-
walled outer rings involve the risk of ring fracture. With non-seperable bearings,
first withdraw the ring with sliding fit from its seat and then dismount the tight-fitted
ring. The force required for dismounting is generally higher than the mounting
force, since, as time passes, the ring becomes embedded on its seat. Even with
loose-fitted rings, fretting corrosion may make dismounting work difficult. Wrong Correct
Lubrication contact and carries off heat. Its disadvantage is that it involves a more complex
design of the bearing location and especially of the sealing system.
The primary purpose of the lubricant is to build a load-carrying film separating the The following factors determine the selection of lubricant:
bearing components in rolling and sliding contact in order to minimize friction and
wear. The lubricant should also protect the bearing against corrosion. If required, Operating Temperature
it should also act as a sealant, and in case of circulating oil lubrication, as a cool-
The viscosity of lubricating oils decreases with increasing temperature and in-
ant. Due to deterioration and mechanical stressing, the lubricants become unuse-
able. Change of oil or grease or replenishment, i.e. bearing maintenance, has a creases when the temperature drops. The higher the expected operating temper-
favorable influence on the bearing service life. Under certain sealing and environ- ature, the higher should be the nominal viscosity of the oil. The nominal or mid-
point viscosity is the viscosity for oils at 40°C. The permissible temperature range
mental conditions, appropriate lubricant selection allows for a lubrication for life.
of greases varies with the saponification bases.
Greases As a rule, the upper limits are:
Only high-grade greases, generally on a metal soap basis, should be used. Rolling Calcium soap base: + 50°C (120°F)
bearing greases for extreme temperatures contain different thickeners and a syn- Sodium soap base: + 70°C (160°F) to 120°C (250°F)
thetic oil instead of the mineral oil.
Lithium soap base: + 110°C (230°F) to 130°C (265°F)
Greases containing extreme pressure(EP), additives are used in high-load and
In selecting oils and greases, it should be borne in mind that a high temperature
low-speed applications. High-speed bearings and bearings which ask for low fric-
speeds up deterioration and decreases the lubricant service life.
tion, are lubricated with greases containing a thin synthetic base oil. The operating
temperatures specified by the grease supplier should be kept in mind. Rolling Exact values for the commercial greases are available from manufacturers cata-
bearing greases should be stable against deterioration and must not change their logues.
structure, even after long periods of operation.
Loads and Speed
Oils Under the given operating conditions, the lubricant must form a load carrying lubri-
For rolling bearing lubrication, mineral oils are generally used. They should have cating film. With oil, the load carrying capacity of the film is primarily a function of
the following properties: viscosity. The lower the bearing speed, the higher the oil viscosity in operating
condition.The use of solid lubricants as e. g. graphite and MoS2 is limited to ultra-
• Utmost cleanliness
low speeds and creeping motions only. High-load applications call for oils contain-
• stability against deterioration ing EP additives. Greases for high-load applications are characterized by base oils
• good viscosity-temperature behaviour of high viscosity and EP additives.
• good water repellency
Moisture
In addition, the lubricating oil must ensure satisfactory protection of the bearing
against corrosion. Very high and very low operating temperatures require the use The reaction of rolling bearing greases against moisture is different from one
of synthetic oils. Oils for highly loaded and low-speed bearings should contain EP- grease to the other. Only the water-repellent calcium base greases (Ca-greases)
additives. possess a safe sealing action against water. They are used, therefore, in laby-
rinths for operating temperatures not exceeding 50°C, acting as sealing agents.
Selection of Lubricant The sodium base greases feature a higher limiting temperature than the calcium
greases. They emulsify with water and are indicated for applications with a limited
Greases are generally preferred to oils because they simplify maintenance and amount of moisture (e. g. condensation water). Since the sodium base greases are
can be used as sealants. The asset of oil is that it readily feeds into all areas of water-absorbing, there is the risk that so much water will be absorbed that they will
wash out of the bearing. Lithium base greases do not absorb as much water as
sodium base greases. Because of their reasonable resistance to water and their
wide temperature range they have become the greases of preference for rolling
bearings.
Also with oils, their moisture and water resisting properties must be considered.
Oils that separate water well should be preferred, because they allow the water to
settle in the oil sump or reservoir when the machine is at rest. The protection
against corrosion is improved by anti-corrosive additives in the oils or greases.
Contamination
Relubrication involves the risk of bearing contamination. High standards of clean-
liness should, therefore, be maintained for the lubricant reservoir and the lubrica-
tors and also when handling the lubricant.
Grease nipples should always be cleaned before relubrication!
Mixing of Lubricants
Lubricants of different saponification bases should not be mixed to avoid impair-
ment of temperature stability and lubricating properties. The same applies to oils.
Lubricant Quantity
With grease lubrication, the bearing cavities should be packed to capacity. Only
partly fill (20 to 35% of free space) extremely fast running bearings.
Overgreasing at medium and higher speeds causes churning resulting in an unde-
sirable temperature rise which may harm both bearing and lubricant.
Rolling bearings with seals or shields are packed with grease to approx. 35% only
during manufacture.
With oil lubrication, too much oil in the housing has similarly detrimental effects:
the churning action overheats the oil and exposes it to air oxygen, causing oxida-
tion and foaming. With sump lubrication, the oil level in the housing should be no
higher than the centre point of the lowest ball or roller when the bearing is at rest.
The life of a rolling bearing depends on the total number of stress cycles and the
loads incurred by rolling elements and raceways. The standardized calculation
method for dynamically stressed bearings is based on material fatigue (pitting)
causing the damage. Normal fatigue manifests itself by flaking or spalling of the
rolling surfaces as shown in Figure 10. An increasing local stress may result in
fracture of the ring. If the bearing fails earlier than predicted by the life calculation,
it should be checked for overloading. With this failure cause excluded, faulty
mounting or poor maintenance or wear might be the cause for the damage.
Figure 10: Normal Fatigue of a Bearing
Contamination
Foreign particle indentations in the functional surfaces may lead to premature fa-
tigue. Foreign particles with abrasive effect, however, accelerate bearing failure
due to wear. The surfaces are roughened and look dull. Progressive wear causes
excessive clearance.
Possible causes:
Why does a Bearing fail? • Contaminated parts
Faulty Mounting • Moulding sand in housings
Local damage to the raceways, such as nicks, score marks or indentations sug- • Inadequate seals
gest faulty mounting. This type of damage occurs, if, for instance, the inner ring of • Contaminated lubricants
a cylindrical roller bearing is inserted out of square into the outer ring, or if the • Metallic abrasion from gears brought into the bearing by the lubricant.
mounting force is applied through the rolling elements (Figure 1 on page 3). Sur-
face damage is also caused, when foreign particles enter the bearing and are cy- Figure 12: Indentations of Foreign Particles
cled. The damage can be recognized for instance by a louder running noise; in the
long run, it may lead to premature fatigue of the functional surfaces. The typical
sign for surface damage are the raised edges of the indentations.
7.12 Transmissions
Lubricating Nipple
There are a few methods to inspect gears about the condition. Some of them are
described on the following pages.
Limits and Flowcharts given by the manufacturer will help you to decide whether
the gearbox or the engine can stay in service or not. Have a look at Figure 3 on
page 3.
The operator has now the possibility to inspect the chip detectors for abnormal par-
ticles and to verify, that the gears and bearings are in normal condition. To judge
the importance of the particles needs experience. Often, particles are carefully re-
moved and sent to a lab for further analysis.
fr
fi
fr Radial run-out
fi Movement of one tooth
Figure 6: Measuring Backlash with a Feeler Gauge Measuring the Base Tangent Length
Measuring the base tangent length with an external micrometer, equipped with
special plates, gives information about tooth thickness and therefore infos about
wear. The number of teeth to measure over have to take out of charts given by the
manufacturer.
Figure 7: Tooth Thickness
Wk
It can be seen that the backlash between a pair of gears will vary as successive
teeth make contact, because of the effect of composite tooth errors, particularly
run out, and errors in the gear mounting centres and bearings. 5
Other important considerations are speed and space for lubricant film. 0
Slow moving gears, in general, require the least backlash. Fast-moving fine-pitch 45
gears are usually lubricated with relatively light oil, but if there is insufficient clear-
ance for an oil film, and particularly if oil trapped at the root of the teeth cannot es-
cape, excessive tooth loading will occur.
Backlash
See Title "Measuring Backlash In Gears" on page 4.
DR Nomenclature of Gears
Figure 10: Technical Terms
MdR = Roller- ø of the toothed Wheel p
MdK = Ball- ø of the toothed Wheel
DM = Roller- or. Ball- ø
DR = Reference - ø
Figure 9: Micrometer ha
Reference Line hd
h c
0
30 0.00I 30
mm
ABS
Extramess 2000
o
Proper Fit
The V-belt should ride in the sheave groove so that the top surface is just above
the highest point of the sheave. If the belt rides too high, it loses contact area. A
low-riding belt may "bottom" in the groove, reducing the wedging action on the
sides, resulting in slipping and burring.
Destructive Elements
Belts should be kept clean, free of oil, and protected from sunlight as much as pos-
sible. Mineral oil is especially destructive. To clean belts they should be wiped with
a dry cloth. The safest way to remove dirt and grime is to wash it with soap and
water and rinse it well. If by accident the belts become grease or oil spattered, re-
move it with a suitable cleaning agent as e.g. carbon tetrachloride.
Belt dressing should never be used on a V-belt drive.
Visible Inspection
Whenever a belt is inspected visualy, make sure that no broken fabric is visible. If
there is, the belt has to be replaced according to the parts catalogue. In any case,
use the limits given in the manuals to judge any anormality found on a belt.
2035 – 100 20 35 35 3
Ext = ------------------------------------------ 100 = ------------ 100 = ------ = 1 --- = 1.75%
100 20 2000 20 4
Checking Articulation Care should be also taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by the
The chain should be checked for tight joints by articulating each link through ap- chain wheel; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth
proximately 180°. and there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth. The pretension-
ing of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction, but should be just
The most suitable method being to draw the chain over a finger. Tight joints may sufficient to prevent any backlash in the system. The guarding should be checked
be caused by foreign matter on the bearing pins or between the inner and outer to ensure that jamming could not occur and that the chain would not come off the
plates; this may be remedied by cleaning. If cleaning is not successful, the end of wheel should it become slack. The security of end connections should be checked,
the bearing pin may be very gently tapped with a light hammer, but if this does not care being taken to ensure that the split pins in the chain connecting bolts are cor-
clear the joint, the chain should be replaced. Tightness may also be caused rectly locked.
through lack of clearance, between the inner and outer plates due to damage; if
this is so, the chain should be replaced. Chain Slack
Proof Loading The chain slack that you can move by hand (length S-S', see Figure 17) should be
about 4 percent of the span (length A-B) unless one or more of the following con-
It is not necessary to proof-load a chain after removal for routine examination. ditions apply:
However, if it is desired to replace a portion only of the assembly, proof-loading of • The center line of sprockets is vertical or almost vertical.
the complete assembly is necessary. • The center distance of sprockets is more than 1 m.
• The chain is subjected to heavy loads and frequent starts.
Installation of Chain Assemblies
• The chain is subjected to suddenly reversing loads.
Install both ends of the chain onto sprockets and join it with the connecting links.
If one or more of these conditions apply to your operation, make the chain slack
Be sure to install the clips or cotter pins as shown in Figure 16.
(length S-S') about 2 percent. In any case, consult the limits given in the manuals.
Figure 16: Installing the Chain
Figure 17: Chain Slack
B
running direction
S'
Installation Accuracy
After installing the chain, you need to check the accuracy of the installation. This
involves verifying the amount of slack and the precise positioning of the shafts.
Lubrication
The life of a silent chain depends largely upon the wear of the joints. On account
of the high speed and whipping action, it is important to have the chains well oiled.
When splash lubrication is employed, the supply pipe should be placed so that the
oil will be directed against the inside of the chain. It is preferable that silent chains
be operated in an oil-retaining casing with provisions for lubrication. Greases
should be applied in a heated bath so the grease may penetrate the chain thor-
oughly and after cooled down wiped off. Whenever possible avoid using greases
of any kind as oil is preferred.
Lubricate the chain where the tension is minimal, applying the lubricant in the
clearance between the link plates.
Figure 19: Push-Pull Tubes with different Endfittings Figure 20: Push-Pull Assembly
Lubricating Nipple
Installation
Alignment
Fittings can be fastened in various positions in relation to the rod. When installing
the control rod, it is necessary to align the fitting correctly at the mounting points.
Figure 21: Alignment of a Fitting
Measuring
Gauge
Ball Nut
Lubrication
To reach a long trouble free operation, lubrication is very important. Since aircraft
operate in zones where temperatures reach near -60°C, components get very cold
and must be free from water. During the approach the landing aids (slats/flaps) are
extended and therefore screwjacks are exposed. Water from rainfall or condensa-
tion-water comming from temperature differences between the surrounding air
and the components gets between the screwshaft and the nut. This can freeze and
can lead to a jamed system. A further problem is, that water penetrates the lubri-
cant.
A suitable water-resistant grease must be used for lubrication. Usually there are
lubrication ports installed at the nut to lubricate with a grease gun. The screwshafts
thread must have a small coat of grease that can be applied with a brush. Lubri- Figure 26: Detailed Drawing of a Ball srew jackt
cate only as specified in the manuals. SCREW SHAFT
BALL NUT
MACHINED THREADS
BALL GUIDE
(See Detail I & II)
YOKE DEFLECTORS
Figure 25: Screwjack and Ballnut (See Detail I)
PICK-UP FINGERS
YOKE DEFLECTOR
Dies are used to form the fitting by delivering blows to the fitting while rotating. The
Checking the Swage
correct set of dies must be installed in the swager to reach a satisfactory result.
The figure below shows a set of dies installed in the swager. After the swaging process has been fin-
ished, the swage must be within given limits.
Figure 5: Changable Dies used in a Rotary Swager This can be done by using a Go/No-Go
Gauge as shown below, or by using a mi-
crometer.
A properly swaged fitting is shows in
Figure 8.
Figure 8: Sectional View of a swaged Fitting Figure 10: Hydraulical Test Rig
Proof Loading
After installation of the end fittings, the cable must be proof loaded to guarantee a
safe operation. The cable will be installed in a manual test rig as shown in Figure 9
or in a hydraulical operated test rig as in Figure 10. A certain load will then be ap-
plied to the cable.
A broken cable is shown in Figure 11. As you see, a properly swaged end fitting is
always stronger than the cable itself.
Figure 9: Manual Test Rig for Proof Loading
Movable Spring Cable Screw Figure 11: Broken Cable
Anchorage Balance Under Test Jack
Cable Clearances
To prevent cables from chafing/riding conditions certain clearances must be ob-
tained. In general, clearance to structural members such as pipes, ducts and elec-
trical conduit installations etc., shall not be less than the minimum specified in the
applicable manuals.
The permissible clearance of cables from other parts depends on type of cable and
part with categories 1, 2 or 3. (e.g. cat. 1: primary flight control cable)
Critical elements with regard to clearances are:
• Hydraulic lines
• Fuel and oil lines
• Bleed pneumatic ducts
• Electrical conduits and wires
• Instrument and oxygen lines
• High pressure lines
In certain cases engineering approves installation of nylon chafing strips. Limited
contact is acceptable. However, the degree of acceptable rubstrip contact is de-
fined by specification.
Cables routed through fairlead grommets may also have limited contact.
The degree of acceptable contact is defined by applicable specification.
Rubstrips are not acceptable for salvage without engineering approval.
Table 1: Control Cable Tension Chart relating to a given Tensiometer Safety Methods of Tensioning Devices
1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 Cable Diameter (inch) Safeting Turnbuckels(Turnbarrels) using Lock Clips
(see “Figure 14: Lock Clip Application” on page 9)
Tensiometer Indication Cable Tension in pounds These days, turnbuckels and also other tensioning devices are usually safetied by
lock clips rather than safety wires. The following procedure explains the installation
12 16 21 12 20 30 pds of lock clips:
19 23 29 17 26 40 pds • Check that the end fittings are not rotated to far out and enough thread is en-
gaged.
25 30 36 22 32 50 pds • Check the turnbarrel and the end fittings groove before assembly for possible
obstructions which may prevent proper installation of locking clip.
31 36 43 26 37 60 pds
• Align slot in barrel with slot in cable end fitting.
36 42 50 30 42 70 pds • Insert straight end of clip into aligned slots and slide into place until hook loop
is over the hole in centre of the turnbarrel.
41 48 57 34 47 80 pds Both lock clips may be inserted in the same barrel hole or may be inserted in
opposite hole!
46 54 63 38 52 90 pds • Verify proper engagement of hook lip in barrel by application of slight pressure
in disengaging direction.
51 60 69 42 56 100 pds
Lock clips are removed by pulling the hook loop out of the turnbarrel hole with a
46 60 110 pds pair of pliers and sliding the straight end out of the slot.
50 64 120 pds Do not reuse lock clips after removal!
Use Riser No. 1 with 1/16, 3/32 and 1/8 inch cable
Figure 14: Lock Clip Application threads visible provided enough room is left on the shank for wrapping lock-
wire.
Straight End • Cut enough lockwire using the correct material and diameter as specified in
Hook Shoulder End Loop the maintenance manual.
• Follow the procedure as shown in the following figure.
• Cut away excessive wire.
Figure 15: Lockwiring Turnbuckles
Hook Loop
Hook Lip
Groove
Turnbuckle Body
Locking Pin
Cleaning
Occasionally, surface protective coating has to be removed from the cable to per- Cable Pulley
form a thorough check. Cable Segment
Remember the following points:
• Do not saturate control cables with cleaning solvent. Solvent penetration to
cable core destroys cable lubrication permitting corrosion and rapid wear.
• Always use an approved cleaning agent as specified in the manual to remove
the protective surface coating. Still, do not saturate the cables core.
• Unfavourable results can occur with misuse of cleaning solvents, Glycol de- Visual inspection should also be preformed to check for wires that may be frac-
tergents and high water pressure during maintenance of aircraft. tured but remain in lay of the cable and are not snagged sponged by the cloth.
• Never use metallic wool or solvent to clean cables. Metallic wools embed dis- A side effect is that cloth are also used to prevent injury to hands while running
similar metal particles which cause further corrosion. along the cable.
Any cable damage shall be individually evaluated!
Wear Tolerances
The following cable wear tolerances can be used as a guide for allowable wear tol-
erance on aircraft in service and at overhaul. There are different limits at mainte-
nance line check and at over haul inspection to use. However limits are given by
the applicable specification and regard to aircraft types in the Maintenance Manual
Chapter 20.
E.g. 7 x 19 cable that has three broken wires or less per inch per strand provided
that not more than six broken wires exist in one inch running length shall be con-
sidered serviceable.
7 x 7 cable that has two broken wires or less per strand per inch provided that no
more that three broken wires exist in one inch running length shall be considered
serviceable. Maximum number of broken wires shall not occur in any consecutive
inch of cable. If maximum number of wires in one inch of cable as noted above are
broken none would be allowed in next consecutive inch.
Critical fatigue area is working length of cable, therefore when broken wire ap-
pears in this area tension should be released and cable checked for defects.
Replace cable which is worn to point that material reduction at any cross section
is in excess of Area of six wires for 7 x 19 cable per inch or three wires for 7 x 7
cable per inch.
Lockclad Cable Damage Protection shall be applied using a clean brush or with a spray as specified in the
applicable manual.
Locklad cables should be replaced when the covering is worn through exposing
wire strands, is broken, or show worn spots which cause the cable to pump when Avoid excessive build up of coating at fairleads grommets pressure seals etc. as
passing over fairlead rollers. this increases cable friction force.
For installed cables the portion of cable to be re coated shall be wiped clean.
Inspection of Installation Check the surface of control cable for lack of protective coating. Clean such areas
Several components are installed along a cable run. Cables should be inspected with a clean cloth moistened with specified cleaning agent.
for broken wires, cable wear and corrosion especially in those sections where they
For nylon coated cables protect compound shall be applied to the area where the
are in contact with pulleys, fairleads, pressure seals or where they are close to toi- nylon has been stripped.
lets, galleys and areas with water condensation build ups.
To thoroughly inspect the cable move it in full length of travel to expose damaged
areas. The following points should be considered:
• Check security and condition of all pulley brackets.
• Check that all pulley guard pins are in place.
• Check for broken or cracked pulleys and pulley flanges when ever tension is
relieved, check pulley for free rotation.
• Check that all cotter pins are securely installed.
• Examine fairlead grommets and rubstrips replace any that are damaged or
worn.
• Examine all firewall fairlead grommets and check for proper alignment and se-
curity to prevent cable ware.
• Grommet should be rigidly clamped in retainer after some cable tension has
been applied and should not be allowed to swivel or rotate.
• Check that all turnbuckles are properly safetied.
• Check that cable terminal threads meet the visual inspection requirement.
• Check the gap between guard pin/bushing and flange of any pulley,sector or
drum is within the applicable limits.
• Check that cable coated with corrosion preventive compound meet the char-
acteristic stated in the applicable specification.
• Check that cable clearance are in accordance to applicable specifications.
• Check cable for proper alignment (no pull offs).
• Check cable clearances in general. See Title "Cable Clearances" on page 5.
Surface Protection
After cleaning and inspection is completed, corrosion preventive surface coating
must be applied to the cable as specified.
Pulley Discrepancies
Due to different negative influences coming from cable or pulley misalignment,
bearing fault, excessive tension in the cable system, wrong sized pulley can lead
to abnormal cable or pulley wear.
Visually inspect the condition with regards to following discrepancies:
• Evidence of abnormal wear in bottom of grove
• Cracked hub
• Blisters
• Excessive play in bearing or loose bearings
Several pulley faults are shown in the following figure. For limitation and tolerances
consult the applicable manual.
Figure 19: Pulley Wear Indications
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire. On the
ends are brass nipples which are soldered or swaged on.
The conduit consists of a close coiled wire, covered with a black waterproof coat-
ing. Metal caps are fitted on each end. On long runs metal tubing may be used.
At the transmitting end a hand lever couldm be fitted which engages with the nipple
on the end of the cable. At the receiving end, the cable passes through an adjust-
able stop and the nipple engages the component operating lever.
Neutral Axis
When we bend a piece of metal around a given radius, the metal on the outside of
Bend Radius (BR) the bend stretches, and that on the inside shrinks. Within the metal, there is a por-
Bend Tangent tion that neither shrinks nor stretches but retains its original dimensions. The line
Line
along which this occurs is called the neutral axis of the metal. It is not located ex-
Mold Line actly in the centre of the sheet, but is actually about 44.53% of the sheet thickness
Mold Point from the inside of the bend. We sometimes need to know the length of the neutral
axis in a bend, and for practical purposes, we can consider it to be in the centre.
Setback
The slight error from this approximation is too small for practical consideration.
BR + MT
Mold Line Note: The chart to read out the K-factor is not printed in this book.
When we extend the straight sides of a piece of formed sheet metal out beyond Figure 2: Setback
the radius of the bend, the extension lines are called the mold lines.
Thickness (MT)
Mold Point
44.5%T
The point of intersection of the mold lines of two sides of a bend is called the mold
point. When we lay out a piece of sheet metal, we make all of our measurements
from one mold point to the next. The metal does not reach the mold point because Neutral Axis
of the radius of the bend, but by measuring from the mold point we can find the
point at which our bend should start.
For the following examples are:
Bend Radius (BR)
Bend Tangent Line Bend Tangent
BR = 0.250"
The jaws of the brake should clamp the sheet metal so the bend will actually start Line MT = 0.064"
at the bend tangent line. The metal is straight to this line, and beyond it, it will be
K 90° =1
curved.
K 45° = 0.41421
Setback
We need to know where to clamp the jaws of the brake, or more specifically, where Setback
the bend tangent line is located. For a 90° bend, the point is back from the mold BR + MT
line to a distance equal to the bend radius plus the metal thickness. Figure 3: 90° and 135° Open Angle Bend
For a bend of more or less than 90°, we must apply a correction known as a K-
factor to find the setback. In Practice, you will use a chart to find the K-factor. To MT
find the setback for any degree of bend, we multiply the sum of the bend radius
and metal thickness by the K-value for the angle through which the metal is bent. BR
BR
We have a piece of 0.064” sheet metal bent through 45° to form an open angle of
135°. For 45° the K-factor is 0.41421. The setback, or the distance from the mold 45˚
point to the bend tangent line, is: Setback
Flat It is also possible to use another formula where we calculate the neutral axis’s cir-
The distance between the bend tangent lines or from the end of a piece of metal cumference our self. Use the same figures as before:
to the bend tangent line is called a flat. This is the metal in a formed piece of ma- 2BR + MT Bend angle
terial that is not bent. BA = --------------------------------------------------------------------
360
Bend Allowance 0.5 + 0.064
This is the amount of material that is actually involved in the bend and is the length
= ------------------------------------
4
of the neutral axis in the bend. The total developed length of a flat pattern layout
is the sum of all of the flats and all of the bend allowances. We can compute the = 0.443inch
amount of material in a bend by finding the length of the neutral axis of the material
in the bend. We begin by finding the circumference of a circle whose diameter is
equal to twice the bend radius plus the complete metal thickness multiplied with Making the Layout of a Sheet-Metal Channel
(Pi). This considers the neutral axis to be in the centre of the material which is In order to best understand the technique of sheet-metal layout, consider a chan-
not absolutely true, but, as we will see, the error is too small to be significant. What nel such as that seen in Figure 4 on page 4. This channel is made of 0.040 inch
we have now is the length of the neutral axis for a complete 360° circle. But we are thick 2024T-4 aluminium alloy. The dimension across the bottom of the channel is
using only 90° of metal in the bend, so the bend allowance is one-fourth of this. 2 inches and each side of the channel is 1 inch high.
There has been an empirical formula devised for finding the bend allowance that Figure 4: Sheet Metal Channel
places the neutral axis in its correct location. This formula for one degree of bend
is:
BA = 0.0078MT + 0.01743BR
Flat 1 Flat 3
To find the bend allowance for our example by the use of this formula, we find:
ML 1 ML 3
BA = Bend Allowance MT = 0.064 BR = 0.25 Bend angle = 90°
= 0.0048567 90
To lay out this channel, follow these steps:
= 0.443inch 1. Choose the correct bend radius.
This empirical formula has been used to compile a table that is found in almost all 2. Find the setback.
of the aircraft technician handbooks. 3. Find the length of each of the flats.
4. Find the bend allowance.
5. Lay out the flat pattern.
6. Draw the sight lines on the flat pattern.
Bumping
It may be necessary sometimes to form a streamline cover for some component
that must sick out into the airstream. These parts are usually non-structural and
are much more easily made of fiberglass reinforced resins, but you may need to
form one of aluminium alloy. Make a forming block of hardwood, hollowed out to
the form and shape of the cover you want. The inside of the depression should be
exactly the size and shape of the outside of the part. Make a hold-down plate of
metal or heavy plywood that will hold the edges of the metal and yet allow you to
get inside of it to form the metal. Cut a sheet of annealed material, usually 3003-
0 or 5052-0, large enough to form the part. Clamp it between the forming block and
the hold-down plate tight enough to prevent it from wrinkling, yet loose enough that
it can slip as the material is forced down into the depression. Begin forming by
striking around the edges of the depression with a wedge-shaped plastic mallet.
Stretch the material slowly and evenly as it goes into the depression. In the pro-
cess of forming deep parts, the material usually work-hardens and becomes diffi-
cult to form. When this happens, remove the material and anneal it. It should be
annealed in a furnace, but if one is not available and if the part is strictly non struc-
tural, a rather rough procedure can be followed that will soften the material enough
to finish bumping it to shape. Remove the material from the forming block, and use Joggling
a welding torch to coat it with a thin layer of carbon by using an extremely rich acet- When a sheet metal structure is built-up, we often have stack-ups. In order for both
ylene flame from a large tip. Then, using a large but very soft neutral flame, care- pieces to be flat against the skin and yet have one on top of the other at the inter-
fully heat the metal just enough to bum the carbon off. When the part cools, put it section, we must resort to a process known as joggling. The end of one of the piec-
back between the forming block and the hold-down plate and finish bumping it into es is bent up just enough to clear the other, and then it is bent back so it will be
shape. parallel to the original piece. Parts should be joggled to fit rather than attempting
to pull them into fitting with rivets. Form the joggles with a soft hammer or a block
of wood, and be sure to maintain an ample radius in the bends.
Figure 7: Stack-up
Stret
edges and never across it. The hammer blows must • blue for shrinking
be evenly distributed to achieve an even curve and to
c he d
avoid cracking. The hammer peen must point to the Figure 8: Shrinking and Stretching Jaws
(imagined) centre of the curve. The hammer shall be
s id e
tilted slightly such that the peen hits 3/4 of the width of
the strip. The remaining 1/4 of the width will partially
stretch even through it is not hit by the hammer; it will
shrink partially, i.e. on the inner side of the curve. In
this way an additional elongation of the strip does not
occur. The stretching shall be accomplished with as
few hammer blows as possible. The strip shall be ad-
vanced evenly. Deep indentations by excessively
hard hammer blows shall be avoided. On the other
hand when the hammer blows are too light, the material will become hard and brit-
tle due to the cold working but it will not stretch sufficiently. According to the
amount of cold working and the type and condition of the material and the rate of
deformation it will be necessary to anneal the work. The rate of deforming depends
on the radius of the curve and the width to be stretched.
Inspection of Sheet Metal Work rivet may have possibly been stretched. Drill out the rivet and examine the hole for
any indication of elongation or tearing. If the structure has been stretched from the
Repairability of Sheet Metal Structure damage, the skin will shift when the rivet is taken out. All of the stresses caused
by the stretching will have to be removed by drilling out rivets in the seam until
Not too many years ago, major sheet metal repair was done in most aircraft main- there is no more shifting. If the holes are enough out of alignment to require the
tenance shops, but today, with the high cost of labour, most of our repair consists next size larger rivet, be sure that the edge distance and rivet spacing will allow
of removing the damaged component and replacing it with a new one from the fac- the use of the larger rivet. Otherwise the skin will have to be replaced.
tory. The complex shapes of many of the sheet metal parts require forming meth-
ods beyond the capability of most shops. Major repairs to stressed skin aircraft Inspection for Corrosion
should never be attempted unless you have the proper jigs to hold the structure
when the skins are removed. The manufacturer of the aircraft can normally furnish If there has been much time delay between the damage and the repair, there is the
drawings that locate the critical jig points so the jigs can be accurately made. One possibility of corrosion forming within the structure. Improper storage of the dam-
of the big advantages of sheet metal construction over the formerly used welded aged structure and sometimes dirt or water left inside will hasten this form of dam-
steel stress structure is the ease with which it can be repaired. If, for example, age. If corrosion is found, every trace must be removed and the metal treated to
there is major damage to the aft section of a fuselage, the rivets that hold the dam- prevent its recurrence. After the treatment, the part should be primed with either
aged area can be drilled out and the entire section removed. A new section can be epoxy primer or with zinc chromate.
mated to the undamaged portion in a jig, and the aircraft can be restored to its orig-
inal condition of structural integrity. Repair of Negligible Damage
Smooth dents in a structure that are free from cracks and
Assessment of Damage sharp corners and that do not interfere in any way with
The difference between making a profit and losing money on a repair job is largely any structure or mechanism, are considered negligible Drill a hole at the
in the assessment of the damage. Damage that is visible from the surface is usu- damage and may be left as they are. If the structure is end of the crack.
ally easy to evaluate, but it is the damage that is not readily apparent that can painted, they may be filled with a resin-type filler, filed
make the difference between profit and loss. When examining a damaged struc- smooth, and refinished to match the rest of the surface.
ture, use the illustrated parts catalogue so you can know exactly what is below the Small cracks in the edge of such low-stress components Crack
surface. Consider every piece of skin, every rib, former, stringer, and fitting. Some as engine cowlings may be stop-drilled at their end to re-
of these parts which have only superficial damage may be quickly repaired, but duce the possibility of the crack enlarging until a perma-
you must weigh the relative cost of repairing them against the cost of a new part. nent repair can be made. Scratches in aluminium alloy
It may be economical to exchange a damaged component with a repair station that skins encourage corrosion to form and concentrate the
specializes in rebuilding these components. Their specialized know-how and stresses enough that they may cause the part to crack. If
equipment will allow them to make the repair with a far smaller labour cost than a the scratch is not too deep, it can be burnished with a
shop that does the work only occasionally, and by exchanging for a component smooth, rounded piece of steel to force the metal back into the scratch. Work the
that has already been repaired, you can get the damaged aircraft back in the air in metal back-in smoothly and evenly, and do not allow it to lap or fold over and form
far less time than you could if you did all of the work yourself. an inclusion that will trap moisture and cause corrosion.
Why Bond?
Adhesive bonding is a reliable, proven and widely established technique for joining
metals, plastics, composites and many other substrates.
Metal bonding techniques were widely adopted and developed during and after
World War II by the aircraft industry, from where they have subsequently spread
to other sectors. Today, designers and engineers can choose between adhesive
bonding, bolting, riveting, welding or soldering. In many cases the more cost-effec-
tive method will be bonding.
Joints designed and bonded have several advantages over those made by tradi-
Mechanical Joint Bonded Joint
tional methods:
The riveted joint is highly stressed in the vicinity of the rivets (as shown by the ar-
rows in the above diagram) and failure tends to initiate in these areas of peak Adhesives form a continuous bond between the joint surfaces. Rivets and spot
stress. A similar distribution of stress occurs with spot welds and bolts. welds pin the surfaces together only at localised points.
The bonded joint, however, is uniformly stressed. A continuous welded joint is like- Bonded structures are consequently much stiffer and loading may be increased
wise uniformly stressed but the metal in the heated zone will have undergone a (by up to 30-100%) before buckling occurs.
change in performance. Figure 2 shows how a joint may be designed to take advantage of the stiffening
• Bonding eliminates the need for holes and avoids subjecting the joint to weld- effect of bonding.
ing temperatures that weaken metals. The cured adhesive, unlike rivets or
bolts, ensures even distribution of stresses which leads to improved fatigue
performances.
• Bonding saves weight.
• On large area joints, bonded assemblies are generally less costly than their
mechanical joint counterparts; simpler design, easier assembly and simpler
tooling.
• Bonded joints can allow for the assembly of dissimilar materials.
• Bonded joints are electrically insulating and prevent electrolytic corrosion of
conductor metals.
• Bonding joints enables the design of smooth external surfaces, and integrally
sealed joints with minimum sensitivity to crack propagation.
• Bonded joints impart a stiffening effect compared with riveting or spot welding.
Mechanical Joint
Unstiffened
Area
Bonded Joint
Tapered Double Strap Joint Excellent Large sheets of thin gauge material (metal or plastics) may be stabilised by bond-
ed stiffeners made of the same material in similar gauge. Figure 6 shows a ‘top
hat’ stiffener.
Towards the edge of the sheet, the stiffener may be cut away (as shown) in order
to reduce stress concentrations. The effect is similar to that of the scarf joint shown
above.
Double Lap Joint Very Good Multi-layer structures may be built up by adhesive bonding and may also be bond-
ed to other parts. In Figure 7 a multi-layer fibre-reinforced plastics laminate is
joined to its neighbour by a multi-stepped lap joint. In Figure 8 an edge member is
bonded into a sandwich panel. On loading, the stresses will be transferred into the
Stepped Lap Joint Very Good panel. The honeycomb core is itself assembled and bonded to the facing sheets
with adhesives.
Surface Preparation
Introduction
Whenever structural components are to be produced using adhesive bonding, the
condition of the adherend surfaces must be considered. They are likely to be con-
Figure 7: Multi layer Lap Joint taminated with materials which could affect adversely the performance of the re-
sultant joint.
Surface pretreatment will, therefore, normally be necessary if optimum perfor-
mance is to be achieved. It will be vital if good environmental or thermal durability
is required.
Dependent on the substrate, surfaces are prepared by one of the following pre-
treatment procedures (for many substrates, this list is in increasing order of effec-
tiveness):
1. Degrease only.
2. Degrease, abrade and remove loose particles.
3. Degrease and chemically pretreat.
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pretreat-
ment. Contamination may be caused by finger marking - or by cloths which are not
perfectly clean - or by contaminated abrasives - or by sub-standard degreasing or
chemical solutions.
Fig.2 Contamination may also be caused by other work processes taking place in the
bonding area. Particularly to be excluded are oil vapours from machinery, spraying
operations (paint, mould release agents, etc.) and procedures involving powdered native; this technique also ensures that the solvent used is clean. Allow
materials. to stand for about 5 minutes to permit complete evaporation from the joint
Whatever the pretreatment procedure used, it is good practice to bond the sub- surfaces. Good local extraction will have to be employed (at the same
strates as soon as possible after completion, i.e. when the surfaces are most ‘ac- time ensuring compliance with the requirements of any local or national
tive’ (surface properties are at their best). environmental regulations).
or
Degreasing Methods d) Scrub the adherends in a solution of liquid detergent. Wash with clean hot
For nearly all bonding applications, the removal of all traces of oil and grease from water and allow to dry thoroughly - preferably in a stream of warm (ca.
the adherend is essential. 40°C) air, e.g. in an air-circulating oven or from a domestic forced-air
Remove all traces of oil and grease as follows: heater.
(not recommended for some plastic adherends as they might well be attacked by Test for a clean bonding surface
the degreasing solvent.)
The water-break test is a simple method to determine whether the surface to be
a) Suspend the part in the vapour of a suitable alkaline degreasing agent in bonded is clean. It is best suited to metals. If a few drops of distilled water applied
a vapour degreasing unit. The unit may contain a compartment to enable to the adherend wet and spread - or if, on drawing the substrate from out of an
initial washing in the liquid solvent. aqueous medium, the water film does not break up into droplets - then the surface
For metallic substrates, and particularly aluminium, this vapour degreasing pro- may be assumed to be free of contamination. Uniform wetting of the surface by
cess can be augmented by immersion in a warm, aqueous solution of a suitable water indicates that it will probably be likewise wetted by the adhesive.
alkaline degreasing agent (for example, a 10-minute immersion of aluminium It must be borne in mind that certain plastics, even when clean, may not be wetted
sheet in an aqueous solution of Turco T 5215® at 70°C) followed by a spray-rinse by water but will be wetted by the adhesive. Furthermore, satisfactory wetting
in clean water. If further chemical pretreatment is to take place then, the substrate gives no information as to the potential bond strength. At best, it is a necessary -
will not, of necessity, have to be dried. If no further treatment is contemplated then but not sufficient - requirement for the achievement of high bond strengths.
the adherend should be dried thoroughly - preferably in a stream of warm air (ca.
40°C), e.g. in an air-circulating oven or from a domestic forced-air heater. Abrading Methods
or For many substrates (but not all - see the section on aluminium, for instance), light
Where a vapour degreasing unit is not available: abrasion of the surfaces to be bonded can allow the adhesive to key better than
b) Immerse successively in two tanks each containing the same solvent.The when a highly polished adherend is used. Highly active surfaces, such as those
produced immediately following abrasion, tend to have a better affinity for the ad-
first tank acts as a wash, the second as a rinse. (Currently acetone, in
spite of the associated flammability problems). When the solvent in the hesive.
wash tank becomes heavily contaminated, the tank should be emptied, As well as producing an active surface, abrasion pretreatments are generally in-
cleaned out and refilled with fresh solvent. This tank is then used for the tended to remove surface deposits, such as oxide tarnish, rust or mill scale, on me-
rinse and the former rinse tank for the wash. tallic substrates, particularly those which are ferrous-based, or to remove the
Environmentally more acceptable alternatives to these solvents are under devel- surface layer of ‘plastics’ to ensure elimination of all traces of release agent etc. In
opment and include materials based on alcohols, terpenes and water. this latter case, care must be taken to avoid compacting the release agent into the
surface which is being pretreated, instead of removing it.
or
In all cases, the use of air- or water-borne grit-blasting is, generally, the best meth-
c) If safety considerations permit, brush or wipe the adherend surfaces with od of achieving these ends; provided every effort is made to use dry, clean com-
a clean brush or cloth soaked in clean acetone. For fine work, washing
down with solvent applied by aerosol spray may be a more suitable alter-
pressed air and to prevent contaminated abrading media from coming into contact Aluminium Sheet
with the surface to be pretreated. Due to the relatively high ductility of aluminium, it is not recommended that such
Any abrasion pretreatment carried out must be followed by a further operation to adherends are pretreated by any of the abrasion methods. Far better is a vapour
ensure complete removal of loose and loosely-bound particles (from both the abra- and/or alkaline degrease followed by an acid etch (pickling) or by a suitable ano-
sion medium and substrate). For example: dizing process. A controlled film of active, aluminium oxide, highly suitable for
a) Lightly brush with a clean soft brush, or - preferably structural bonding, is grown on the surface of the aluminium; its thickness being
b) Blow clean with an uncontaminated, dry (filtered) compressed-air blast. dependent on the chemical process and the alloy used. Bonding should then take
place within 2 - 8 hours of pretreatment.
The substrate should finally be degreased.
Chromic/Sulphuric Acid Pickling [CSA]
Chemical Pretreatments A suitable pickling solution of sodium dichromate in sulphuric acid, can be made
The surface pretreatments described above, i.e. degreasing alone or degreasing up as follows:
followed by abrasion and removal of the loose particles is sufficient to ensure, for • Water 1.500 litres
several substrate types, that good, strong bonds will be formed with the adhesive • Concentrated Sulphuric Acid [Sg: 1.83] 0.750 litres
being used. However, for many adherends, to obtain maximum strength, repro- • Sodium Dichromate [Na2Cr2O7.2H2O] 0.375 kg (or Chromium Trioxide
ducibility and long-term durability, a chemical pretreatment will be required to mod- [CrO3] 0.250 kg)
ify the surface, or surface chemistry, in such a way as to make it suitable for
• Water make up to 5.0 litres
structural adhesive bonding.
Handle concentrated sulphuric acid with care using all the recommended
For metallic adherends most of these pretreatments either involve acid etching or
personal protection equipment; always add to water.
an acid etch followed by an acidic anodizing process.
Chromium trioxide is a powerful oxidising agent and is highly toxic; par-
Surface modification of plastic materials is, nowadays, frequently carried out by
ticular care is essential when handling this chemical. It, or the chromate,
exposing the surface to be bonded to a controlled flame, plasma or corona dis-
should be dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid.
charge.
Regulate the pickling bath at 60 - 65°C and then immerse the substrate to be pre-
Specific Pretreatments for Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys treated, for 30 minutes. At the end of this time remove and immerse in a tank of
Painted Surfaces water at ambient temperature. Follow this with a spray-rinse with cold water. The
pretreated components can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulating oven
Any paint, which has relatively low adhesion to metal, should first be stripped off whose air temperature is no greater than 45°C.
and the metal surface so exposed should then be subjected to a suitable pretreat-
ment. Bonding should take place within 8 hours.
Aluminium Honeycomb Chromic Acid Anodizing [CAA]
Unless there are obvious signs of contamination, aluminium honeycomb does not A thicker, more “robust” oxide film can be grown if chromic acid anodising is used.
require pretreatment prior to bonding. Here, the pickled aluminium substrates (under certain circumstances it may be
sufficient to use only an alkaline degrease before anodizing) are clamped to the
Should, however, any oil or grease contamination be evident, then the affected anode of a standard anodizing bath and are immersed in a solution of chromic ac-
slice should be immersed in the vapour of a suitable hydrocarbon solvent {2}in a id, at 40°C, of the following composition:
vapour degreasing unit. After immersion, always allow sufficient time for the hon-
• Chromium Trioxide [CrO3] 0.500 kg
eycomb core to drain dry. This is particularly important as liquid solvent held in the
corners of the honeycomb cell can be very difficult to detect and must be removed • Water 10.0 litres
before bonding.
The anodizing voltage is raised, over a 10-minute period, to 40 V, held for 20 min- treatment is not really to be recommended. The anodic oxide film is best removed
utes, raised over a 5-minute period, to 50 V and held for 5 minutes. At the end of by immersion in the chromic/sulphuric acid solution given above.
this cycle the components are removed and immersed in a tank of water at ambi- Once the sealed oxide layer has been removed, one of the conventional pretreat-
ent temperature. This is followed by a spray-rinse with cold water. The anodized ments for aluminium can be used.
components can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulating oven whose air
temperature is no greater than 45°C.
Bonding of the unsealed components should take place within 4 - 6 hours.
Phosphoric Acid Anodizing [PAA]
To obtain a more open oxide film but thinner than that produced by chromic acid
anodizing, aluminium adherends can be anodized in phosphoric acid; the anodic
oxide contains ‘bound’ phosphate which will impart some degree of durability to
the final adhesive joint.
Here, the pickled aluminium substrates (under certain circumstances it may be
sufficient to use only an alkaline degrease prior to anodizing) are clamped to the
anode of a standard anodizing bath and are immersed in a solution of phosphoric
acid, at 25°C, of the following composition
• “Syrupy” Orthophosphoric Acid [Sg: 1.65] 1.0 litres
• Water 16.6 litres
• (Concentration of phosphoric acid is 75 g/l)
The anodizing voltage is raised to 10 - 15V (preferably 15V) and is held for 20 - 25
minutes. At the end of this time the adherends are removed and immersed in a
bath of water at ambient temperature. This is followed by a spray-rinse with cold
water. The anodized adherends can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulat-
ing oven where the air temperature is no greater than 45°C.
Bonding of the unsealed components should take place within 2 - 4 hours.
Sulphuric acid anodizing techniques can be used to pretreat aluminium and its al-
loys but significantly lower adhesive strengths and durability will result when com-
pared with CSA, CAA or PAA pretreatments. This situation can be relieved by
dipping the anodised components in a solution of phosphoric acid to dissolve away
some of the anodic oxide layer to reveal a more open structure more amenable to
adhesive bonding.
Pre-Anodized Aluminium
Decorative (sealed), anodized aluminium or aluminium alloys are, as such, not
suitable for adhesive bonding; these types of substrate require stripping prior to
use. Stripping is sometimes accomplished by abrasive blasting but this sort of
Bonding Practices Each of the different steps is very important for the quality of the repair.
A small failure during one of the steps can cause serious bonding failures and it
Typical Repair Sequence might be necessary to redo a complete repair.
All steps are presented further detailed on the following pages.
Typical Sequence
In any case specific repair procedures given in the SRM have to be followed.
A typical repair sequence includes all necessary steps concerning surface prepa-
ration, repair material preparation and application and the curing.
Figure 9: Typical Sequence
Environmental Conditions A minimum temperature of 18°C is important for the handling/application of the re-
The environmental conditions are very important for the quality of a repair. Dust or pair materials (viscosity). For RT repairs a minimum of 18°C is important to ensure
humidity might cause a bonding failure. the curing.
For workshop conditions, the relative humidity must not exceed 75%. A maximum of 30°C is important for the resin gel time.
Be careful with outdoor repairs. A protection of the repair area might be required,
to prevent dust and condensation.
Figure 10: Environmental Conditions
Planning of a Repair This information can be used to calculate the repair size and to prepare auxiliary
materials (bagging materials).
General The material stock has to be checked. Some materials are stored in a refrigerator
Before starting a repair it is necessary to make a planning. and they have to reach room temperature before utilisation. Therefore the de-
With the specific SRM repair procedures kind and quantities of the necessary ma- stocking should be planned.
terials have to be determined (PrePreg, dry fabric, adhesive film, resin, size, num- The necessary tools and the working environment should be prepared.
ber, orientation). Depending on the availability of tools some different methods, for example, for dry-
ing might be chosen.
Figure 11: General
Calculation of Necessary Repair Materials The parameters to be taken into account, depending on the specific SRM repair
Every specific repair procedure gives information about the required repair mate- procedure are: Requested number of plies, stepping (steps of 12mm for each ply),
rials. scarfing (see table), adhesive film for prepreg repairs (+5mm), cover ply....
Depending on the damage size, size and orientation of each repair ply have to be For wet lay-up repairs, the required quantity of resin has to be calculated.
calculated.
Figure 12: Calculation of Necessary Repair Materials
Surface Preparation • Access the complete repair area plus a minimum of 50mm of the surrounding
area.
Removal of Surface Protection • Take care no to damage the fibers. Special attention is necessary when using,
Protection removal (paint and primer): for example, sanding machines. A scraper might be helpful.
• After removal of the surface protection clean carefully. First remove all parti-
cles with a vacuum cleaner.
Figure 13: Removal of Surface Protection
Cut out of Damage Stepping/Scarfing On sandwich structures, where the honeycomb core is damaged, use a trepanning
Cut out the damaged area to the correct shape and dimensions. All damaged ma- tool or pin cutter to remove the damage. Ensure that the opposite skin is not dam-
terial and loose layers must be removed. Take care not to increase the damage aged during this step if it is not included in the repair.
size. If required in the specific SRM repair procedure, taper or step the edge in prepa-
ration for a laminated repair.
Figure 14: Cut out of Damage Stepping/Scarfing
Preparation of Bonding Area For the next step cleaning/degreasing use only recommended cleaning agents.
First use abrasive cloth grade 280, then abrasive cloth grade 400. A corrrect surface preparation ensures the maximum bond strength and durability
Remove all particles with a vacuum cleaner before cleaning with a lint free cloth of the repair.
and demineralized water.
Figure 15: Preparation of Bonding Area
Water Break Test If the water seperates or form drops or beads within 30 seconds repeat the clean-
A water break test has to be performed to ensure that the bonding surface is cor- ing procedure and repeat the water break test afterwards.
rectly prepared. When the test is completed, dry the surface with a clean cloth.
Apply a thin layer of de-mineralized water with a lint free cloth (when spraying wa- NOTE: Wear white cotton, lint free gloves when handling the component following
ter on the surface water might trapped in open honeycomb). a satisfactory water break test. To prevent possible contamination of the repair ar-
Wait 30 seconds. The water must remain as a complete film over the surface. ea, the repair must be done immediately.
Possible Damage without Drying • Debonding or a bad adhesion between repair plies and existing laminate. The
Absorbed water and water ingress can cause the following damage during curing: presence of absorbed water can reduce, especially for hot bond repairs, the
tensile break load up to 50%.
• Increased porosity in the repair plies.
• Also, the surrounding structure, which is affected by heat, can be damaged.
• Debonding or a bad adhesion between repair plies and honeycomb. The presence of water or absorbed humidity can lead to debondings between
existing plies or between skin and honeycomb.
Figure 18: Possible Damage without Drying
Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 1 This will prevent damage to the cut out and the bagging equipment. The metal
Heating Blanket/Vacuum Bag screen can be replaced by a piece of honeycomb (Option B). This option is to be
used for large repairs. Apply a vacuum of 0.4 bar (5.8 psi). Drying times depend
All bagging items are to be installed. on the requested curing temperature.
Option A (perforated metal screen) is recommended for use on small holes only.
The perforated metal screen is used to support the vacuum bag in the cut out area.
Figure 19: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 1
Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 2 Depending on the repair size, several heaters can be used together.
RADIANT HEAT It is necessary to control the temperature.
For applying the heat, usually 250 watts, heat lamps are used. A radiator with 50 Therefore, thermocouples are to be installed at the center the heated area. They
to 1000 watt coil elements with a reflector can also be used. are used for controlling the heater or, at least, for temperature monitoring.
This method can be used in conjunction with a vacuum bag to improve the removal Avoid an overheating of the surrounding structure, therefore a second thermocou-
of moisture. ple might be helpful.
Figure 20: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 2
RADIANT HEAT CALIBRATION Graph 1 gives an overview of the temperatures in function of the heat lamp height.
A calibration of the set is required to ensure the right temperature in the repair area Graph 2 gives the temperature in function of the distance to the center.
and to avoid an overheating of the surrounding structure. When using several heaters, take into account the combined heating effect.
Figure 21: Radiant Heat Calibration
Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 3 Figure 22: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 3
HOT AIR DRYER
It is preferable to use a hot air dryer with a temperature control or otherwise a dryer
controlled by thermocouples.
To reduce the possibility of causing heat damage it is preferable to use a holding
fixture to maintain the distance between the dryer and the part.
To avoid causing damage to the structure by heat, the set up must be calibrated.
A hot air dryer can also be used to supply the heat for a portable oven (METHOD
4). The oven can be fabricated from sheet metal to the required dimension and po-
sitioned over the area to be dried.
Repair Materials - Preparation/Application Weigh the resin/adhesive and hardener within an accuracy of +/-2%
Exothermic reaction is possible if large quantities of product are mixed.
Resin Mixing
Mix the resin/adhesive and the hardener for a minimum of 5 minutes to obtain a
Two part systems are made up of resin and a hardener and require mixing before uniform homogenous mixture.
use.
Avoid entrapment of air bubbles during curing. Use vacuum techniques to de-gas
Resin and hardener have to be stored in a cool dry environment. The storage tem- if necessary.
perature depends on the specific type. Do not exceed the manufacturer’s shelf life.
For a maximum pot life, pour the mixed material into a shallow tray to a maximum
Preparation work must be completed before mixing resin/adhesives. depth of 6mm. This action decreases the possibility of exothermic reaction.
Calculate the quantity that is necessary to complete the repair. Different spatulas must be used for the mixing and application steps.
Figure 23: Resin Mixing
Resin/Adhesive Quantity Determination It is recommended to add 20% for waste (rest in mixing container) and surface im-
The mixed material ratio, dry fabric to resin/adhesive, is 1:1 (50% by weight). pregnation.
Figure 1 gives an example of the weight of some dry fabric. Mixing of small quantities carries the risk of errors unless accurate weighing devic-
es are used. The risk is minimized if at least 50g, but preferable 100g of resin/ad-
Table 1: Dry Fabric Weight hesive and the corresponding amount of hardener is used.
The table Figure 24 gives an example of the information given for laminating resin.
DRY FABRIC REINFORCEMENT RESIN/ADHESIVE HARDENER Information is given for the mixing ratio, the viscosity, the pot life and the curing
WEIGHT/AREA cycle.
Preparation of Honeycomb Core Plug Any dust from machining operations should be removed with a vacuum cleaner.
Measure the depth and diameter of the honeycomb repair cut out. Dry the honeycomb plug.
Cut a honeycomb core plug that is to the required dimension plus 1mm thicker in Store the prepared honeycomb in clean polythene bags on a flat surface, in a
diameter. warm and dry atmosphere until required for use.
Figure 25: Preparation of Honeycomb Core Plug
Installation of Honeycomb Core Plug Alternatively, the curing can be accelerated by heat.
FOR ROOM TEMPERATURE CURING The adhesive must gel, before heat application, to avoid undesired adhesive flow.
Prepare adhesive paste, or laminating resin together with thickening agent. FOR HOT BOND CURING
Apply the prepared material (adhesive/resin) to the sides and bottom of the cutout Prepare sufficient foaming adhesive film and adhesive film and let them reach am-
in the existing honeycomb. bient temperature.
Apply the prepared material to the faying surfaces of the core plug. Cut the adhesive film to size. Position one layer in the bottom of the cutout.
Position the core plug in the cut out and add the prepared material as necessary. Wrap one layer of the foaming adhesive film around the core plug. Place the core
plug in the cutout.
Allow the adhesive to cure at RT.
If required in the repair procedure, the core plug has to be cured seperately.
Figure 26: Installation of Honeycomb Core Plug
Preparation of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies Pour about 80% of the mixed resin onto the parting film.
Refer to the original component or the repair scheme to determine the number, Put the second piece of parting film onto the dry fabric.
style and orientation of the required plies. Using a squeegee or roller press the fabric into the resin to impregnate the fabric
Cut a piece of dry fabric large enough for all repair plies calculated before. and to remove trapped air.
Cut pieces of parting film, approximately 75mm larger in dimension than the cut If any dry areas can be seen in the fabric, add more resin.
fabric. Whilst still sandwiched between the parting films, cut the impregnated fabric to the
Tape one piece of parting film on a smooth, flat surface. required dimensions for each ply. Make sure the required ply orientation is ob-
Prepare sufficient laminating resin. The required resin content of the impregnated tained.
fabric is 50 +/-5% by weight.
Figure 27: Preparation of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies
Cutting of Repair Plies In order to respect the stack up sequence, it is helpful to mark each repair ply with
For cutting the repair plies respect the requested orientation. a sequence number and the orientation.
Application of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles with a roller, work from the center of the ply
Apply a thin layer of resin to the repair area with a brush or a spatula. to the edges. On stepped repairs it might be better to do it, for example, by hand.
Remove the parting film from one side of the first ply. Remove the parting film from the upper surface of the repair ply.
Place the exposed surface of the ply onto the repair area. Respect the requested Repeat these steps until all repair plies are laid up.
orientation.
Figure 29: Application of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies
Application of Prepreg Repair Plies Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles by smoothing or rolling, work from the center
Remove the parting film from one side of the adhesive film. of the repair ply to the edges.
Place the exposed surface of the adhesive film onto the repair area. Lay up all individual plies by repeating the above mentioned steps.
Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles by smoothing or rolling. Work from the A debulking step is necessary after the installation of every three layers (adhesive
center of the adhesive film to the edges. Remove the remaining protective layer. film or prepreg repair plies).
Remove the protective layer from the first prepreg repair ply, position the prepreg For debulking cover the repair area with the following vacuum equipment: perfo-
ply on the adhesive film. Ensure that the prepreg ply is correctly orientated. rated parting film, glas fabric cloth, vacuum bag. Apply a vacuum of 0.8 bars (11.6
psi) for a period of 5 minutes. Remove the vacuum equipment and continue with
the lay-up.
Figure 30: Application of Prepreg Repair Plies
Curing Cycle When the increasing temperature approaches the required curing temperature the
All prepreg repairs must be cured under heat and vacuum. chemical activity increases rapidly and produces heat. Therefore a close control of
the applied heat is necessary to avoid a temperature ’overshoot’.
The example shown is for an 120°C cycle.
For quality purposes, record the temperature from at least three thermocouples.
A minimum vacuum of 0.80 bar is essential to achieve optimum repair quality.
After completion of the cure cycle, decrease the temperature to below 50°C
Initially apply a vacuum to the lay up to check the sealing quality of the vacuum (120°F) before releasing the pressure.
bag and to ensure that there are no leaks. This step must be satisfactory before
any heat is applied.
Figure 32: Curing Cycle
Bagging for Heating Blanket Therefore the breather cloth must extend beyond the parting film.
The PEEL PLY is used as a seperator. The resin can pass, but the bagging mate- A CAUL PLATE (optional) can be used to contour the repair. If the plate does not
rials can be removed after curing from the repair plies. conform with the contour of the repair, the pressure on the repair will not be uni-
Position thermocouples around the edge of the repair. form.
The PERFORATED PARTING FILM is used to control the resin flow. A breather cloth is to be placed over the heating blanket to insulate and to prevent
damage to the bagging film.
The BLEEDER CLOTH absorb the resin.
Two probes, one connected to the vacuum source the other to a vacuum gauge,
The NON PERFORATED PARTING FILM is a resin barrier. are to be placed near the edge of the upper breather cloth. Do not place the probes
The BREATHER CLOTH is necessary for the vacuum drain. on the repair area. This might cause some marks.
Bagging for Radiant Heat An additional thermocouple is to be installed below the uppermost breather cloth.
The bagging procedure is similar as using a heating blanket, but breather layers A piece of black fabric is to be installed over the uppermost breather ply. This is to
which are installed over the heating blanket are not used. filter the infrared components and to allow only the heat to pass through.
Figure 34: Bagging for Radiant Heat
Bagging for Core Replacement A strip of high temperature resistance tape is to be placed over the area of the core
One thermocouple is to be placed in the core plug close to the adhesive film. This plug splice.
is to read the temperature in the coolest area relevant for the curing of the adhe- Several layers of breather cloth are placed around the edge of the core plug. This
sive film. is to insulate the original structure around the repair area, to avoid heat damage.
The other thermocouples are to be placed around the core plug, not more than
3mm from the edge of the core plug. This is to avoid an overheating of the sur-
rounding structure.
Figure 35: Bagging for Core Replacement
Heat Control Thermocouples Several types of thermocouples exist on the market depending on the temperature
Thermocouples are used for the control and the monitoring of the heat application. range to be measured.
For repairs Type K (Nickel-Chrome/Nickel-Aluminium) and Type J (Iron/Copper-
Nickel) thermocouples are used.
Figure 36: Heat Control Thermocouples
Surface Restoration After Repair As a general rule, composite surfaces are sealed with pore filler, Tedlar foil or ad-
hesive film, then are primed and top coated.
Original Protection
The protection system of the repair area is to be restored according to the initial
protection and paint build up.
Figure 38: Original Protection
Before restoration of the protection system the concerned area has to be thor- • Do not damage fibers during surface preparation operations.
oughly cleaned and degreased.
WARNING:
• Cleaning agents are dangerous.
Inspection Methods • Scheduled inspections in accordance with the Maintenance Planning Docu-
ment (MPD).
General • Unscheduled inspections following accidental damage.
There are two types of inspection requirements:
Figure 42: General
Inspection Philosophy Visual inspection is the principal method for damage detection.
Irrespective of the type of composite structure involved (sandwich or monolithic), Close visual inspections and non-destructive tests (NDT) are used to determine
the inspection philosophy is the same. the extent of damage.
REQUIREMENTS
Irrespective of the type of structure, there is a basic requirement to inspect a min-
imum area surrounding the visible damage for evidence of delamination or
debonding.
As damage may extend well beyond the visible damage, the minimum area is de-
fined by a circle passing through two points measured at 100 millimeters from each
end of the large axis of the visible damage.
Figure 47: Min. Area of Ultrasonic Inspection
Welding is slightly lower than that of an oxyacetylene flame, and it is hot enough for welding
aluminum.
A major technical breakthrough in the early days of aviation history was the re-
placement of the wood-and-wire-truss fuselage structure with a welded steel tub- Gas Welding Equipment
ing structure. The steel tubular structure is stronger, easier to build and maintain, Gas welding equipment may be either portable or stationary. Stationary equipment
and much safer in the event of a crash. Most welding of early-day aircraft structure usually consists of an oxygen and an acetylene manifold that supplies several
was done with oxyacetylene torches because the available electric arc equipment welding stations. Portable welding equipment is normally mounted on a hand truck
did not allow sufficient control for the thin-wall tubing used in aircraft structure. so it can be moved to any location in the shop.
World War II saw the development of the shielded arc process of welding, which The typical equipment needed for gas welding consists of:
used electronically controlled equipment making arc-welding of aircraft structure • Oxygen and acetylene cylinders
practical. This equipment has been developed and perfected to the extent that it is
now an accepted method of constructing and repairing aircraft tubular steel struc- • Oxygen and acetylene regulators with pressure gages
ture. The high-strength alloys used in modern aircraft construction are more diffi- • Welding hoses
cult to weld than simple steel tubing, so much welding is done in specially • Welding torch with extra tips and connectors
equipped shops by technicians who specialize in welding. • Welding goggles, torch lighter, special wrench, and fire extinguisher
Fuel Gases nipple on an oxygen cylinder has male threads to prevent the possibility of install-
ing an acetylene regulator. A steel cap must be screwed onto an oxygen cylinder
In this introduction, we will consider only the two gases oxygen and acetylene. to cover the valve any time the regulator is not attached. This prevents damage if
Oxygen O2 the cylinder is knocked over. If a valve is ever knocked off an oxygen cylinder, the
escaping high-pressure gas will convert the cylinder into a jet-propelled missile
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas that does not burn by itself. It supports com- that can do extensive damage to anyone or anything it hits.
bustion and combines with other fuel gases to cause them to release a great Acetylene gas is stored in a seamless steel cylinder that has a recessed ring on
amount of heat when they are burned. the bottom. The foot ring protects the cylinder from moisture and corrosion. The
Oxygen makes up about 21% of the volume of the earth’s atmosphere, and is one stem of the cylinder valve has a square shank on which a special wrench fits, and
of the major components of water. Commercial oxygen is produced by cooling air the regulator screws into female threads. In case of a fire, a low-melting-point alloy
to such a low temperature that it changes into a liquid. Then, at a carefully con- in a small passage in these plugs melts and alIows the gas to escape without build-
trolled temperature, the liquid air is allowed to boil and release its oxygen. Another ing up its pressure to a dangerous level. The holes in these plugs are too small for
way of producing commercial oxygen is to break water into its two components, the flame to burn back into the cylinder and cause an explosion.
hydrogen and oxygen, electrolytically. Both gases are collected and compressed
for use in welding. Welding oxygen is called "technical” oxygen, and differs from Pressure Regulators
breathing oxygen because stringent controls are used to remove all traces of water
from breathing oxygen. Aviators breathing oxygen can be used for welding, but Pressure regulators attach to the cylinder valves of both the oxygen and acetylene
cylinders. These are normally two-stage regulators. The first stage reduces the
technical oxygen must never be used to charge the breathing oxygen system in an
pressure to a constant intermediate value, and the second stage reduces this
aircraft.
pressure to a much lower level that is appropriate for the torch being used.
Acetylene C2H2 Figure 2: Single Stage Regulator
Acetylene is a colorless, flammable gas that has a distinctive unpleasant odor de-
tectable even when it is greatly diluted with air. Acetylene is not a natural gas, but
Overpressure Valve
High Pressure Gauge
is produced by the reaction of calcium carbide with water. Acetylene is stable when
stored under a pressure of less than 1,5 bar, but at pressures above this, it be- Cylinder Shut-off Valve
comes dangerously unstable. Because of this instability, it is stored in steel cylin- Low Pressure Gauge
ders filled with a porous material such as a mixture of asbestos and charcoal. The
mixture is then saturated with acetone. The acetone absorbs approximarely 25
times its own volume of acetylene, and allows the cylinder to be charged to a pres- Cut-off Valve
sure of 18 bar without the acetylene becoming unstable.
Oxygen Regulator chamber, while those designed for welding lightweight metals have the valves at
Oxygen regulators have a sealing nipple and a nut to attach the regulator to the the tip end. There are two basic types of torches in use; balanced-pressure torches
cylinder valve. The hose connection on the oxygen regulator has right-hand and injector torches. The choice of torch type depends upon the source of the
threads, while the hose connection on the acetylene regulator has left-hand acetylene.
threads. The cylinder-pressure gage shows the pressure inside the oxygen cylin-
der when the cylinder valve is turned on. The adjusting handle in the center of the
Balanced-Pressure Torches
regulator controls the pressure of the oxygen delivered to the torch. When the han- Use balanced-pressure torches when the acetylene is supplied from a cylinder and
dle is screwed to the left until it turns freely with no opposition, the regulator is shut can be deIivered to the torch under the required pressure. The actual pressure de-
off and no oxygen can flow to the torch. If the regulator should leak, a safety disk pend upon the thickness of the metal being welded.
or valve in the low-pressure side will open and release the oxygen out the back of Oxygen and acetylene flow from the regulators into the torch handle, through ox-
the regulator before the pressure can build up enough to damage the regulator di- ygen and acetylene tubes to the needle valves. From the needle valves, the gases
aphragm. flow into the mixing head where they are mixed and then delivered to the tip.
Acetylene Regulator Figure 3: Balanced Pressure Welding Torch
The acetylene regulator has a sealing nipple and male threads that screw into the
nut on the acetylene cylinder valve. The hose connection has left-hand threads. Oxygen Needle Valve
The high-pressure gage reads the cylinder pressure when the cylinder valve is Tip Nut Oxygen Tube Torch Handle
open. The regulator has a safety disk or valve similar to that in the oxygen regula- Tip
tor that will rupture or open if the regulator should leak. The handle in the center of
the regulator adjusts the acetylene pressure delivered to the torch, and when it is Acetylene Tube
turned to the left until no opposition is felt, the valve is shut off and no acetylene
can flow to the torch. The architecture of an acetylen and oxygen regulator are the Acetylene Needle Valve
same but the pressure range is different.
Injector Torches
Hoses
When the acetylene is supplied from an acetylene generator, its pressure is usu-
The hoses used to connect the regulators to the torch are typicaIly made of a high- ally very low. To get the proper amount to the tip to produce the required heat, ox-
quality rubber surrounded with two layers of rubber-impregnated fabric. An outer ygen under a much higher pressure, usually 10 to 40 times as high as that of the
layer of tough rubber protects the hose from abrasion. The oxygen and acetylene acetylene, flows through a small orifice. The resulting high velocity produces a low
hoses, called twin hoses, are joined side-by-side so they are less prone to tangle pressure which draws the acetylene into the mixing chamber.
when in use. The acetylene hose is red, its fittings have left-hand threads, and the
coupling nuts have a groove around the center of the hexes. The oxygen hose is Torch Tips
blue, its fittings have right-hand threads, and the coupling nuts do not have a
Welding torch tips are generally made of hard copper, and the size of the orifice in
groove.
the tip determines the velocity of the gases leaving the torch. The temperature of
the welding flame is determined by the gases used, but the amount of heat deliv-
Torches ered to the work is determined by the amount of gas burned.
Welding torches mix the gases in correct proportion and control the amount of gas The size tip to use is determined by not only the thickness of the material being
delivered to the tip to regulate the size and type of flame. Almost all torches have welded, but also by the nature of the weld, the experience of the welder, and the
twovalves, one for the oxygen and one for the acetylene. Torches designed for position in which the weld is to be made.
welding heavy materials usually have the valves at the hose end of the mixing
Keep the orifice in the tip clean and undistorted. When the tip is used it often be- Compressed Gas Safety
comes clogged with carbon and the flame is distorted. Any time the flame splits or
becomes misshapen, shut the torch down and clean the tip with tip cleaners made The oxygen’s high pressure makes special precautions necessary when the cylin-
ders are replaced. As soon as you remove the regulator from the cylinder, screw
for that purpose. Never use a drill or any other hard metal to clean a tip, as it will
distort the hole. a steel cap in place to protect the valve. When you’ve installed the new cylinder on
the cart, secure it with the chain or clamp so it cannot accidentally fall over. Be sure
Torch Lighters that no greasy rags or tools are used around the oxygen cylinder. Oxygen does
not burn, but it supports combustion so violently that an oily or greasy rag can
Never light welding torches with a match or a cigarette lighter. They offer no pro- catch fire.
tection for your hand when the gasses ignite. Use a flint-type lighter that has a
flame cup for preventing the flame from reaching out. It is permissible to store oxygen cyIinders on their side, but acetylene cylinders
should always be stored upright. If one has been stored on its side, place it in an
Welding Goggles upright position for at least 2 hours before connecting it into the welding rig. This
allows the acetone to settle to the bottom of the cylinder so it will not be drawn out
Wear welding goggles that fit close to the face at all times when welding or cutting.
with the gas. Be sure the regulator reduces the pressure below 1 bar, because
The dark lenses protect your eyes from the ultraviolet and infrared rays that are
acetylene is unstable above this pressure.
produced, and clear glass Ienses that are inexpensive to replace protect the color-
ed glass from damage caused by molten metal splattering against them.
Connecting the Equipment
The color of the lens is determined by the type of welding: Green or brown lenses
are typically used for welding steel, but blue lenses are often used for welding alu- It is important that oxyacetylene equipment be properly set up and adjusted.
minum because it is easier to detect the condition of the surface of the metal. The This is the procedure to follow:
shade of the lens is identified by a number, with the lower numbers indicating the • Before attaching the regulators to the cylinders, momentarily open the cylin-
lighter shades. der valves and allow any dirt or contamination that may be in the valve to be
blown out.
Filler Rod • After installing the regulators, connect the hoses to the regulators and tighten
When two pieces of metal are welded, their edges melt and they flow together to the nuts with the correct-size open-end wrench.
form a single piece. To strengthen the weld, filler metal is added to the molten pool • Screw the adjusting handles of the regulators all of the way to the left until you
so it becomes part of the weld. This filler metal comes in the form of welding rods. meet no resistance. This shuts the gas off to the hose fitting.
Standard welding rods are copper plated to keep them from rusting, and available • Open the oxygen cylinder valve by turning the handwheel all the way to the
in different diameters. left. This valve seats in its fully open position and prevents the oxygen leaking
When selecting the rod for a particular job, follow the recommendations of the rod past the valve stem.
manufacturer to assure that the alloy of the rod is correct for the type of metal you • Open the acetylene valve a quarter of a turn and leave the wrench on the
are welding. valve stem. This allows the acetylene to be turned off in a hurry if a fire should
ever start.
Setting Up the Equipment • Before connecting the torch to the hoses, screw in the adjusting screw han-
The gas welding equipment for most maintenance shops is mounted on a cart and dles enough to cause gas to flow and purge the lines of air and any contami-
ready for operation as soon as it is wheeled into position. There are some precau- nants that may have collected in the hose. After purging the hoses, screw the
tions and procedures that should be observed for maximum safety. adjusting screw handles back out.
• After connecting the torch to the hoses, turn the torch valves off and screw in An oxidizing flame is one in which there is more oxygen than in a neutral flame.
the adjusting screw handles until about 1 bar is indicated on the oxygen gage The inner cone is pointed rather than rounded, and the outer flame is smaller than
and 0.3 bar is shown on the acetylene gage. that around a neutral flame. A hissing sound is often heard when the torch is ad-
• Screw the adjusting screw handles to the left to shut off all flow to the torch justed to produce an oxidizing flame. The temperature of an oxidizing flame is
and watch the torch gages for any indication of leakage. If the hoses and torch around 3500°C.
do not hold the pressure, there is probably a leak. Cover the suspected area Welding flames may be classified as soft or harsh. The temperature of the flame
with a soap and water solution and watch for bubbles. Do not check for a leak is a function of the welding gases, and the amount of heat put into a weld is a func-
with a flame or with any type of oil. If you find a leak, correct it before proceed- tion of the amount of gas being burned. The softness or harshness of a flame is a
ing. function of the velocity of the gases flowing from the tip. A soft flame is one in which
the velocity of the gases is low, and a harsh flame is one in which the velocity is
Lighting and Adjusting the Torch high.
With the torch connected and the correct size tip for the work being welded in- When a soft flame is required to put a lot of heat into the metal, use a tip with a
stalled, the torch can be lit and adjusted. larger orifice than usual.
Open the oxygen valve on the torch and turn the adjusting screw on the regulator
Figure 4: Adjusting the Torch
in until the torch gage indicates the correct pressure for the size orifice in the tip.
When the pressure is adjusted, turn off the oxygen valve on the torch.
Turn on the torch acetylene valve and adjust the acetylene pressure in the same
way as you did the oxygen. Then shut off the torch valve for the acetyIene until you
are ready to light the torch.
Neutral Flame
When the torch is to be lit, slightly open the torch acetylene valve for about a quar-
ter to half of a turn. Use the torch lighter to ignite the acetylene. Open the torch
oxygen valve until the flame returns to the face of the tip and changes to a bluish-
white color, and an inner cone forms.
The relationship between the acetylene and oxygen is indicated by the type of
flame in Figure 4.
Reducing Flame
Generally a neutral flame is used, because it does not alter the composi tion of the
base metal to any extent, and can be used for most metals. The temperature of a
neutral flame is approximately 3250°C. To get a neutral flame, control the torch ox-
ygen valve until there is a definite white feather around the inner cone, and then
increase the oxygen until the feather just disappears. The end of the inner cone
should be rounded, and the outer flame should be blue with a tinge of purple
around its outer edges and at the point. Oxidizing Flame
A reducing flame, sometimes called a carburizing flame, is cooler and its temper-
ature is about 3150°C. A reducing flame should be used only for very special pur-
poses, as the extra acetylene causes carbon to be deposited in the molten metal.
A reducing flame is identified by a very distinctive white feather around the inner
cone, and the outer flame will be whiter than it is around a neutral flame.
60˚
puddle of molten metal will form. This puddle should be composed of equal parts
of the two pieces of metal being joined. As soon as the puddle appears, begin
moving the tip in a circular pattern around the outer edge of the puddle, moving it
slightly in the direction you want the weld to progress, melting just a little bit of the
forward edge on each circle. This pattern assures an even distribution of heat be-
tween the two pieces of metal. Shutting Down the Equipment
For thin-gage tubing and sheet metal, point the torch in the direction the weld is After the welding is completed, the equipment must be properly shut down. Extin-
progressing. Add the filler rod to the puddle as the edges of the joint melt before guish the flame by turning off the torch acetylene valve and then the torch oxygen
the flame. This is called forehand welding (see “Figure 5” on page 7). valve. If the torch remains unlit for any period of time, both of the cylinder valves
should be turned off. Open the torch acetylene valve to allow the gas in the line to
Figure 5: Forehand Welding escape. Close the acetylene valve and open the torch oxygen valve until the oxy-
gen all bleeds out. Close the oxygen valve and then turn the adjustment screws in
<3mm both regulators to the left until no opposition is felt and the gases are shut off to the
torch. Coil the hoses up neatly to protect them from damage.
Welding Positions
The ideal position for welding is the flat position, in which the material is flat and
the welding is all done from the top with the torch pointed down on the work. But
this is not always possible in the real world of repair. When welding on tubular
structure, some of the weld is flat, some is horizontal, some is vertical, and some
is overhead.
The preferred method for welding heavy-gage metal is the backhand method, When welding in the overhead position point the torch upward toward the work and
shown in Figure 6. Point the torch away from the direction the weld is progressing. prevent the puddle from sagging by keeping it small and not allowing a drop to
Add the rod to the puddle between the flame and the finished weld. Backhand form. Use the rod to control the puddle and keep the volume of flame to the mini-
welding is not used on thin-gage metal because the greater amount of heat pro- mum needed to assure good fusion of the base metal and the filler rod.
duced in the metal is likely to overheat and burn it. Horizontal welding is done by holding the torch in such a way that the flame is in-
clined upward at an angle between 45° and 60°. Dip the rod in the top of the puddle
and do not allow the weld to get too hot.
Vertical welds are started at the bottom with the flame inclined upward between
45° and 60°. It is important that a vertical weld not be allowed to become overheat-
ed. To prevent overheating, you may have to periodically remove the flame from
the weld for an instant and then return it to the puddle. Add the rod at the top of the Figure 8: Expansion and Retraction
puddle in front of the flame.
Figure 7: Welding Positions and Weld Types
Overhead Weld Overlap
Horizontal Overhead Weld
Rising Weld
To prevent overlapping, separate the sheets by their thickness at one end, and by
approximately 3 to 6 mm per 300 mm of length at their other end. The actual sep-
aration depends upon the thickness and type of the metal. Begin the weld, and
watch the sheets draw together. If they have been separated by the correct dis-
tance, they will draw together without overlapping by the time the weld is complet-
ed.
Figure 9: Separation prior to Welding
A B C
You can prevent large welded structures from warping by first clamping all the
parts in a heavy jig or fixture and then performing the welding. After the welding is
completed the entire structure is normalized to relieve the strains caused by the
concentrations of heat during the welding process. With the structure still clamped
in the jig,it is heated uniformly to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly in still air.
Electric Welding Figure 11: Electric Arc Welding with a flux covered Electrode
There are two basic types of electric welding: electric arc welding and electrical re-
sistance welding. Electric arc welding is typically used for rather heavy material.
The metal is melted in the extreme heat of an electric arc between the work and a
hand-held electrode. Electrical resistance welding is used for thin sheets of metal.
Thin sheets of metal are clamped between two electrodes or rollers and high-am-
perage, low-voltage current flows through the metal. The resistance of the metal
to the flow of current causes enough heat to melt the metal and fuse the pieces
together.
Gas Shielded Arc Welding Figure 13: MIG or GMAW Welding Setup
One of the problems encountered with welding is the contamination of the molten
metal with oxides caused by oxygen in the air. This problem is often handled by
using flux that dissolves the oxides that have formed and covers the molten metal
to exclude the oxygen and prevent further oxide formation.
Aluminum and magnesium are difficult to weld by conventional methods, and in
1942 when the Northrop company received a contract from the U.S.Army Air
Corps to build an all-magnesium, all-welded, tailless fighter, the XP-56, the weld-
ing process known as Heliarc welding was developed. The weIding arc is shielded
by a flow of helium gas that excludes oxygen from the molten metal. The results
are a neat, sound weld with a minimum of splatter and distortion.
Gas shielded arc welding has become extremely important in modern technology
and there are two versions of it in use; one that uses a consumable wire rod as the
electrode and the other that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode. The first
was originally called metal inert gas, or MIG, welding, and the second was called Figure 14: MIG Torchhead
tungsten inert gas, or TIG, welding. As the technologies developed, other gases,
some not inert, were used as shielding gases, and the names for these types of
welding were changed to gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW).
Power Unit
The power unit used for GTA welding can supply DC-straight polarity (the elec-
trode is negative), DC-reverse polarity, (the electrode is positive), and AC. DC-
straight polarity produces the most heat and deepest penetration, but DC-reverse
polarity has an advantage in welding aluminum and magnesium that, as the elec-
Figure 16: TIG Torchhead and Fillerrod trons flow from the work into the electrode, they blast off the surface oxides that
have formed on the metal.
AC welding is similar to a combination of straight polarity and reverse polarity DC,
but if the oxide coatin, e on the surface of the metal is strong enough, it acts as a
rectifier and no current flows during the half cycle when the electrode is positive,
and the welding is similar to DC-straight polarity. To overcome this problem of rec-
tification, a high-voltage, high-frequency, low-amperage AC signal is superim-
posed on the AC welding current. This high voltage penetrates the oxide film and
allows the weld to have the good characteristics of both rypes of DC welding. This
superimposed high-frequency AC gives these advantages:
• The arc can be started without touching the electrode to the work.
• The arc has better stability.
• A longer arc is possible.
• The tungsten electrodes have a longer life.
• A wider range of current can be used for a specific diameter of electrode.
Hand-Held Torches • Select the correct filler rod for the material being welded. Typically 1100 rod
can be used for 1100 or 3003 alloys and 4043, 5154, 6356, or 5456 should be
Torches for GTA welding are available in both air-cooled and water-cooled ver- used for the other alloys. Clean the rod and the metal to be welded to remove
sions with air cooling used for the lower current welding applications. Gas and
all traces of oil or grease.
cooling water are brought into the water-cooled torch through appropriate hoses,
and after coolin the torch, the water drains back through the tube which encases Almost all aluminum welding will be done using AC with superimposed high-fre-
the power cable. quency AC. With this type of current, the arc can be started without actually touch-
ing the metal with the electrode tip.
The electrode is held in the torch with a split collet that allows it to be extended as
it is consumed. The gas flows out around the electrode and is directed against the • Hold the torch horizontally about 50 mm above the work and swing the tip
work by a ceramic gas shielding cup that screws onto the torch. down until it is about 3 mm from the work with a smooth wrist movement. This
should start the arc.
Electrodes • The downward motion of the torch should be rapid so there will be a maximum
amount of gas protection in the weld zone.
The electrodes for GTA welding are made of tungsten wire and are available in di-
• When making the first start while AC welding, the electrode will have to be
ameters from 0.25 mm to 6 mm and in different lengths. Pure tungsten electrodes
moved closer to the work before the arc starts than it is when the electrode is
are used for most general welding of steel, but its current-carrying ability is limited.
hot.
Tungsten alloyed with thorium emits electrons more readily than pure tungsten, it
resists contamination better, and makes the arc easier to start and more stable. To stop the arc, snap the electrode back to the horizontal position.
But, thorium alloyed rods are much more expensive than pure tungsten elec- After starting the arc, preheat the work by moving the torch in a small circular mo-
trodes. Tungsten electrodes alloyed with zirconium fall between the characteristics tion until a molten puddle 3 to 5 times the thickness of the material is developed,
of pure tungsten and tungsten alloyed with thorium, but they are superior in some then hold the torch at an angle of approximately 75° to the surface of the work with
instances when used for some types of AC welding. the end of the electrode about 3 mm above the work.
Electrodes used for DC-straight polarity welding should have its end pointed and When the puddle becomes bright and fluid, move the torch slowly and steadily
may be smaller than that used for DC-reverse polarity and AC welding. For the lat- along the joint at a speed which will produce a bead of uniform penetration or
ter two types of welding, the end of the electrode is normally rounded. width. No oscillating or other movement of the torch except for a steady forward
motion is required.
Welding Techniques and Procedures
When filler rod is required, hold the rod at an angle of approximately 15° to the
GTA welding is specially suited for aluminum and most of the aluminum alloys, as
work, and just clear of the arc stream. Once the puddle has formed, move the torch
there is no need to use corrosive flux. Some alloys, specifically 2024 and 7075, to the rear of the puddle and add filler rod by quickly touching it in the leading edge
should not be fusion-welded because of hot cracking and impairment of their cor- of the puddle. Add only a small amount of rod, then remove the rod and bring the
rosion resistance, but most others can be welded. The corrosion resistance and
torch back up to the leading edge. When the puddle is again bright, repeat these
heat treatment of some alloys such as 2014 and 2017 are affected by welding, steps.
and when a heat-treatable alloy is welded, it should be re-heat-treated after the
welding is completed. The arc speed is governed by the amount of current and the thickness of the ma-
terial. The speed should be adjusted to obtain a bead that has uniform height and
The steps to follow in GTA welding are:
width. Good penetration is indicated by a very small, smooth bead, and the pene-
• Choose the correct electrode size and gas cup for the thickness of the mate- tration should be uniform on the underside of the work.
rial being welded and, after polishing the electrode with steel wool, install it in
the torch so that it protrudes about 3 to 6 mm from the end of the gas cup for
butt welding or 6 to 9 mm for fillet welding.
Some precautions to be observed when running a bead are: Electrical Resistance Welding
• Do not add filler rod until the puddle is well established.
• Do not insert the filer rod in the arc stream. This will cause considerable spat- Electrical resistance welding is a special type of welding used forjoining very thin
ter and will melt an excessive amount of the rod. sheets of metal, and it replaces riveting in many instances. There are two types of
resistance welding, spot welding and seam welding. One of the widely used avia-
• Do not attempt to hold the filler rod in the molten puddle. The amount of filler
tion applications for spot and seam welding is that of welding fuel tanks for aircraft.
rod determines the buildup of the bead, and little or no buildup is necessary.
Spot and Seam Welding
Inspection of the Weld
The heat required for spot welding is generated when current flows through the
After completing a weld, inspect it carefully to determine that it is completely ade- metal being welded, while considerable pressure is exerted on the electrodes that
quate for the purpose for which it was made. Some possible defects and their most carry the current into and out of the metal.
probable causes are:
• Bead too narrow. This usually indicates that the weld was made at an exces- Two copper electrodes are forced together with the metal being welded between
sive speed. them. A pulse of high-current electricity flows through the metal and heats it to near
its melting point. As it softens, the pressure on the electrodes forces the softened
• Bead too wide. This usually indicates that the weld was made with too slow a metal to form a spot between the sheets that joins them. The length of time the
speed.
current flows is called the dwell time, and it is controlled by an electronic controller
• Weld is contaminated. This is indicated by a black deposit on the weld and is to assure that all of the spots will be uniform.
caused by the electrode coming in contact with the weld metal.
Seam welding is similar to spot welding except that copper wheels replace the rod-
• Weld is oxidized. This is caused by an insufficient supply of shielding gas. type electrodes. The controller sends pulses of current between the wheels so that
spot welds are made close enough together to overlap and form a solid seam.
Figure 17: Spot and Seam Welding
Brazing and Soldering Figure 19: Capillary Rise related to the Gap
20
Brazing and soldering are methods of joining metals by heating them enough to
melt a relatively low-melting-point nonferrous alloy. When the alloy melts, it flows mm
out and wets the parent metal. When it cools it holds the metal parts together. The
18
difference between brazing and soldering is basically the temperature of the alloy.
Brazing materials melt at temperatures higher than 450°C, but lower than the melt-
ing temperature of the metals being joined. Solder melts at a temperature lower
16
than 450°C. The metal parts beeing joined must be free from grease and dirt!
Brazing 14
Brazing is the process of joining metal parts by melting a brazing alloy on the sur-
face. These alloys generally have a bronze base and they melt at about 850°C.
(Steel melts at around 1450°C.) 12
Thoroughly clean the surface to be brazed and heat it, in the case of steel, to a dull
Capillary rise
red. Heat the brazing rod and dip it in a flux made of borax and boric acid. The flux
10
adheres to the rod so none need be applied to the metal. Move the torch with a
neutral flame in a semicircular pattern over the seam to be brazed and hold the
brazing rod in the flame near the tip. When the rod melts and flows over the base
8
metal that is hotter than the melting point of the rod, the bronze alloy flows into the
joint by capillary attraction. Continue to add rod until the joint is built up to the
smooth seam you want. After the seam is completed, allow it to cool slowly. To get 6
a proper braze, the gap between the to metal parts is very important. The next two
figures shows the relation between the gap and the capillary attraction.
4
Figure 18: Capillary Attraction
Correct Incorrect
0.05 ... 0.2
2
> 0.5
A brazed joint is not strong enough for most aircraft structural applications, and it Metal to Metal Bonding
can be used as a repair procedure only in applications in which brazing was orig-
inally approved. A brazed joint should never be repaired by welding, as the brazing On modern aircraft, there are several parts, where bonding is used, and the use of
this technology is increasing more and more. Even the outer skin of a fuselage is
material gets into the structure of the metal and prevents a proper weld.
often bonded, but only in low stress zones. In high stress zones, the bonding joint
is reinforced by riveting.
Silver Soldering
Silver soldering is a form of brazing used for attaching the fittings to high-pressure Inspection of a Bonded Joint
oxygen lines. Its chief characteristics are its ability to withstand vibration and high An ultrasonic or bond test should be carried out after the part has been cured.
temperature.
A Tap test is insufficient for this type of repair!
Clean and assemble the end of the tube and the inside of the fitting. The fitting
must fit tightly over the end of the tube as the solder is drawn into the joint by cap-
illary attraction. Prepare borax and boric acid paste flux and wipe it on the tube to
cover the area where the fitting is installed. Use a soft, neutral flame to heat the
fitting and tube until the flux turns liquid. Shortly after the flux liquefies, touch the
joint with the silver solder. It will melt and be drawn into the fitting around the tub-
ing. Only an extremely small film of solder is needed to give the joint the integrity
it needs.
Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is done with an alloy of tin and lead, and its melting temperature is
determined by the ratio of these two components. An alloy of 50% tin and
50% lead is commonly used for general soldering. Its melting point is 210°C. Sol-
der used for electronic components is usually 63% tin and 37% lead, and it melts
at 180°C.
Metal parts that can be washed after soldering may be soldered using an acid flux
to clean the metal, but electrical components must never be soldered with an acid
flux. Most solder is available in the form of a hollow wire with the flux on the inside.
The solder used for electrical components has its hollow core filled with a synthetic
resin that melts and flows out ahead of the solder to exclude air from the hot metal
and prevent the formation of oxides.
Soft solder should never be depended upon for strength. The joint must be de-
signed to have all of the needed mechanical strength, and then solder is melted
and flowed over the joint to make it air- and liquid-tight and to give it good electrical
conductivity.
An aircraft is a dynamic device that requires a careful balance between all of its • Critical on landing.
forces to maintain safe and efficient flight. The lift produced by the wing is concen-
trated at a point approximately one-third of the way back from the leading edge, • The aircraft will have a tenden-
and to provide stability, the center of gravity (CG), or that point at which all of the cy to dive.
aircraft weight can be considered to be concentrated, is located slightly ahead of • Stability is decreased.
this center of lift. This location results in a force that tries to pitch the nose of the • Adverse spin characteristics.
aircraft down. This nose-down force is balanced by a tail load which pulls the nose • More engine power is required.
up and makes the aircraft flight level (see “Figure 10” on page 7).
The amount of tail load is determined by the airspeed and it drops off when the
airplane slows down. The weight ahead of the center of lift pulls the nose down
and the airplane will automatically regain the speed it has lost.
Any of these conditions can result in the loss of the aircraft and loss of life. For
these reasons, it is very important that the aircraft technician and the pilot have
thorough understanding of weight and balance.
Aircraft Weight Definitions weight carried in the fuselage. The most critical bending load would occur, there-
fore, with no fuel in the wings and maximum weight in the fuselage.
Every aeroplane has certain weight restrictions which are determined by the man-
ufacturer. The operator is legally bound by these limitations and he must not ex- Figure 4: Wing Loads With and Without Fuel
ceed the stipulated limitations when loading the aircraft.
termining the take-off and landing weights of an aircraft, which in turn will affect the
calculations for performance and the available payload.
Operating Weight
To the Dry Operating Weight is added the weight of usable take-off fuel plus any
engine additive such as demineralised water.
Traffic Load
This is the weight of passengers, baggage, cargo and mail. it may include the
weight of loading equipment as per company regulations. Total traffic load is fur-
ther subdivided into passengers and dead-load.
Taxi Fuel
Trip Fuel Burn-off
Actl. Taxi Block/Ramp
Wt. (Ramp Holding Fuel T/O fuel
Fuel
Weight) Diversion Fuel
Reserve Fuel
Route Reserve
Additional Fuel
Actl. T/O
Weight Passengers
Baggage Traffic Load
Actl. Cargo Dead Load
Landing Mail
Weight Catering Equipment
Operational and maximum design weights are listed in the certification data
sheet and in the flight crew operating manual.
This section deals with three important aspects of safe aircraft loading or handling
during maintenance actions. It explains in simple terms, why both the total load Anticlockwise Clockwise
and its distribution must be carefully planned and the plan rigidly adhered to during 2m 2m
loading.
Principles of Balance
The effect of weight on balance depends on its distance from a datum.
This is most easily explained in terms of simple weighing equipment.
When a weight and a distance or “lever arm” are multiplied together the result is a
moment. 10kg 10kg
2m 4m
The loading of an aircraft is governed by the same principle of equal moments Figure 10: Compensation of Small Unbalance In-Flight
clockwise to anti-clockwise about the 25 % mark of MAC of the wing.
Principle of the Centre of Gravity (CG) The CG moves to the left and the beam tips. If the pivot was to be moved 1m to
the left, balance could be restored.
The center of gravity of a body is defined as the point at which its total weight may An aircraft can have a safe loading range, rather than a single point of balance.
be considered to act as a concentrated force. This principle may be illustrated as follows:
In a beam the total of the moments on one side of the centre of gravity will equal
the total of the moments on the other side. Figure 14: CG in Safe Range
If the beam is supported by a pivot directly under the CG the beam will be in bal-
ance. If the CG and pivot do not coincide the CG will be to one side of the pivot 100kg
and that side will sink.
CG
4m 6m
Illustrations of the Movement of the CG
For simplicity in the following diagrams the weight of the beam itself has been ig- 60kg 40kg
nored.
A B
Figure 12: CG on Pivot
The beam can be given a loading range by replacing
the single pivot by two pivots A and B.
100kg
CG
5m 5m In Figure 13 the weight and the CG are the same as in Figure 14 but as the CG is
between the pivots the beam is stable and does not tip.
50kg 50kg
Figure 15: CG not in Safe Range
Pivot
Beam in balance with CG exactly over the pivot. 100kg
CG
2m 8m
Figure 13: CG not on Pivot
20kg
80kg
100kg
CG A B
4m 6m
If, howewer, a much heavier load is placed on the left
40kg
of the beam the CG moves further left and beyond
60kg pivot A causing the beam to tip.
Figure 19: Unsafe Loading Figure 20: MAC Layout of Transport Aircraft
25% RC
TEMAC
LEMAC
Hold 1
4'000kg
H-arm 33.15m Reference
Hold 4
3'000kg 31.34m Chord 7.27m
CG of 6.34m
Laden A/C
Safe
The Safe Range - MAC % Range
0 / Datum
The Safe Range for a particular aircraft type is specified by the manufacturer and MAC
is usually expressed in terms of percentage of MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord).
The MAC is a reference line used in the design of the wing and its position relative
to the wing and the fuselage is accurately known. % 0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 20 shows an aircraft with a safe loading range of about 1.5m between 20%
and 40% MAC.
Aircraft Stability on Ground The empty weight and CG position data can be found in flight crew operating
manual of aircraft or in the information data bases of the owner (operator).
During maintenance actions like aeroplane overhaul or cabin furbishment, it could For more information about this data see Title "Operational Weights".
happen that CG moves out of its safety range. It turns dangerous if the CG moves
backward, this can cause a tail-tipping. The reference line used for such calculation is usually the "25%-MAC line". To de-
termine moment arms, the use of station plans can be of great help. The weight
Prior to remove heavy equipement (Galleys, more than one engine, etc.) and balance manual usually includes such plans specially designed for this pur-
from an aeroplane technicians have to consult its maintenance manual or pose.
weight and balance manual.
Figure 21: Unstable Aircraft
Index System
The JAA impels operators of large aircrafts to create an index unit system, which
includes the related formulas to make weight and balance calculations easier.
The following example belongs to Swiss´s Airbus A330-200:
BI Basic Index
As it was explained before, moment calculations are used to determine CG posi- Index Arm mm or measured forward (-) and aft (+) of reference line
tion and shifting. Index units are used, rather than very large moment values. The in
necessary data for such calculations are listed bellow:
• Empty weight of aircraft and its CG position IU Index Units used for graphical determination of
CG-Position
• Reference line position (MAC)
• Station plan of aircraft Item Weight kg or lb Object to be loaded
• Formulas (units and %MAC)
• Balance graphs
The ballast, if necessary shall be installed in the forward cargo-com- Figure 22: Pallets Distribution in Fwd Cargo Compartment
partment at position 11P.
(a) continue line B’D until it cuts across the 90 km/h (49 kts) average
windspeed line at point G.
(b) continue line DC’ until it cuts across the "ballast on pallet 11P"
scale at point E.
(c) from point G, make a vertical line until it cross the "ballast on pal-
let 11P" scale at point E’.
(d) Count the number of divisions on the scale between point E and
E’ (in the example 2.3 division).
Thus, weight of ballast necessary: 2.3 x 1000kg (2204.6lb) = 2300
kg (5070.6lb)
NOTE: as the ballast causes only a small increase in the aircraft
weight, this weight has been ignored
Weighing Procedures
Before any weighing can begin, it is necessary to become familiar with the perti-
nent data available concerning the weight and the balance of the particular aircraft.
This information will be found in the Aviation Authority documentation and the
manufacturer’s manuals and would include:
• Aircraft Specifications
• Type Certificate Data Sheet
• Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual
• Manufacturer’s Weight and Balance Manual
• Information Databases of Maintenance Organisations
Most of these informations are furnished by the manufacturer on aircraft that have
a Type Certificate Data Sheet.
The Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual gives the following informations:
• Leveling means
• Weighing procedures
The Weight and Balance Manual gives the following informations:
• CG range
• Maximum weights
• Empty weight CG range.
• Seats and location
• Fuel capacity
• Datum location
Nowadays most of operator‘s maintenance organisations have the information,
which is needed for weight and balance matters, stored in IT data bases. The data
stored is used for weight and balance follow up (weight changes due to modifica-
tions) and to build up digital load sheets. Such a data base includes at least:
• Aircraft Data (type, immatriculation, serial numbers)
Empty Weight
Typical Jack
Pad Adapter
Airplane
Structure
Typical
Electronic
Load Cell
Weighing
Chocks are used on the scale platform to prevent the aircraft rolling, as the brakes Cell-to-Jack Typical
must be released to prevent an uneven application of force to the platform. The Adapter Adapter
weight of the chocks is called the tare weight, and it must be subtracted from the
scale reading to get the net weight of the aircraft. Larger aircraft are rather towed
onto platforms. Typical
Jack Screw
Larger aircraft are sometimes weighed by placing load cells between the jack and
the jack-pad on the aircraft (see “Figure 27” ).
The aircraft is leveled according to the leveling instructions in the Maintenance
Manual. The level of some aircraft is determined by placing a spirit level on a given
place (cabin seat tracks), while others are leveled by an attitude indicator installed
in the aircraft. Longitudinal level is the most important condition, but the aircraft
should be laterally level as well (see “Figure 28” ).
If the aircraft is weighed from the jacks, it may be leveled by adjusting the exten- If the aircraft was not weighed empty, the weight and moments of the fuel must be
sion of the jacks, but if it is resting on its landing gear on the scales, fine adjustment computed out. The as-weighed weight, arm and moment of the fuel are recorded
of the level may be made by changing the amount of inflation of the tires or of the in the lower chart, and the weight, arm and moment of the fuel are recorded. Since
shock struts. Usually shimboards are used for this purpose. these weights are to be subtracted from the weight of the aircraft, they are negative
Note: it is extremely important when jacking or weighing an aircraft that the weights, and if their arm is negative, the moment will be positive; but if the arm is
recommendations of the aircraft manufacturer (AMM ATA-08) be followed positive, the moment will be negative.
in detail, as the procedures required for each aircraft differ. When the algebraic sum of the moments is divided by the net weight, less the
When the aircraft is on the scales and is level, plumb bobs may be dropped from weight of the fuel, the arm will be the EWCG of the aircraft.
the datum and from the weighing points so that lines may be chalked on the floor The weighing form is completed by noting the maximum allowable gross weight,
from which to make accurate measurements to determine the CG. Quite often the as is found in the Type Certificate Data Sheet. The difference between the maxi-
datum is located ahead of the aircraft. In the figure we see that the datum is 6.382 mum allowable gross weight and the empty weight is the useful load.
meter (251.28 in) ahead of the forward side of the front pressure bulkhead. A
plumb bob is dropped from the forward side of this bulkhead, and the hanger floor
is marked at this point as station 6382.
Locating The CG CG = ??
If the datum is ahead of the main wheels, use the formula:
4'800 12'690
CG = 20'290 – ----------------------------------
42'800
FL
CG = D – -----------
W
CG = 18'875mmaft of the datum
Table 3: Symbols Used %MAC = ??(see Title “%MAC Formula” on page 12)
D mm or in Distance between the datum and the main wheel % MAC = 25.5
weighing point
Example
The data is taken from the example form (see “Figure 29” on page 21) L W
D = 20‘290mm F
E
L = 12‘690mm
E = 38‘000kg
F = 4‘800kg
W = 42‘800kg
Fuel Truck
Fuel Hose
Static Wire
Airplanes and helicopters are designed to fly, and movement on the ground is of-
ten a rather awkward procedure. Be sure that only qualified persons authorized to
taxi the aircraft, are at the controls. Before starting the engine, be sure that the ar-
ea, both in front and behind, is clear of people and equipment that could be dam-
aged, or that could cause damage to the aircraft. 17.000
It is usually difficult to assure that there is sufficient clearance between the wings,
rotor, and any buildings or other aircraft. Before moving, it is a good policy to sta-
tion signalmen where they can watch the wings or rotor and any obstructions. In
Figure 2 on page 3, we have the standard signals that may be used between a
ground signalman and the pilot of a airplane.
Whatever signals are used, be sure that both persons understand exactly what the
signals mean so there can be no misunderstanding at a crucial time. The signal-
man has the responsibility of remaining in a position to be visible from the cockpit
as shown in Figure 1. To assure that you can be seen at all times, be certain that
you see the pilot’s eyes while directing him.
Busy airports usually require radio contact between the aircraft and the control
tower when an airplane is taxied onto any of the taxiway or runways. In the event
of lack of radio contact, or radio failure, the control towers are equipped highly di-
rectional light guns that can direct a high intensity beam of light to the aircraft. A
light code is used that should be familiar to anyone operating an aircraft on a con-
trolled airport.
• Flashing green light - OK to taxi
• Steady red light - Stop
• Flashing red light - Taxi clear of the runway
• Flashing white light - Return to the place you started from
• Alternating red and green flashes - Use extreme caution
17.005
It is often necessary to move an aircraft without using its engines. Large aircraft
are towed with a tractor, or special towing vehicle, and are connected with a spe-
cial tow bar. Extreme care must be used to not move the aircraft too fast and to be
sure that there is always sufficient clearance between the wings and any obstruc-
tions.
A qualified person should be in the cockpit to operate the aircraft brakes when
needed, as the brakes on the towing vehicle are usually insufficient to stop the mo-
mentum of the large aircraft that is moving very fast. Where necessary, extra per-
sonnel should be assigned to watch the wing tips and tail for clearance between
other objects.
The nose gear on most aircraft have a very definite limit to the amount it can be
turned, and it is easy, when towing, to exceed these limits. Should the turning ra-
dius be exceeded, the nose gear strut and steering mechanism will be damaged.
Damage can be quite extensive, requiring replacement of the nose gear shock
strut.
If the steering wheels are hydraulically operated, a bypass device is provided to
bypass the hydraulic system. Some aircraft have a method of disconnection a
locking device so the nose wheel can be swiveled to facilitate maneuvering. The
bypass or locking device must be reset after the tow bar has been removed from
the aircraft. Persons stationed in the aircraft should never attempt to steer the nose
wheel when the tow bar is attached to the aircraft.
Small aircraft can be moved by hand, and damage can be inflicted on these aircraft
by improper procedures.
Do not move an airplane by pulling on the propeller. The propeller is designed to
move the aircraft through the air, but the thrust it is designed to produce is uniform.
Moving the airplane by pulling on one blade will put an asymmetrical load on both
the propeller and the engine.
Be sure to use a tow bar. These bars normally attach to the nose wheel and are
used to apply the force for both moving and steering the airplane. After an airplane
has been towed with a tow bar and parked in the desired position, remove the tow
bar from the nose strut and place it beside the nose wheel, or stow it away, even
if the airplane will be moved again shortly. When pushing an aircraft, be sure that
you push only at points that are specified by the aircraft manufacturer as satisfac-
tory for pushing. Do not push on the control surfaces, nor in the center of a strut.
NO STEP and NO PUSH decals means just that.
17.025
Jacking for Maintenance In any case, use only the equipment and jacking methods approved by the manu-
facturer. To do otherwise can cause serious personal injury, not to mention major
The most general way for an aircraft to be jacked is from jack pads located on the damage to the aircraft.
main wing spar. Many nose-wheel-type aircraft have a third jack pad located on
the fuselage to raise the nose. Other aircraft require the tail to be pulled down to Figure 9: Jacking a small Aircraft
raise the nose.
The most important consideration when jacking an aircraft is to follow the manu-
facturer’s instructions in detail. These can be found in the maintenance manual.
For more Information if the aircraft is in a unstable situation, see title "Aircraft Sta-
bility on Ground" in sub module 7.16 "Aircraft Weight and Balance". 17.030
Be sure to use the proper jacks and raise them evenly, do that the aircraft will be
level, and there will be no tendency for it to slip off of the jacks. Most of the higher
capacity jacks have screw-type safety collars to prevent the jack inadvertently re-
tracting. Be sure that these collars are screwed down as the airplane is raised.
Jacks that do not have the screw-type safety will usually have holes drilled in the
strut so lock pins can be inserted to guard against the jack retracting. Be sure to
use whatever method of safety is provided.
Many of the lighter aircraft can be jacked from only the main spar position by se-
curing a weighted stand to the tail tiedown ring. Be sure that there is the amount
of weight specified by the manufacturer in the stand, or else tie the tail to a tiedown
ring embedded in the hanger floor. Figure 10: Jacking a large Aircraft
Some aircraft can have their tail held down by weights placed on the main spar of
the horizontal stabilizer. Before using this procedure, be sure that it is approved by
the aircraft manufacturer, and that only the recommended type of weight be used.
Guard against any movement within the aircraft when it is on jacks, as shifting the
weight behind the jack could cause the aircraft to tilt enough to fall off of the jack.
Before lowering the aircraft, be sure to remove all of the work stands and equip-
ment that fit comfortably when the aircraft is raised, but which will cause damage
when the aircraft is lowered onto it. Be sure that the landing gear is down and
locked and then lower the jacks evenly.
It is possible for some landing gear to produce a side load on the jacks as the
weight is taken by the tires, and this must be watched to prevent this side load from
causing the jack to tip. Be sure that the oleo struts do not bind and hold the aircraft.
If they do bind enough to allow the jack to be lowered away from the wing and the
strut should suddenly collapse, it can drop the airplane back onto the jack and
cause serious damage.
Tiedown Procedures Airplanes with nose wheels should be tied down by using, in addition to the wing
ropes, one rope through the nose gear tiedown ring and two ropes through the tail
The lightweight construction of an aircraft, along with its airfoil-shaped wings and tiedown ring.
tail surfaces or rotors, makes it highly susceptible to damage from wind. Thunder- When tying an aircraft down, be sure that the wheels are blocked with proper fitting
storms can occur throughout the year and may appear in almost any part of a chocks in front of and behind the wheels.
country. Regardless of the type of storm, the damage can be severe for aircraft
that are not protected. Most of the damage can be minimized if proper protective Figure 13: Tiedown an Aircraft
measures are taken.
Naturally the best protection for an aircraft is to fly it out of the area where the storm Rope or Chain
is predicted to hit. If this is not possible, the aircraft should be protected by storing
it in a storm-proof hanger or by tying it down securely.
Tiedown Procedures
17.045
Most airports have a tiedown area with anchors permanently embedded into the
hard-surfaced ramp. these may be in the form of individual anchors, or tiedown ca-
bles. With either method the aircraft should be secured so that it is headed as
nearly into the wind as is practical and should have as much separation between
adjacent aircraft as possible. Figure 14: Tiedown Arrangement
The nose or tail wheel should be locked in the straight ahead position, so the air-
craft cannot slew around in the wind. The tiedowns should be secured to each
wing and to the tail.
Aircraft may be tied down with either ropes or chains, with rope normally providing
the strongest mans of securing the aircraft. Manila rope, however, has a double
disadvantage in that it has a tendency to shrink when it gets wet, and it will mildew
and rot from exposure too weather, and so must be periodically replaced. Nylon is
the strongest material for rope, with Dacron and yellow polypropylene also provid-
ing sufficient strength for the purpose. 17.050
The rope should be attached to the aircraft tiedown rings with a bowline knot. It
should not be pulled tight enough to put a strain on the wing, but must be left tight
enough to prevent the aircraft jerking against the rope. The proper tension allows
small movement. If manila rope is used, a little extra slack must be allowed in the
event the rope shrinks. Rope or Chain Anchorpoints on Ramp
Chains are used at many airports. They have a much longer life than rope and are
easier to use. If chains are used, they must be secured to the aircraft by passing
the chain through the tiedown ring, then sticking one link through a link in the
standing chain and fastening it in place with the snap to take any of the strain, as
it is not made for this purpose.
Preparation of the Aircraft If a tail wheel aircraft is tied down facing into the wind, the elevators should be
locked in a fully up position so the wind will force the tail down; but if it is tied down
When a windstorm is anticipated, the aircraft should have all of the controls se- facing away from the wind, the elevators should be locked fully down, so the wind
curely locked to prevent the surfaces banging against the stops and causing struc-
blowing over them from behind will force the tail down.
tural damage. Some aircraft are equipped with internal control locks that hold the
surfaces in a streamlined position, but since these locks secure the cockpit control, If a severe wind is expected, spoiler boards may be lashed to the top surface of
there is a possibility that severe forces exerted on the surface battens can be used the wing to destroy the lift. These spoilers can be made of 2" X 2" boards on which
that hold the surface in a streamline position by clamping it against the fixed sur- a one-inch strip of foam rubber is attached. Holes are drilled through the boards
face. These battens should be lined with one-inch foam rubber, be painted red and through which nylon rope is treaded. The nylon rope is tied around the wing so it
have a long red streamer attached, so that they will be easily seen and not be in- will hold the spoiler parallel with the wing span, about one-fourth of the way back
advertently left on the controls when the aircraft is ready to fly. from the leading edge. Special care must be taken when securing the spoilers so
that the ropes are not pulled too tight and damage the leading or the trailing edge
Figure 15: Clamping a Control Surface of the wing. The places where the rope contacts the wing may be protected with
foam rubber, or with scraps of carpet.
Figure 16: Installing Spoiler Boards
The doors and windows should be secured so they cannot be blown open, and all
of the engine openings should be covered, so no blowing dirt can be forced into
either the engine compartment or into the engine itself. The pitot head should also
be covered so water or dirt cannot be blown into it.
Aircraft Parking and Storage Figure 18: Other Aircraft Storage Devices
If an aircraft has to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the open, then ad-
ditional precautions should be taken to guard against the effects of adverse weath-
er. The parkingbrakes must be set and the undercarriage ground locks fitted. All
openings such as static ports, pitot heads, engine intakes and cooling air intakes
should be blanked to prevent the ingress of dirt, birds, insects and precipitation.
When severe weather is expected it is recommended that cockpit/cabin covers
and wheel covers are also fitted. Blanks and covers for all these components are
specially designed for the particular aircraft and, if not visually obvious, are fitted
with streamers to guard against their being left in position when the aircraft is pre-
pared for service; servicing instructions should, however, include a per-flight check
to ensure that all covers and locks have been removed before flight. Always use
the procedure given by the operator.
Figure 17: Engine Covers
17.070
grade. These temperatures can cause precipitation of dissolved water and the for- 17.090
mation of ice, which can interrupt fuel flow. Colorless
JET A JET JET A
To better understand what is required to maintain fuel quality, and the importance or Straw A
JET A
of proper fueling procedures, it is first necessary to have a basic knowledge of avi-
ation fuels, the common forms of fuel contaminants, how they get into the fuel, and
how they can be detected and removed. JET A-1
Colorless JET JET A-1
or Straw A-1
JET A-1
Turbine Fuels
Aviation turbine fuels are used for pouring turbo-jet, turbo-prop and turbo-shaft en-
gines. The types of turbine fuel in use are JET A and JET A-1, which are kerosene JET B Colorless JET JET B
types, and JET B, which is a blend of gasoline and kerosene. or Straw B
JET B
The difference between JET A and JET A-1 is that JET A-1 has a freeze point of
– 47°C whereas JET A has a freeze point of - 40°C. JET B, which is similar to JP-4
is normally used by the military, particularly the Air Force. This fuel has an allow-
able freeze point of - 50°C.
17.110
Fuel Truck
Fuel Hose
Static Wire
Fueling Procedures planes. While it is possible for a jet or turbine engine to run on gasoline, a piston
engine will NOT RUN on JET A.
The fueling process begins with the delivery of fuel to the airport fueling facility. De-
livery is usually accomplished by a tank truck or the underground storage system. From an Underground Storage System
Quality control will begin by checking the bill of loading for the proper amount and
grade of fuel. Most of the large airports that service transport category aircraft with large
amounts of fuel, have underground storage tanks and buried fuel lines that allow
Fuel testing should begin with the tank truck. The personnel receiving the fuel de- the aircraft to be fueled without having to carry the fuel to the aircraft.
livery must determine that the proper type of fuel is in the truck, and samples taken
and checked for visible contamination. If all of the above checks are in order, the A service truck having filters, water separators, and a pump is driven to the aircraft
truck may be connected to the correct unloading point, and unloading may pro- and its inlet hose is connected to the underground hydrant valve. The discharge
ceed. hose or hoses from the servicer are attached to the fueling ports on the aircraft,
and with a properly qualified maintenance person monitoring the fuel controls can
From a Fuel Truck determine the sequence in which the tank are filled, and can shut off the fuel when
a sufficient load has been taken on board. On modern aircrafts, the refueling pro-
Aircraft may have the fuel pumped directly into the tank from over the wing, or from cess is controlled and monitored by a computer.
a single point source under the wing. For simplicity of this explanation, we will con-
sider the fueling procedures from a fuel truck to be done over the wing, and when Some large corporate aircraft also have single point refueling systems. Control of
we discuss the fueling from a pit, we will discuss the under-wing, or single-point, the fueling sequence is from an outside control panel located under an access cov-
method. er. A service technician must be checked out on these systems before operating
them.
Before driving the fuel truck to the aircraft, be sure that the sumps have been
drained and that the sight gauges show that the fuel is bright in place and fully
charged.
Pressure Fueling
Approach the aircraft with a fuel truck near the fuel connection point. Set the park- Most large aircraft are fueled by the single-point, or pressure, fueling method. A
ing brake on the truck and connect the static bonding wire between the truck and large hose carried on the fueling truck is connected to an underground fuel hydrant
and to the fueling port under the aircraft wing, using a bayonet-type fueling nozzle.
the aircraft. The bonding or grounding lugs are normally located on the landing
gear. Make sure, that the truck is parked in such a way, that driving the truck away Figure 22: Pressure Fueling Adapter
from the aircraft in case of an emergency is always possible.
Put a mat over the wing so the fuel hose will not scratch the finish, connect the stat-
ic bonding wire between the nozzle and the aircraft and remove the fuel tank cap.
Remove the dust cap from the nozzle, and when inserting the nozzle into the tank
be sure that the end of the nozzle does not contact the bottom of the tank, as it will
dent the thin metal. 17.130
Should the fuel tank be a fuel cell, contact with the nozzle could cut the fabric of
the cell and cause a serious leak. Immediately check to see that the proper type
of fuel is being delivered by the fuel truck.
Misfueling is a constant danger that can frequently result in a complete power fail-
ure, causing loss of the aircraft and it’s crew.
At the fueling port there is a fueling control panel which contains fuel quantity gag-
There is an industry-wide program to replace all general aviation fuel tank open-
es for each tank, fueling valve switches that activate the fueling valves, lights to
ings with restrictors that will not allow Jet A to be introduced into piston engine air-
show the position of the fueling valves, a fueling power switch, and a fuel gage test
switch. The maximum permissible fueling supply pressure and the maximum per- Defueling
missible defueling pressure are marked on a placard.
It is sometimes necessary to remove fuel from an aircraft, either for maintenance
If the selected tank is to be completely filled, the fueling valve will automatically reasons, or because of a change in flight plans after the aircraft was serviced. De-
close when the tank is full, but if the tank is to be partially filled, the valve can be fueling is carried on in much the same manner as fueling, with the same safety pre-
closed by the fueling operator when the fuel quantity gage shows the appropriate cautions being taken.
amount of fuel is in the tank.
Never defuel an aircraft inside a hanger, or in any area where there is not ade-
Figure 23: Simple Fuel Control Panel quate ventilation. Be sure that all of the proper safeguards are taken with regard
to neutralizing any static electricity that builds up when the fuel flows through the
lines.
If only a small quantity is off-loaded, such as due to load changes, and there is no
reason to suspect contamination, the fuel may be taken back to stock. If there is
any reason to suspect the quality of the off-loaded fuel, such as a large amount
defueled after an engine failure, it should be segregated, preferably held in a fue-
ler, and quarantined until its quality is assured.
In no event should suspect fuel be returned to storage, or placed aboard another
aircraft. If acceptable fuel is returned to storage, make sure it is taken back into the
tank containing the same grade fuel, and that complete quality control procedures
are followed – exactly as if it were a transport delivery truck.
If the aircraft is defueled into drums, be sure that the drums are clean and that the
bungs are tightened immediately after the drums are filled.
Some companies, and some aircraft operations manuals, will not allow fuel that
has been stored in drums to be re used on Aircraft. Frequently this fuel is relegated
to ramp vehicles, space heaters and GPU’s, rather than take a chance with con-
taminated fuel.
Figure 24: Modern Fuel Control Panel
HIGH LEVEL OVER FLOW
L OUTER TK L INNER TK CTR TK TRIM TK R INNER TK R OUTER TK TT R
PWR
OUTR FUEL QTY OUTR TEST TRANSF. VALVE
PRESELECTED SUPPLY
LVL
KG x 1000 NORM CLOSED
ACTUAL
FUEL QTY INR CTR/TT INR
OPEN
CTR
CTR & TT
Kg x 1000
MODE SELECTOR TT BAT OPEN
MODE SELECTOR REFUEL - DEFUEL VALVES
L OUTER TK L INNER TK CTR TK TRIM TK R INNER TK R OUTER TK APU EMERGENCY
REFUEL OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN
OFF NORM NORM NORM NORM NORM NORM
DEFUEL SHUT SHUT SHUT 17.150
SHUT SHUT SHUT SHUT
DOWN
Prior to moving an airplane from heated hanger to an outside location during icing Hot Water De-icing
conditions, the airplane should be anti-iced. This reduces the possibility of ice or
snow melting upon contact with the warm airplane and then refreezing. Hot water at 82-93°C maximum tank temperature can be used effectively to re-
move ice and snow from airplane surfaces when the ambient temperature is -2°C,
Unheated water deicing should be accomplished in a heated hanger, if possible, stable or rising. To prevent water from refreezing, anti-icing fluid should be applied
and the airplane should remain in the hanger until the surfaces are dry. It will be to the surface immediately following hot water deicing. Freezing of residual water
necessary to check those areas where water could be trapped and freeze. Appli- in devices used for hot water deicing may be minimized by adding glycol to the hot
cation of anti-icing fluid will minimize the drying requirements. water tank.
General Precautions Hot Fluid De-icing
• Do not spray anti-icing/deicing fluid directly at or into pitot inlets, TAT
probes or static ports. Deicing fluid heated to 82-93°C tank temperature is effective for ice and snowre-
moval from airplanes when the temperature is below -2°C. A mixture of water and
• Do not spray heated deicing fluid or hot water directly on cold windows. anti-icing fluid (mixed per Table) will melt ice and snow, and the cleared surface
• Do not spray anti-icing/deicing fluid directly into engine, APU, scoops, vents, may retain some anti-ice protection. If the removed material/deicing fluid refreezes
drains, etc. before running off the airplane, it indicates that an incorrect anti-icing fluid dilution
• Be careful if the APU is running. Anti-icing/deicing fluid could be sucked in the was used. Application of additional anti-icing fluid will be required to obtain greater
air inlet. protection.
• Check that ice and/or snow is not forced into areas around flight controls dur-
ing ice and snow removal.
• Remove all ice or snow from the door and girt bar areas before closing any
door.
Figure 25: Aircraft De-icing
17.200
0°C 100/0 12:00 1:15 - 3:00 0:20 - 1:00 0:30 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:10 - 0:40
and 75/25 6:00 0:50 - 2:00 0:15 - 0:40 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25 0:05 - 0:25
above 50/50 4:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:05 - 0:15 0:15 - 0:25 0:05 - 0.15
below 100/0 8:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:30 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30
0°C 75/25 5:00 0:25 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25
to 50/50 3:00 0:15 - 0:45 0:05 - 0:15 0:10 - 0:20 0:05 - 0:15
-3°C
below 100/0 8:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:15 - 0:40 0:30 - 1:00 0.10 - 0:30
-3°C 75/25 5:00 0:25 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25
to
-14°C
below At temperatures lower than -25°C, ISO/SAE Type II fluid may not generally be used.
-25°C Manufacturer descriptions are to be followed.
Ground Servicing Equipment Figure 27: Electrical Ground Power Panel on an Commercial Aircraft
Should any of the aircraft’s systems have been operated, all components of that Oxygen Servicing Equipment
system may have to be cleaned, flushed, or at worst, disassembled for seal re-
placement. This could be extremely expensive and may require the services of a Modern aircraft fly at altitudes
where life support systems are
certified repair station.
needed. Even though most of these
Figure 28: Hydraulic Ground Power Unit aircraft are pressurized, emergency
oxygen must be carried in the event
of failure of the pressurization
equipment.
17.300
Most civilian aircraft carry high-
pressure gaseous oxygen in cylin-
ders. Modern aircrafts provide fur-
ther a ground service port to refill
the oxygen system. Therefore, the
replacement of the cylinder is no
17.260 longer necessary except for inspec-
tion.
Table 1: ATA and Company Task Codes compared Detailed Visual Inspection (DVI)
DVI for Structures
ATA Description Company Description A detailed visual inspection of structural items using concentrated lighting and,
where necessary, inspection aids such as mirrors and magnifying glasses. The
DIS Discard = REM Removal item to be inspected must not be removed if not otherwise specified in the descrip-
tion. The inspection shall disclose discrepancies such as: Cracks, wrinkles, dents,
DVI Detailed Visual Insp. = TVC Thorough Visual Insp. scratches, bulges, corrosion, loose or missing fasteners, signs of looseness of
structural elements (rust and/or abraded material at interfaces), missing or dam-
FNC Functional Check = FUC Functional Check
aged surface protection (primer, paint).
GVI General Visual Insp. = GVC General Visual Check Proximity to the specified item shall permit physical contact if required to de-
termine item condition. Removal of detachable parts to gain visual access if
LUB Lubrication = LUB Lubrication required. Wiping or cleaning may be required in areas susceptible to prob-
lems. The cleaning process must have no detrimental effect on equipment
OPC Operational Check = OPC Operational Check (no wash away of grease or protective coating, no ingestion of dirt). Dam-
SDI Special Detail Insp. = SPC Special Check aged protective coating has to be reapplied.
DVI for Systems and Components
RST Restoration = REM Removal
A detailed visual examination for condition of systems and components using work
SDI Special Detail Insp. = NDT Non Destructiv Testing stands as required and concentrated lighting in area being inspected. This type of
check applies to specified parts, systems and their components, but also to their
SPC Special Check = SPC Special Check mounting brackets, consoles, attach fittings, mechanical controls, electrical wiring
and bonding etc. where applicable. The inspection shall disclose discrepancies as
SVC Servicing = SVC Servicing related to:
TPS Temporary Protection = ACT Anti Corrosion Treatment 1. Proper attachment, safety wiring, cotter pins, loose or missing fasteners,
System loose plumbing or electrical connections or linkage, proper alignment and
clearance.
ZON Zonal Check = ZON Zonal Check 2. Damage, cracks, wrinkles, dents, scratches, bulges, chafing, rubbing, pres-
ence of fluid and air leakage, wear, corrosion, rust, evidence of overheating
VCK Visual Check = WAC Walk Around Check (strange colour, strange odour etc.), preservative coating or finish, cleanliness
and general appearance.
A few of the above ATA Codes are explained in the next section.
Proximity to the specified item shall permit physical contact if required to de- Restoration (RST)
termine item condition. Removal of detachable parts to gain visual access if This term is used for scheduled component changes and overhaul of it.
required. Wiping or cleaning may be required in areas susceptible to prob-
lems. The cleaning process must have no detrimental effect on equipment Special Detailed Inspection (SDI)
(no wash away of grease or protective coating, no ingestion of dirt). Dam-
aged protective coating has to be reapplied. Use of aids like magnifying glass Inspection using Eddy Current / Liquid Penetrant / Magnetic Particle / Ultrasonic /
X-Ray / Thermographic Insp. It refers to the Non Destructive Testing Manual.
and mirror as required.
Corrosion Removal Techniques Avoid overheating of the surface to be reworked if you use handheld power
tools. Wear protection equipment like goggles, face shields, etc. Do not in-
Several standard methods are available for corrosion removal. The methods nor- crease the recommended speeds otherwise your sanding tool can burst. Use only
mally used to remove corrosion are chemical treatments, and sanding with abra- the recommended abrasives as given in the SRM.
sive paper or metal wool, and mechanical sanding or buffing with abrasive mats,
grinding wheels, or rubber mats. However, the method used depends upon the Abrasive Blasting
metal and the degree of corrosion. The removal method to use on each metal for
Abrasive blasting is a process for cleaning or finishing metals, plastics and other
each particular degree of corrosion is outlined in the SRM. In special instances, a
materials by directing a stream of abrasive particles against the surface of the
particular or specific method may be required to remove corrosion. Depending
parts. Abrasive blasting is used for the removal of rust and corrosion and for clean-
upon rework criteria, corrosion in a hole may be reworked by enlarging a hole may
ing prior to further processing such as painting or plating. Standard blast cleaning
be removed by enlarging the hole. Abrasive and Dry-Ice Blasting may be required
practices should be adopted with the following requirements being met:
for removing corrosion from steel fasteners, side skins, or irregularly shaped parts
or surfaces. When ever such special cases occur, the method for corrosion remov- 1. Any form of blast cleaning equipment may be used; but in cabinet blasting is
al will be specified with the rework criteria in the applicable manuals. preferred.
Corrosion removal with chemical treatments must be agreed by the engineer- 2. External gun blasting may be used if adequate confinement and recovery are
ing department. provided for the abrasives.
3. Use only glass bead abrasive.
Abrasing/Sanding Tools Magnesium creates a fire hazard when abrasive blasted. Adequate precautions
Coated abrasives in several forms are used extensively in assembly areas. The must be taken when abrasive blasting this metal.
most common forms include abrasive drums, bands, cartridge rolls (both cylindri- Dry abrasive blasting of titanium alloys and high tensile strength steel creates
cal an conical), disks, sheets and strip (Figure 4 on page 13).
sparking. Care must be taken to assure that there is no hazardous concentration
In all forms, abrasives are used for the same general purpose: to remove tool of inflammable vapours present.
marks, to improve surface finish, to deburr holes or edges, to break or round cor- Avoid excessive inhalation of abrasive dust. Provide ventilation as required.
ners, to improve fit up of mating parts, to remove minor surface imperfections, and
to remove corrosion. Selection of an abrasive tool (or abrasive sheet) for a given
job is a matter of part configuration, size, material, and accessibility. Selection of
grit size depends on the amount of metal to be removed and the surface finish re- Dry-Ice Blasting
quired. Blasting technologies like abrasive or sandblasting for removing paint, dirt, grease
The grit sizes most often used in assembly areas range from very coarse to very or similar coatings are known for years. For a few years, dry ice has been used as
fine in all forms except sheet and strip. an effective blast media for industry. The main advantage of the system is that the
The coarser the grit size, the more rapid the metal removed rate and the tougher dry ice pellets verge into gaseous condition right after the impact. Only the de-
the finish; the finer the grit size, the slower the metal removal rate, and the finer tached dirt will have to be disposed of. This means drastically reduced disposal
costs and time saving as well.
the finish.
What is dry-ice? Dry-ice is CO2 (carbon dioxide) in solid state.
The most efficient operating speed for abrasive tools is from 6,500 to 8,500 sur-
face feet per minute. This means that abrasive tools up to 2 inches in diameter CO2 is an environmental friendly non toxic gas. In the beverage industry for exam-
would be run at spindle speeds up to 16,000 RPM, and those up to 4 inches in di- ple it is added to mineral water or beer for keeping it fresh, tasty and extending the
ameter should be run at spindle speeds up to 8,000 RPM. Use an abrasive tool in durability (bubbles). CO2 is also used in the food industry or in airplanes for cooling
a chucking motor that most closely approaches the required spindle speed. food.
Corrosion or Dirt
CO2 Pellets
Flaking-off
The accelerated dry ice pellets produce a punctual thermal shock within fraction of
a second. Consequently, the coating to be removed, will shrink, develop cracks
and come off the object. So, only the detached dirt remains, while the dry-ice
changes immediately into gas. Thus, the surface quality remains unaltered thanks
to the treatment without abrasion.
18.005
Procedure for Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys 9. Perform alodine process and/or protect surface per operator standard proce-
dure.
Aluminium and its alloys are the most widely used materials in the construction of
commercial aircraft’s. Aluminum is characterized by an excellent strength to Do not use carbon steel brush or steel wool on aluminum surfaces. Tiny dis-
weight ratio, thermal and electrical conductivity, and high reflectance. In addition, similar metal particles will become imbedded in he aluminum causing further
this metal is nonmagnetic, nontoxic, and will not spank when struck against other corrosion and subsequent damage to part. Be careful if you remove corrosion next
metals. The formation of a tightly adhering oxide film on pure aluminum, or clad to steel fasteners. Do not grind into fasteners heads and adjacent structure other-
surfaces which carry a plating of pure aluminum, offer increased resistance in wise steel particles will be imbedded in the aluminum structure and cause further
most corrosive conditions. Corrosive attack on aluminum surfaces is usually obvi- corrosion. All corrosion products must be removed completely otherwise the cor-
ous, the corrosion products are generally white and more voluminous than the roding process will continue even though the affected surface is refinished.
original base metal. Even in the early stages of corrosion, damage is evident as
Figure 5: Corrosion Removal (Single Pit)
general etching, pitting and roughness of the surface.
7. Fair depressions resulting from rework as detailed in the SRM and surface fin-
ish with 400-grit abrasive paper.
8. Clean the reworked area.
Determine depth of faired depressions as detailed in the allowable damages given
in the SRM to ensure that rework limits have not exceeded.
Perform the alodine process and/or protect surface per operator standard proce-
dure.
Be careful if you remove corrosion next to steel fasteners. Do not grind into
fastener heads and adjacent structure otherwise steel particles will be imbed-
ded in the magnesium structure and cause further corrosion. All corrosion
products must be removed completely otherwise the corroding process will
continue even through the affected surface is refinished.
Protective Treatment Category C1: Areas in contact with water, humidity and occasionally with other liq-
uids and/or areas with high risk for accidental damage.
This section is about the surface protection which is given to the aircraft structure. Category C2-1: Areas in contact with water, humidity and frequently with other flu-
The protective treatments prevent corrosion and a damage by agressive fluids and ids.
provide erosion protection to metallic structures. Composite structures have a sur-
face treatment to protect them against the effects of lightning strike, ultra violet Category C2-2: Areas where water, humidity and other fluids will collect and where
rays and erosion. access is difficult.
The type of the surface protection of the components is related to: Figure 8: Surface Protection Categories
• the material
• the function
• the location
When a repair requires the removal of the original surface protection, the correct
surface protection must be applied after the repair is completed (Refer to the
SRM Chapter 51).
Special Coatings
Special coatings are applied to those areas which require a special corrosion pro-
tection. Two types of special coatings are used as follows:
Type 1: Water Repellent Coating: Generally made from silicone free materials or-
ganically bound with a mineral oil base to repel moisture.
Type 2: Heavy Duty Corrosion Preventive Compound: Grease-like coatings con-
taining corrosion inhibitors which protect against corrosive agents.
Each type is available in various grades. These can be either soft film forming
or hard film forming.
Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep" Procedure If solution contacts eyes, wash with water followed by an eye wash or boric acid.
Obtain medical aid immediately. Do not allow swabs, paper etc. used for applying
Touch-N-Prep® pens are designed for easy and safe repair of clean, bare, or pre- or removing the alodine solution, to dry out. The constitute a fire hazard when
viously painted aluminum surfaces. It is a non-rinse, dry-in-place application that
dried. Immediately after use, soak thoroughly in water before discarding.
can be applied using the following steps:
1. Before applying the coating, the treated surface must be cleaned using the fol- Aloide 1200 Brush Procedure
lowing process: 1. Prepare Alodine 1200 Brush solution
a) Use a moistened abrasive pad to remove oxides from the surface of the a) Roll the contents of each container of Alodine 1200 powder thoroughly on
metal. clean paper prior to withdrawal of fraction to be used.
b) Wipe substrate with a damp lint-free cloth to ensure complete removal of b) Add 3 ounces (85 g) for each gallon (3.7851) of water used.
soils and dislodged oxides generated from the previous step.
c) Mix in stainless steel or acid resistant container (Do not use lead or
c) Allow surface to dry before touch-N-Prep® application glass).
2. To activate, hold the Touch-N-Prep® pen upright, pop off the cap and hold the d) Stir well until powder is dissolved.
pen tip down onto a clean surface to begin the flow of solution to the tip. Do e) Allow the solution to stand at least for one hour before use.
not twist or turn to remove the cap, since this may result in the pen leaking.
A dirty solution is unsatisfactory. Prepare in small quantities and discard
3. Press the pen tip down on the surface until solution fills the pen tip. Apply the when old or dirty.
Alodine® 871™ solution to the metal surface with firm, smooth, even strokes,
covering all edges. Overlap each stroke and allow to dry. 2. Prepare the surface for headlining.
a) Mark all surface likely to be affected by running, dripping, or splashing of
4. Within 5 minutes of the first coat, apply a second coat at a 90° angle to the
the solution. Painted, anodized, or previously alodined surfaces need not
first coat with the same smooth, firm stroke.
be masked.
5. Allow the Alodine Touch-N-Prep® coating to air dry thoroughly. b) Seal or plug all holes and entry ports to prevent entry of solution into as-
6. Frequent short jabs to rewet the application tip are preferred to maintain con- semblies.
stant coating weights and avoid over-wetting the felt tip. c) Clean area to be alodined with a liquid solvent degreaser. Dry with warm
7. Always immediately replace the cap when not in use to avoid evaporation and air or wipe dry.
contamination. d) Mechanically remove all finish and protective coating from the affected
area to produce an uniformly bright aluminum surface. Use Tycro,
Aluminium Alloy Alodine Process Scotchbrite pad, very fine aluminum oxide pad, or 400 grit aluminum ox-
ide paper.
Alodine™ is the registered trade name of a treatment process marketed by the
American Chemical Paint Company. It is approved for the production of a chemical e) Wipe with dry clean Cheese-cloth to remove loose particles and residue
film on aluminum alloy. Treat repair parts and original structure that has been cut from the abraded area.
or filed with Alodine 1200, 1200S or Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep". f) Wipe with Cheese-cloth dampened with MEK. Repeat using clean
Cheese-cloth until no visible residue transfers to the Cheesecloth.
Safety Information g) Allow to dry for a minimum of 15 minutes.
Handle brush Alodine 1200 and Alodine 871 with the usual precautions for corro- 3. Apply Alodine 1200 solution.
sive chemicals. Use respirators, goggles, rubber or neoprene gloves, boots, and a) Apply Alodine 1200 evenly and liberally with a fibre or nylon brush or
aprons when handling the powder and applying the solution. Do not allow the pow- clean Cheese-cloth.
der or solution to contact the skin. Wash off immediately.
b) Allow the solution to remain for 3 to 4 minutes to form a coating. Keep the
area from drying during this period by gently blotting with Cheese-cloth
moistened with the solution.
c) Rinse with clean water by gently contacting the surface with wet (not sat-
urated) clean Cheese-cloth. Contact for 1 to 2 minutes and repeat with
clean Cheese-cloth.
Exercise care when rinsing and drying to avoid scratching or remove the
coating, which is tender when freshly formed.
Gently contact the surface with clean dry Cheese-cloth to absorb excess liquid.
d) Dry thoroughly using hot air 71°C (160°F) maximum for a period of 15
minutes.
e) Apply final finish as soon as possible after drying. Handle parts with clean
gloves and keep parts clean and dry to avoid surface contamination.
Structural Repair Manual (SRM) or fatigue life of the structure, which must still be capable of fulfilling its design func-
tion. Allowable damage may require minimal rework such as cleanup or drilling
Manual Overview stop holes, and details of this minimal rework, to enable the airplane to be returned
to service, are given. To define allowable damage, graphs will be used.
Structural Repair Manuals include descriptive information as well as specific in-
structions and data relative to the field repair of structures and structural compo- Repairs
nents of an aircraft. The section 'Repairs' contains sufficient information to enable the operator to carry
It will serve as a medium through which the operators will be advised of actual re- out permissible repairs. Each of the repair examples is described with the aid of a
pairs of a general-interest nature developed by the aircraft manufaturer. diagram, which in turn is supplemented by materials lists and procedural instruc-
The material presented in SRMs are divided into chapters. According to the tions given in the subsequent pages.
ATA 100 numbering system, the chapters are numbered from 51 to 57 This could
look like the following:
Consumable Materials
• Structures - General This section entitled - Consumable Materials - contains lists of materials extracted
from the Consumable Materials List, and detail all those consumable products cur-
• Doors
rently specified in SRM topics.
• Fuselage
• Nacelles/Pylons Substitute Materials
• Stabilizers The Section ’Substitute Materials’ contains lists of substitutable materials allowed
• Windows by the manufaturer.
• Wings
Fastener Information
The contents are:
The Section ’Fastener Information’ contains detailed informations about fasteners.
• allowable damage,
• material identification for structures subject to field repair, Procedure for Manual Usage
• typical repairs generally applicable to structural components of the airplane
Example: Airbus SRM
that are most likely to be damaged,
• substitute materials, For the efficient use of this manual the following procedure is recommended.
• fastener information, 1. Determine the damage classification.
• a brief description of some procedures carried out in conjunction with structur- a) Using the manual chapter index, locate the chapter which refers to the
al repairs, such as protective treatment of repair parts and sealing of integral damaged part.
fuel tanks. b) Locate the section, which refers to the damaged part in the Table of Con-
Nacelles are usually covered by the engine manufacturers Nacelle Structural tents.
Repair Manual. c) In the relevant chapter refer to the topic 'Allowable Damage'.
2. Identify the damaged part in the manual.
Allowable Damage a) Locate the section and subsection which refers to the damaged part in
The data, to be found on the Allowable Damage Pages is intended to permit an the Table of Contents.
operator to ascertain whether a damaged airplane may be returned to service with- b) Refer to the figure reference at section, subsection level.
out repair. Damage permitted by this data has no significant effect on the strength
c) Locate the relevant figure, identify the damaged component and refer to
the relevant identification page.
3. Determine the repair procedure.
a) On the identification page for the part concerned refer to the 'ACTION OR
REPAIR' column and determine whether the part has a reference to a re-
pair within the manual, either in the chapter concerned or in another
chapter.
b) In the event of major structural damage, the necessary replacement parts
can be ordered by means of the Structural Spare Parts Identification. This
identification includes illustrations of all structural parts. Structural spare
parts may be ordered at the manufacturer.
Where the space is left blank, it is not recommended to replace the part
but no repair exist. Adequate repair procedure can only be designated
after complete damage evaluation.
Aging Aircraft A well-established inspection and maintenance plan for each airplane and the ex-
change of performance and maintenance information among aircraft manufactur-
Aging Aircraft Structure ers, operators, and regulatory agencies. Data from inspections allows new
airplane design to incorporate features for cost-effective upkeep of the structures
Many thousands out-of-production commercial airplanes will be flying by the year and systems, which in turn allows extended safe operation in less-than-ideal envi-
2000, according to recent estimates, with many airplanes operating beyond their ronments.
model design service objectives (DSO) for a second or third operator. Out-of-pro-
duction airplanes are those models that are no longer being manufactured, but are Structural Modification and Inspection
still operating. Continuing airworthiness has traditionally been dependent on repetitive inspec-
Aircraft manufacturer work consistently to assist airlines in safely operating these tions. However, concerns about aging airplanes as well as a better understanding
airplanes according to globally accepted airworthiness standards. of the human factors associated with numerous repetitive actions, prompted a re-
In addition to offering maintenance recommendations and ongoing structural stud- assessment of the viability of indefinite repetitive inspections. The authorities,
ies, the aircraft manufacturers work with component manufacturers, operators, manufacturers, and operators agreed that continued operational safety of air-
and regulatory agencies to ensure proper maintenance of these airplanes and to planes could be better served by placing less emphasis on repetitive inspections
gather data about them for future safety improvements. and more emphasis on design improvements and material replacement.
These airplanes are supported by an extensive network of inspection and mainte- The Structures Task Group (STG), which consists of manufacturers, operators,
nance programs. The focus of these programs is monitoring maintenance practic- and certifying agencies, was given the task of selecting service bulletins for each
es, adjusting maintenance schedules for airplane safety, and accumulating airplane model for incorporation of mandatory structural modification at a given
information to improve design of the next generation of airplanes. threshold to maintain safety. In the event of known fatigue cracking, corrosion
problems, or both, the STG normally introduces a service bulletin to define inspec-
A number of these airplanes are now also entering the "aging" category. Aging air- tions. If damage is found during the defined inspections, the STG introduces an-
planes are defined as those that are flying beyond their DSO, which traditionally other service bulletin containing instructions for repairs and modifications at a
has been 20 years. For newer models that figure has grown to as long as 30 years. specific threshold.
Approximately 20 percent of all commercial jet airplanes flying today are consid-
ered to be aging airplanes. As that number increases, so does the need for height- Corrosion Prevention and Control
ened fleet monitoring by airlines and manufacturers and continued intense focus
A program was developed that, in some cases, may require more frequent main-
and surveillance of these activities by regulatory agencies.
tenance visits to accomplish corrosion inspections. These inspections were de-
In order to handle increased maintenance needs, the aircraft manufacturers con- signed to control corrosion damage to acceptable minimum levels that will not
tinue to establish partnerships, train its customers, and extend its facilities. adversely affect safety. Changes were required to operators maintenance pro-
Support for out-of-production airplanes and for aging airplanes built by all manu- grams if they could not demonstrate that corrosion was being kept within the ac-
facturers is provided through two major sources: ceptable minimums. Design improvements based on data collected from these
inspections and from service experience have been incorporated into current-pro-
1. Industry standards for aging-fleet structure programs. duction airplanes.
2. Additional manufacturer-specific programs.
These standards were developed by an international working group whose mem-
Maintenance Program Guideline
bers represent manufacturers, regulatory agencies, and operators. Though not all Although manufacturers have published maintenance programs for each model,
activities aimed at safe operation of out-of-production and aging airplanes are no comprehensive guidelines existed to properly address aging-fleet concerns. A
mandated, the highest level of safety possible depends on two factors: structural maintenance program guidelines document was created to identify and
summarize all of the relevant structural maintenance and modification tasks for a
particular area of structure. In addition, model-specific documents were created to • Enhance airplane maintenance to better address aging airplane systems.
collect all data for a particular model airplane such as maintenance planning data, • Add aging systems tasks to the aging airplane research program.
service bulletins and service letters. • Improve reporting of accident, incident, and maintenance actions involving
wiring system components.
Supplemental Structural Inspections (SSI)
• Evaluate the need for additional maintenance of transport airplane fuel sys-
Supplemental structural inspection (SSI) documents are currently in use for aging tem wiring and address any potentially unsafe conditions.
airplanes. These documents help ensure the continued safe operation of the aging
• Improve wiring installation drawings and instructions for continuing airworthi-
fleet through timely detection of potential fatigue damage at locations previously
ness.
not reported as damaged. The documents are updated regularly to reflect service
experience and operator inputs. Evaluate Fleet Condition
Repair Assessment The first task will be to conduct a sampling inspection of the fleet, to include estab-
lishing the airplane models to be evaluated, determining the evaluation criteria, de-
Traditionally, repairs to airplane structures have primarily focused on static
veloping a plan, and evaluating the fleet.
strength and fail safety to the structure after the repair. Recent aging-airplane con-
cerns and regulatory changes have increased the emphasis on the effect repairs Airplanes to be surveyed include those undergoing heavy maintenance, those sit-
may have on the damage tolerance of the airplane structure. As a result, a repair ting out of service, and those representing newer airplanes of each affected model.
assessment document has been developed to ensure the continued airworthiness Airplanes undergoing heavy maintenance. The applicable OEM and airline repre-
of repaired structures. sentatives for each airplane model have identified significant electrical systems
that are susceptible to the effects of aging. They plan to survey those systems on
Aging Aircraft Systems older airplanes for which previous inspection data does not exist or is incomplete.
Surveys of wiring and related electrical systems on DC-8, DC-9, DC-10, 727, 737,
In the last section, we have discussed about aging of aircraft structures. This sec-
747, and L-1011 airplanes were scheduled to be completed in May 1999, when the
tion is about aging systems as components and electrical installations. RAC was slated to review the results. Surveys of the Airbus A300, which was re-
As the average age of commercial airplanes currently in service increases, con- cently added to the roster of aging airplanes, are expected to be complete in De-
cerns continue to be raised about existing maintenance programs and how effec- cember 1999.
tively they can help ensure the continued airworthiness of older airplanes. The
purpose of the program is to determine what action must be taken to mitigate the Airplanes sitting out of service.
effects of age on systems in older airplanes. The condition of systems on recently retired airplanes that are no longer econom-
A plan that responds to concerns about the condition of aging nonstructural sys- ically feasible for commercial service operation will also be evaluated. Intrusive,
tems on these airplanes was released. The plan resulted from a program similar detailed examination of these airplanes should identify conditions that could po-
to one established in 1988 to evaluate aging airplane structures. tentially affect the proper operation of similar systems on airplanes still in service.
The international authorities recommended that operators and original equipment Newer airplanes representing affected models. Information from surveys of both
manufacturers (OEM) expand the aging aircraft program to include nonstructural in-service airplanes and recently retired airplanes will be used to survey newer air-
planes that represent the affected models. This aspect determines at which point
components. The plan released outlines seven initiatives to address aging air-
plane systems: general conditions related to aging begin to appear. The results will be reflected in
recommendations for proper maintenance intervals.
• Establish an aging transport systems oversight committee to coordinate the
various aging systems initiatives within the international authorities. Because of the complexity and difficulty of reporting incidents on electrical sys-
tems and because of the difficulty in obtaining historical data specific to airplane
• Conduct an in-depth review of the aging transport fleet and make model-spe-
cific safety recommendations related to airplane systems.
wiring, the short-term focus will be on electrical systems. A decision whether sur- facility. Removing unnecessary information and tailoring the procedures to specific
veys of other airplane systems are required will be made at the end of 1999. repair facilities are expected to streamline the repair of electrical components.
In addition, the FAA recommended that a process that trains maintenance person-
Review Fleet Service History nel to recognize aging effects on electrical systems and alerts them to proper re-
As airplanes age, changes in operational, maintenance, and design practices pair procedures be defined.
prompt production changes to the airplane that cause the design to continuously
evolve. Many changes benefit operators and are offered for retrofit on earlier air- Review Inspection and Repair Training Programs
planes. Operator and regulatory consideration of these postdelivery changes for As with maintenance programs, operators also customize their inspection and re-
airplane fleet installation is based on economic and safety factors. If a change is pair training programs based on their own requirements. The FAA has recom-
not immediately mandated by regulatory agencies, economic factors determine mended collecting the best practices from each training program and establishing
whether any postdelivery changes are installed on commercial airplanes. a model inspection and repair training program that reflects industry best practic-
The service history of each airplane model will also be evaluated to determine es. The Air Transport Association has already compiled some best practices from
whether to recommend that the FAA mandate certain production modifications on its member airlines, including operator-amended recommendations from Boeing
in-service airplanes. Depending on the outcome of this evaluation, a similar pro- on proven maintenance, training, and procedural practices. This information will
gram may be instituted on airplanes with type designs less than 20 years old. serve as the basis for a maintenance best-practices videotape and any future in-
spection and repair training programs.
Improve Maintenance Criteria
Boeing recommends a general plan for maintenance of each airplane model, but Summary
many operators customize these plans based on their unique requirements and After continuously monitoring its in-service airplanes and conducting an historical
experiences. These maintenance plans are reviewed and approved by the appli- analysis of airplane accidents, Boeing has not identified aging aircraft systems as
cable regulatory agencies but may not completely address the effects of aging. a major problem. These results are based on data from thousands of airplanes that
The FAA has recommended that general maintenance procedures be evaluated have accumulated millions of flight hours over the last 25 years. As the result of
and that a model-specific maintenance program be developed. Specific areas un- scheduled and unscheduled line and base maintenance, many nonstructural sys-
der review are developing an improved electrical system inspection criteria; defin- tem components and the wires, tubes, and hoses that link these components are
ing practices to eliminate wire bundle contamination or damage; determining an inspected, repaired, or replaced. However, Boeing is working with the aviation in-
acceptable criteria for corrosion of components; establishing a process to link line, dustry on a program established by the FAA to assess the effects of age on sys-
base, and shop maintenance actions; and reviewing the maintenance steering tems in older airplanes. When completed, the program will provide all members of
group-3 (MSG-3) process. The effects of aging noted during the surveys of both the industry with the necessary information to ensure the continued safety of non-
in-service and out-of-service airplanes will be considered when updating the crite- structural systems on these airplanes.
ria. The MSG-3 process establishes the initial minimum maintenance and inspec-
tion requirements for operators to use when developing an approved continuous
airworthiness maintenance program for airframe, engines, systems, and compo-
nents.
Visual Inspection
The most fundamental method of inspection and one that will never be replaced
but only augmented, is the visual inspection. It is limited, of course, in that nothing
can be inspected by this method unless it is discovered, cleaned and made visible.
The basic tools required for visual inspections are sufficient light, the old fashioned
eyeball and in some cases a magnifying glass or a mirror.
Flashlights are normally used to give spot type illumination to the area being in-
spected, and to make flashlights more useful for inspecting in difficult locations,
special inspection lights are available with long flexible extensions that place the
bulb inside areas that would otherwise be dark.
Borescope/Endoscope
Borescopes are used to inspect the inside of engine cylinders through the spark
plug hole or special designated borescope holes at the engine core case. A bore-
scope is actually an optical devise similar in principle to a telescope but with a built-
in light source that illuminates the area being inspected.
One of the more useful types of borescope for inspecting extremely difficult loca-
tions is the flexible fibre optic borescope. This uses a bundle of optical glass fibres
to transmit light from a special cold light source to the end of the scope which may
be worked well up inside the engine or the structure being inspected. A special at-
tachment for this instrument allows a single-lens reflex camera to be used to pho-
tographically record what is seen through the scope. Fibre optic borescope are
available in lengths up to almost four feet.
Many borescopes have an adaptor on the eye-piece which allows the image of the
inspection area to be recorded on photographic film, on video, or to be viewed with
a Closed Circuit TV system (CCTV).
Penetrate Types
There are two types of indications used by the liquid penetrate method:
1. Fluorescent indication (Zyglo Check)
An ultraviolet, or black light is used with the fluorescent penetrate, and any de-
fect will show up as a green line.
2. Coloured Dye indication (Dye check)
With the coloured dye method, defects show up as red lines on the white sur-
face of the developer.
While, in aircraft maintenance, these procedures are used mainly to detect surface
discontinuities, they may also be used to detect discontinuities which exist below
the surface of a component. The sensitivity does, however, decrease quickly with
the increasing depth of discontinuities below the surface.
Magnetic particle inspection procedures can involve portable and mobile equip-
ment, which permit procedures to be done without removing components from
their locations on the aircraft, or stationary.
When a ferromagnetic component is magnetized, lines of flux are established in
that component. If a discontinuity exists in the component and that discontinuity
cuts across the path of the lines of flux, the flux is diverted and new, local poles
can be set up on the surface of the component. This is known as flux leakage (Re-
fer to Figure 701).
If fine particles of magnetic material are applied to the surface of the magnetized
component, these particles will be attracted to any flux leakages and will gather at
the site of the new poles.
Maximum sensitivity is achieved when discontinuities lie at right angles to the di-
rection of magnetic flux but sensitivity is not seriously reduced with discontinuities
orientated at angles up to 45° from the optimum direction. Beyond 45° sensitivity
diminishes quickly and discontinuities which lie parallel to the direction of flux will
not, cause flux leakages of sufficient strength to be detected (see Figure 6).
Because flux leakages can be caused by discontinuities (cracks, laps, non-
metallic inclusions, pipe porosity, seams etc.), and also by changes of geom-
etry (edges, holes, recesses, thread roots etc.), indications can be relevant or
nonrelevant to the condition of the component. Relevant indications must be re-
corded before the component is demagnetized and cleaned upon completion of
the inspection.
X-Ray Inspection
Radiography is utilized to facilitate inspection of complex structures and to provide
an overview of the status of a complete assembly. It has also been to detect pitting
corrosion in tubular steel cylinders such as torsion bars. Generally, X-ray radiog-
raphy lacks sensitivity or produces low-contrast radiographs unless beryllium-win-
dow X-ray tubes, which produce soft (low-energy) radiation, are used. To be
detectable, the changes in thickness must be on the order of two percent of the
total thickness. Radiography may be used to detect stress corrosion cracks when
the radiation beam is parallel to the plant of the crack.
Metallic and nonmetallic parts can be examined using X-ray procedures.
Principle of X-Ray
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations with a wavelength range between 0.001 and
100 nanometers (nm).
X-rays have the following properties:
1. They are not affected by magnetic fields.
2. They travel in straight lines.
3. They pass through solid materials.
4. Some of their energy is absorbed by solid materials.
5. They can not be deflected.
6. They can cause damage to the health.
The intensity of the X-rays, that reach the film, is decreased in proportion to the
thickness and density of material they have passed through. This decrease in
intensity is caused by absorption and scattering of the rays.
Disassembly and Reassembly Techniques All static mating surfaces, seams and joints must be sealed with a sealant which
is applied to each surface before the installation.
There many different standards in assembly
techniques, and therefore, it is not possible to Protective Treatment of Fasteners during Installation
cover all of them in this section. Refer to If different metals touch each other, galvanic corrosion occurs. The fasteners used
chapter 20 in the AMM for general aircraft are not always made of the same metal as the structural parts because of the nec-
standards and chapter 51 in the SRM for essary strength. This fact makes a protection against galvanic corrosion neces-
structural standards. sary. Fasteners are usually pretreated by the manufacturer.
Where galvanic corrosion has to be prevented, the fasteners are installed wet with
General sealant.
Tagging Parts Removal of Damage
As a general rule, all removed parts must be placarded with a ’servicable/unservi-
In some instances it will be necessary to cut away the damaged material and dress
cable’ tag. This is to identify each removed part, if it is servicable or not.
back the surrounding structure. Although it should be ensured that no more mate-
Discarding O-Rings and Gaskets rial than necessary is removed, it is necessary to make sure that the adjacent
structure to which the repair is to be applied is in a sound condition.
It is not allowed to reuse any used O-Ring or Gasket. Discard any parts like this.
When removing riveted structure, care must be taken not to damage those rivet
Securing the Working Area holes which are to be used again (e.g. by burring, enlargement or undercutting)
since circular, smooth-edged holes are essential if the risk of failure by fatigue is
Before disassambling or assembling any component or part, the systems or area to be kept to a minimum.
where you are working must be properly secured.
Bolt holes should be treated with equal care, it being particularly important that the
Rule of Thumb for Bolts Installation holes in stressed parts should be free from scores or burrs. Where necessary,
When bolts are installed in aircraft structur, unless some reason dictates other- bolts should be eased with penetrating oil before extraction but it is also necessary
wise, the heads should be upward, in a forward direction, or outboard. The reason to ensure that the oil does not damage adjacent sealing media. Bolts on which the
for installing bolts in this way is that they are less likely to fall out if the nut should nuts were locked by a peening over process must have the burrs removed to re-
ever be lost. move the nuts and these bolts must not be used again.
Removing by Cutting
Structure and Components
When damaged panels are to be removed by cutting (i.e. not by dismantling at a
Components production joint) all edges must be free from burrs and notches and trimmed to a
smooth finish. It is important that the corner radii of stressed panels are correct and
When removed, always plug any open tube or connection on both the component
that the dimensions and locations of cuts are within the limits specified in the repair
and the aircrafts system. This prevents from entering of any foreign object or dirt.
drawing.
Good visible plugs or caps must be used!
Special care is necessary when damaged parts are removed by cutting, to ensure
Mating Surfaces that the remaining structure or material is not damaged by drills, rotary cutting
Mating surfaces are very sensitive to corrosion because moisture and contamina- tools, hack-saw blades, etc.
tion can go between the surfaces and cause corrosion. If the attached parts are Repairs in pressure cabin and integral fuel tank areas may involve separation of
made of different metals, galvanic corrosion occurs. members riveted and sealed together.
Some sealants have considerable adhesion and members riveted and sealed to-
gether. may cause difficulty in separating the members after the rivets have been
removed. Where such separation is necessary, the solvents specified and meth-
ods of separation detailed in the Repair or Maintenance Manual must be strictly
followed.
After repairs in a pressurised area or a fuel tank, either a leak test or a pres-
sure test may be specified in the appropriate manual.
Wear
Where holes are found to be elongated by stress the part must be renewed. How-
ever, if elongation is due to wear and is beyond the limits permitted by the Repair
Manual, rectification schemes are usually given.
The corresponding pin or bolt assemblies should be inspected for wear, distortion,
'picking-up' and shear, and where necessary renewed. Lubricating ducts should
be checked for obstruction.
Where bushed holes are fitted it is usual to renew the worn bush, but where the
hole in the fitting has become enlarged so that the new bush is loose, a repair
scheme is usually available for reaming out the hole and fitting an oversize bush.
When excessive wear has taken place in unbushed holes the fitting should be re-
newed unless there is an approved scheme available whereby the hole can be
reamed oversize and a bush fitted; in some cases an oversize bolt or pin may be
specified.
According to the nature of the repair, stage inspections will be necessary during
the progress of the repair work (e.g. inspection of rivet or bolt holes, inspection of
structures before covering for workmanship, protection, security, locking of screw
threaded parts and duplicate inspection of controls. These inspections should be
listed on an Inspection Record Sheet in a sequence related to the repair report,
and should give details of the inspection required.
NO
Is there ground at NO
pin C?
YES
Replace the MOTOR CONV-WIPER Do a check of the wiring from pin C
1DB1(1DB2) of the wiper motor converter
acc. AMM TASK30-45-51-000-801 1DB1(1DB2) to pin 3 of the WIPER
and 30-45-51-400-801 control switch 3DB1(3DB2)
YES
Among the scheduled inspections, there are several unscheduled inspections di- these inspections have been written for the worst possible case. In order to gain
fined by the manufacturer. They come in to action, if an abnormal event occurs. an indication of the severity of the incident and to facilitate rapid location of primary
Several checks and inspections are listed below that you must do after the aircraft damage it is essential that full information be obtained from the flight crew. There-
has gone through special or abnormal conditions. You can find all these inspec- fore before you start an inspection, consult the crew and get data on the following:
tions in the Manufacturers Maintenance Manual, Chapter 5. • Weather conditions
This section does not cover nor explain each unscheduled inspection. In the fol- • Aircraft speed and flight attitude
lowing, we use the "Lightning Strike" and the "Hard/Overweight landing" as our ex- • Aircraft weight and fuel distribution
amples. • Landing: was touchdown straight, drifting, wing low, nose up or down?
• Was any noise of impact or indicative of structure or component failure heard?
Unscheduled Inspections
• Applicable instrument indications
• hard/overweight landing • Was the aircraft in clean configuration(landing gear and secondary flight con-
• landing-gear down limit speed exceeded trols retracted)
• flap/slat limit speed exceeded
If installed, a printout of the maintenance data recorder-tape will give valuable ad-
• bird or hail strike ditional data and indication of system malfunction and loads.
• tire burst or tread throw
• brake emergency application or overheat
• flight in excessive turbulence or in excess of VMO
• lightning strike or static discharge
• engine bird strike or slush ingestion
• tail runway impact
• NLG towing overload or overrun
• NLG steering angle exceeded
• leaving runway or taxiway
• flight through dust storm/volcanic ash or severe condition on ground
• engine failure
• engine side loads
• mercury spillage
• abnormal pax/crew door movement.
For training purposes, we will first go through the inspection system used by
Airbus Industrie. After that we will have a look at one of the most frequently
used inspections, the "Lightning Strike Condition".
Inspection Coverage
It is not possible to give precise details of the inspection procedure to be adopted
after every incident because of the wide variations of weight, speed, nature and
direction of loads, weather conditions and component failure patterns. Therefore
Lightning Strike Evidence of lightning strikes usually appear more prevalent at the airplane extrem-
ities such as wing and ail tips and nose radome. Damage due to the sweeping ac-
Airplanes in flight are susceptible to various environmental hazards including light- tion of the lightning channel will usually be most severe at the trailing edge
ning and high-intensity radiated fields (HIRF) Page 7. Both these conditions can surfaces.
impose sudden, serious damage to critical and essential airplane systems such as In metallic structures, lightning damage usually results in localized pitting or burn-
electronic engine controls, high lift devices, and primary flight controls, and can af- ing of small circular holes which may be clustered in one locality or scattered over
fect safety of flight. Protection from these conditions is built into airplanes through a large area. Damage may also be indicated by burnt or discolored skin or rivets.
shielded enclosures and shielded wiring, which are grounded to airplane structure.
Airplanes also operate under the constant extremes of pressure and temperature In Composite (non-metallic) structures, either solid laminated or honeycomb, dam-
while exposed to moisture, shock, and vibration. These degrade the integrity of age may be indicated by discolored paint; burned, punctured, or delaminated skin
shielding systems, requiring operators to periodically test the shields and their con- piles. Non-visible (hidden) damage may also exist, extending beyond the visible
nections. damage area. Arcing and burning may also occur around attachments into sup-
porting structure.
A lightning strike can cause direct physical damage to an airplane and, through cir-
culating current coupling, can indirectly affect the function of critical and essential This section contains the inspections that are necessary after an incident or flight
systems. It occurs only about once every 3,000 hr (about once a year) on a com- in abnormal conditions; and will in most cases, be called for as a result of flight
mercial airplane. This rate is frequent enough for a lightning strike to be considered crew report.
almost inevitable. Lightning produces a current in the airplane skin, generating Figure 1: Attachment Points
voltages across joints in the skin and structure. These currents couple, or connect,
to internal airplane wiring by way of the electrical and magnetic fields that are gen-
erated by current flow.
These electromagnetic fields are created at the airplane surface, inducing voltag-
es inside the airplane that can cause damage to electrical equipment or cause it
to malfunction indirectly. The resulting effects, known as lightning indirect effects,
range from tripped circuitbreakers to computer malfunction to physical damage of
input or output circuits in electronic equipment.
Airplane design incorporates all necessary and known lightning strike protection
measures. Basic protection is the nearly all metal exterior structure. The metal sur-
face acts a shield protecting the interior from direct strikes and preventing coupling
of electromagnetic energy into airplane wiring. If the airplane has sustained a light-
ning strike, a general inspection is made of the airplane to determine areas of the
strike discharge; then a through check is made to those specific areas to deter-
mine the extent of damage that has occurred.
Lightning strikes usually result in too or more damaged areas. There will always
be at least two major areas of lightning attachment as the lightning channel passes
through the airplane as shown in figure 1. It is also possible for the airplane to fly
through the lightning channel which will result in a sweeping action of the arc along
the airplanes skin.
Magnetic Force
The damage usually occurs where a small area causes the density of the current
to be high (e.g. a bonding lead installed at a control surface hinge).
Used example: Airbus A330. Limits are different to other Aircrafts! Item Inspection Task Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Sign
A hard landing is defined as a landing with a vertical acceleration of more than 6.B Inspection of the Engine Pylons:
1.75g at the center of gravity or vertical speed (V/S) of more than 600 ft/min for an Examine the primary structure and X
A/C weight less than 155 tons or, a vertical speed (V/S) of more than 540 ft/min pylon lower area for distortion and
for an A/C weight more than or equal to 155 tons. cracks, the condition of the paint,
An overweight landing is defined as a landing at more than the maximum landing loosen rivets, signs of shearing.
weight with a vertical acceleration more than 1.4g at the center of gravity or a land- If you find damage:
ing at more than the maximum landing weight with a vertical speed (V/S) of more 1. Remove or open the access X
than 360 ft/min. doors and panels.
2. Examine the panels and the ad- X
Example of an Inspection Task after Hard/Overweight Landing jacent structure for distortion
NOTE: All the necessary inspections are visual unless the text gives other instruc- buchles, wrinhles or tears. - the
tions. plates have no buckles, wrin-
If there is damage to the aircraft structure, refer to the Structural Repair Manual kles or tears where they are riv-
(SRM). The SRM has the approved damage limits and repair procedures. eted to the panels.
3. Do an internal inspection of the X
pylon box (primary structure) for
distortion.
ect.
Mercury Spillage
The following inspection has to be carried out by using the 3-Phase system seen
in Title "Inspection Sequence" on page 3.
It is assumed that any significant quantity of mercury on board an airplane is prop-
erly contained, packaged and labeled for loading in a cargo compartment.
The spillage of every mercury or mercury compound, within an airplane, requires
immediate action for its isolation and recovery to prevent possible corrosion dam-
age to and possible embrittlement of aluminum alloy structural components.
All metallic aircraft structure which is wetted by elemental mercury suffers degra-
dation in strength. The rate of diffusion of mercury into a metal is dependant on the
specific metal contacted and the protective finish applied; however, once diffusion
has started it cannot be stopped. Structural degradation may not be visually ap-
parent until the structure is subject to load.
When using X-ray equipment to detect mercury, droplets of mercury will show on
a negative as small white spots. Corrosion and embrittlement will show as tree-like
forms completely penetrating a structural component.
Bird Strike
The following inspection has to be carried out by using the 3-Phase system seen
in Title "Inspection Sequence" on page 3.
Examine the entire aircraft exterior especially wing leading edges, flaps and slats,
engine inlets, and nacelles for impact damage when a bird strike is reported or
suspected due to extreme possibility of multiple bird strikes. Aircraft configuration
should be the same as when bird strike occurred, i.e., position of flaps, landing
gear, etc. If flap position is unknown, examine trailing edge flaps and leading edge
flaps and slats in fully extended position. Examine the engine carefully to deter-
mine if the bird is gone thru the core engine or not. If the core engine is affected,
a borescope check of the engine must be performed.
Damage areas should be marked for through examination and/or action when the
exterior examination of the total aircraft is complete. Refer to the Structural Repair
Manual(SRM) for repair of any impact damage.
The emergence of MSG made these philosophies radically different were the “on-condition” and “condition
monitoring” concepts which were introduced and these permitted a drastic reduc-
Reprinted from Aircraft Technology Engineering & Maintenance - Feb/March 2001 tion in the number of scheduled component overhauls. Therefore, where as many
In the early 1960s, the FAA as 400 components may have required scheduled overhaul prior to MSG1/MSG2/
formed an industry body to EMSG-2, this number was reduced to something in the order of 10. Other compo-
establish whether there nents could remain “on condition”, if suitable inspections could be accomplished
were alternative methods of on the aircraft to determine the continued serviceability of the component, until the
ensuring aircraft reliability. next scheduled inspection.
Airlines were seeking a Condition monitoring, on the other hand, required the setting up of a system to
more consistent set of rules track a large family of components within an airline which tracks pilot reports as
through which maintenance
well as the mean time between failure (MTBF) and mean time between removal
programmes could be de- (MTBR) of individual components. When MTBFs and MTBRs exceeded specified
termined and this led to the “alert” levels, engineering action was initiated to investigate and rectify the associ-
maintenance steering
ated technical problems.
group (MSG) for civil opera-
tors. The military was equal- But, MSG-1, MSG-2 and EMSG-2, still involved a “looking-up” approach to aircraft
ly interested in the subject maintenance whereby the integrity of components was considered first, before
and they too requested manufacturers to come up with more rational criteria to de- those of complete systems. Furthermore, there was room for interpretation of the
velop maintenance programmes. conventions when using these MSG philosophies, and many in the industry be-
lieved that a tightening of the rules was required. This, together with the escalating
Many airline operators applied pressure to the aircraft manufacturers through the cost of fuel and the advent of deregulation in the US in 1978, placed new emphasis
ATA for changes to the old “hard-time” policies. Indeed, all MSG concepts origi-
on commercial competition and in turn placed new emphasis on the efficiency of
nated from industry inputs to the ATA and the final MSG documents, accepted by aircraft maintenance. So, another major rethink of maintenance philosophies was
the FAA and other airworthiness authorities, are ATA documents. MSG-3, for ex-
initiated which built on the framework of MSG-2, which had been validated by ten
ample, the latest and most current version of the decision logic, involved the active years of reliable aircraft operation. This resulted in the issuance of MSG-3 in 1980.
participation of the FAA, the UK’s CAA, the Association of European Airlines, US
and European aircraft and engine manufacturers, US and non-US airlines and the When the MSG-3 task force was formed to review MSG-2 experience, it became
US Navy. obvious that subtle changes to aircraft technology and the rules appertaining to de-
sign of aircraft had also impacted upon maintenance methodologies. For example,
In 1968, the first path leader to MSG logic was the B747-100 and the maintenance
new types of aircraft were using more electronics in control and display systems
philosophy developed at that time was called MSG-1. Apart from any economic or
and new fatigue design rules requiring damage tolerance certification for struc-
safety drivers, the fact that the B747 was such a large and more complex aircraft
tures had been introduced. This together with the introduction of reliability centred
was considered reason enough to apply some engineering discipline to mainte-
maintenance (RCM) concepts led to a revolution in thinking whereby a “top-down”
nance programme developments. MSG-1 was therefore developed with the B747-
approach was used in developing the new logic. Basically, if it could be demon-
100 specifically in mind, but the merits of the systematic approach applied to the
strated that the functional failure of a particular system had no effect on operational
aircraft were considered to justify a generic solution which could be applied to oth-
safety or that the economic repercussions were not significant, there was no need
er new aircraft types. This resulted in the publication of MSG-2 in 1970 which was
for a routine maintenance activity. Instead, for failures evident to flight crews, the
applied to the L-1011 and the DC-10. The philosophies behind MSG-1 and MSG-
pilot reports could be used as the point of initiation of system rectification.
2 are therefore very similar.
Where a failure was not obvious to flight crews, other maintenance activity would
Indeed, a European version of the same concepts, called EMSG-2 was developed
have to be defined (servicing/lubrication, operational/functional check, general
along the same lines in 1972 and it was used for Concorde and the A300. What
visual inspection, detailed inspection, special detailed inspection, restoration or re- McCormick goes on to explain that about 80 per cent of smaller corporate jets
placement). have switched to MSG-3 maintenance philosophies, starting with new aircraft
However, in certain areas, what may be economic for one airline may not be for types in the early 1990s and moving on to re-analysis of existing aircraft types from
another and so these areas need to be considered on an airline-by-airline basis. about 1997 onwards. He believes that corporate operators had even more to gain
For example, an airline which flies 30 minute sectors would not consider the failure through this process than the airline operators. Nevertheless, the potential effi-
of an inflight entertainment system to be of significant economic importance. But ciency gains to the airlines can be very significant indeed. Savings of between 10
a longhaul airline flying transpacific routes would arrive at a very different answer, per cent and 30 per cent of the total scheduled airframe maintenance man-hours
if it wished to retain customer loyalty. Therefore, in certain areas maintenance pro- are achievable, with the least efficient operators having the most to gain. Pro-rata
grammes are customised by the individual airline concerned. But, this is nothing savings are anticipated in aircraft downtime and even unscheduled maintenance
new to airlines, since they have always incorporated maintenance review board man-hours should decrease.
(MRB) requirements, as well as their own specific requirements into aircraft main-
tenance programmes.
After 1980 It might be tempting to believe that this was the end of the story. For
new aircraft such as the A320, A330, A340, B747-400, B757, B767, MD-11 and
MD-90, MSG-3 logic was applied and significantly more efficient maintenance pro-
grammes were introduced by the airlines.
However, the success of the new maintenance programmes prompted the airlines
to ask aircraft manufacturers to retrospectively apply MSG-3 logic to aircraft which
had originally been subject to MSG-2, MSG-1 or the old overhaul concepts. This
was not a simple matter.
The first manufacturer to action these air-
MD-80 MSG-3 line requests was McDonnell Douglas on
programme economic savings the MD-80. Al McCormick, Boeing’s Long
Beach based senior principal specialist,
Over a 90 month time frame the maintenance engineering technical servic-
savings in labour hours are es, says “It was started in the late part of
approximately 12'000 hours per 1994 and finished in 1996. It takes about
15 - 16 months to do one of these.” Reanal-
aircraft.
ysis of the DC-8, DC-9 and DC-10 have all
been completed subsequently.
MSG-2 - 42'598 hrs When asked whether the process or re-
MSG-3 - 30'242 hrs analysis takes longer on certain aircraft
than others, McCormick replied, “No, it re-
Labour hours savings per year ally doesn’t make much difference. I have
per aircraft: been involved in corporate aircraft all the
way up to B747s and they all take about the
12'000 / 7.5 = 1600 hrs same time.”
Development of Scheduled Maintenance Programme The Maintenance Program Proposal (MPP) is reviewed by the MRB and the re-
sulting requirements are given by the Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR).
As seen before, an operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is maintained
and released to service by an organisation appropriately approved/accepted in ac- Figure 1: Maintenance Review Board Structure
cordance with Part-145.
An operator must ensure that the aeroplane is maintained in accordance with the ISC
MWG 6
operator’s aeroplane maintenance programme. The programme contains details, Industry Steering
MWG 5 Committee
including frequency, of all maintenance required to be carried out. The programme MWG 4 MPP
will be required to include a reliability programme when the Authority determines MWG 3 Maint. Program
MWG 2 MRB
nance programme and any subsequent amendment must be approved by the Au- MWG 1 Maintenance
thority. MSG-3 System
Analysis
Review Board
(Authorities)
The initial maintenance program is given by the Maintenance Review Board Doc-
ument. In addition, based on the above approved Maintenance Review Board
Document, Manufacturers produce a Maintenance Planning Document. This con-
stitutes a fully workable maintenance program, which will be revised periodically
according to service experience. MRBR
Maintenance Review
Before developement of a scheduled maintenance programme, it is necessary to Board Report
develop the initial minimum maintenance requirements for each new type of air-
craft prior to its introduction into airline service.
Structure Significant Item - SSI Figure 2: Simplyfied Overview of the MSG-3 Procedure
Aircraft structure consists of all load carrying members including wings, fuselage,
empennage, engine mountings, landing gear, flight control surfaces and related AIRCRAFTS STRUCTURE
points of attachment. The actuating portions of items such as landing gear, flight AND COMPONENTS
controls, doors, etc. will be treated as systems components. Attachments of the 1
actuators to the airframe will be treated as structure.
A Structural Significant Item (SSI) is any detail, element or assembly, which con-
tributes significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control loads, and
whose failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the safety of the air- DECISION 2
craft. LOGIC
As part of the scheduled structural maintenance development, it is necessary to
rate each Structural Significant Item in terms of susceptibility (likelihood of dam-
age) and detectability (timely detection of damage). The scheduled structural
maintenance tasks and intervals are developed on the basis of requirements to as- MSI SSI ZIP
sure timely detection of Accidental Damage, Environmental Deterioration, and Fa- MAINTENANCE STRUCTURE ZONE INSPECTION
tigue Damage. SIGNIFICANT ITEM 3 SIGNIFICANT ITEM 4 PROGRAM 5
The scheduled structural maintenance tasks and intervals are based on an as-
sessment of structural design information, fatigue and damage tolerance evalua-
6
tions, service experience with similar structure and pertinent test results. MAINTENANCE TASK
SELECTION LOGIC
The resulting maintenance requirements for all structure are submitted to the ISC
If possible, transfer
for approval and inclusion in the MRB report proposal. See Point 1,2,3,4 and 5 in GVI, TVI, OPC, FUC, REM, LUB GVI, TVI, NDT
GVI's into ZIP 9
7 8
Figure 2 on page 7.
Figure 3: Maint. Program Development with integrated Reliability Program Check Intervals
The check intervals below are those to be expected at entry into service and will
MRBR CERTIFICATION be reviced according to service experience.
Maint. Review REQUIREMENTS This is an example of an Airbus A320.
Board Report CMR, ALI, LLP, CMP
Table 1: Intervals shown on Airbus A320
MRB Process
Scheduled Inspection Intervals (can change) Remarks
Type Certification Process
MPD Daily 48 calendar hours Comprises cockpit and
Maint. Planning elapsed walkaround check. To
Update with each MPD revision
Document be capable of being
accomplished by flight
- Local Authority Req. crew without technical
- Customer Req. assistance or special
- Reliability Task's tools.
Carried out by a certified Part-145 Maint. - etc.
Organisation. Weekly 8 calendar days Servicing and general
But still the Operators responsibility!
condition from ground.
- Service Bulletin (SB)
Operators MP - Service Information Letter (SIL) A 750 FH or 750 FC Walkaround, some sys-
Operators Maintenance Manufacturer or Vendor
or 4 month tem checks and servic-
Program (Improvements, Design Changes) ing.
ceived by the distributor. The stockist's certificate must bear the signature of a per- When an item is released from the Bonded Store and fitted to an aircraft, a Certif-
son authorised by the Distributor Company. icate of Release to Service must be raised in respect of the work done.
Where a degree of confidence exists between the user and the distributor the Figure 4: EASA Form One
Stockist's Certificate is all that is required in the way of documentary evidence,
where no such confidence exists, the user should also obtain a certified photocopy
of the incoming Approved Certificate and any other technical documents which
were received by the distributor when the parts were originally obtained.
Re-Certification of Parts
From time to time, it is necessary to carry out inspections and tests on items held
in the Bonded Store to ensure that they remain serviceable. On occasions, these
tests may be carried out on items which have a finite shelf life, such as flexible
pipelines.
It should be understood that re-certification of such parts, during a long period
when they are held in the Bonded Store, does not mean that the shelf life reverts
to zero after re-certification. All such periods of shelf life are cumulative and the
part must be scrapped when its finite life is reached, irrespective of how servicea-
ble that part may seem.
Bogus Parts
This term is used to describe parts which purport to be genuine approved items
from acceptable sources, when they are not. The Flight Safety Foundation of
America have defined Bogus Parts as follows:
• Parts which are not airworthy
• Parts the source and identity of which have long been lost
• Parts of unknown material, fabricated by processes at variance with industry
and government specifications
Any positive evidence of Bogus Parts must be immediately reported to the NAA.
Parts Classification
Parts are classified according to their degree of importance.
Class 1
Complete type certified aircraft, aircraft engines and propellers.
Class 2
A major component of a class 1 product e.g. aircraft or turbine engine, the failure
of which would jeopardise the safety of a class 1 product; or any part, material or
appliance, approved and manufactured under the Technical Standard Order
(TSO) system.
Class 3
Any aircraft part or component which is not a class 1 nor class 2 product, and in-
cludes standard parts, e.g. those designated AN, MS, NAS, etc.
Two items in the ETOPS maintenance program that best illustrate this real-time Engine Condition Monitoring (ECM)
approach are oil consumption monitoring and engine condition monitoring. For many years, ECM computer programs have been available for all engines. The
Oil Consumption Monitoring engine manufacturer supplies ECMs to help operators assess the general health
A typical maintenance program requires checking engine oil before every flight or of their engines. The programs allow for monitoring of such parameters as N1, N2,
only once each day and the auxiliary power unit (APU) oil less frequently (such as exhaust gas temperature, fuel and oil pressures, and vibration. Most operators use
every 100 hr). The quantity of oil added and flight hours for each leg should be not- an ECM program regardless of whether they fly ETOPS routes. ETOPS operators
ed in the maintenance logbook. are required to use ECMs to monitor adverse trends in engine performance and
execute maintenance to avoid serious failures. These failures could cause in-flight
The oil consumption rate, the amount of oil used per hour of operation on the pre- shutdowns, diversions, or turnbacks. In some cases, oil consumption data and
vious flight leg, should be calculated for both engines and the APU during ETOPS ECM data can be correlated to define certain problems.
before dispatch. The resulting number provides a better indication of oil usage or
loss than the quantity of oil added. If the rate is acceptable, the flight can be re- Predeparture Service Check
leased; if not, the cause of the increased usage must be addressed before dis-
Regulations require certain ETOPS systems to be checked before each flight.
patching the airplane on an ETOPS flight. This increase can frequently be caused
This is because certain systems relating to ETOPS were redesigned for greater
by an oil leak, which is easy to detect and repair.
reliability and dispatch requirements were altered for ETOPS (e.g., standby gen-
The consumption rate data is also logged to track long-term variations in consump- erators, minimum equipment list requirements).
tion rates. This allows the operator to determine if problems are developing so they
can identify and implement solutions before serious engine or APU degradation Basic and Multiple-System Maintenance Practices
occurs. Resolution of Discrepancies
Figure 5: Oil Consumption Rate This program requires items that are repaired or replaced to be checked for proper
installation and operation before the work is signed off on the maintenance log.
Oil consumption, Increasing consumption rate; This ensures that the item is actually fixed and that no new problems were intro-
quarts per hour investigation recommended
duced during maintenance. This maintenance practice is applicable to all air-
0.8
planes.
0.6
Typical consumption rate Avoidance of Multiple Similar Systems Maintenance
Maintenance practices for the multiple similar systems requirement were designed
0.4 to eliminate the possibility of introducing problems into both systems of a dual in-
stallation (e.g., engines and fuel systems) that could ultimately result in failure of
0.2 both systems. The basic philosophy is that two similar systems should not be
maintained or repaired during the same maintenance visit. Some operators may
0.0
find this difficult to implement because all maintenance must be done at their home
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 base.
Number of consecutive flight readings However, methods exist for avoiding the problems that may be introduced by
working on two similar systems simultaneously. For example, different personnel
can perform the required work on the similar systems, or they can ask each other
to review the work done on each system. If the systems are checked after perform-
ing maintenance according to the resolution of discrepancies program, any prob-
Reduced Vertical Seperation Minimum - RVSM Throughout the 1980s, various studies were conducted, under the auspices of
ICAO, in Canada, Europe, Japan, and the USA. The underlying approach of the
In the late 1950s vertical separation for aircraft flying in the upper airspace was programmes was to :
1000ft.
• determine the height keeping accuracy of the altimetry systems of the then
However, it was realised that as altitude increased, the accuracy of pressure sens- current aircraft population;
ing barometric altimeters decreased. Therefore, in 1960, the decision was taken • establish the causes of observed height keeping errors;
to increase separation at and above Flight Level (FL) 290 from 1000ft to 2000ft.
ICAO adopted a standard, global, FL290 changeover level in 1966. • determine the required safety levels for the implementation and use of a Re-
duced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) of 1000 ft at/above FL 290;
Despite this increase in Vertical Separation Minimum (VSM) it was recognised
• define a Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specification (MASPS) – for
that, as technology advanced, more accurate height measuring equipment would aircraft altimetry and associated height keeping equipment;
become available in the future which would allow a reduction in the standards set.
It was also recognised that because of differing airspace capacity requirements • determine whether the global implementation and use of RVSM was:
throughout the world, reduction in VSM would occur initially on a regional basis – technically feasible, subject to the over-riding need to satisfy the agreed
with Global introduction following in due course. Areas with high populations of air- safety standards; and
craft flying at or above FL290 would be the first to benefit from reduced minima. – cost-beneficial.
More Airspace Needed - Fuel Becoming an Issue
Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification (MASPS)
In the late 1970s, faced with rising fuel costs and growing demands for a more ef-
The main provision for any reduction in vertical separation would be that the air-
ficient use of the available airspace, the International Civil Aviation Organisation
craft flying in the area(s) would be equipped with height keeping equipment com-
(ICAO) initiated a comprehensive programme of studies to examine the feasibility
plying with Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification (altimetry)
of reducing the 2000 ft VSM applied at FL 290 and above, to 1000 ft VSM.
(MASPS).
Figure 6: RVSM and the six additional Levels MASPS would ensure height-keeping accuracy to a standard compatible with the
FL410 agreed safety requirements for RVSM. This would include at least 2 independent
altimeters on board the aircraft that would always have to be within a certain toler-
FL400
ance of each other.
FL390
FL380 Continued Airworthiness (Maintenance Procedures)
FL370
The integrity of the design features necessary to ensure that altimetry systems
FL360 continue to meet RVSM approval criteria should be verified by scheduled tests and
FL350 inspections in conjunction with an approved maintenance programme. The oper-
FL340 ator should review its maintenance procedures and address all aspects of contin-
FL330 ued airworthiness that may be relevant.
FL320 Adequate maintenance facilities will need to be available to enable compliance
FL310 with the RVSM maintenance procedures.
FL300
FL290
FL280*
Additional Levels
Maintenance Programmes performed following repairs, or alterations having an effect on airframe sur-
Each operator requesting RVSM operational approval should establish RVSM face and airflow.
maintenance and inspection practices acceptable to, and as required by, the re- • The maintenance and inspection programme for the autopilot will need to en-
sponsible authority, that include any required maintenance specified in the data sure continued accuracy and integrity of the automatic altitude control system
package. Operators of aircraft subject to maintenance programme approval will to meet the height keeping standards for RVSM operations. This requirement
need to incorporate these practices in their maintenance programme. will typically be satisfied with equipment inspections and serviceability
checks.
Maintenance Practices
If the operator is subject to an approved maintenance programme, that pro-
gramme should include, for each aircraft type, the maintenance practices stated in
the applicable aircraft and component manufacturers’ maintenance manuals. In
addition, for all aircraft, including those not subject to an approved maintenance
programme, attention should be given to the following items:
• All RVSM equipment should be maintained in accordance with the component
manufacturers’ maintenance instructions and the performance criteria of the
RVSM approval data package.
• Any modification or design change which in any way affects the initial RVSM
approval, should be subject to a design review acceptable to the responsible
authority.
• Any repairs, not covered by approved maintenance documents, that may af-
fect the integrity of the continuing RVSM approval, e.g. those affecting the
alignment of pitot/static probes, repairs to dents or deformation around static
plates, should be subject to a design review acceptable to the responsible au-
thority.
• Built-in Test Equipment (BITE) testing should not be used for system calibra-
tion unless it is shown to be acceptable by the aircraft constructor or an ap-
proved design organisation, and with the agreement of the responsible
authority.
• An appropriate system leak check (or visual inspection where permitted)
should be accomplished following reconnection of a quick-disconnect static
line.
• Airframe and static systems should be maintained in accordance with the air-
craft constructor’s inspection standards and procedures.
• To ensure the proper maintenance of airframe geometry for proper surface
contours and the mitigation of altimetry system error, surface measurements
or skin waviness checks will need to be made, as specified by the aircraft con-
structor, to ensure adherence to RVSM tolerances. These checks should be
Certification of Maintenance tion with a personal identity number (PIN) known only to the individual which is
keyed into the computer. A certification stamp is optional and used by some com-
Release to Service panies.
The following illustrations show two examples of issuing release to service;
A certificate of release to service is necessary before flight at the completion of any
Figure 7 on page 19 shows a release to service entry in an operators technical log
package of maintenance scheduled by the approved aircraft maintenance pro-
after line maintenance.
gramme on the aircraft, whether such maintenance took place as base or line
maintenance. Figure 7: Release to Service in the Aircraft Technical Log
Prior to the issue of the Certificate of Release to Service, the Approved Person
with Final Release responsibility shall establish from the Bill of Work that no job
cards remain open which could jeopardise the continuing airworthiness of the air-
craft.
The issue of a Certificate of Fitness for Flight shall only be made by an Approved
Person with Final Release responsibility (see Title “Categories and Certification
Privileges” on page 18) .
The certificate of release to service should contain the following statement:
• Certifies that the work specified except as otherwise specified was carried out
in accordance with Part-145 and in respect to that work the aircraft/aircraft-
component is considered ready for release to service.
• The certificate of release to service should relate to the task specified in the
aircraft maintenance programme which itself may cross-refer to a manufactur-
er’s/operator’s instruction in a maintenance manual, service bulletin etc.
The date such maintenance was carried out should include when the maintenance
took place relative to any life or overhaul limitation in terms of date/flying hours/
cycles/Iandings etc., as appropriate.
When extensive maintenance has been carried out, it is acceptable for the certifi-
cate of release to service to summarise the maintenance so long as there is a
unique cross-reference to the work-pack containing full details of maintenance
carried out. Dimensional information should be retained in the work-pack record.
The person who carried out the maintenance task specified in the approved main-
tenance instructions should sign that they have accomplished the task only when
satisfied by self inspection that the task has been properly carried out in accord- Figure 8 on page 20 shows a certificate of release to service after base mainte-
ance with the approved maintenance instructions. nance.
The person issuing the [certificate of] release to service should use his normal sig-
nature except in the case where a computer release to service system is used. In
this latter case the EASA [full member Authority] will need to be satisfied that only
the particular person can electronically issue the release to service. One such
method of compliance is the use of a magnetic or optical personal card in conjunc-
Quality System
For maintenance purposes, the operator's quality system as required by Part-M
must additionally include at least the following functions:
1. Monitoring that the activities of Part-M are being performed in accordance
with the accepted procedures:
2. Monitoring that all contracted maintenance is carried out in accordance with
the contract, and
3. Monitoring the continued compliance with the requirements of this Subpart.
a) An operator must provide an operators Maintenance Management expo-
sition containing details of the organisation structure including:
1) The nominated postholder responsible for the maintenance system
2) The procedures that must be followed to satisfy the maintenance re-
sponsibility of Part-M and the quality functions of Part-M except that
where the operator is appropriately approved as a maintenance or-
ganisation in accordance Part-145. such details may be included in
the Part-145 exposition.
Study Questions
7.1 Safety Precautions Aircraft and Workshop 4. What is a common method of securing high pressure cylinders?
7.2 Workshop Practices 13. What can be said about production cost’s regarding tolerances?
12. Convert:
17. How much is the indicated torque value on a 10 inch wrench with a 2 inch ex-
tension? (required Torque 400 inch/lbs)
18. What is the drill stop used for? 21. The accuracy of a micrometer calliper may be checked and calibrated by us-
ing _______________________________________________________ .
23. You have to lubricate the landing gear on a commercial aeroplane. Where can
19. What is the mostly used cutting agent. Describe its characteristics? you find the types of lubricant and the position of the lubrication points?
7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment 31. List the five main sections of the ATA 100 specifications.
a) ________________________________________________________
7.5 Engineering Drawings, Diagrams and Standards b) ________________________________________________________
26. A drawing that includes enough information to allow a part to be fabricated is
c) ________________________________________________________
called a/an ______________________drawing.
d) ________________________________________________________
27. A drawing that shows the way various detail parts are put together to form an
e) ________________________________________________________
assembly or sub assembly is called a/an ___________________drawing.
32. In which ATA chapter is the subject Oxygen covered?
28. An orthographic projection can show as many as six views of an object. List
the three views that are most commonly used in aircraft drawings.
a) ________________________________________________________
b) ________________________________________________________
33. What does the Maintenance Manual contain?
c) ________________________________________________________
29. The allowable deviation from the dimensions of a part is called _________
__________________________________________________________ .
42. Is there something special to pay attention, when you clamp a wire-loom? 46. We know Sockets and Pins with a two colour code. What’s the meaning of
this?
7.8 Riveting
49. What is known as the rivet pitch?
50. The edge distance is ________times the diameter of the rivet shanks.
51. The rivet length can be determined with the formula: 56. What must be considered when designing a riveted joint concerning shear
and bearing strength?
53. You have to install a flush rivet. What angle must the countersink most prob-
ably have?
58. The maximum flattening allowed in a bend of a rigid fluid line reduces the out-
side diameter to ________percent of the original tube diameter.
59. The minimum bend radius for a piece of 3/8-inch aluminium alloy tubing is
55. What can you say about "Upset Head" or "Shop Head" sizes?
_________________inches.
61. What is the maximum clamping distance for a 3/8-inch steel tube? 66. Describe the term "Springback".
62. Flexible hose changes its dimensions when it is pressurized. A piece of flexi-
ble hose should be between _____ and ______ percent longer than the dis-
tance between the fittings to which it attaches.
67. Describe how to preset an MS Flareless Fitting.
63. The minimum recommended bend radius for a piece of 1/2-inch MIL-H-8788
hose is ________ inches.
65. What should be done when disconnecting aircraft tubing from the system?
69. Where are wire locked fuel connections not used, except otherwise stated?
70. What is the first step, before testing a spring for its condition?
74. Prior to mounting a bearing, the mechanic must make sure that
75. New bearings are preserved in their original package with an anticorrisive oil.
What has to be done prior mounting the bearing?
7.11 Bearings
72. Bearings are inspected for?
76. If tight fits are specified for the inner rings on cylindrical shaft seats, the bear- 7.12 Transmissions
ings can be heated prior installation. Describe the thermal methods.
80. How can the proper tension of a V-belt be checked?
81. During a “composite check” gears are inspected for the following errors.
77. Provisionally, small bearings can be driven off their seat with a hammer and
a metal drift. What must be considered?
78. When lubricating a bearing, what should be considered? 82. Why is backlash essential for gears?
79. Why does a bearing fail? 83. What should be taken care of when installing connection links on chains?
84. A rule of thumb says that the chain slack should have about 4 percent of the 86. Lubrication of Screwjacks is very important. Describe why?
span. This rule is not valid under certain conditions. Describe.
85. There are certain points to be checked on a Start-up Test after assembling a 7.13 Control Cables
chain drive.
87. List the methods for swaging end-terminals.
89. What has to be taken in consideration when measuring cable tension? 92. What belongs to a complete control cable inspection?
90. What has to be aware of when measuring cable tension of nylon coated ca-
bles?
93. Describe a well known method to inspect a cable for broken wires.
95. What must be considered when cleaning cables? 100.Describe the term "Flat".
102.When laying out the flat pattern we need to know the following:
97. The minimum bend radius for 2024-T4 alloy with a material thickness of
0.050 inch is: ________________________________________________
98. When we bend a piece of metal around a given radius, the metal on the out-
side of the bend stretches, and that on the inside shrinks. Within the metal,
there is a portion that neither shrinks nor stretches but retains its original di-
mensions. What is this portion called?
103.Small cracks in low-stress sheet metal components as engine cowlings can
be: _______________________________________________________ .
105.Before brazing the metal what has be concidered? 111.Describe the correct way to light-up, adjusting the flame and shuting-down a
welding torch:
108.Name the colour coding and the chemical coding of the following pressure cyl-
inders:
a) Acetylene: _______________________________________________
b) Oxygen: _________________________________________________
110.On gas welding equipments, a precaution system used to prevent wrong con-
nection of hoses and regulators. Describe:
115.Describe the relation between the gap and the capillary rise in conjunction 119.Describe the term "MAC".
with brazing and soldering:
121.On an airliner, where are the forward and aft certified limits for the CG(Centre
of Gravity) typically during flight?
123.The aircraft is ready for weighing. What must be the configuration? 126.What has to be done with the nose wheel steering when towing an aircraft?
125.Describe the hand signal for “insert chocks” 130.Static Electricity generated during refuelling is bled off by:
132.Preventing the formation of ice on an aircraft structure is called? 7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembly
136.Give a brief description of a DVI (TVC).
138.To carry out an effective and reliable inspection, certain points must be con-
sidered. These are:
135.There is snow fall and the ambiant temperature is -5°C. The aircraft was anti-
iced with a ADF/Water mixture of 75/25 %. Determine the min. and max. hold-
over time.
139.Describe "light corrosion" damage. 142.Why are drain holes and valves installed on an aircraft?
140.Give a brief description of a brush alodine process. 143.You have to remove some corrosion on an aircraft structure. Where can you
find the procedures of how to do that?
141.When a repair requires the removal of the original surface protection, what
has to be done when the repair is done? 145.What is the purpose of the "Corrosion Prevention Control Program - CPCP"?
146.There is a term called "Aging Aircraft". Give a brief description of its function. 149.Complete the following sentence:
Trouble shooting is the systematic ...
151.Which are the most probable areas for lightning strike damage?
152.Explain the following terms: 155.An analysis logic called MSG-1 was developed in the early 60s. What was and
Indirect effects: still is the purpose of it?
Direct effects:
156.Who is responsible that mandatory alterations are complied with?
153.The following scenario: The crew of an incoming aircraft reports a hard land-
ing. What actions has the maintenance technician to carry out? Describe.
159.Describe the purpose of the Airworthiness Approval Tag (EASA Form One): 163.Name two examples of "Additional Maintenance Procedures":
a)
b)
Cat B1:
161.Describe the meaning of the term "Bogus Part".
Cat B2:
A D
abrasives deleterious
-Schleifmittel 11 -schädlich 2
ambiguity depreciation
-Zweideutigkeit 9 -Wertminderung 2
Anvil deprive
-Amboss 5 -entziehen 14
AOC, Aircraft Operator Certificate 23 Die
APU -Prägestempel 3
-Auxiliary Power Unit 17 DOW
arc -Dry Operating Weight 4
-Lichtbogen 2 drowsiness
-Schläfrigkeit 9
B
Belt dressing E
-Riemenharz 8 EWCG
Bonded Store -Empty Weight CG 20
-Zollfreilager 9 extrados
Bowing -äussere Bogenfläche 3
-Durchbiegung 7
BW F
-Basic Weight 4 fabric
-Gewebe 8
C fault current breaker
Carbon dioxide -Fehlerstromabschalter 12
-Kohlendioxyd, Kohlensäure 15 Feeler Gauge
CG -Fühlerlehren, Blattlehren 7
-Center of Gravity 2 flux
consciousness, loss of -Flussmittel 16
-Bewusstsein verlieren 9 frayed
-durchgescheuert 12
G M
Gap Gauge MAC
-Rachenlehre 5 -Mean Aerodynamic Chord 10
mallet
H -Holzhammer 3
Hooke’s law MLW
-(nach R.Hooke), ein physikal. Gesetz, durch das der Zusammenhang zw. der -Maximum Design Landing Weight 3
elast. Verformung eines Körpers und der dazu erforderl. Kraft bzw. der dabei MSG
auftretenden rücktreibenden Kraft dargestellt wird. 5 -Maintenance Steering Group 2
hydrocarbon MTW
-Kohlenwasserstoff 15 -Maximum Design Taxi Weight 3
MZFW
I -Maximum Zero Fuel Weight 3
IDG
-Integrated Drive Generator 17 N
ingot necrosis
-Barren 2 -Absterben von Gewebe 9
-Metallblock 32 Negligible Damage
intrados -unbedeutender Schaden 8
-innere Bogenfläche 3
P
J pellet
jeopardise -Kügelchen, Schrotkorn 11
-in Gefahr bringen 19 penetrate
-eindringen 13
L Plug gauge
lead -Lehrdorn 6
-Blei 16 prone to rust
LEMAC -Rost anfällig 2
-Leading Edge of MAC 10
Limit Gauge R
-Grenzlehre 5 Reamer
liquefy -Reibhale 3
-flüssig werden 16
reliability tin
-Zuverlässigkeit 3 -(chem) Zinn 16
repercussion torch
-Auswirkung 3 -Schweissbrenner 4
Runout tungsten
-Schlag, Unrundheit 7 -Wolfram 12
S U
saturate undue sag
-durchtränken 10 -übermässig durchhängen 7
scrutiny
-genaue Prüfung 9 V
seamless V-blocks
-nahtlos 3 -Prüfprisma 7
sheave
-Riemenscheibe 7 W
slack Wobble
-locker 7 -Planschlag 7
SRM
-Structure Repair Manual 23
Stout
-stabil, fest 4
Straightedge
-Haarlineal 7
subcutaneous
-unter der Haut erfolgend 9
swage
-gesenkschmieden 2
T
Tare weight
-Weight which is not part of aircraft (wheel chocks, shim boards, etc.) 18
taut
-straff 7
Symbols Aircraft Drawings Dimensioning System 7.5- Belt Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Certificate Of Conformity . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-9
3 Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-8 Certification
%MAC Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12
Airworthiness Proper Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-12 synchronous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Aircraft Maintenance Licence . . . 7.20-18
A Directive - AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-13 toothed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Airline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Abnormal Events Airworthiness Certificate . . . . . . . . .7.20-12 V-Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Airline Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Airworthiness Directives - AD . . . . . .7.20-13 Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Allowed Traffic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4 Bend Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-2 Category B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-3 Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep" Procedure . . . . Bend Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Category B2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Acetylene C2H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 7.18-20 Bending Sheet Metal Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Acetylene Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Aloide 1200 Brush Procedure . . . . .7.18-20 Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Acoustic Shock Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 AMP Certi-Seal Splice . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-28 Bend Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-2 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19
AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-13 Analog Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-44 Bend Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Maintenance Technicians . . . . . . 7.20-18
Adjustable Thread Calliper Gauges . . 7.6-5 Angle Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-19 Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Operating Certificates . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Aft Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2 Antiicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-17 Mold Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Privileges and Categories . . . . . . 7.20-18
After Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Articulation in Chains . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-11 Mold Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Release to Service . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19
Aging Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-31 Assembly Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-11 Bird Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-11 Certification of Components . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Corrosion Prevention and Control 7.18-31 Assessment of Damage . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-8 Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-14 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Maintenance Program Guideline 7.18-31 ATA Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-57 Blueprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-2 Horizontal Precision . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-12
Repair Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-32 ATA Specification 100 . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-47 Bogus Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-11 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-13
Structural Modification and Inspection . . Auxiliary Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Bolt and Hole Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-4 Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-12
7.18-31 Bolthole Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-4 Protection and Storage . . . . . . . . 7.12-13
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-31 B Borescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36 Chains
Supplemental Structural Inspections (SSI) Bowden Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-14 Articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Back countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-25
7.18-32 Bowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-4
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-32 Bowing Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-6
Aircraft Bracing Installation of Chain Assemblies . 7.12-11
Balance Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-12
After Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Filler Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Slack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Balanced-Pressure Torches . . . . . . . .7.15-4
Antiicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-15 Characteristics of a Good Weld . . . . . 7.15-9
Basic Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11
Before Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Brazing and Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-15 Check Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-8
Basic Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9
Defueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-16 Bumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Checking Articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Basic Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4
Deicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Checking Extension Springs for Wear 7.10-2
Battery check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-54
Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12
Bearing C Checking of torque wrenches . . . . . . . . 7.3-8
Hoisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-9
Check Breakaway Torque . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Cable Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-17
Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 Choose the Bend Radius . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Check for Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Cable Damage, Lockclad . . . . . . . . 7.13-12
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-11 Clamps and Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Check Rotational Torque . . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Calibration
Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-2 Classification of Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
Behavior in case of Fire Micrometers and Verniers . . . . . . . 7.2-8
Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-9 Clearance Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-7
Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-4 Clearances
Fight the Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Weighing Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-8
Aircraft Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-5 Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-13
Save Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2, 7.16-8
Clearence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Clove Hitch and Square Knot . . . . . . 7.7-16 Procedures for Aluminium and Aluminium Disassembly and Reassembly Techniques Empty Weight . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4, 7.16-11
Cold Expansion of Fastener Holes . 7.18-24 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-14 7.18-45 Endoscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36
Cold Weather Operations . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Safety Information . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-20 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-45 End-Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Color Coding of Turbine Fuels . . . . 7.17-12 Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-9 Discarding O-Rings and Gaskets 7.18-45 English System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-3
Common Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19 Abrading/Sanding Tools . . . . . . .7.18-11 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-46 Exploded-View Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-11
Compressed Gas Safety . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-11 Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-37 Extension cords of adequate capacity 7.1-12
Connecting the Equipment . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-23, 7.8-4 Doing an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-5 Extension Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11
Contact Coupling Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-5 Extinguisher
Insertion and Extraction . . . . . . . . 7.7-40 Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-16 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-2 Carbon Dioxide(CO²) . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Contact Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-32 Gamah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-17 Drill Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-16 Dry-Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-50 Janitrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-20 Drill Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-20 Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Control Cables V-Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-18 Drill Grinding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-20 Halogenated Hydrocarbon(Halon) . 7.1-15
Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-5 CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-30 Drill Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-14 Types Of Fire Extinguishers . . . . . 7.1-14
Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-10 Crimping Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-25 Drill Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-5 Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-18 Drill Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-3
Measuring Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-6 Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-16 F
Wear Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-11 D Drill Stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-14 Filler Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5
Control of Expansion and Contraction 7.15-8 Damage Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-12 Find the Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Corrosion Non Repairable Damage . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-17 Find the Length of Each of the Flats 7.14.1-5
Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Repairable Damage . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling the Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-3 Find the Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-8 Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-10 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
Determining Degree of Corrosion Damage Damage Limitations Dry Operating Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-4 Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-8 Duct Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-8 Clearence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Determining Material Thickness Reducing Damage, Lockclad Cable . . . . . . . . .7.13-12 DVI(TVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 Fit System
7.18-9 Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-15 Hole Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-3
Determining Rework Limits . . . . . . 7.18-9 Deburring the Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-3 E Fitting and Removal
Level 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Deicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-17 Eddy Current Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-18
Light Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Hot Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-18 Depth of Penetration . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flared Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4
Moderate Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Hot Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-18 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flared Tube End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-5
Removal Techniques . . . . . . . . . 7.18-11 Depth Measurement of small Blendouts 7.3- Eddy Currents Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-4
Severe Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 34 Generation of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flat Offset Drilling Head . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19
Corrosion Prevention Control Program Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-8 Edge Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Flexible Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16
Level 1, 2, 3 Corrosion . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Detail Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-8 Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10 Flexible Fluid Lines
Level 1, 2, 3 Corrosion Findings . 7.18-30 Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-26 Electric Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10 Lay Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-12
Periodical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical General Test Equipment . . 7.3-56 Flexible Hose End Fittings . . . . . . . . . 7.9-14
Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Measuring Instruments . . . 7.3-44 Flexible Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-11
Corrosion Prevention Control Program - Hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Resistance Welding . . . . . 7.15-14 Flexible Snake Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19
CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-12 FNC(FUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Corrosion Protection Dimpling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-26 Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-13 Form One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Aluminium Alloy - Brush Alodine Process DIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-3 Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-10 Forming Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-6
7.18-20
Bumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Master Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-3 Incoming Documentation . . . . . . . . . 7.20-9 Joggling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-6
Joggling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Reference Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-6 Index System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11 Joining Rigid Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4
Forward Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-3 Index Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11
Frequency Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-56 General Repair Methods . . . . . . . . .7.18-23 Injector Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 L
Fuel Lightning Strike Damage Repair .7.18-26 Inspection Lateral Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
JET A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Removal of Scratches by Burnishing . . . . Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Lay out the Flat Pattern . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
JET A-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 7.18-25 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35 Layout and Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2
JET B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Repair of Minor Skin Damage . . .7.18-23 Ultrasonic . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-42 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2
Fuel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16 Repair of Small Dents . . . . . . . . .7.18-23 Visual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-36 Layout of Rows and Rivets . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
Fuel System Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16 Stop-Drilling of Cracks . . . . . . . . .7.18-26 X-Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-43 Length System
Fuel Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Grain of the metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2 Inspection and Testing of Springs . . . 7.10-2 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-3
Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Grinding Drill Point Angles . . . . . . . . .7.3-20 Inspection for Corrosion . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Leveling
Pressure Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Ground Power Units Inspection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35 Lateral,Longitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-20 Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36 Leveling, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-13 Hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-20 Inspection of a Bonded Joint . . . . . . 7.15-16 Lever Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-6
Turbine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Ground Servicing Equipment . . . . . .7.17-20 Inspection of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-2 Life Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-25
Underground Storage System . . 7.17-15 GVI(GVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-4 Inspection of Riveted Joints . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Lighting and Adjusting the Torch . . . . 7.15-6
Inspection of the Weld . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14 Lightning Strike . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-3, 7.19-4
G H Inspection Task Example Direct Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gamah Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-17 Hand Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-13 Hard/Overweight Landing . . . . . . . 7.19-9 Effects on the Aircraft Structure and Sys-
Gas Shielded Arc Welding . . . . . . . 7.15-11 Hand held drill motors . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-19 Lightning Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-3 tems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Storage Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Hand tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-2 Inspections Indirect Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 7.15-12 care and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-2 Unscheduled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2, 7.15-3 Hand-Held Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-13 Installation Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-5
Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Handling Aviation Fuels . . . . . . . . . .7.17-13 Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Hard and Overweight Landing . . . . . .7.19-9 Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Limit Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-5
Injector Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Hard Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-9 Installation of Chain Assemblies . . . 7.12-11 Line Types and Weights . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-10
Lighting and Adjusting the Torch . 7.15-6 High Intensity Radiated Fields - HIRF 7.19-7 Instruction to use the Microstop Countersink Liquid Penetrate Inspection . . . . . . . 7.18-38
Shutting Down the Equipment . . . 7.15-7 HIRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-7 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-24 Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 HMS Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-7 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Lockclad Cable Damage . . . . . . . . . 7.13-12
Gas Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2 Hoisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-6 Interference Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Logic Flowcharts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-16
Gases Holding the Torch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-7 Isolation Resistance Meter . . . . . . . . 7.3-54 Longitudinal Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Shielding Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Hole Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-15 Isometric Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-7 Low Intensity Radiated Fields . . . . . . 7.19-8
Gauge or Transverse Pitch . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Hole Preparation Electromagnetic Interference from Porta-
Gauging Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-6 Flush Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-4 J ble Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-8
Gears Standard Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-3 JAA Form One . . . . . . . . . 7.20-10, 7.20-20 Lower Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-6 Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-4 Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 LUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-4 Hours & Cycles control . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-25 Janitrol T-Bolt Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-20 Lubricating Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39
Base Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-5 JAR OPS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-16 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39
Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-8 I Jobbers Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-13
Lubrication (Application) . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39 Measuring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-3 Personal Protection Repair of Rigid Fluid Lines . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-9
Lubrication Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39 Mechanical Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-18 Clothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-4 Repairability of Sheet Metal Structure . . . . .
Mercury Spillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-11 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-4 7.14.1-8
M Metal to Metal Bonding . . . . . . . . . .7.15-16 Pins and Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-37 Requirements For Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
MAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-10 Methods Of Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Resonance Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35
MAC,LEMAC,TEMAC . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-10 Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-4 Pitting/Meltthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-56
Magnetic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Microfilm / Microfiche . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-2 Platform Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18 Rigid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-11
Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . 7.18-39 Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-33 Pneumatic and Air System Pipes . . . 7.9-18 Rigid Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2
Maintenance Inspection Micrometer Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-32 Point Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-22 Rivet Guns
ATA Inspection Task Codes . . . . . 7.18-3 Mold Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-3 Portable Electronic Devices - PEDs . 7.19-8 Rivet Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
Doing the Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-5 Mold Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-3 Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-10 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
Personal Attitude to the Inspection 7.18-5 Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-6 Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Rivet Installation
Maintenance Inspections MS Flareless Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-5 Preparation of the Aircraft . . . . . . . . 7.17-10 Bucking Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-10
Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Presetting MS Flareless Fitting . . . . . . 7.9-6 Compression Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
Damage Categories . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-7 N Pressure Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Direct and Indirect Riveting . . . . . . 7.8-10
Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . 7.18-8 NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-35 Pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Gun Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
DIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 Neutral Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2 Principle of the Wheatstone Bridge . . 7.3-51 Hand Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
DVI(TVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 New Colour Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-13 Process of dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-26 Rivet Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
FNC(FUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Non Destructive Testing Inspection (NDT) . . Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-35 Rivets
GVI(GVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 7.18-35 Pulley Discrepancies . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-13 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Inspection Techniques . . . . . . . . . 7.18-2 Nut Plate Drill Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-14 Push-Pull Linkage Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-11
LUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
OPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 O Inspection Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-2 Push-Pull Tube Linkage . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-7
Oblique Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-7
SDI(NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-12
OPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-4
SPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Operating Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4
VCK(WAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Operation of the Isolation Resistance Meter
ZON-GVI(ZON-GVC) . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 7.3-54
Q Rules for countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-25
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . 7.20-21 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-23 Runout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Operational Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-3
Maintenance Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-48 Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Quality System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-21
Making the Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-5 Overload, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-2
S
Making the Layout of a Sheet-Metal Channel Overweight Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-9 R Safe Loading Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-7
7.14.1-4 Oxygen Radiated Fields Safe Loading Range . . . . . . .7.16-7, 7.16-8
Marking out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-37 Servicing Equipment . . . . . . . . . .7.17-21 High Intensity Radiated Fields . . . 7.19-7 Safety Around Compressed Gases . . 7.1-13
Master Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-3 Oxygen O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-3 Low Intensity Radiated Fields . . . . 7.19-8 Safety Precaution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-2
Maximum Design Weights . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3 Oxygen Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-4 Radius Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-34 Safety With Oils And Chemicals . . . . . 7.1-7
Maximum Design Zero Fuel Weight . 7.16-3 Re-Certification Of Parts . . . . . . . . . 7.20-11 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-3
Measurement Dial Indicator . . . . . . . 7.3-34 P Reference Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11 Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Measurements Micrometer . . . . . . . . 7.3-32 Regulator and Flowmeter . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Pencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-38
Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-28 Release to Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19 Scheduled Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-47
Penetrate Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-38
Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-17 Spotfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-25 Torch Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Useful Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-20
Screwjack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Spring Tension Torque Wrenches Uses Of Cold Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-9
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.10-2 Checking and Calibrating . . . . . . . . 7.2-8 Using the Isolation Resistance Meter . 7.3-54
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 SRM Torquing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-13 V-Band Clamps and Couplings . . . . . 7.9-18
Scriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-38 Allowable Damage . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-4 V-Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7
SDI(NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Consumable Materials . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Traffic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-4 VCK(WAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Sectional Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-8 Manual Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-28
Securing the Working Area . . . . . . . 7.18-45 Procedure for Manual Usage . . . .7.18-28 Transition Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Vernier Calliper Readings . . . . . . . . . 7.3-31
Service Bulletin/Modifications . . . . . 7.20-13 Stability Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-14 Trouble Shooting Vise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Stability on Ground, Aircraft . . . . . . .7.16-11 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-48 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . .7.18-35, 7.18-36
Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Stacking of Sheets for Flush Riveting .7.8-6 Principle of Systematic Troubleshooting Voltmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-44
Shaft Standard Countersink / Plain Counter 7.3-23 7.18-47 Weighing Form . . . . . . . . . .7.16-20, 7.16-21
End-Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Standards Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-46 Trouble Shooting and Analysis . . . . 7.18-47 Weighing Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Shaft Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-3 Station Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11 Ttipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12 Weight Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3
Sheet Metal Stockist's Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Tube Weight Definitions, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3
Assessment of Damage . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-11 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-17, 7.15-2
Inspection for Corrosion . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Store Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2 Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10
Inspection of Riveted Joints . . . .7.14.1-8 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Flaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4 Electric Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10
Repairability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Tubes Electrical Resistance Welding . . . 7.15-14
Shrinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Stretching of Sheet Metal . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-7 Installation Directives . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-17 Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-13
Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) . . .7.18-28 Installation of Fluid Lines . . . . . . . 7.9-10 Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2
Sheet Metal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-1 Structure and Components . . . . . . .7.18-45 Tubing Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-8 Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12
Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-44 Turbine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Seam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) . 7.15- Synchronous Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-7 Twist drill nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11 Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . 7.15-5
10 Systems of Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.6-3 Types of Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-8 Spot Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14
Shielding Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Types of Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-47 Welding Goggles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5
Shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12 T Types of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2 Welding Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-7
Shimboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-20 Tail-Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11 Tyre Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-17 Welding Techniques and Procedures . 7.15-
Shrinking of Sheet Metal . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-5 13
Shutting Down the Equipment . . . . . . 7.15-7 Tap Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-37 U-Z Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-51
Signs Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-7 Taper Shank Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-11 Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-42 Wire Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-25
Silver Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tare Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-20 Underground Storage System . . . . . 7.17-15 Wire Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-22, 7.7-24
Single Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4 Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-2 Unit Conversion wobble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Slack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11 Thickness (feeler) Gage . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-36 English-Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-5 Work Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-3
Soft Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-9 Units Work clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Soldering Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-15 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-5 Working Area
Silver Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11, 7.16-12 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-4 Securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-45
Soft Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-7 Unscheduled Inspections . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Workshop Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-2
SPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Toothed Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-7 Upper Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 X-Ray
Special deburring Tool . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-15 Torch Lighters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-5 Use of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-5 Principle of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-43
Spilled Oil and Grease . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-17 X-Ray Inspection . . . . . . . .7.18-35, 7.18-43